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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7
+       "Crocoite" to "Cuba"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 20, 2012 [EBook #38622]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE CROWLAND: "The dissolution of the monastery in 1539 was
+      fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered under the
+      thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the position of
+      an unimportant village." 'unimportant' amended from 'umimportant'.
+
+    ARTICLE CROWNE, JOHN: "The king exacted one more comedy, which
+      should, he suggested, be based on the No pued esser of Moreto."
+      'be' amended from 'he'.
+
+    ARTICLE CRUSADES: "Taking a route midway between the eastern route
+      of the crusaders of 1097 and the western route of Louis VII. in
+      1148 ..." 'western' amended from 'westerh'.
+
+    ARTICLE CRUSADES: "... beginning as charitable societies, developed
+      into military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into
+      chartered companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable
+      territories." 'societies' amended from 'socities'.
+
+    ARTICLE CUBA: "The range near Baracoa is extremely wild and
+      broken." 'extremely' amended from 'entremely'.
+
+    ARTICLE CUBA: "The total commercial movement of the island in the
+      five calendar years 1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 ..."
+      'commercial' amended from 'commerical'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VII, SLICE VII
+
+                 Crocoite to Cuba
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CROCOITE                          CROWE, EYRE EVANS
+  CROCUS                            CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER
+  CROESUS                           CROW INDIANS
+  CROFT, SIR HERBERT                CROWLAND
+  CROFT, SIR JAMES                  CROWLEY, ROBERT
+  CROFT, WILLIAM                    CROWN (coin)
+  CROFTER                           CROWN and CORONET
+  CROKER, JOHN WILSON               CROWN DEBT
+  CROKER, RICHARD                   CROWNE, JOHN
+  CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON            CROWN LAND
+  CROLL, JAMES                      CROWN POINT
+  CROLY, GEORGE                     CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI
+  CROMAGNON RACE                    CROYDON
+  CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE        CROZAT, PIERRE
+  CROMARTY                          CROZET ISLANDS
+  CROMARTY FIRTH                    CROZIER, WILLIAM
+  CROME, JOHN                       CROZIER
+  CROMER, EVELYN BARING             CRUCIAL
+  CROMER                            CRUCIFERAE
+  CROMORNE                          CRUDEN, ALEXANDER
+  CROMPTON, SAMUEL                  CRUDEN
+  CROMPTON                          CRUELTY
+  CROMWELL, HENRY                   CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE
+  CROMWELL, OLIVER                  CRUNDEN, JOHN
+  CROMWELL, RICHARD                 CRUSADES
+  CROMWELL, THOMAS                  CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB
+  CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS             CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST
+  CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM              CRUSTACEA
+  CROOKSTON                         CRUSTUMERIUM
+  CROP                              CRUVEILHIER, JEAN
+  CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS           CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA
+  CROQUET                           CRYOLITE
+  CRORE                             CRYPT
+  CROSBY, HOWARD                    CRYPTEIA
+  CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION            CRYPTOBRANCHUS
+  CROSSBILL                         CRYPTOGRAPHY
+  CROSSEN                           CRYPTOMERIA
+  CROSSING                          CRYPTO-PORTICUS
+  CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM           CRYSTAL-GAZING
+  CROSS RIVER                       CRYSTALLITE
+  CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT            CRYSTALLIZATION
+  CROSS SPRINGER                    CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
+  CROTCH, WILLIAM                   CRYSTAL PALACE, THE
+  CROTCHET                          CSENGERY, ANTON
+  CROTONA                           CSIKY, GREGOR
+  CROTONIC ACID                     CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ
+  CROTON OIL                        CSOMA DE KÖRÖS, ALEXANDER
+  CROUP                             CTENOPHORA
+  CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE           CTESIAS
+  CROW                              CTESIPHON
+  CROWBERRY                         CUBA
+  CROWD
+
+
+
+
+CROCOITE, a mineral consisting of lead chromate, PbCrO4, and
+crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It is sometimes used as a paint,
+being identical in composition with the artificial product
+chrome-yellow; it is the only chromate of any importance found in
+nature. It was discovered at Berezovsk near Ekaterinburg in the Urals in
+1766; and named crocoise by F. S. Beudant in 1832, from the Greek
+[Greek: krokos], saffron, in allusion to its colour, a name first
+altered to crocoisite and afterwards to crocoite. It is found as
+well-developed crystals of a bright hyacinth-red colour, which are
+translucent and have an adamantine to vitreous lustre. On exposure to
+light much of the translucency and brilliancy is lost. The streak is
+orange-yellow; hardness 2˝-3; specific gravity 6.0. In the Urals the
+crystals are found in quartz-veins traversing granite or gneiss: other
+localities which have yielded good crystallized specimens are Congonhas
+do Campo near Ouro Preto in Brazil, Luzon in the Philippines, and Umtali
+in Mashonaland. Gold is often found associated with this mineral.
+Crystals far surpassing in beauty any previously known have been found
+in the Adelaide Mine at Dundas, Tasmania; they are long slender prisms,
+3 or 4 in. in length, with a brilliant lustre and colour.
+
+Associated with crocoite at Berezovsk are the closely allied minerals
+phoenicochroite and vauquelinite. The former is a basic lead Chromate,
+Pb3Cr2O9, and the latter a lead and copper phosphate-chromate, 2(Pb,
+Cu)CrO4. (Pb, Cu)3(PO4)2. Vauquelinite forms brown or green monoclinic
+crystals, and was named after L. N. Vauquelin, who in 1797 discovered
+(simultaneously with and independently of M. H. Klaproth) the element
+chromium in crocoite.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CROCUS, a botanical genus of the natural order Iridaceae, containing
+about 70 species, natives of Europe, North Africa, and temperate Asia,
+and especially developed in the dry country of south-eastern Europe and
+western and central Asia. The plants are admirably adapted for climates
+in which a season favourable to growth alternates with a hot or dry
+season; during the latter they remain dormant beneath the ground in the
+form of a short thickened stem protected by the scaly remains of the
+bases of last season's leaves (known botanically as a "corm"). At the
+beginning of the new season of growth, new flower- and leaf-bearing
+shoots are developed from the corm at the expense of the food-stuff
+stored within it. New corms are produced at the end of the season, and
+by these the plant is multiplied.
+
+These crocuses of the flower garden are mostly horticultural varieties
+of _C. vernus_, _C. versicolor_ and _C. aureus_ (Dutch crocus), the two
+former yielding the white, purple and striped, and the latter the yellow
+varieties. The crocus succeeds in any fairly good garden soil, and is
+usually planted near the edges of beds or borders in the flower garden,
+or in broadish patches at intervals along the mixed borders. The corms
+should be planted 3 in. below the surface, and as they become crowded
+they should be taken up and replanted with a refreshment of the soil, at
+least every five or six years. Crocuses have also a pleasing effect when
+dotted about on the lawns and grassy banks of the pleasure ground.
+
+Some of the best of the varieties are:--_Purple_: David Rizzio, Sir J.
+Franklin, purpureus grandiflorus. _Striped_: Albion, La Majestueuse, Sir
+Walter Scott, Cloth of _Silver_, Mme Mina. _White_: Caroline Chisholm,
+Mont Blanc. _Yellow_: Large Dutch.
+
+The species of crocus are not very readily obtainable, but those who
+make a specialty of hardy bulbs ought certainly to search them out and
+grow them. They require the same culture as the more familiar garden
+varieties; but, as some of them are apt to suffer from excess of
+moisture, it is advisable to plant them in prepared soil in a raised
+pit, where they are brought nearer to the eye, and where they can be
+sheltered when necessary by glazed sashes, which, however, should not be
+closed except when the plants are at rest, or during inclement weather
+in order to protect the blossoms, especially in the case of winter
+flowering species. The autumn blooming kinds include many plants of very
+great beauty. The following species are recommended:--
+
+Spring flowering:--_Yellow_: _C. aureus_, _aureus_ var. _sulphureus_,
+_chrysanthus_, _Olivieri_, _Korolkowi_, _Balansae_, _ancyrensis_,
+_Susianus_, _stellaris_. _Lilac_: _C. Imperati_, _Sieberi_, _etruscus_,
+_vernus_, _Tomasinianus_, _banaticus_. _White_: _C. biflorus_ and vars.,
+_candidus_, _vernus_ vars. _Striped_: _C. versicolor_, _reticulatus_.
+
+Autumn flowering:--_Yellow_: _C. Scharojani_. _Lilac_: _C. asluricus_,
+_cancellatus_ var., _cilicicus_, _byzantinus_ (_iridiflorus_),
+_longiflorus_, _medius_, _nudiflorus_, _pulchellus_, _Salzmanni_,
+_sativus_ vars. _speciosus_, _zonatus_. _White_: _caspius_,
+_cancellatus_, _hadrialicus_, _marathonisius_.
+
+Winter flowering:--_C. hyemaeis_, _laevigatus_, _vitellinus_.
+
+
+
+
+CROESUS, last king of Lydia, of the Mermnad dynasty, (560-546 B.C.),
+succeeded his father Alyattes after a war with his half-brother. He
+completed the conquest of Ionia by capturing Ephesus, Miletus and other
+places, and extended the Lydian empire as far as the Halys. His wealth,
+due to trade, was proverbial, and he used part of it in securing
+alliances with the Greek states whose fleets might supplement his own
+army. Various legends were told about him by the Greeks, one of the most
+famous being that of Solon's visit to him with the lesson it conveyed
+of the divine nemesis which waits upon overmuch prosperity (Hdt. i. 29
+seq.; but see SOLON). After the overthrow of the Median empire (549
+B.C.) Croesus found himself confronted by the rising power of Cyrus, and
+along with Nabonidos of Babylon took measures to resist it. A coalition
+was formed between the Lydian and Babylonian kings, Egypt promised
+troops and Sparta its fleet. But the coalition was defeated by the rapid
+movements of Cyrus and the treachery of Eurybatus of Ephesus, who fled
+to Persia with the gold that had been entrusted to him, and betrayed the
+plans of the confederates. Fortified with the Delphic oracles Croesus
+marched to the frontier of his empire, but after some initial successes
+fortune turned against him and he was forced to retreat to Sardis. Here
+he was followed by Cyrus who took the city by storm. We may gather from
+the recently discovered poem of Bacchylides (iii. 23-62) that he hoped
+to escape his conqueror by burning himself with his wealth on a funeral
+pyre, like Saracus, the last king of Assyria, but that he fell into the
+hands of Cyrus before he could effect his purpose.[1] A different
+version of the story is given (from Lydian sources) by Herodotus
+(followed by Xenophon), who makes Cyrus condemn his prisoner to be burnt
+alive, a mode of death hardly consistent with the Persian reverence for
+fire. Apollo, however, came to the rescue of his pious worshipper, and
+the name of Solon uttered by Croesus resulted in his deliverance.
+According to Ctesias, who uses Persian sources, and says nothing of the
+attempt to burn Croesus, he subsequently became attached to the court of
+Cyrus and received the governorship of Barene in Media. Fragments of
+columns from the temple of Attemis now in the British Museum have upon
+them a dedication by Croesus in Greek.
+
+  See R. Schubert, _De Croeso et Solone fabula_ (1868); M. G. Radet, _La
+  Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades_ (1892-1893); A. S.
+  Murray, _Journ. Hell. Studies_, x. pp. 1-10 (1889); for the
+  supposition that Croesus did actually perish on his own pyre see G. B.
+  Grundy, _Great Persian War_, p. 28; Grote, _Hist. of Greece_ (ed.
+  1907), p. 104. Cf. CYRUS; LYDIA.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This is probably a Greek legend (cf. the Attic vase of about 500
+    B.C. in _Journ. of Hell. Stud._, 1898, p. 268).
+
+
+
+
+CROFT, SIR HERBERT, Bart. (1751-1816), English author, was born at
+Dunster Park, Berkshire, on the 1st of November 1751, son of Herbert
+Croft (see below) of Stifford, Essex. He matriculated at University
+College, Oxford, in March 1771, and was subsequently entered at
+Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar, but in 1782 returned to Oxford
+with a view to preparing for holy orders. In 1786 he received the
+vicarage of Prittlewell, Essex, but he remained at Oxford for some years
+accumulating materials for a proposed English dictionary. He was twice
+married, and on the day after his second wedding day he was imprisoned
+at Exeter for debt. He then retired to Hamburg, and two years later his
+library was sold. He had succeeded in 1797 to the title, but not to the
+estates, of a distant cousin, Sir John Croft, the fourth baronet. He
+returned to England in 1800, but went abroad once more in 1802. He lived
+near Amiens at a house owned by Lady Mary Hamilton, said to have been a
+daughter of the earl of Leven and Melville. Later he removed to Paris,
+where he died on the 26th of April 1816. In some of his numerous
+literary enterprises he had the help of Charles Nodier. Croft wrote the
+Life of Edward Young inserted in Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_. In 1780
+he published _Love and Madness, a Story too true, in a series of letters
+between Parties whose names could perhaps be mentioned were they less
+known or less lamented_. This book, which passed through seven editions,
+narrates the passion of a clergyman named James Hackman for Martha Ray,
+mistress of the earl of Sandwich, who was shot by her lover as she was
+leaving Covent Garden in 1779 (see the Case and Memoirs of the late Rev.
+Mr James Hackman, 1779). _Love and Madness_ has permanent interest
+because Croft inserted, among other miscellaneous matter, information
+about Thomas Chatterton gained from letters which he obtained from the
+poet's sister, Mrs Newton, under false pretences, and used without
+payment. Robert Southey, when about to publish an edition of
+Chatterton's works for the benefit of his family, published (November
+1799) details of Croft's proceedings in the _Monthly Review_. To this
+attack Croft wrote a reply addressed to John Nichols in the _Gentleman's
+Magazine_, and afterwards printed separately as _Chatterton and Love and
+Madness ..._ (1800). This tract evades the main accusation, and contains
+much abuse of Southey. Croft, however, supplied the material for the
+exhaustive account of Chatterton in A. Kippis's _Biographia Britannica_
+(vol. iv., 1789). In 1788 he addressed a letter to William Pitt on the
+subject of a new dictionary. He criticized Samuel Johnson's efforts, and
+in 1790 he claimed to have collected 11,000 words used by excellent
+authorities but omitted by Johnson. Two years later he issued proposals
+for a revised edition of Johnson's _Dictionary_, but subscribers were
+lacking and his 200 vols. of MS. remained unused. Croft was a good
+scholar and linguist, and the author of some curious books in French.
+
+  _The Love Letters of Mr H. and Miss R. 1775-1779_ were edited from
+  Croft's book by Mr Gilbert Burgess (1895). See also John Nichols's
+  _Illustrations ..._ (1828), v. 202-218.
+
+
+
+
+CROFT, SIR JAMES (d. 1590), lord deputy of Ireland, belonged to an old
+family of Herefordshire, which county he represented in parliament in
+1541. He was made governor of Haddington in 1549, and became lord deputy
+of Ireland in 1551. There he effected little beyond gaining for himself
+the reputation of a conciliatory disposition. Croft was all his life a
+double-dealer. He was imprisoned in the Tower for treason in the reign
+of Mary, but was released and treated with consideration by Elizabeth
+after her accession. He was made governor of Berwick, where he was
+visited by John Knox in 1559, and where he busied himself actively on
+behalf of the Scottish Protestants, though in 1560 he was suspected,
+probably with good reason, of treasonable correspondence with Mary of
+Guise, the Catholic regent of Scotland; and for ten years he was out of
+public employment. But in 1570 Elizabeth, who showed the greatest
+forbearance and favour to Sir James Croft, made him a privy councillor
+and controller of her household. He was one of the commissioners for the
+trial of Mary queen of Scots, and in 1588 was sent on a diplomatic
+mission to arrange peace with the duke of Parma. Croft established
+private relations with Parma, for which on his return he was sent to the
+Tower. He was released before the end of 1589, and died on the 4th of
+September 1590.
+
+Croft's eldest son, Edward, was put on his trial in 1589 on the curious
+charge of having contrived the death of the earl of Leicester by
+witchcraft, in revenge for the earl's supposed hostility to Sir James
+Croft. Edward Croft was father of Sir Herbert Croft (d. 1622), who
+became a Roman Catholic and wrote several controversial pieces in
+defence of that faith. His son Herbert Croft (1603-1691), bishop of
+Hereford, after being for some time, like his father, a member of the
+Roman church, returned to the church of England about 1630, and about
+ten years later was chaplain to Charles I., and obtained within a few
+years a prebend's stall at Worcester, a canonry of Windsor, and the
+deanery of Hereford, all of which preferments he lost during the Civil
+War and Commonwealth. By Charles II. he was made bishop of Hereford in
+1661. Bishop Croft was the author of many books and pamphlets, several
+of them against the Roman Catholics; and one of his works, entitled _The
+Naked Truth, or the True State of the Primitive Church_ (London, 1675),
+was very celebrated in its day, and gave rise to prolonged controversy.
+The bishop died in 1691. His son Herbert was created a baronet in 1671,
+and was the ancestor of Sir Herbert Croft (q.v.), the 18th century
+writer.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_, vol.
+  i. (3 vols., London, 1885); David Lloyd, _State Worthies from the
+  Reformation to the Revolution_ (2 vols., London, 1766); John Strype,
+  _Annals of the Reformation_ (Oxford, 1824), which contains an account
+  of the trial of Edward Croft; S. L. Lee's art. "Croft, Sir James," in
+  _Dict. of National Biography_, vol. xiii.; and for Bishop Croft see
+  Anthony ŕ Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (ed. Bliss, 1813-1820); John Le
+  Neve, _Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (ed. by T. D. Hardy, Oxford, 1854).
+
+
+
+
+CROFT (or CROFTS), WILLIAM (1678-1727), English composer, was born in
+1678, at Nether Ettington in Warwickshire. He received his musical
+education in the Chapel Royal under Dr Blow. He early obtained the place
+of organist of St Anne's, Soho, and in 1700 was admitted a gentleman
+extraordinary of the Chapel Royal. In 1707 he was appointed
+joint-organist with Blow; and upon the death of the latter in 1708 he
+became solo organist, and also master of the children and composer of
+the Chapel Royal, besides being made organist of Westminster Abbey. In
+1712 he wrote a brief introduction on the history of English church
+music to a collection of the words of anthems which he had edited under
+the title of _Divine Harmony_. In 1713 he obtained his degree of doctor
+of music in the university of Oxford. In 1724 he published an edition of
+his choral music in 2 vols. folio, under the name of _Musica Sacra, or
+Select Anthems in score, for two, three, four, five, six, seven and
+eight voices, to which is added the Burial Service, as it is
+occasionally performed in Westminster Abbey_. This handsome work
+included a portrait of the composer and was the first of the kind
+executed on pewter plates and in score. John Page, in his _Harmonia
+Sacra_, published in 1800 in 3 vols. folio, gives seven of Croft's
+anthems. Of instrumental music, Croft published six sets of airs for two
+violins and a bass, six sonatas for two flutes, six solos for a flute
+and bass. He died at Bath on the 14th of August 1727, and was buried in
+the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to
+his memory by his friend and admirer Humphrey Wyrley Birch. Burney in
+his _History of Music_ devotes several pages of his third volume (pp.
+603-612) to Dr Croft's life, and criticisms of some of his anthems.
+During the earlier period of his life Croft wrote much for the theatre,
+including overtures and incidental music for _Courtship ŕ la mode_
+(1700), _The Funeral_ (1702) and _The Lying Lover_ (1703).
+
+
+
+
+CROFTER, a term used, more particularly in the Highlands and islands of
+Scotland, to designate a tenant who rents and cultivates a small holding
+of land or "croft." This Old English word, meaning originally an
+enclosed field, seems to correspond to the Dutch _kroft_, a field on
+high ground or downs. The ultimate origin is unknown. By the Crofters'
+Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886, a crofter is defined as the tenant of a
+holding who resides on his holding, the annual rent of which does not
+exceed Ł30 in money, and which is situated in a crofting parish. The
+wholesale clearances of tenants from their crofts during the 19th
+century, in violation of, as the tenants claimed, an implied security of
+tenure, has led in the past to much agitation on the part of the
+crofters to secure consideration of their grievances. They have been the
+subject of royal commissions and of considerable legislation, but the
+effect of the Crofters Act of 1886, with subsequent amending acts, has
+been to improve their condition markedly, and much of the agitation has
+now died out. A history of the legislation dealing with the crofters is
+given in the article SCOTLAND.
+
+
+
+
+CROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857), British statesman and author, was born
+at Galway on the 20th of December 1780, being the only son of John
+Croker, the surveyor-general of customs and excise in Ireland. He was
+educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1800.
+Immediately afterwards he was entered at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1802 he
+was called to the Irish bar. His interest in the French Revolution led
+him to collect a large number of valuable documents on the subject,
+which are now in the British Museum. In 1804 he published anonymously
+_Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the State of the Irish
+Stage_, a series of caustic criticisms in verse on the management of the
+Dublin theatres. The book ran through five editions in one year. Equally
+successful was the _Intercepted Letter from Canton_ (1805), also
+anonymous, a satire on Dublin society. In 1807 he published a pamphlet
+on _The State of Ireland, Past and Present_, in which he advocated
+Catholic emancipation.
+
+In the following year he entered parliament as member for Downpatrick,
+obtaining the seat on petition, though he had been unsuccessful at the
+poll. The acumen displayed in his Irish pamphlet led Spencer Perceval to
+recommend him in 1808 to Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had just been
+appointed to the command of the British forces in the Peninsula, as his
+deputy in the office of chief secretary for Ireland. This connexion led
+to a friendship which remained unbroken till Wellington's death. The
+notorious case of the duke of York in connexion with his abuse of
+military patronage furnished him with an opportunity for distinguishing
+himself. The speech which he delivered on the 14th of March 1809, in
+answer to the charges of Colonel Wardle, was regarded as the most able
+and ingenious defence of the duke that was made in the debate; and
+Croker was appointed to the office of secretary to the Admiralty, which
+he held without interruption under various administrations for more than
+twenty years. He proved an excellent public servant, and made many
+improvements which have been of permanent value in the organization of
+his office. Among the first acts of his official career was the exposure
+of a fellow-official who had misappropriated the public funds to the
+extent of Ł200,000.
+
+In 1827 he became the representative of the university of Dublin, having
+previously sat successively for the boroughs of Athlone, Yarmouth (Isle
+of Wight), Bodmin and Aldeburgh. He was a determined opponent of the
+Reform Bill, and vowed that he would never sit in a reformed parliament;
+his parliamentary career accordingly terminated in 1832. Two years
+earlier he had retired from his post at the admiralty on a pension of
+Ł1500 a year. Many of his political speeches were published in pamphlet
+form, and they show him to have been a vigorous and effective, though
+somewhat unscrupulous and often virulently personal, party debater.
+Croker had been an ardent supporter of Peel, but finally broke with him
+when he began to advocate the repeal of the Corn Laws. He is said to
+have been the first to use (Jan. 1830) the term "conservatives." He was
+for many years one of the leading contributors on literary and
+historical subjects to the _Quarterly Review_, with which he had been
+associated from its foundation. The rancorous spirit in which many of
+his articles were written did much to embitter party feeling. It also
+reacted unfavourably on Croker's reputation as a worker in the
+department of pure literature by bringing political animosities into
+literary criticism. He had no sympathy with the younger school of poets
+who were in revolt against the artificial methods of the 18th century,
+and he was responsible for the famous _Quarterly_ article on Keats. It
+is, nevertheless, unjust to judge Croker by the criticisms which
+Macaulay brought against his _magnum opus_, his edition of Boswell's
+_Life of Johnson_ (1831). With all its defects the work had merits which
+Macaulay was of course not concerned to point out, and Croker's
+researches have been of the greatest value to subsequent editors. There
+is little doubt that Macaulay had personal reasons for his attack on
+Croker, who had more than once exposed in the House the fallacies that
+lay hidden under the orator's brilliant rhetoric. Croker made no
+immediate reply to Macaulay's attack, but when the first two volumes of
+the _History_ appeared he took the opportunity of pointing out the
+inaccuracies that abounded in the work. Croker was occupied for several
+years on an annotated edition of Pope's works. It was left unfinished at
+the time of his death, but it was afterwards completed by the Rev.
+Whitwell Elwin and Mr W. J. Courthope. He died at St Albans Bank,
+Hampton, on the 10th of August 1857.
+
+Croker was generally supposed to be the original from which Disraeli
+drew the character of "Rigby" in _Coningsby_, because he had for many
+years had the sole management of the estates of the marquess of
+Hertford, the "Lord Monmouth" of the story; but the comparison is a
+great injustice to the sterling worth of Croker's character.
+
+  The chief works of Croker not already mentioned were his _Stories for
+  Children from the History of England_ (1817), which provided the model
+  for Scott's _Tales of a Grandfather_; _Letters on the Naval War with
+  America_; _A Reply to the Letters of Malachi Malagrowther_ (1826);
+  _Military Events of the French Revolution of 1830_ (1831); a
+  translation of Bassompierre's _Embassy to England_ (1819); and several
+  lyrical pieces of some merit, such as the _Songs of Trafalgar_ (1806)
+  and _The Battles of Talavera_ (1809). He also edited the _Suffolk
+  Papers_ (1823), _Hervey's Memoirs of the Court of George II._ (1817),
+  the _Letters of Mary Lepel, Lady Hervey_ (1821-1822), and _Walpole's
+  Letters to Lord Hertford_ (1824). His memoirs, diaries and
+  correspondence were edited by Louis J. Jennings in 1884 under the
+  title of _The Croker Papers_ (3 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+
+CROKER, RICHARD (1843-   ), American politician, was born at Blackrock,
+Ireland, on the 24th of November 1843. He was taken to the United States
+by his parents when two years old, and was educated in the public
+schools of New York City, where he eventually became a member of
+Tammany Hall and active in its politics. He was an alderman from 1868 to
+1870, a coroner from 1873 to 1876, a fire commissioner in 1883 and 1887,
+and city chamberlain from 1889 to 1890. After the fall of John Kelly he
+became the leader of Tammany Hall (q.v.), and for some time almost
+completely controlled the organization. His greatest political success
+was his bringing about the election of Robert A. van Wyck as first mayor
+of greater New York in 1897, and during van Wyck's administration Croker
+is popularly supposed to have dominated completely the government of the
+city. After Croker's failure to "carry" the city in the presidential
+election of 1900 and the defeat of his mayoralty candidate, Edward M.
+Shepard, in 1901, he resigned from his position of leadership in
+Tammany, and retired to a country life in England and Ireland. In 1907
+he won the Derby with his race-horse Orby.
+
+
+
+
+CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON (1798-1854), Irish antiquary and humorist, was
+born in Cork on the 15th of January 1798. He was apprenticed to a
+merchant, but in 1819, through the interest of John Wilson Croker, who
+was, however, no relation of his, he became a clerk in the Admiralty.
+Moore was indebted to him in the production of his _Irish Melodies_ for
+"many curious fragments of ancient poetry." In 1825 he produced his most
+popular book, the _Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of
+Ireland_, which he followed up by the publication of his _Legends of the
+Lakes_ (1829), his _Adventures of Barney Mahoney_ (1852), and an edition
+of the _Popular Songs of Ireland_ (1839). In 1827 he was made a member
+of the Irish Academy; in 1839 and 1840 he helped to found the Camden and
+Percy Societies, and in 1843 the British Archaeological Association. He
+wrote _Narratives Illustrative of the Contests in Ireland in 1641 and
+1688_ (1841), for the Camden Society, _Historical Songs of Ireland_, &c.
+(1841), for the Percy Society, and several other works. He was also a
+member of the Hakluyt and the Antiquarian Society. He died in London on
+the 8th of August 1854.
+
+
+
+
+CROLL, JAMES (1821-1890), Scottish man of science, was born of a peasant
+family at Little Whitefield, in the parish of Cargill, in Perthshire, on
+the 2nd of January 1821. He was regarded as an unpromising boy, but a
+trifling circumstance aroused a passion for reading, and he made great
+progress in self-education. He was apprenticed to a wheelwright at
+Collace in Perthshire, but being debarred by ill-health from manual
+labour, he became successively a shop-keeper and an insurance agent. In
+1859 he was made keeper of the Andersonian Museum in Glasgow, a humble
+appointment, which, however, gave him congenial occupation. In 1857,
+being deeply impressed by the metaphysics of Jonathan Edwards, he had
+published an anonymous volume entitled _The Philosophy of Theism_; but
+his connexion with the Museum induced him to take up physical science,
+and from 1861 onwards he studied with such perseverance that he was
+enabled to contribute papers to the _Philosophical Magazine_ and other
+journals. For that magazine in 1864 he wrote his celebrated essay "On
+the Physical Cause of the Changes of Climate during Geological Epochs."
+This led to his receiving an appointment on the Scottish Geological
+Survey in 1867, and for thirteen years he took charge of the Edinburgh
+Office. In 1875 he summed up his researches upon the ancient condition
+of the earth in his _Climate and Time, in their Geological Relations_,
+in which he contends that terrestrial revolutions are due in a measure
+to cosmical causes. This theory excited warm controversy. Croll's
+replies to his opponents are collected in his _Climate and Cosmology_
+(1885). He had been compelled by ill-health to withdraw from the public
+service in 1880; yet, working under the greatest difficulties, and
+harassed by the inadequacy of his retiring pension, he managed to
+produce _Stellar Evolution_, discussing, among other things, the age of
+the sun, in 1889; and _The Philosophical Basis of Evolution_, partly a
+critique of Herbert Spencer's philosophy, in 1890. He died on the 15th
+of December 1890. The soundness of Croll's astronomical theory regarding
+the glacial period has since been criticized by E. P. Culverwell in the
+_Geological Magazine_ for 1895, and by others; and it is now generally
+abandoned. Nevertheless it must be admitted that his character as a
+scientific worker under great discouragements was nothing less than
+heroic. The hon. degree of LL.D. was conferred on him in 1876 by the
+university of St Andrews; and he was elected F.R.S. in the same year.
+
+  An _Autobiographical Sketch of James Croll, with Memoir of his Life
+  and Work_, was prepared by J. C. Irons, and published in 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CROLY, GEORGE (1780-1860), British divine and author, son of a Dublin
+physician, was born on the 17th of August 1780. He was educated at
+Trinity College, Dublin, and after ordination was appointed to a small
+curacy in the north of Ireland. About 1810 he came to London, and
+occupied himself with literary work. A man of restless energy, he claims
+attention by his extraordinary versatility. He wrote dramatic criticisms
+for a short-lived periodical called the _New Times_; he was one of the
+earliest contributors to _Blackwood's Magazine_; and to the _Literary
+Gazette_ he contributed poems, reviews and essays on all kinds of
+subjects. In 1819 he married Margaret Helen Begbie. Efforts to secure an
+English living for Croly were frustrated, according to the _Gentleman's
+Magazine_ (Jan. 1861), because Lord Eldon confounded him with a Roman
+Catholic of the same name. Excluding his contributions to the daily and
+weekly press his chief works were:--_Paris in 1815_ (1817), a poem in
+imitation of _Childe Harold; Catiline_ (1822), a tragedy lacking in
+dramatic force; _Salathiel: A Story of the Past, the Present and the
+Future_ (1829), a successful romance of the "Wandering Jew" type; _The
+Life and Times of his late Majesty George the Fourth_ (1830); _Marston;
+or, The Soldier and Statesman_ (1846), a novel of modern life; _The
+Modern Orlando_ (1846), a satire which owes something to _Don Juan_; and
+some biographies, sermons and theological works.
+
+Croly was an effective preacher, and continued to hope for preferment
+from the Tory leaders, to whom he had rendered considerable services by
+his pen; but he eventually received, in 1835, the living of St
+Stephen's, Walbrook, London, from a Whig patron, Lord Brougham, with
+whose family he was connected. In 1847 he was made afternoon lecturer at
+the Foundling hospital, but this appointment proved unfortunate. He died
+suddenly on the 24th of November 1860, in London.
+
+  His _Poetical Works_ (2 vols.) were collected in 1830. For a list of
+  his works see Allibone's _Critical Dictionary of English Literature_
+  (1859).
+
+
+
+
+CROMAGNON RACE, the name given by Paul Broca to a type of mankind
+supposed to be represented by remains found by Lartet, Christy and
+others, in France in the Cromagnon cave at Les Eyzies, Tayac district,
+Dordogne. At the foot of a steep rock near the village this small cave,
+nearly filled with debris, was found by workmen in 1868. Towards the top
+of the loose strata three human skeletons were unearthed. They were
+those of an old man, a young man and a woman, the latter's skull bearing
+the mark of a severe wound. The skulls presented such special
+characteristics that Broca took them as types of a race. Palaeolithic
+man is exclusively long-headed, and the dolichocephalic appearance of
+the crania (they had a mean cephalic index of 73.34) supported the view
+that the "find" at Les Eyzies was palaeolithic. It is, however,
+inaccurate to state that brachycephaly appears at once with the
+neolithic age, dolichocephaly even of a pronounced type persisting far
+into neolithic times. The Cromagnon race may thus be, as many
+anthropologists believe it, early neolithic, a type of man who spread
+over and inhabited a large portion of Europe at the close of the
+Pleistocene period. Some have sought to find in it the substratum of the
+present populations of western Europe. Quatrefages identifies Cromagnon
+man with the tall, long-headed, fair Kabyles (Berbers) who still survive
+in various parts of Mauritania. He suggests the introduction of the
+Cromagnon from Siberia, "arriving in Europe simultaneously with the
+great mammals (which were driven by the cold from Siberia), and no doubt
+following their route."
+
+  See A. H. Keane's _Ethnology_ (1896); Mortillet, _Le Préhistorique_
+  (1900); Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_ (1901); Lord Avebury,
+  _Prehistoric Times_, p. 317 of 1900 edition.
+
+
+
+
+CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE, 1ST EARL OF (1630-1714), Scottish statesman,
+was the eldest son of Sir John Mackenzie, Bart., of Tarbat (d. 1654),
+and belonged to the same family as the earls of Seaforth. In 1654 he
+joined the rising in Scotland on behalf of Charles II. and after an
+exile of six years he returned to his own country and took some part in
+public affairs after the Restoration. In 1661 he became a lord of
+session as Lord Tarbat, but having been concerned in a vain attempt to
+overthrow Charles II.'s secretary, the earl of Lauderdale, he was
+dismissed from office in 1664. A period of retirement followed until
+1678 when Mackenzie was appointed lord justice general of Scotland; in
+1681 he became lord clerk register and a lord of session for the second
+time, and from 1682 to 1688 he was the chief minister of Charles II. and
+James II. in Scotland, being created viscount of Tarbat in 1685. In
+1688, however, he deserted James and soon afterwards made his peace with
+William III., his experience being very serviceable to the new
+government in settling the affairs of Scotland. From 1692 to 1695 Tarbat
+was again lord clerk register, and having served for a short time as a
+secretary of state under Queen Anne he was created earl of Cromarty in
+1703. He was again lord justice general from 1704 to 1710. He warmly
+supported the union between England and Scotland, writing some pamphlets
+in favour of this step, and he died on the 17th of August 1714. Cromarty
+was a man of much learning, and among his numerous writings may be
+mentioned his _Account of the conspiracies by the earls of Gowry and R.
+Logan_ (Edinburgh, 1713).
+
+The earl's grandson George, 3rd earl of Cromarty (c. 1703-1766),
+succeeded his father John, the 2nd earl, in February 1731. In 1745 he
+joined Charles Edward, the young pretender, and he served with the
+Jacobites until April 1746 when he was taken prisoner in
+Sutherlandshire. He was tried and sentenced to death, but he obtained a
+conditional pardon although his peerage was forfeited. He died on the
+28th of September 1766.
+
+This earl's eldest son was John Mackenzie, Lord Macleod (1727-1789), who
+shared his father's fortunes in 1745 and his fate in 1746. Having
+pleaded guilty at his trial Macleod was pardoned on condition that he
+gave up all his rights in the estates of the earldom, and he left
+England and entered the Swedish army. In this service he rose to high
+rank and was made Count Cromarty. The count returned to England in 1777
+and was successful in raising, mainly among the Mackenzies, two splendid
+battalions of Highlanders, the first of which, now the Highland Light
+Infantry, served under him in India. In 1784 he regained the family
+estates and he died on the 2nd of April 1789. Macleod wrote an account
+of the Jacobite rising of 1745, and also one of a campaign in Bohemia in
+which he took part in 1757; both are printed in Sir W. Fraser's _Earls
+of Cromartie_ (Edinburgh, 1876).
+
+Macleod left no children, and his heir was his cousin, Kenneth Mackenzie
+(d. 1796), a grandson of the 2nd earl, who also died childless. The
+estates then passed to Macleod's sister, Isabel (1725-1801), wife of
+George Murray, 6th Lord Elibank. In 1861 Isabel's descendant, Anne
+(1829-1888), wife of George, 3rd duke of Sutherland, was created
+countess of Cromartie with remainder to her second son Francis
+(1852-1893), who became earl of Cromartie in 1888. In 1895, two years
+after the death of Francis, his daughter Sibell Lilian (b. 1878) was
+granted by letters patent the title of countess of Cromartie.
+
+
+
+
+CROMARTY, a police burgh and seaport of the county of Ross and Cromarty,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1242. It is situated on the southern shore of the
+mouth of Cromarty Firth, 5 m. E. by S. of Invergordon on the opposite
+coast, with which there is daily communication by steamer, and 9 m. N.E.
+of Fortrose, the most convenient railway station. Before the union of
+the shires of Ross and Cromarty, it was the county town of
+Cromartyshire, and is one of the Wick district group of parliamentary
+burghs. Its name is variously derived from the Gaelic _crom_, crooked,
+and _bath_, bay, or _ard_, height, meaning either the "crooked bay," or
+the "bend between the heights" (the high rocks, or Sutors, which guard
+the entrance to the Firth), and gave the title to the earldom of
+Cromarty. The principal buildings are the town hall and the Hugh Miller
+Institute. The harbour, enclosed by two piers, accommodates the herring
+fleet, but the fisheries, the staple industry, have declined. The town,
+however, is in growing repute as a midsummer resort. The thatched house
+with crow-stepped gables in Church Street, in which Hugh Miller the
+geologist was born, still stands, and a statue has been erected to his
+memory. To the east of the burgh is Cromarty House, occupying the site
+of the old castle of the earls of Ross. It was the birthplace of Sir
+Thomas Urquhart, the translator of Rabelais.
+
+Cromarty, formerly a county in the north of Scotland, was incorporated
+with Ross-shire in 1889 under the designation of the county of Ross and
+Cromarty. The nucleus of the county consisted of the lands of Cromarty
+in the north of the peninsula of the Black Isle. To this were added from
+time to time the various estates scattered throughout Ross-shire--the
+most considerable of which were the districts around Ullapool and Little
+Loch Broom on the Atlantic coast, the area in which Ben Wyvis is
+situated, and a tract to the north of Loch Fannich--which had been
+acquired by the ancestors of Sir George Mackenzie (1630-1714),
+afterwards Viscount Tarbat (1685) and 1st earl of Cromarty (1703).
+Desirous of combining these sporadic properties into one shire, Viscount
+Tarbat was enabled to procure their annexation to his sheriffdom of
+Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, the area of the enlarged county amounting to
+nearly 370 sq. m. (See ROSS AND CROMARTY.)
+
+
+
+
+CROMARTY FIRTH, an arm of the North Sea, belonging to the county of Ross
+and Cromarty, Scotland. From the Moray Firth it extends inland in a
+westerly and then south-westerly direction for a distance of 19 m.
+Excepting at the Bay of Nigg, on the northern shore, and Cromarty Bay,
+on the southern, where it is about 5 m. wide (due N. and S.), and at
+Alness Bay, where it is 2 m. wide, it has an average width of 1 m. and a
+depth varying from 5 to 10 fathoms, forming one of the safest and most
+commodious anchorages in the north of Scotland. Besides other streams it
+receives the Conon, Peffery, Skiack and Alness, and the principal places
+on its shores are Dingwall near the head, Cromarty near the mouth,
+Kiltearn, Invergordon and Kilmuir on the north. The entrance is guarded
+by two precipitous rocks--the one on the north 400 ft., that on the
+south 463 ft. high--called the Sutors from a fancied resemblance to a
+couple of shoemakers (_Scotice_, souter), bending over their lasts.
+There are ferries at Cromarty, Invergordon and Dingwall.
+
+
+
+
+CROME, JOHN (1769-1821), English landscape painter, founder and chief
+representative of the "Norwich School," often called Old Crome, to
+distinguish him from his son, was born at Norwich, on the 21st of
+December 1769. His father was a weaver, and could give him only the
+scantiest education. His early years were spent in work of the humblest
+kind; and at a fit age he became apprentice to a house-painter. To this
+step he appears to have been led by an inborn love of art and the desire
+to acquaint himself by any means with its materials and processes.
+During his apprenticeship he sometimes painted signboards, and devoted
+what leisure time he had to sketching from nature. Through the influence
+of a rich art-loving friend he was enabled to exchange his occupation of
+house-painter for that of drawing-master; and in this he was engaged
+throughout his life. He took great delight in a collection of Dutch
+pictures to which he had access, and these he carefully studied. About
+1790 he was introduced to Sir William Beechey, whose house in London he
+frequently visited, and from whom he gathered additional knowledge and
+help in his art. In 1805 the Norwich Society of Artists took definite
+shape, its origin being traceable a year or two further back. Crome was
+its president and the largest contributor to its annual exhibitions.
+Among his pupils were James Stark, Vincent, Thirtle and John Bernay
+(Barney) Crome (1794-1842), his son. J. S. Cotman, too, a greater artist
+than any of these, was associated with him. Crome continued to reside at
+Norwich, and with the exception of his short visits to London had little
+or no communication with the great artists of his own time. He first
+exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1806; but in this and the following
+twelve years he exhibited there only fourteen of his works. With very
+few exceptions Crome's subjects are taken from the familiar scenery of
+his native county. Fidelity to nature was his dominant aim. "The bit of
+heath, the boat, and the slow water of the flattish land, trees most of
+all--the single tree in elaborate study, the group of trees, and how the
+growth of one affects that of another, and the characteristics of
+each,"--these, says Frederick Wedmore (_Studies in English Art_), are
+the things to which he is most constant. He still remains, says the same
+critic, of many trees the greatest draughtsman, and is especially the
+master of the oak. His most important works are--"Mousehold Heath, near
+Norwich," now in the National Gallery; "Clump of Trees, Hautbois
+Common"; "Oak at Poringland"; the "Willow"; "Coast Scene near Yarmouth";
+"Bruges, on the Ostend River"; "Slate Quarries"; the "Italian
+Boulevards"; and the "Fishmarket at Boulogne." He executed a good many
+etchings, and the great charm of these is in the beautiful and faithful
+representation of trees. Crome enjoyed a very limited reputation during
+his life, and his pictures were sold at low prices; but since his death
+they have been more and more appreciated, and have given him a high
+place among English painters of landscape. He died at Norwich on the
+22nd of April 1821. His son, J. B. Crome, was his assistant in teaching,
+and his best pictures were in the same style, his moonlight effects
+being much admired.
+
+  A collection of "Old" Crome's etchings, entitled _Norfolk Picturesque
+  Scenery_, was published in 1834, and was re-issued with a memoir by
+  Dawson Turner in 1838, but in this issue the prints were retouched by
+  other hands.
+
+
+
+
+CROMER, EVELYN BARING, 1ST EARL (1841-   ), British statesman and
+diplomatist, was born on the 26th of February 1841, the ninth son of
+Henry Baring, M.P., by Cecilia Anne, eldest daughter of Admiral Windham
+of Felbrigge Hall, Norfolk. Having joined the Royal Artillery in 1858,
+he was appointed in 1861 A.D.C. to Sir Henry Storks, high commissioner
+of the Ionian Islands, and acted as secretary to the same chief during
+the inquiry into the Jamaica outbreak in 1865. Gazetted captain in 1870,
+he went in 1872 as private secretary to his cousin Lord Northbrook,
+Viceroy of India, where he remained until 1876, when he became major,
+received the C.S.I., and was appointed British commissioner of the
+Egyptian public debt office. Up to this period Major Baring had given no
+unusual signs of promise, and the appointment of a comparatively untried
+major of artillery as the British representative on a Financial Board
+composed of representatives of all the great powers was considered a
+bold one. Within a very short time it was recognized that the
+Englishman, though keeping himself carefully in the background, was
+unmistakably the predominant factor on the board. He was mainly
+responsible for the searching report, issued in 1878, of the commission
+of inquiry that had been instituted into the financial methods of the
+Khedive Ismail; and when that able and unscrupulous Oriental had to
+submit to an enforced abdication in 1879, it was Major Baring who became
+the British controller-general and practical director of the Dual
+Control. Had he remained in Egypt, the whole course of Egyptian history
+might have been altered, but his services were deemed more necessary in
+India, and under Lord Ripon he became financial member of council in
+June 1880. He remained there till 1883, leaving an unmistakable mark on
+the Indian financial system, and then, having been rewarded by the
+K.C.S.I., he was appointed British agent and consul-general in Egypt and
+a minister plenipotentiary in the diplomatic service.
+
+Sir Evelyn Baring was at that time only a man of forty-two, who had
+gained a reputation for considerable financial ability, combined with an
+abruptness of manner and a certain autocracy of demeanour which, it was
+feared, would impede his success in a position which required
+considerable tact and diplomacy. It was a friendly colleague who wrote--
+
+  "The virtues of Patience are known,
+     But I think that, when put to the touch,
+   The people of Egypt will own, with a groan,
+     There's an Evil in Baring too much."
+
+When he arrived in Cairo in 1883 he found the administration of the
+country almost non-existent. Ismail had ruled with all the vices, but
+also with all the advantages, of autocracy. Disorder in the finances,
+brutality towards the people, had been combined with public tranquillity
+and the outer semblance of civilization. Order, at least, reigned from
+the Sudan to the Mediterranean, and such trivial military disturbances
+as had occurred had been of Ismail's own devising and for his own
+purposes. Tewfik, who had succeeded him, had neither the inclination nor
+character to be a despot. Within three years his government had been all
+but overthrown, and he was only khedive by the grace of British
+bayonets. Government by bayonets was not in accord with the views of the
+House of Commons, yet Ismail's government by the kourbash could not be
+restored. The British government, under Mr Gladstone, desired to
+establish in Egypt a sort of constitutional government; and as there
+existed no single element of a constitution, they had sent out Lord
+Dufferin (the first marquess of Dufferin) to frame one. That gifted
+nobleman, in the delightful lucidity of his picturesque report, left
+nothing to be desired except the material necessary to convert the
+flowing periods into political entities.[1] In the absence of that, the
+constitution was still-born, and Sir Evelyn Baring arrived to find, not
+indeed a clean slate, but a worn-out papyrus, disfigured by the efforts
+of centuries to describe in hieroglyph a method of rule for a docile
+people.
+
+From that date the history of Sir Evelyn Baring, who became Baron Cromer
+in 1892, G.C.B. in 1895, viscount in 1897, and earl in 1901, is the
+history of Egypt, and requires the barest mention of its salient points
+here. From the outset he realized that the task he had to perform could
+only be effected piecemeal and in detail, and his very first measure was
+one which, though severely criticized at the time, has been justified by
+events, and which in any case showed that he shirked no responsibility,
+and was capable of adopting heroic methods. He counselled the
+abandonment, at least temporarily, by Egypt of its authority in the
+Sudan provinces, already challenged by the mahdi. His views were shared
+by the British ministry of the day and the policy of abandonment
+enforced upon the Egyptian government. At the same time it was decided
+that efforts should be made to relieve the Egyptian garrisons in the
+Sudan and this resolve led to the mission of General C. G. Gordon (q.v.)
+to Khartum. Lord Cromer subsequently told the story of Gordon's mission
+at length, making clear the measure of responsibility resting upon him
+as British agent. The proposal to employ Gordon came from the British
+government and twice Sir Evelyn rejected the suggestion. Finally,
+mistrusting his own judgment, for he did not consider Gordon the proper
+person for the mission, Baring yielded to pressure from Lord Granville.
+Thereafter he gave Gordon all the support possible, and in the critical
+matter of the proposed despatch of Zobeir to Khartum, Baring--after a
+few days' hesitation--cordially endorsed Gordon's request. The request
+was refused by the British government--and the catastrophe which
+followed at Khartum rendered inevitable.
+
+The Sudan crisis being over, for the time, Sir Evelyn Baring set to work
+to reorganize Egypt itself. This work he attacked in detail. The very
+first essential was to regulate the financial situation; and in Egypt,
+where the entire revenue is based on the production of the soil,
+irrigation was of the first importance. With the assistance of Sir Colin
+Scott Moncrieff, in the public works department, and Sir Edgar Vincent,
+as financial adviser, these two great departments were practically put
+in order before he gave more than superficial attention to the rest. The
+ministry of justice was the next department seriously taken in hand,
+with the assistance of Sir John Scott, while the army had been reformed
+under Sir Evelyn Wood, who was succeeded by Sir Francis (afterwards
+Lord) Grenfell. Education, the ministry of the interior, and gradually
+every other department, came to be reorganized, or, more correctly
+speaking, formed, under Lord Cromer's carefully persistent direction,
+until it may be said to-day that the Egyptian administration can safely
+challenge comparison with that of any other state. In the meantime the
+rule of the mahdi and his successor, the khalifa, in the temporarily
+abandoned provinces of the Sudan, had been weakened by internal
+dissensions; the Italians from Massawa, the Belgians from the Congo
+State, and the French from their West African possessions, had gradually
+approached nearer to the valley of the Nile; and the moment had arrived
+at which Egypt must decide either to recover her position in the Sudan
+or allow the Upper Nile to fall into hands hostile to Great Britain and
+her position in Egypt. Lord Cromer was as quick to recognize the moment
+for action and to act as he had fifteen years earlier been prompt to
+recognize the necessity of abstention. In March-September 1896 the first
+advance was made to Dongola under the Sirdar, Sir Herbert (afterwards
+Lord) Kitchener; between July 1897 and April 1898 the advance was pushed
+forward to the Atbara; and on the 2nd of September 1898, the battle of
+Omdurman finally crushed the power of the khalifa and restored the Sudan
+to the rule of Egypt and Great Britain. In the negotiations which
+resulted in the Anglo-French Declaration of the 8th of April 1904,
+whereby France bound herself not to obstruct in any manner the action of
+Great Britain in Egypt and the Egyptian government acquired financial
+freedom, Lord Cromer took an active part. He also successfully guarded
+the interests of Egypt and Great Britain in 1906 when Turkey attempted
+by encroachments in the Sinai Peninsula to obtain a strategic position
+on the Suez Canal. To have effected all this in the face of the greatest
+difficulties--political, national and international--and at the same
+time to have raised the credit of the country from a condition of
+bankruptcy to an equality with that of the first European powers,
+entitles Lord Cromer to a very high place among the greatest
+administrators and statesmen that the British empire has produced. In
+April 1907, in consequence of the state of his health, he resigned
+office, having held the post of British agent in Egypt for twenty-four
+years. In July of the same year parliament granted Ł50,000 out of the
+public funds to Lord Cromer in recognition of his "eminent services" in
+Egypt. In 1908 he published, in two volumes, _Modern Egypt_, in which he
+gave an impartial narrative of events in Egypt and the Sudan since 1876,
+and dealt with the results to Egypt of the British occupation of the
+country. Lord Cromer also took part in the political controversies at
+home, joining himself to the free-trade wing of the Unionist party.
+
+Lord Cromer married in 1876 Ethel Stanley, daughter of Sir Rowland
+Stanley Errington, eleventh baronet, but was left a widower with two
+sons in 1898; and in 1901 he married Lady Katherine Thynne, daughter of
+the 4th marquess of Bath.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In 1892 Lord Dufferin wrote to Lord Cromer: "These institutions
+    were a good deal ridiculed at the time, but as it was then uncertain
+    how long we were going to remain, or rather how soon the Turks might
+    not be reinvested with their ancient supremacy, I desired to erect
+    some sort of barrier, however feeble, against their intolerable
+    tyranny." In 1906 Lord Cromer bore public testimony to the good
+    results of the measures adopted on Lord Dufferin's "statesmanlike
+    initiative." Such results were, however, only possible in consequence
+    of the continuance of the British occupation.
+
+
+
+
+CROMER, a watering-place in the northern parliamentary division of
+Norfolk, England, 139 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern
+railway; served also by the Midland and Great Northern joint line. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 3781. Standing on cliffs of considerable
+elevation, the town has repeatedly suffered from ravages of the sea. A
+wall and esplanade extend along the bottom of the cliffs, and there is a
+fine stretch of sandy beach. There is also a short pier. The church of
+St Peter and St Paul is Perpendicular (largely restored) with a lofty
+tower. On a site of three acres stands the convalescent home of the
+Norfolk and Norwich hospital. There is an excellent golf course. The
+herring, cod, lobster and crab fisheries are prosecuted. The village of
+Sheringham (pop. of urban district, 2359), lying to the west, is also
+frequented by visitors. A so-called Roman camp, on an elevation
+overlooking the sea, is actually a modern beacon.
+
+
+
+
+CROMORNE, also CRUMHORNE[1] (Ger. _Krummhorn_; Fr. _tournebout_), a wind
+instrument of wood in which a cylindrical column of air is set in
+vibration by a reed. The lower extremity is turned up in a half-circle,
+and from this peculiarity it has gained the French name _tournebout_.
+The reed of the cromorne, like that of the bassoon, is formed by a
+double tongue of cane adapted to the small end of a conical brass tube
+or crook, the large end fitting into the main bore of the instrument. It
+presents, however, this difference, that it is not, like that of the
+bassoon, in contact with the player's lips, but is covered by a cap
+pierced in the upper part with a raised slit against which the
+performer's lips rest, the air being forced through the opening into the
+cap and setting the reed in vibration. The reed itself is therefore not
+subject to the pressure of the lips. The compass of the instrument is in
+consequence limited to the simple fundamental sounds produced by the
+successive opening of the lateral holes. The length of the cromornes is
+inconsiderable in proportion to the deep sounds produced by them, which
+arises from the fact that these instruments, like all tubes of
+cylindrical bore provided with reeds, have the acoustic properties of
+the stopped pipes of an organ. That is to say, theoretically they
+require only half the length necessary for the open pipes of an organ or
+for conical tubes provided with reeds, to produce notes of the same
+pitch. Moreover, when, to obtain an harmonic, the column of air is
+divided, the cromorne will not give the octave, like the oboe and
+bassoon, but the twelfth, corresponding in this peculiarity with the
+clarinet and all stopped pipes or bourdons. In order, however, to obtain
+an harmonic on the cromorne, the cap would have to be discarded, for a
+reed only overblows to give the harmonic overtones when pressed by the
+lips. With the ordinary boring of eight lateral holes the cromorne
+possesses a limited compass of a ninth. Sometimes, however, deeper
+sounds are obtained by the addition of one or more keys. By its
+construction the cromorne is one of the oldest wind instruments; it is
+evidently derived from the Gr. aulos[2] and the Roman tibia, which
+likewise consisted of a simple cylindrical pipe of which the air column
+was set in vibration, at first by a double reed, and, we have reason to
+believe, later by a single reed (see AULOS and CLARINET). The Phrygian
+aulos was sometimes curved (see Tib. ii. i. 85 _Phrygio tibia curva
+sono_; Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 737 _curva choros indixit tibia Bacchi_).[3]
+
+  [Illustration: Bass Tournebout.]
+
+  Notwithstanding the successive improvements that were introduced in
+  the manufacture of wind instruments, the cromorne scarcely ever varied
+  in the details of its construction. Such as we see it represented in
+  the treatise by Virdung[4] we find it again about the epoch of its
+  disappearance.[5] The cromornes existed as a complete family from the
+  15th century, consisting, according to Virdung, of four instruments;
+  Praetorius[6] cites five--the deep bass, the bass, the tenor or alto,
+  the cantus or soprano and the high soprano, with compass as shown. A
+  band, or, to use the expression of Praetorius, an "accort" of
+  cromornes comprised 1 deep bass, 2 bass, 3 tenor, 2 cantus, 1 high
+  soprano = 9.
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  Mersenne[7] explains the construction of the cromorne, giving careful
+  illustrations of the instrument with and without the cap. From him we
+  learn that these instruments were made in England, where they were
+  played in concert in sets of four, five and six. Their scheme of
+  construction and especially the reed and cap is very similar to that
+  of the chalumeau of the musette (see BAG-PIPE), but its timbre is by
+  no means so pleasant. Mersenne's cromornes have ten fingerholes, Nos.
+  7 and 8 being duplicates for right and left-handed players. They were
+  probably sometimes used, as was the case with the hautbois de Poitou
+  (see BAG-PIPE), without the cap, when an extended compass was
+  required.
+
+  The cromornes were in very general use in Europe from the 14th to the
+  17th century, and are to be found in illustrations of pageants, as for
+  instance in the magnificent collection of woodcuts designed by Hans
+  Burgmair, a pupil of Albrecht Dürer, representing the triumph of the
+  emperor Maximilian,[8] where a bass and a tenor Krumbhorn player
+  figure in the procession among countless other musicians. In the
+  inventory of the wardrobe, &c., belonging to Henry VIII. at
+  Westminster, made during the reign of Edward VI., we find eighteen
+  crumhornes (see British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, ff. 202b and 205).
+  The cromornes did not always form an orchestra by themselves, but were
+  also used in concert with other instruments and notably with flutes
+  and oboes, as in municipal bands and in the private bands of princes.
+  In 1685 the orchestra of the Neue Kirche at Strassburg comprised two
+  tournebouts or cromornes, and until the middle of the 18th century
+  these instruments formed part of the court band known as "Musique de
+  la Grande Écurie" in the service of the French kings. They are first
+  mentioned in the accounts for the year 1662, together with the
+  tromba-marina, although the instrument was already highly esteemed in
+  the 16th century. In that year five players of the cromorne were
+  enrolled among the musicians of the Grande Écurie du Roi;[9] they
+  received a yearly salary of 120 livres, which various supplementary
+  allowances brought up to about 330 livres. In 1729 one of the cromorne
+  players sold his appointment for 4000 francs. This was a sign of the
+  failing popularity of the instrument. The duties of the cromorne and
+  tromba-marina players consisted in playing in the great
+  _divertissements_ and at court functions and festivals in honour of
+  royal marriages, births and thanksgivings.
+
+  Cromornes have become of extreme rarity and are not to be found in all
+  collections. The Paris Conservatoire possesses one large bass cromorne
+  of the 16th century, the Kgl. Hochschule für Musik,[10] Berlin, a set
+  of seven, and the Ambroser Sammlung, Vienna, a cromorne in
+  E[flat].[11] The museum of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at
+  Brussels has the good fortune to possess a complete family which is
+  said to have belonged to the duke of Ferrara, Alphonso II. d'Este, a
+  prince who reigned from 1559 to 1597. The soprano (cantus or discant)
+  has the same compass as above, while those of the alto, the tenor
+  (furnished with a key) and the bass are as shown.
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  The bass (see figure), besides having two keys, is distinguished from
+  the others by two contrivances like small bolts, which slide in
+  grooves and close the two holes that give the lowest notes of the
+  instrument. The use of these bolts, placed at the extremity of the
+  tournebout and out of reach of the fingers of the instrumentalist,
+  renders necessary the assistance of a person whose sole mission is to
+  attend to them during the performance. E. van der Straeten[12]
+  mentions a key belonging to a large cromorne bearing the date 1537, of
+  which he gives a large drawing. A cromorne appears in a musical scene
+  with a trumpet in Hermann Finck's _Practica Musica_.[13]
+
+  The "Platerspil," of which Virdung gives a drawing, is only a kind of
+  cromorne. It is characterized by having, instead of a cap to cover the
+  reed, a spherical receiver surrounding the reed, to which the tube for
+  insufflation is adapted. The Platerspiel is also frequently classified
+  among bagpipes. In the _Cantigas di Sante Maria_,[14] a MS. of the
+  13th century preserved in the Escorial, Madrid, two instruments of
+  this type are represented. One of these has two straight, parallel
+  pipes, slightly conical; the other is frankly conical with wide bore
+  turned up at the end.
+
+  Other instruments belonging by their most important characteristics of
+  cylindrical bore and double reed to the same family as the cromorne,
+  although the bore was somewhat differently disposed, are the racket
+  bassoon and the sourdine or sordelline. The latter was introduced into
+  the orchestra by Cavaliere in his opera _Rappresentazione di anima e
+  di corpo_, and is described by Giudotto[15] in his edition of the
+  score as "Flauti overo due tibie all' antica che noi chiamiamo
+  sordelline," a description which tallies with what has been said above
+  concerning the aulos and tibia.     (V. M. and K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Crumhorne need not be regarded as a corruption of the German,
+    since the two words of which it is composed were both in use in
+    medieval England. _Crumb_ = curved; _crumbe_ = hook, bend; _crome_ =
+    a staff with a hook at the end of it. See Stratmann's _Middle English
+    Dictionary_ (1891), and Halliwell, _Dictionary of Archaic and
+    Provincial Words_ (London, 1881).
+
+  [2] See A. Howard, "Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston,
+    1893).
+
+  [3] See also A. A. Howard, op. cit., "Phrygian Aulos," pp. 35-38.
+
+  [4] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [5] See Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopédie_ (Paris, 1751-1780),
+    t. 5, "Lutherie," pl. ix.
+
+  [6] _Organographia_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618).
+
+  [7] _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), book v. pp. 289 and
+    290. Cf. "Musette," pp. 282-287 and 305.
+
+  [8] See "Triumphzug des Kaisers Maximilian I." Beilage zum II. Band
+    des _Jahrb. der Sammlungen des Allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna,
+    1884-1885), pl. 20. Explanatory text and part i. in Band i. of the
+    same publication, 1883-1884. A French edition with 135 plates was
+    also published in Vienna by A. Schmidt, and in London by J. Edwards
+    (1796). See also Dr August Reissmann, _Illustrierte Geschichte der
+    deutschen Musik_ (Leipzig, 1881), where a few of the plates are
+    reproduced.
+
+  [9] See J. Écorcheville, "Quelques documents sur la musique de la
+    grande écurie du roi," _Sammelband d. Intern. Musik. Ges._ Jahrg.
+    ii., Heft 4 (1901, Leipzig, London, &c.), pp. 630-632.
+
+  [10] Oskar Fleischer, _Führer_ (Berlin, 1892), p. 29, Nos. 400 to
+    406.
+
+  [11] For an illustration see Captain C. R. Day, _Descriptive
+    Catalogue_ (London, 1891), pl. iv. E. and p. 99.
+
+  [12] _Histoire de la musique aux Pays-Bas avant le XIX^e sičcle_
+    (Brussels, 1867-1888), vol. vii. p. 336, and description, p. 333 et
+    seq.
+
+  [13] Wittenberg, 1556; reproduced by A. Reissmann, op. cit., pp. 233
+    and 226.
+
+  [14] Reproduced in Riańo's _Notes on Early Spanish Music_ (London,
+    1887), pp. 119-127.
+
+  [15] See Hugo Goldschmidt, "Das Orchester der italienischen Oper im
+    17. Jahrh." _Sammelband der Intern. Musikgesellschaft_, Jahrg. ii.,
+    Heft 1 (Leipzig, 1900), p. 24.
+
+
+
+
+CROMPTON, SAMUEL (1753-1827), English inventor, was born on the 3rd of
+December 1753 at Firwood near Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire. While yet a
+boy he lost his father, and had to contribute to the family resources by
+spinning yarn. The defects of the spinning jenny imbued him with the
+idea of devising something better, and for five or six years the effort
+absorbed all his spare time and money, including what he earned by
+playing the violin at the Bolton theatre. About 1779 he succeeded in
+producing a machine which span yarn suitable for use in the manufacture
+of muslin, and which was known as the muslin wheel or the
+Hall-in-the-Wood wheel (from the name of the house in which he and his
+family resided), and later as the spinning mule. After his marriage in
+1780 a good demand arose for the yarn which he himself made at
+Hall-in-the-Wood, but the prying to which his methods were subjected
+drove him, in the absence of means to take out a patent, to the choice
+of destroying his machine or making it public. He adopted the latter
+alternative on the promise of a number of manufacturers to pay him for
+the use of the mule, but all he received was about Ł60. He then resumed
+spinning on his own account, but with indifferent success. In 1800 a sum
+of Ł500 was raised for his benefit by subscription, and when in 1809
+Edmund Cartwright, the inventor of the power-loom obtained Ł10,000 from
+parliament, he determined also to apply for a grant. In 1811 he made a
+tour in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Scotland to
+collect evidence showing how extensively his mule was used, and in 1812
+parliament allowed him Ł5000. With the aid of this money he embarked in
+business, first as a bleacher and then as a cotton merchant and spinner,
+but again without success. In 1824 some friends, without his knowledge,
+bought him an annuity of Ł63. He died at Bolton on the 26th of June
+1827.
+
+
+
+
+CROMPTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England, 2˝ m. N. of Oldham,
+within the parliamentary borough of Oldham. Pop. (1901) 13,427. At Shaw,
+a populous village included within it, is a station on the Lancashire &
+Yorkshire railway. Cotton mills and the collieries of the neighbourhood
+employ the large industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+CROMWELL, HENRY (1628-1674), fourth son of Oliver Cromwell, was born at
+Huntingdon on the 20th of January 1628, and served under his father
+during the latter part of the Civil War. His active life, however, was
+mainly spent in Ireland, whither he took some troops to assist Oliver
+early in 1650, and he was one of the Irish representatives in the
+Little, or Nominated, Parliament of 1653. In 1654 he was again in
+Ireland, and after making certain recommendations to his father, now
+lord protector, with regard to the government of that country, he became
+major-general of the forces in Ireland and a member of the Irish council
+of state, taking up his new duties in July 1655. Nominally Henry was
+subordinate to the lord-deputy, Charles Fleetwood, but Fleetwood's
+departure for England in September 1655 left him for all practical
+purposes the ruler of Ireland. He moderated the lord-deputy's policy of
+deporting the Irish, and unlike him he paid some attention to the
+interests of the English settlers; moreover, again unlike Fleetwood, he
+appears to have held the scales evenly between the different Protestant
+sects, and his undoubted popularity in Ireland is attested by Clarendon.
+In November 1657 Henry himself was made lord-deputy; but before this
+time he had refused a gift of property worth Ł1500 a year, basing his
+refusal on the grounds of the poverty of the country, a poverty which
+was not the least of his troubles. In 1657 he advised his father not to
+accept the office of king, although in 1634 he had supported a motion to
+this effect; and after the dissolution of Cromwell's second parliament
+in February 1658 he showed his anxiety that the protector should act in
+a moderate and constitutional manner. After Oliver's death Henry hailed
+with delight the succession of his brother Richard to the office of
+protector, but although he was now appointed lieutenant and governor
+general of Ireland, it was only with great reluctance that he remained
+in that country. Having rejected proposals to assist in the restoration
+of Charles II., Henry was recalled to England in June 1659 just after
+his brother's fall; quietly obeying this order he resigned his office at
+once. Although he lost some property at the Restoration, he was allowed
+after some solicitation to keep the estate he had bought in Ireland. His
+concluding years were passed at Spinney Abbey in Cambridgeshire; he was
+unmolested by the government, and he died on the 23rd of March 1674. In
+1653 Henry married Elizabeth (d. 1687), daughter of Sir Francis Russell,
+and he left five sons and two daughters.
+
+
+
+
+CROMWELL, OLIVER (1599-1658), lord protector of England, was the 5th and
+only surviving son of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon and of Elizabeth
+Steward, widow of William Lynn. His paternal grandfather was Sir Henry
+Cromwell of Hinchinbrook, a leading personage in Huntingdonshire, and
+grandson of Richard Williams, knighted by Henry VIII., nephew of Thomas
+Cromwell, earl of Essex, Henry VIII.'s minister, whose name he adopted.
+His mother was descended from a family named Styward in Norfolk, which
+was not, however, connected in any way, as has been often asserted, with
+the royal house of Stuart. Oliver was born on the 25th of April 1599,
+was educated under Dr Thomas Beard, a fervent puritan, at the free
+school at Huntingdon, and on the 23rd of April 1616 matriculated as a
+fellow-commoner at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a hotbed of
+puritanism, subsequently studying law in London. The royalist anecdotes
+relating to his youth, including charges of ill-conduct, do not deserve
+credit, the entries in the register of St John's, Huntingdon, noting
+Oliver's submission on two occasions to church censure being forgeries;
+but it is not improbable that his youth was wild and possibly
+dissolute.[1] According to Edmund Waller he was "very well read in the
+Greek and Roman story." Burnet declares he had little Latin, but he was
+able to converse with the Dutch ambassador in that language. According
+to James Heath in his _Flagellum_, "he was more famous for his exercises
+in the fields than in the schools, being one of the chief match-makers
+and players at football, cudgels, or any other boisterous game or
+sport." On the 22nd of August 1620 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir
+James Bourchier, a city merchant of Tower Hill, and of Felstead in
+Essex; and his father having died in 1617 he settled at Huntingdon and
+occupied himself in the management of his small estate. In 1628 he was
+returned to parliament as member for the borough, and on the 11th of
+February 1629 he spoke in support of puritan doctrine, complaining of
+the attempt by the king to silence Dr Beard, who had raised his voice
+against the "flat popery" inculcated by Dr Alabaster at Paul's Cross. He
+was also one of the members who refused to adjourn at the king's command
+till Sir John Eliot's resolutions had been passed.
+
+During the eleven years of government without parliament very little is
+recorded of Cromwell. His name is not connected with the resistance to
+the levy of ship-money or to the action of the ecclesiastical courts,
+but in 1630 he was one of those fined for refusing to take up
+knighthood. The same year he was named one of the justices of the peace
+for his borough; and on the grant of a new charter showed great zeal in
+defending the rights of the commoners, and succeeded in procuring an
+alteration in the charter in their favour, exhibiting much warmth of
+temper during the dispute and being committed to custody by the privy
+council for angry words spoken against the mayor, for which he
+afterwards apologized. He also defended the rights of the commoners of
+Ely threatened by the "adventurers" who had drained the Great Level, and
+he was nicknamed afterwards by a royalist newspaper "Lord of the Fens."
+He was again later the champion of the commoners of St Ives in the Long
+Parliament against enclosures by the earl of Manchester, obtaining a
+commission of the House of Commons to inquire into the case, and drawing
+upon himself the severe censure of the chairman, the future Lord
+Clarendon, by his "impetuous carriage" and "insolent behaviour," and by
+the passionate vehemence he imparted into the business. Bishop Williams,
+a kinsman of Cromwell's, relates at this time that he was "a common
+spokesman for sectaries, and maintained their part with great
+stubbornness"; and his earliest extant letter (in 1635) is an appeal for
+subscriptions for a puritan lecturer. There appears to be no foundation
+for the statement that he was stopped by an order of council when on the
+point of abandoning England for America, though there can be little
+doubt that the thoughts of emigration suggested themselves to his mind
+at this period. He viewed the "innovations in religion" with abhorrence.
+According to Clarendon he told the latter in 1641 that if the Grand
+Remonstrance had not passed "he would have sold all he had the next
+morning and never have seen England more." In 1631 he converted his
+landed property into money, and John Hampden, his cousin, a patentee of
+Connecticut in 1632, was on the point of emigrating. Cromwell was
+perhaps arrested in his project by his succession in 1636 to the estate
+of his uncle Sir Thomas Steward, and to his office of farmer of the
+cathedral tithes at Ely, whither he now removed. Meanwhile, like Bunyan
+and many other puritans, Cromwell had been passing through a trying
+period of mental and religious change and struggle, beginning with deep
+melancholy and religious doubt and depression, and ending with "seeing
+light" and with enthusiastic and convinced faith, which remained
+henceforth the chief characteristic and impulse in his career.
+
+
+  Cromwell's first parliamentary efforts.
+
+He represented Cambridge in the Short and Long Parliaments of 1640, and
+at once showed extraordinary zeal and audacity in his opposition to the
+government, taking a large share in business and serving on numerous and
+important committees. As the cousin of Hampden and St. John he was
+intimately associated with the leaders of the parliamentary party. His
+sphere of action, however, was not in parliament. He was not an orator,
+and though he could express himself forcibly on occasion, his speech was
+incoherent and devoid of any of the arts of rhetoric. Clarendon notes on
+his first appearance in parliament that "he seemed to have a person in
+no degree gracious, no ornament of discourse, none of those talents
+which use to reconcile the affections of the standers by; yet as he grew
+into place and authority his parts seemed to be renewed." He supported
+stoutly the extreme party of opposition to the king, but did not take
+the lead except on a few less important occasions, and was apparently
+silent in the debates on the Petition of Right, the Grand Remonstrance
+and the Militia. His first recorded intervention in debate in the Long
+Parliament was on the 9th of November 1640, a few days after the meeting
+of the House, when he delivered a petition from the imprisoned John
+Lilburne. He was described by Sir Philip Warwick on this occasion:--"I
+came into the House one morning well clad and perceived a gentleman
+speaking whom I knew not, very ordinarily apparelled; for it was a plain
+cloth suit which seemed to have been made by an ill country tailor; his
+linen was plain and not very clean; ... his stature was of a good size;
+his sword stuck close to his side; his countenance swollen and reddish;
+his voice sharp and untunable and his eloquence full of fervour ... I
+sincerely profess it much lessened my reverence as to that great council
+for he was very much hearkened unto." On the 30th of December he moved
+to the second reading of Strode's bill for annual parliaments. His chief
+interest from the first, however, lay in the religious question. He
+belonged to the Root and Branch party, and spoke in favour of the
+petition of the London citizens for the abolition of episcopacy on the
+9th of February 1641, and pressed upon the House the Root and Branch
+Bill in May. On the 6th of November he carried a motion entrusting the
+train-bands south of the Trent to the command of the earl of Essex. On
+the 14th of January 1642, after the king's attempt to seize the five
+members, he moved for a committee to put the kingdom in a posture of
+defence. He contributed Ł600 to the proposed Irish campaign and Ł500 for
+raising forces in England--large sums from his small estate--and on his
+own initiative in July 1642 sent arms of the value of Ł100 down to
+Cambridge, seized the magazine there in August, and prevented the king's
+commission of array from being executed in the county, taking these
+important steps on his own authority and receiving subsequently
+indemnity by vote of the House of Commons. Shortly afterwards he joined
+Essex with sixty horse, and was present at Edgehill, where his troop was
+one of the few not routed by Rupert's charge, Cromwell himself being
+mentioned among those officers who "never stirred from their troops but
+fought till the last minute."
+
+
+  Beginning of Civil War.
+
+During the earlier part of the year 1643 the military position of
+Charles was greatly superior to that of the parliament. Essex was
+inactive near Oxford; in the west Sir Ralph Hopton had won a series of
+victories, and in the north Newcastle defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton
+Moor, and all Yorkshire except Hull was in his hands. It seemed likely
+that the whole of the north would be laid open and the royalists be able
+to march upon London and join Charles and Hopton there. This stroke,
+which would most probably have given the victory to the king, was
+prevented by the "Eastern Association," a union of Norfolk, Suffolk,
+Essex, Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire, constituted in December 1642
+and augmented in 1643 by Huntingdonshire and Lincolnshire, of which
+Cromwell was the leading spirit. His zeal and energy met everywhere with
+conspicuous success. In January 1643 he seized the royalist high sheriff
+of Hertfordshire in the act of proclaiming the king's commission of
+array at St Albans; in February he was at Cambridge taking measures for
+the defence of the town; in March suppressing royalist risings at
+Lowestoft and Lynn; in April those of Huntingdon, when he also
+recaptured Crowland from the king's party. In May he defeated a greatly
+superior royalist force at Grantham, proceeding afterwards to Nottingham
+in accordance with Essex's plan of penetrating into Yorkshire to relieve
+the Fairfaxes; where, however, difficulties, arising from jealousies
+between the officers, and the treachery of John Hotham, whose arrest
+Cromwell was instrumental in effecting, obliged him to retire again to
+the association, leaving the Fairfaxes to be defeated at Adwalton Moor.
+He showed extraordinary energy, resource and military talent in stemming
+the advance of the royalists, who now followed up their victories by
+advancing into the association; he defeated them at Gainsborough on the
+28th of July, and managed a masterly retreat before overwhelming numbers
+to Lincoln, while the victory on the 11th of October at Winceby finally
+secured the association, and maintained the wedge which prevented the
+junction of the royalists in the north with the king in the south.
+
+
+  Cromwell's soldiers.
+
+One great source of Cromwell's strength was the military reforms he had
+initiated. At Edgehill he had observed the inferiority of the
+parliamentary to the royalist horse, composed as it was of soldiers of
+fortune and the dregs of the populace. "Do you think," he had said,
+"that the spirits of such base, mean fellows will ever be able to
+encounter gentlemen that have honour and courage and resolution in them?
+You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as gentlemen
+will go or you will be beaten still." The royalists were fighting for a
+great cause. To succeed the parliamentary soldiers must also be inspired
+by some great principle, and this was now found in religion. Cromwell
+chose his own troops, both officers and privates, from the "religious
+men," who fought not for pay or for adventure, but for their faith. He
+declared, when answering a complaint that a certain captain in his
+regiment was a better preacher than fighter, that he who prayed best
+would fight best, and that he knew nothing could "give the like courage
+and confidence as the knowledge of God in Christ will." The superiority
+of these men--more intelligent than the common soldiers, better
+disciplined, better trained, better armed, excellent horsemen and
+fighting for a great cause--not only over the other parliamentary troops
+but over the royalists, was soon observed in battle. According to
+Clarendon the latter, though frequently victorious in a charge, could
+not rally afterwards, "whereas Cromwell's troops if they prevailed, or
+though they were beaten and routed, presently rallied again and stood in
+good order till they received new orders"; and the king's military
+successes dwindled in proportion to the gradual preponderance of
+Cromwell's troops in the parliamentary army. At first these picked men
+only existed in Cromwell's own troop, which, however, by frequent
+additions became the nucleus of a regiment, and by the time of the New
+Model included about 11,000 men.
+
+In July 1643 Cromwell had been appointed governor of the Isle of Ely; on
+the 22nd of January 1644 he became second in command under the earl of
+Manchester as lieutenant-general of the Eastern Association, and on the
+16th of February 1644 a member of the Committee of Both Kingdoms with
+greatly increased influence. In March he took Hillesden House in
+Buckinghamshire; in May was at the siege of Lincoln, when he repulsed
+Goring's attempt to relieve the town, and subsequently took part in
+Manchester's campaign in the north. At Marston Moor (q.v.) on the 2nd of
+July he commanded all the horse of the Eastern Association, with some
+Scottish troops; and though for a time disabled by a wound in the neck,
+he charged and routed Rupert's troops opposed to him, and subsequently
+went to the support of the Scots, who were hard pressed by the enemy,
+and converted what appeared at one time a defeat into a decisive
+victory. It was on this occasion that he earned the nickname of
+"Ironsides," applied to him now by Prince Rupert, and afterwards to his
+soldiers, "from the impenetrable strength of his troops which could by
+no means be broken or divided."
+
+The movements of Manchester after Marston Moor were marked by great
+apathy. He was one of the moderate party who desired an accommodation
+with the king, and was opposed to Cromwell's sectaries. He remained at
+Lincoln, did nothing to prevent the defeat of Essex's army in the west,
+and when he at last advanced south to join Essex's and Waller's troops
+his management of the army led to the failure of the attack upon the
+king at Newbury on the 27th of October 1644. He delayed supporting the
+infantry till too late, and was repulsed; he allowed the royal army to
+march past his outposts; and a fortnight afterwards, without any attempt
+to prevent it, and greatly to Cromwell's vexation, permitted the moving
+of the king's artillery and the relief of Donnington Castle by Prince
+Rupert. "If you beat the king ninety-nine times," Manchester urged at
+Newbury, "yet he is king still and so will his posterity be after him;
+but if the king beat us once we shall all be hanged and our posterity be
+made slaves." "My lord," answered Cromwell, "if this be so, why did we
+take up arms at first? This is against fighting ever hereafter. If so
+let us make peace, be it ever so base." The contention brought to a
+crisis the struggle between the moderate Presbyterians and the Scots on
+the one side, who decided to maintain the monarchy and fought for an
+accommodation and to establish Presbyterianism in England, and on the
+other the republicans who would be satisfied with nothing less than the
+complete overthrow of the king, and the Independents who regarded the
+establishment of Presbyterianism as an evil almost as great as that of
+the Church of England. On the 25th of November Cromwell charged
+Manchester with "unwillingness to have the war prosecuted to a full
+victory"; which Manchester answered by accusing Cromwell of having used
+expressions against the nobility, the Scots and Presbyterianism; of
+desiring to fill the army of the Eastern Association with Independents
+to prevent any accommodation; and of having vowed if he met the king in
+battle he would as lief fire his pistol at him as at anybody else. The
+lords and the Scots vehemently took Manchester's part; but the Commons
+eventually sided with Cromwell, appointed Sir Thomas Fairfax general of
+the New Model Army, and passed two self-denying ordinances, the second
+of which, ordering all members of both houses to lay down their
+commissions within forty days, was accepted by the lords on the 3rd of
+April 1645.
+
+
+  The battle of Naseby.
+
+Meanwhile Cromwell had been ordered on the 3rd of March by the House to
+take his regiment to the assistance of Waller, under whom he served as
+an admirable subordinate. "Although he was blunt," says Waller, "he did
+not bear himself with pride or disdain. As an officer he was obedient
+and did never dispute my orders or argue upon them." He returned on the
+19th of April, and on the 23rd was sent to Oxfordshire to prevent a
+junction between Charles and Prince Rupert, in which he succeeded after
+some small engagements and the storming of Blechingdon House. His
+services were felt to be too valuable to be lost, and on the 10th of May
+his command was prolonged for forty days. On the 28th he was sent to Ely
+for the defence of the eastern counties against the king's advance; and
+on the 10th of June, upon Fairfax's petition, he was named by the
+Commons lieutenant-general, joining Fairfax on the 13th with six hundred
+horse. At the decisive battle of Naseby (the 14th of June 1645) he
+commanded the parliamentary right wing and routed the cavalry of Sir
+Marmaduke Langdale, subsequently falling upon and defeating the royalist
+centre, and pursuing the fugitives as far as the outskirts of Leicester.
+At Langport again, on the 10th of July 1645, his management of the
+troops was largely instrumental in gaining the victory. As the king had
+no longer a field army, the war after Naseby resolved itself into a
+series of sieges which Charles had no means of raising. Cromwell was
+present at the sieges of Bridgwater, Bath, Sherborne and Bristol; and
+later, in command of four regiments of foot and three of horse, he was
+employed in clearing Wiltshire and Hampshire of the royalist garrisons.
+He took Devizes and Laycock House, Winchester and Basing House, and
+rejoined Fairfax in October at Exeter, and accompanied him to Cornwall,
+where he assisted in the defeat of Hopton's forces and in the
+suppression of the royalists in the west. On the 9th of January 1646 he
+surprised Lord Wentworth's brigade at Bovey Tracey, and was present with
+Fairfax at the fall of Exeter on the 9th of April. He then went to
+London to give an account of proceedings to the parliament, was thanked
+for his services and rewarded with the estate of the marquess of
+Worcester. He was present again with Fairfax at the capitulation of
+Oxford on the 24th of June, which practically terminated the Civil War,
+when he used his influence in favour of granting lenient terms. He then
+removed with his family from Ely to Drury Lane, London, and about a year
+later to King Street, Westminster.
+
+The war being now over, the great question of the establishment of
+Presbyterianism or Independency had to be decided. Cromwell, without
+naming himself an adherent of any denomination, fought vigorously for
+Independency as a policy. In 1644 he had remonstrated at the removal by
+Crawford of an anabaptist lieutenant-colonel. "The state," he said, "in
+choosing men to serve it, takes no notice of their opinions. If they be
+willing faithfully to serve it, that satisfies. Take heed of being sharp
+... against those to whom you can object little but that they square not
+with you in every opinion concerning matters of religion." He had
+patronized Lilburne and welcomed all into his regiment, and the
+Independents had spread from his troops throughout the whole army. But
+while the sectarians were in a vast majority in the army, the parliament
+was equally strong in Presbyterianism and opposed to toleration. The
+proposed disbandment of the army in February 1647 would have placed the
+soldiers entirely in the power of the parliament; while the negotiations
+of the king, first with the Scots and then with the parliament, appeared
+to hazard all the fruits of victory. The petition from the army to the
+parliament for arrears of pay was suppressed and the petitioners
+declared enemies of the state. In consequence the army organized a
+systematic opposition, and elected representatives styled Agitators or
+Agents to urge their claims.
+
+
+  Parliament and the army.
+
+Cromwell, though greatly disliking the policy of the Presbyterians, yet
+gave little support at first to the army in resisting parliament. In May
+1647 in company with Skippon, Ireton and Fleetwood, he visited the army,
+inquired into and reported on the grievances, and endeavoured to
+persuade them to submit to the parliament. "If that authority falls to
+nothing," he said, "nothing can follow but confusion." The
+Presbyterians, however, now engaged in a plan for restoring the king
+under their own control, and by the means of a Scottish army, forced on
+their policy, and on the 27th of May ordered the immediate disbandment
+of the army, without any guarantee for the payment of arrears. A mutiny
+was the consequence. The soldiers refused to disband, and on the 3rd of
+June Cromwell, whom, it was believed, the parliament intended to arrest,
+joined the army. "If he would not forthwith come and lead them," they
+had told him, "they would go their own way without him." The supremacy
+of the army without a guiding hand meant anarchy, that of the
+Presbyterians the outbreak of another civil war.
+
+Possession of the king's person now became an important consideration.
+On the 31st of May 1647 Cromwell had ordered Cornet Joyce to prevent the
+king's removal by the parliament or the Scots from Holmby, and Joyce by
+his own authority and with the king's consent brought him to Newmarket
+to the headquarters of the army. Cromwell soon restored order, and the
+representative council, including privates as well as officers chosen to
+negotiate with the parliament, was subordinated to the council of war.
+The army with Cromwell then advanced towards London. In a letter to the
+city, possibly written by Cromwell himself, the officers repudiated any
+wish to alter the civil government or upset the establishment of
+Presbyterianism, but demanded religious toleration. Subsequently, in the
+declaration of the 14th of June, arbitrary power either in the
+parliament or in the king was denounced, and demand was made for a
+representative parliament, the speedy termination of the actual
+assembly, and the recognition of the right to petition. Cromwell used
+his influence in restraining the more eager who wished to march on
+London immediately, and in avoiding the use of force by which nothing
+permanent could be effected, urging that "whatsoever we get by treaty
+will be firm and durable. It will be conveyed over to posterity." The
+army faction gradually gathered strength in the parliament. Eleven
+Presbyterian leaders impeached by the army withdrew of their own accord
+on the 26th of June, and the parliament finally yielded. Fairfax was
+appointed sole commander-in-chief on the 19th of July, the soldiers
+levied to oppose the army were dismissed, and the command of the city
+militia was again restored to the committee approved by the army. These
+votes, however, were cancelled later, on the 26th of July, under the
+pressure of the royalist city mob which invaded the two Houses; but the
+two speakers, with eight peers and fifty-seven members of the Commons,
+themselves joined the army, which now advanced to London, overawing all
+resistance, escorting the fugitive members in triumph to Westminster on
+the 6th of August, and obliging the parliament on the 20th to cancel the
+last votes, with the threat of a regiment of cavalry drawn up by
+Cromwell in Hyde Park.
+
+Cromwell and the army now turned with hopes of a settlement to Charles.
+On the 4th of July Cromwell had had an interview with the king at
+Caversham. He was not insensible to Charles's good qualities, was
+touched by the paternal affection he showed for his children, and is
+said to have declared that Charles "was the uprightest and most
+conscientious man of his three kingdoms." The _Heads of the Proposals_,
+which, on Charles raising objections, had been modified by the influence
+of Cromwell and Ireton, demanded the control of the militia and the
+choice of ministers by parliament for ten years, a religious toleration,
+and a council of state to which much of the royal control over the army
+and foreign policy would be delegated. These proposals without doubt
+largely diminished the royal power, and were rejected by Charles with
+the hope of maintaining his sovereign rights by "playing a game," to use
+his own words, i.e. by negotiating simultaneously with army and
+parliament, by inflaming their jealousies and differences, and finally
+by these means securing his restoration with his full prerogatives
+unimpaired. On the 9th of September Charles refused once mere the
+_Newcastle Propositions_ offered him by the parliament, and Cromwell,
+together with Ireton and Vane, obtained the passing of a motion for a
+new application; but the terms asked by the parliament were higher than
+before and included a harsh condition--the exclusion from pardon of all
+the king's leading adherents, besides the indefinite establishment of
+Presbyterianism and the refusal of toleration to the Roman Catholics and
+members of the Church of England.
+
+Meanwhile the failure to come to terms with Charles and provide a
+settlement appeared to threaten a general anarchy. Cromwell's moderate
+counsels created distrust in his good faith amongst the soldiers, who
+accused him of "prostituting the liberties and persons of all the people
+at the foot of the king's interest." The agitators demanded immediate
+settlement by force by the army. The extreme republicans, anticipating
+Rousseau, put forward the _Agreement of the People_. This was strongly
+opposed by Cromwell, who declared the very consideration of it had
+dangers, that it would bring upon the country "utter confusion" and
+"make England like Switzerland." Universal suffrage he rejected as
+tending "very much to anarchy," spoke against the hasty abolition of
+either the monarchy or the Lords, and refused entirely to consider the
+abstract principles brought into the debate. Political problems were not
+to be so resolved, but practically. With Cromwell as with Burke the
+question was "whether the spirit of the people of this nation is
+prepared to go along with it." The special form of government was not
+the important point, but its possibility and its acceptability. The
+great problem was to found a stable government, an authority to keep
+order. If every man should fight for the best form of government the
+state would come to desolation. He reproached the soldiers for their
+insubordination against their officers, and the army for its rebellion
+against the parliament. He would lay hold of anything "if it had but the
+force of authority," rather than have none. Cromwell's influence
+prevailed and these extreme proposals were laid aside.
+
+
+  Flight of the king.
+
+Meanwhile all hopes of an accommodation with Charles were dispelled by
+his flight on the 11th of November from Hampton Court to Carisbroke
+Castle in the Isle of Wight, his object being to negotiate independently
+with the Scots, the parliament and the army. His action, however, in the
+event, diminished rather than increased his chances of success, owing to
+the distrust of his intentions which it inspired. Both the army and the
+parliament gave cold replies to his offers to negotiate; and Charles, on
+the 27th of December 1647, entered into the _Engagement_ with the Scots
+by which he promised the establishment of Presbyterianism for three
+years, the suppression of the Independents and their sects, together
+with privileges for the Scottish nobles, while the Scots undertook to
+invade England and restore him to his throne. This alliance, though the
+exact terms were not known to Cromwell--"the attempt to vassalize us to
+a foreign nation," to use his own words--convinced him of the
+uselessness of any plan for maintaining Charles on the throne; though he
+still appears to have clung to monarchy, proposing in January 1648 the
+transference of the crown to the prince of Wales. A week after the
+signing of the treaty he supported a proposal for the king's deposition,
+and the vote of _No Addresses_ was carried. Meanwhile the position of
+Charles's opponents had been considerably strengthened by the
+suppression of a dangerous rebellion in November 1647 by Cromwell's
+intervention, and by the return of troops to obedience. Cromwell's
+difficulties, however, were immense. His moderate and trimming attitude
+was understood neither by the extreme Independents nor by the
+Presbyterians. He made one attempt to reconcile the disputes between the
+army and the politicians by a conference, but ended the barren
+discussion on the relative merits of aristocracies, monarchies and
+democracies, interspersed with Bible texts, by throwing a cushion at the
+speaker's head and running downstairs. On the 19th of January 1648
+Cromwell was accused of high treason by Lilburne. Plots were formed for
+his assassination. He was overtaken by a dangerous illness, and on the
+2nd of March civil war in support of the king broke out.
+
+Cromwell left London in May to suppress the royalists in Wales, and took
+Pembroke Castle on the 11th of July. Meanwhile behind his back the
+royalists had risen all over England, the fleet in the Downs had
+declared for Charles, and the Scottish army under Hamilton had invaded
+the north. Immediately on the fall of Pembroke Cromwell set out to
+relieve Lambert, who was slowly retreating before Hamilton's superior
+forces; he joined him near Knaresborough on the 12th of August, and
+started next day in pursuit of Hamilton in Lancashire, placing himself
+at Stonyhurst near Preston, cutting off Hamilton from the north and his
+allies, and defeating him in detail on the 17th, 18th and 19th at
+Preston and at Warrington. He then marched north into Scotland,
+following the forces of Monro, and established a new government of the
+Argyle faction at Edinburgh; replying to the Independents who
+disapproved of his mild treatment of the Presbyterians, that he desired
+"union and right understanding between the godly people, Scots, English,
+Jews, Gentiles, Presbyterians, Anabaptists and all; ... a more glorious
+work in our eyes than if we had gotten the sacking and plunder of
+Edinburgh ... and made a conquest from the Tweed to the Orcades."
+
+
+  Cromwell supports the Remonstrance.
+
+The incident of the Second Civil War and the treaty with the Scots
+exasperated Cromwell against the king. On his return to London he found
+the parliament again negotiating with Charles, and on the eve of making
+a treaty which Charles himself had no intention of keeping and regarded
+merely as a means of regaining his power, and which would have thrown
+away in one moment all the advantages gained during years of bloodshed
+and struggle. Cromwell therefore did not hesitate to join the army in
+its opposition to the parliament, and supported the Remonstrance of the
+troops (20th of November 1648), which included the demand for the king's
+punishment as "the grand author of all our troubles," and justified the
+use of force by the army if other means failed. The parliament, however,
+continued to negotiate, and accordingly Charles was removed by the army
+to Hurst Castle on the 1st of December, the troops occupied London on
+the 2nd; while on the 6th and 7th Colonel Pride "purged" the House of
+Commons of the Presbyterians. Cromwell was not the originator of this
+act, but showed his approval of it by taking his seat among the fifty or
+sixty Independent members who remained.
+
+The disposal of the king was now the great question to be decided.
+During the next few weeks Cromwell appears to have made once more
+attempts to come to terms with Charles; but the king was inflexible in
+his refusal to part with the essential powers of the monarchy, or with
+the Church; and at the end of December it was resolved to bring him to
+trial. The exact share which Cromwell had in this decision and its
+sequel is obscure, and the later accounts of the regicides when on their
+trial at the Restoration, ascribing the whole transaction to his
+initiation and agency, cannot be altogether accepted. But it is plain
+that, once convinced of the necessity for the king's execution, he was
+the chief instrument in overcoming all scruples among his judges, and in
+resisting the protests and appeals of the Scots. To Algernon Sidney, who
+refused to take part in proceedings on the plea that neither the king
+nor any man could be tried by such a court, Cromwell replied, "I tell
+you, we will cut off his head with the crown upon it."
+
+
+  The execution of Charles I.
+
+The execution of the king took place on the 30th of January 1649. This
+event, the turning-point in Cromwell's career, casts a shadow, from one
+point of view, over the whole of his future statesmanship. He himself
+never repented of the act, regarding it, on the contrary, as "one which
+Christians in after times will mention with honour and all tyrants in
+the world look at with fear," and as one directly ordained by God.
+Opinions, no doubt, will always differ as to the wisdom or authority of
+the policy which brought Charles to the scaffold. On the one hand, there
+was no law except that of force by which an offence could be attributed
+to the sovereign, the anointed king, the source of justice. The
+ordinance establishing the special tribunal for the trial was passed by
+a remnant of the House of Commons alone, from which all dissentients
+were excluded by the army. The tribunal was composed, not of judges--for
+all unanimously refused to sit on it--but of fifty-two men drawn from
+among the king's enemies. The execution was a military and not a
+national act, and at the last scene on the scaffold the triumphant
+shouts of the soldiery could not overwhelm the groans and sobs raised by
+the populace. Whatever crimes might be charged against Charles, his past
+conduct might appear to be condoned by the act of negotiating with him.
+On the other hand, the execution seemed to Cromwell the only alternative
+to anarchy, or to a return to despotism and the abandonment of all they
+had fought for. Cromwell had exhausted every expedient for arriving at
+an arrangement with the king by which the royal authority might be
+preserved, and the repeated perfidy and inexhaustible shiftiness of
+Charles had proved the hopelessness of such attempts. The results
+produced by the king's execution were far-reaching and permanent. It is
+true that Puritan austerity and the lack of any strong central authority
+after Oliver's death produced a reaction which temporarily restored
+Charles's dynasty to the throne; but it is not less true that the
+execution of the king, at a later time when all over Europe absolute
+monarchies "by divine right" were being established on the ruins of the
+ancient popular constitutions, was an object lesson to all the world;
+and it produced a profound effect, not only in establishing
+constitutional monarchy in Great Britain after James II., with the dread
+of his father's fate before him, had abdicated by flight, but in giving
+the impulse to that revolt against the idea of "the divinity that doth
+hedge a king" which culminated in the Revolution of 1789, and of which
+the mighty effects are still evident in Europe and beyond.
+
+
+  Cromwell in Ireland.
+
+The king and the monarchy being now destroyed in England, Cromwell had
+next to turn his attention to the suppression of royalism in Ireland and
+in Scotland. In Ireland Ormonde had succeeded in uniting the English and
+the Irish in a league against the supporters of the parliament, and only
+a few scattered forts held out for the Commonwealth, while the young
+king was every day expected to land and complete the conquest of the
+island. Accordingly in March 1649 Cromwell was appointed lord-lieutenant
+and commander-in-chief for its reduction. But before starting he was
+called upon to suppress disorder at home. He treated the Levellers with
+some severity and showed his instinctive dislike to revolutionary
+proposals. "Did not that levelling principle," he said, "tend to the
+reducing of all to an equality? What was the purport of it but to make
+the tenant as liberal a fortune as the landlord, which I think if
+obtained would not have lasted long." Equally characteristic was his
+treatment of the mutinous army, in which he suppressed a rebellion in
+May. He landed at Dublin on the 13th of August. Before his arrival the
+Dublin garrison had defeated Ormonde with a loss of 5000 men, and
+Cromwell's work was limited to the capture of detached fortresses. On
+the 10th of September he stormed Drogheda, and by his order the whole of
+its 2800 defenders were put to the sword without quarter. Cromwell, who
+was as a rule especially scrupulous in protecting non-combatants from
+violence, justified his severity in this case by the cruelties
+perpetrated by the Irish in the rebellion of 1641, and as being
+necessary on military and political grounds in that it "would tend to
+prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which were the
+satisfactory grounds of such actions which otherwise cannot but work
+remorse and regret." After the fall of Drogheda Cromwell sent a few
+troops to relieve Londonderry, and marched himself to Wexford, which he
+took on the 11th of October, and where similar scenes of cruelty were
+repeated; every captured priest, to use Cromwell's own words, being
+immediately "knocked on the head," though the story of the three hundred
+women slaughtered in the market-place has no foundation.
+
+The surrender of Trim, Dundalk and Ross followed, but at Waterford
+Cromwell met with a stubborn resistance and the advent of winter obliged
+him to raise the siege. Next year Cromwell penetrated into Munster.
+Cashel, Cahir and several castles fell in February, and Kilkenny in
+March; Clonmel repulsing the assault with great loss, but surrendering
+on the 10th of May 1650. Cromwell himself sailed a fortnight later,
+leaving the reduction of the island, which was completed in 1652, to
+his generals. The re-settlement of the conquered and devastated country
+was now organized on the Tudor and Straffordian basis of colonization
+from England, conversion to Protestantism, and establishment of law and
+order. Cromwell thoroughly approved of the enormous scheme of
+confiscation and colonization, causing great privations and sufferings,
+which was carried out. The Roman Catholic landowners lost their estates,
+all or part according to their degree of guilt, and these were
+distributed among Cromwell's soldiers and the creditors of the
+government; Cromwell also invited new settlers from home and from New
+England, two-thirds of the whole land of Ireland being thus transferred
+to new proprietors. The suppression of Roman Catholicism was zealously
+pursued by Cromwell; the priests were hunted down and imprisoned or
+exiled to Spain or Barbados, the mass was everywhere forbidden, and the
+only liberty allowed was that of conscience, the Romanist not being
+obliged to attend Protestant services.
+
+These methods, together with education, "assiduous preaching ...
+humanity, good life, equal and honest dealing with men of different
+opinion," Cromwell thought, would convert the whole island to
+Protestantism. The law was ably and justly administered, and Irish trade
+was admitted to the same privileges as English, enjoying the same rights
+in foreign and colonial trade; and no attempt was made to subordinate
+the interests of the former to the latter, which was the policy adopted
+both before and after Cromwell's time, while the union of Irish and
+English interests was further recognized by the Irish representation at
+Westminster in the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and 1659. These advantages,
+however, scarcely benefited at all the Irish Roman Catholics, who were
+excluded from political life and from the corporate towns; and
+Cromwell's union meant little more than the union of the English colony
+in Ireland with England. A just administration, too, did not compensate
+for unjust laws or produce contentment; the policy of conversion and
+colonization was unsuccessful, the descendants of many of Cromwell's
+soldiers becoming merged in the Roman Catholic Irish, and the union with
+England, political and commercial, being extinguished at the
+Restoration. Cromwell's land settlement--modified by the restoration
+under Charles II. of about one-third of the estates to the
+royalists--survived, and added to the difficulties with which the
+English government was afterwards confronted in Ireland.
+
+
+  The battles of Dunbar and Worcester.
+
+Meanwhile Cromwell had hurried home to deal with the royalists in
+Scotland. He urged Fairfax to attack the Scots at once in their own
+country and to forestall their invasion; but Fairfax refused and
+resigned, and Cromwell was appointed by parliament, on the 26th of June
+1650, commander-in-chief of all the forces of the Commonwealth. He
+entered Scotland in July, and after a campaign in the neighbourhood of
+Edinburgh which proved unsuccessful in drawing out the Scots from their
+fortresses, he retreated to Dunbar to await reinforcements from Berwick.
+The Scots under Leslie followed him, occupied Doon Hill commanding the
+town, and seized the passes between Dunbar and Berwick which Cromwell
+had omitted to secure. Cromwell was outmanoeuvred and in a perilous
+situation, completely cut off from England and from his supplies except
+from the sea. But Leslie descended the hill to complete his triumph, and
+Cromwell immediately observed the disadvantages of his antagonist's new
+position, cramped by the hill behind and separated from his left wing. A
+stubborn struggle on the next day, the 3rd of September, gave Cromwell a
+decisive victory. Advancing, he occupied Edinburgh and Leith. At first
+it seemed likely that his victories and subsequent remonstrances would
+effect a peace with the Scots; but by 1651 Charles II. had succeeded in
+forming a new union of royalists and presbyterians, and another campaign
+became inevitable. Some delay was caused in beginning operations by
+Cromwell's dangerous illness, during which his life was despaired of;
+but in June he was confronting Leslie entrenched in the hills near
+Stirling, impregnable to attack and refusing an engagement. Cromwell
+determined to turn his antagonist's position. He sent 14,000 men into
+Fifeshire and marched to Perth, which he captured on the 2nd of August,
+thus cutting off Leslie from the north and his supplies. This movement,
+however, left open the way to England, and Charles immediately marched
+south, in reality thus giving Cromwell the wished-for opportunity of
+crushing the royalists finally and decisively. Cromwell followed through
+Yorkshire, and uniting with Lambert and Harrison at Evesham proceeded to
+attack the royalists at Worcester; where on the 3rd of September after a
+fierce struggle the great victory, "the crowning mercy" which terminated
+the Civil War, was obtained over Charles.
+
+Monk completed the subjugation of Scotland by 1654. The settlement here
+was made on more moderate lines than in Ireland. The estates of only
+twenty-four leaders of the defeated cause were forfeited by Cromwell,
+and the national church was left untouched though deprived of all powers
+of interference with the civil government, the general assembly being
+dissolved in 1653. Large steps were made towards the union of the two
+kingdoms by the representation of Scotland in the parliament at
+Westminster; free trade between the two countries was established, the
+administration of justice greatly improved, vassalage and heritable
+jurisdictions abolished, and security and good order maintained by the
+council of nine appointed by the Protector. In 1658 the improved
+condition of Scotland was the subject of Cromwell's special
+congratulation in addressing parliament. But as in Ireland so Cromwell's
+policy in Scotland was unpopular and was only upheld by the maintenance
+of a large army, necessitating heavy taxation and implying the loss of
+the national independence. It also vanished at the Restoration.
+
+On the 12th of September 1651 Cromwell made his triumphal entry into
+London at the conclusion of his victorious campaigns; and parliament
+granted him Hampton Court as a residence with Ł4000 a year. These
+triumphs, however, had all been obtained by force of arms; the more
+difficult task now awaited Cromwell of governing England by parliament
+and by law. As Milton wrote:--
+
+  "Cromwell! our chief of men, who through a cloud
+    Not of war only, but detractions rude,
+    Guided by faith and matchless fortitude,
+    To peace and truth thy glorious way hast ploughed,
+                ... Peace hath her victories
+    No less renowned than war."
+
+
+  Cromwell expels the Long Parliament.
+
+Cromwell's moderation and freedom from imperiousness were acknowledged
+even by those least friendly to his principles. Although the idol of his
+victorious army, and in a position enabling him to exercise autocratic
+power, he laboured unostentatiously for more than a year and a half as a
+member of the parliament, whose authority he supported to the best of
+his ability. While occupied with work on committees and in
+administration he pressed forward several schemes of reform, including a
+large measure of law reform prepared by a commission presided over by
+Matthew Hale, and the settlement of the church; but very little was
+accomplished by the parliament, which seemed to be almost exclusively
+taken up with the maintenance and increase of its own powers; and
+Cromwell's dissatisfaction, and that of the army which increased every
+day, was intensified by the knowledge that the parliament, instead of
+dissolving for a new election, was seeking to perpetuate its tenure of
+power. At length, in April 1653, a "bill for a new representation" was
+discussed, which provided for the retention of their seats by the
+existing members without re-election, so that they would also be the
+sole judges of the eligibility of the rest. This measure, which placed
+the whole powers of the state--executive, legislative, military and
+judicial--in the hands of one irresponsible and permanent chamber, "the
+horridest arbitrariness that ever was exercised in the world," Cromwell
+and the army determined to resist at all costs. On the 15th of April
+they proposed that the parliament should appoint a provisional
+government and dissolve itself. This compromise was refused by the
+parliament, which proceeded on the 20th to press through its last stages
+the "bill for a new representation." Cromwell hastened to the House, and
+at the last moment, on the bill being put to the vote, whispering to
+Harrison, "This is the time; I must do it," he rose, and after alluding
+to the former good services of the parliament, proceeded to overwhelm
+the members with reproaches. Striding up and down the House in a
+passion, he made no attempt to control himself, and turning towards
+individuals as he hurled significant epithets at each, he called some
+"whoremasters," others "drunkards, corrupt, unjust, scandalous to the
+profession of the Gospel." "Perhaps you think," he exclaimed, "that this
+is not parliamentary language; I confess it is not, neither are you to
+expect any such from me." In reply to a complaint of his violence he
+cried, "Come, come, I will put an end to your prating. You are no
+parliament, I say you are no parliament. I will put an end to your
+sitting." By his directions Harrison then fetched in a small band of
+Cromwell's musketeers and compelled the speaker Lenthall to vacate the
+chair. Looking at the mace he said, "What shall we do with this bauble?"
+and ordered a soldier to take it away. The members then trooped out,
+Cromwell crying after them, "It is you that have forced me to this; for
+I have sought the Lord night and day that He would rather slay me than
+put me upon the doing this work." He then snatched the obnoxious bill
+from the clerk, put it under his cloak, and commanding the doors to be
+locked went back to Whitehall. In the afternoon he dissolved the council
+in spite of John Bradshaw's remonstrances, who said, "Sir, we have heard
+what you did at the House this morning...; but you are mistaken to think
+that the parliament is dissolved, for no power under heaven can dissolve
+them but themselves; therefore take you notice of that." Cromwell had no
+patience with formal pedantry of this sort; and in point of strict
+legality "The Rump" of the Long Parliament had little better title to
+authority than the officers who expelled it from the House. After this
+Cromwell had nothing left but the army with which to govern, and
+"henceforth his life was a vain attempt to clothe that force in
+constitutional forms, and make it seem something else so that it might
+become something else."[2]
+
+By the dissolution of the Long Parliament Cromwell as commander-in-chief
+was left the sole authority in the state. He determined immediately to
+summon another parliament. This was the "Little" or "Barebones
+Parliament," consisting of one hundred and forty persons selected by the
+council of officers from among those nominated by the congregations in
+each county, which met on the 4th of July 1653. This assembly, however,
+soon showed itself impracticable and incapable, and on the 12th of
+December the speaker, followed by the more moderate members, marched to
+Whitehall and returned their powers to Cromwell, while the rest were
+expelled by the army.
+
+Cromwell, who had no desire to exercise arbitrary power and whose main
+object therefore was to devise some constitutional limit to the
+authority which circumstances had placed in his hands, now accepted the
+written constitution drawn up by some of the officers, called the
+_Instrument of Government_, the earliest example of a "fixed government"
+based on "fundamentals," or constitutional guarantees, and the only
+example of it in English history. Its authors had wished Oliver to
+assume the title of king, but this he repeatedly refused; and in the
+instrument he was named Protector, a parliament was established, limited
+in powers but whose measures were not restricted by the Protector's veto
+unless they contravened the constitution, the Protector's executive
+power being also limited by the council. The Protector and the council
+together were given a life tenure of office, with a large army and a
+settled revenue sufficient for public needs in time of peace; while the
+clauses relating to religion "are remarkable as laying down for the
+first time with authority a principle of toleration,"[3] though this
+toleration did not apply to Roman Catholics and Anglicans. On the 16th
+of December 1653 Cromwell was installed in his new office, dressed as a
+civilian in a plain black coat instead of in scarlet as a general, in
+order to demonstrate that military government had given place to civil;
+for he approached his task in the same spirit that had prompted his
+declaration to the Little Parliament of his wish "to divest the sword of
+all power in the Civil administration."
+
+
+  The government of the Protector.
+
+In the interval between his nomination as Protector and the summoning of
+his first parliament in September 1654, Cromwell was empowered together
+with his council to legislate by ordinances; and eighty-two were issued
+in all, dealing with numerous and various reforms and including the
+reorganization of the treasury, the settlement of Ireland and Scotland
+and the union of the three kingdoms, the relief of poor prisoners, and
+the maintenance of the highways. These ordinances in many instances
+showed the hand of the true statesman. Cromwell was essentially a
+conservative reformer; in his attempts to purge the court of chancery of
+its most flagrant abuses, and to settle the ecclesiastical affairs of
+the nation, he showed himself anxious to retain as much of the existing
+system as could be left untouched without doing positive evil. He was
+out-voted by his council on the question of commutation of tithes, and
+his enlightened zeal for reforming the "wicked and abominable" sentences
+of the criminal law met with complete failure. Most of these ordinances
+were subsequently confirmed by parliament, and, "on the whole, this body
+of dictatorial legislation, abnormal in form as it is, in substance was
+a real, wise and moderate set of reforms."[4] His ordinances for the
+"Reformation of Manners," the product of the puritan spirit, had but a
+transitory effect. The Long Parliament had ordered a strict observance
+of Sunday, punished swearing severely, and made adultery a capital
+crime; Cromwell issued further ordinances against duelling, swearing,
+race-meetings and cock-fights--the last as tending to the disturbance of
+the public peace and the encouragement of "dissolute practices to the
+dishonour of God." Cromwell himself was no ascetic and saw no harm in
+honest sport. He was exceedingly fond of horses and hunting, leaping
+ditches prudently avoided by the foreign ambassadors. Baxter describes
+him as full of animal spirits, "naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity
+and alacrity as another man is when he hath drunken a cup of wine too
+much," and notes his "familiar rustic carriage with his soldiers in
+sporting." He was fond of music and of art, and kept statues in Hampton
+Court Gardens which scandalized good puritans. He preferred that
+Englishmen should be free rather than sober by compulsion. Writing to
+the Scottish clergy, and rejecting their claim to suppress dissent in
+order to extirpate error, he said, "Your pretended fear lest error
+should step in is like the man who would keep all wine out of the
+country lest men should be drunk. It will be found an unjust and unwise
+jealousy to deprive a man of his natural liberty upon a supposition he
+may abuse it. When he doth abuse it, judge." It is probable that very
+little of this moral legislation was enforced in practice, though
+special efforts were made under the government of the major-generals.
+Cromwell expected more results from the effects of education and
+culture. A part of the revenue of confiscated church lands was allotted
+to the maintenance of schools, and the question of national education
+was seriously taken in hand by the Commonwealth. Cromwell was especially
+interested in the universities. In 1649 he had been elected D.C.L. at
+Oxford, and in 1651 chancellor of the University, an office which he
+held till 1657, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. He founded a
+new readership in Divinity, and presented Greek MSS. to the Bodleian. He
+appointed visitors for the universities and great public schools, and
+defended the universities from the attacks of the extreme sectaries who
+clamoured for their abolition, even Clarendon allowing that Oxford
+"yielded a harvest of extraordinary good and sound knowledge in all
+parts of learning." In 1657 he founded a new university at Durham, which
+was suppressed at the Restoration. He patronized learning. Milton and
+Marvell were his secretaries. He allowed the royalists Hobbes and Cowley
+to return to England, and lived in friendship with the poet Waller.
+
+
+  Cromwell's church policy.
+
+Cromwell's religious policy included the maintenance of a national
+church, a policy acceptable to the army but much disliked by the Scots,
+who wanted the church to control the state, not the state the church. He
+improved the incomes of poor livings by revenues derived from episcopal
+estates and the fines of delinquents. An important feature of his church
+government was the appointment on the 20th of March 1654 of the
+"Triers," thirty-eight clerical and lay commissioners, who decided upon
+the qualifications of candidates for livings, and without whose
+recommendation none could be appointed; while an ordinance of August
+1654 provided for the removal of the unfit, the latter class including
+besides immoral persons those holding "popish" or blasphemous opinions,
+those publicly using the English Prayer Book, and the disaffected to the
+government. Religious toleration was granted, but with the important
+exception that some harsh measures were enacted against Anglicans and
+Roman Catholics, to neither of whom was liberty of worship accorded. The
+acts imposing fines for recusancy, repealed in 1650, were later executed
+with great severity. In 1655 a proclamation was issued for administering
+the laws against the priests and Jesuits, and some executions were
+carried out. Complete toleration in fact was only extended to Protestant
+nonconformists, who composed the Cromwellian established church, and who
+now meted out to their antagonists the same treatment which they
+themselves were later to receive under the _Clarendon Code_ of Charles
+II.
+
+
+  His religious toleration.
+
+Cromwell himself, however, remained throughout a staunch and constant
+upholder of religious toleration. "I had rather that Mahommedanism were
+permitted amongst us," he avowed, "than that one of God's children
+should be persecuted." Far in advance of his contemporaries on this
+question, whenever his personal action is disclosed it is invariably on
+the side of forbearance and of moderation. It is probable, from the
+absence of evidence to the contrary, that much of this severe
+legislation was never executed, and it was without doubt Cromwell's
+restraining hand which moderated the narrow persecuting spirit of the
+executive. In practice Anglican private worship appears to have been
+little interfered with; and although the recusant fines were rigorously
+exacted, the same seems to have been the case with the private
+celebration of the mass. Bordeaux, the French envoy in England, wrote
+that, in spite of the severe laws, the Romanists received better
+treatment under the Protectorate than under any other government.
+Cromwell's strong personal inclination towards toleration is clearly
+seen in his treatment of the Jews and Quakers. He was unable, owing to
+the opposition of the divines and of the merchants, to secure the full
+recognition of the right to reside in England of the former who had for
+some time lived in small numbers and traded unnoticed and untroubled in
+the country; but he obtained an opinion from two judges that there was
+no law which forbade their return, and he gave them a private assurance
+of his protection, with leave to celebrate their private worship and to
+possess a cemetery.
+
+Cromwell's policy in this instance was not overturned at the
+Restoration, and the great Jewish immigration into England with all its
+important consequences may be held to date practically from these first
+concessions made by Cromwell. His personal intervention also alleviated
+the condition of the Quakers, much persecuted at this time. In an
+interview in 1654 the sincerity and enthusiasm of George Fox had greatly
+moved Cromwell and had convinced him of their freedom from dangerous
+political schemes. He ordered Fox's liberation, and in November 1657
+issued a general order directing that Quakers should be treated with
+leniency, and be discharged from confinement. Doctrines directly
+attacking Christianity Cromwell regarded, indeed, as outside toleration
+and to be punished by the civil power, but at the same time he mitigated
+the severity of the penalty ordained by the law. In general the
+toleration enjoyed under Cromwell was probably far larger than at any
+period since religion became the contending ground of political parties,
+and certainly greater than under his immediate successors. Lilburne and
+the anabaptists, and John Rogers and the Fifth Monarchy men, were
+prosecuted only on account of their direct attacks upon the government,
+and Cromwell in his broad-minded and tolerant statesmanship was himself
+in advance of his age and his administration. He believed in the
+spiritual and unseen rather than in the outward and visible unity of
+Christendom.
+
+
+  Foreign policy.
+
+In foreign policy Cromwell's chief aims appear to have been to support
+and extend the Protestant faith, to promote English trade, and to
+prevent a Stuart restoration by foreign aid--the religious mission of
+England in the world, her commercial interests, and her political
+independence being indissolubly connected in his mind. The beginning of
+his rule inherited a war with France and Holland; the former consequent
+on Cromwell's failure to obtain terms for the Huguenots or the cession
+of Dunkirk, and the latter--for which he was not responsible--the result
+of commercial rivalry, of disputes concerning the rights of neutrals, of
+bitter memories of Dutch misdeeds in the East Indies, and of dynastic
+causes arising from the stadtholder, William II. of Orange, having
+married Mary, daughter of Charles I. In 1651 the Dutch completed a
+treaty with Denmark to injure English trade in the Baltic; to which
+England replied the same year by the Navigation Act, which suppressed
+the Dutch trade with the English colonies and the Dutch fish trade with
+England, and struck at the Dutch carrying trade. War was declared in May
+1652 after a fight between Blake and Tromp off Dover, and was continued
+with signal victories and defeats on both sides till 1654. The religious
+element, however, which predominated in Cromwell's foreign policy
+inclined him to peace, and in April of that year terms were arranged by
+which England on the whole was decidedly the gainer. The Dutch
+acknowledged the supremacy of the English flag in the British seas,
+which Tromp had before refused; they accepted the Navigation Act, and
+undertook privately to exclude the princes of Orange from the command of
+their forces. The Protestant policy was further followed up by treaties
+with Sweden and Denmark which secured the passage of the Sound for
+English ships on the same conditions as the Dutch, and a treaty with
+Portugal which liberated English subjects from the Inquisition and
+allowed commerce with the Portuguese colonies. The two great Roman
+Catholic powers now both bid for Cromwell's alliance. Cromwell wisely
+inclined towards France, for Spain was then a greater menace than France
+alike to the Protestant cause and to the growth of British trade in the
+western hemisphere; but as no concessions could be gained from either
+France or Spain, the year 1654 closed without a treaty being made with
+either. In December 1654 Penn and Venables sailed for the West Indies
+with orders to attack the Spanish colonies and the French shipping; and
+for the first time since the Plantagenets an English fleet appeared in
+the Mediterranean, where Blake upheld the supremacy of the English flag,
+made a treaty with the dey of Algiers, destroyed the castles and ships
+of the dey of Tunis at Porto Farina on the 4th of April 1655, and
+liberated the English prisoners captured by the pirates.
+
+The incident of the massacre of the Protestant Vaudois at this time
+decided Cromwell's policy in favour of France. In response to Cromwell's
+splendid championship of the persecuted people--which has been well
+described as "one of the noblest memories of England"--France undertook
+to put pressure upon Savoy, in consequence of which the persecution
+ceased for a time; but Cromwell's intervention had less practical effect
+than has generally been supposed, though "never was the great conception
+of a powerful state having duties along with interests more
+magnanimously realized."[5] The treaty of Pinerolo withdrew the edict
+ordering the persecutions, but they were soon afterwards renewed, and in
+1658 formed the subject of another remonstrance by Cromwell to Louis
+XIV. in his last extant public letter before his death. The treaty of
+Westminster (24th of October 1655) dealt chiefly with commercial
+subjects, and contained a clause promising the expulsion from France of
+political exiles. Meanwhile the West Indian expedition had been defeated
+at Hispaniola, and war was declared by Spain, who now promised help to
+Charles II. for regaining his throne. Cromwell sent powerful English
+fleets to watch the coast of Spain and to prevent communications with
+the West Indies and America; on the 8th of September 1656 a fleet of
+treasure ships was destroyed off Cadiz by Stayner, and on the 20th of
+April 1657 Blake performed his last exploit in the destruction of the
+whole Spanish fleet of sixteen treasure ships in the harbour of Santa
+Cruz in Teneriffe. These naval victories were followed by a further
+military alliance with France against Spain, termed the treaty of Paris
+(the 23rd of March 1657). Cromwell furnished 6000 men with a fleet to
+join in the attack upon Spain in Flanders, and obtained as reward
+Mardyke and Dunkirk, the former being captured and handed over on the
+3rd of October 1657, and the latter after the battle of the Dunes on the
+4th of June 1658, when Cromwell's Ironsides were once more pitted
+against English royalists fighting for the Spaniards.
+
+Such was the character of Cromwell's policy abroad. The inspiring
+principle had been the defence and support of Protestantism, the
+question with Cromwell being "whether the Christian world should be all
+popery." He desired England to be everywhere the protector of the
+oppressed and the upholder of "true religion." His policy was in
+principle the policy of Elizabeth, of Gustavus Adolphus, and--in the
+following generation--of William of Orange. He appreciated, without
+over-estimating, the value of England's insular position. "You have
+accounted yourselves happy," he said in January 1658, "in being
+environed by a great ditch from all the world beside. Truly you will not
+be able to keep your ditch nor your shipping unless you turn your ships
+and shipping into troops of horse and companies of foot, and fight to
+defend yourselves on _terra firma_." He did not regard himself merely as
+the trustee of the national resources. These were not to be employed for
+the advancement of English interests alone. "God's interest in the
+world," he declared, "is more extensive than all the people of these
+three nations. God has brought us hither to consider the work we may do
+in the world as well as at home." In 1653 he had made the astonishing
+proposal to the Dutch that England and Holland should divide the
+habitable globe outside Europe between them, that all states maintaining
+the Inquisition should be treated as enemies by both the proposed
+allies, and that the latter "should send missionaries to all peoples
+willing to receive them, to inculcate the truth of Jesus Christ and the
+Holy Gospel." Great writers like Milton and Harrington supported
+Cromwell's view of the duty of a statesman; the poet Waller acclaimed
+Cromwell as "the world's protector"; but the London tradesmen complained
+of the loss of their Spanish trade and regarded Holland and not Spain as
+the national enemy. But Cromwell's dream of putting himself at the head
+of European Protestantism never even approached realization. War broke
+out between the Protestant states of Sweden, Denmark, Holland and
+Brandenburg, with whom religion was entirely subordinated to individual
+aims and interests, and who were far from rising to Cromwell's great
+conceptions; while the Vaudois were soon subjected to fresh
+persecutions. On the other hand, Cromwell could justly boast "there is
+not a nation in Europe but is very willing to ask a good understanding
+with you." He raised England to a predominant position among the Powers
+of Europe, and anticipated the triumphs of the elder Pitt. "It was hard
+to discover," wrote Clarendon, "which feared him most, France, Spain or
+the Low Countries." The vigour and success with which he organized the
+national resources and upheld the national honour, asserted the British
+sovereignty of the seas, defended the oppressed, and caused his name to
+be feared and respected in foreign courts where that of Stuart was
+despised and neglected, command praise and admiration equally from
+contemporaries and from modern critics, from his friends and from his
+opponents. "He once more joined us to the continent," wrote Marvell,
+while Dryden describes him as teaching the British lion to roar.
+"Cromwell's greatness at home," said Clarendon, "was a mere shadow of
+his greatness abroad." "It is strange," wrote Pepys in 1667 under a
+different régime, "how everybody nowadays reflect upon Oliver and
+commend him, what brave things he did, and made all the neighbour
+princes fear him." To Cromwell more than to any other British ruler
+belongs the credit of having laid the foundation of England's maritime
+supremacy and of her over-sea empire.
+
+
+  Cromwell and the empire.
+
+Cromwell's colonial policy aimed definitely at the recognition and
+extension of the British empire. By March 1652 the whole of the
+territory governed by the Stuarts had submitted to the authority of the
+Commonwealth, and the Navigation Act of the 9th of October 1651, by
+which colonial goods could only be imported to England in British ships
+and all foreign trade to the colonies was restricted to products of the
+exporting country, sought to bind the colonies to England and to support
+the interests of the shipowners and merchants, and therefore of the
+English maritime supremacy, the act being, moreover, memorable as the
+first public measure which treated the colonies as a whole and as an
+integral part of Great Britain. The hindrance, however, to the general
+development of trade which the act involved aroused at once loud
+complaints, to which Cromwell turned a deaf ear, continuing to seize
+Dutch ships trading in forbidden goods. In the internal administration
+of the colonies Cromwell interfered very little, maintaining specially
+friendly relations with the New Englanders, and showing no jealousy of
+their desire for self-government. The war with France, Holland and Spain
+offered opportunities of gaining additional territory. A small
+expedition sent by Cromwell in February 1654 to capture New Amsterdam
+(New York) from the Dutch was abandoned on the conclusion of peace, and
+the fleet turned to attack the French colonies; Major Robert Sedgwick
+taking with a handful of men the fort of St John's, Port Royal or
+Annapolis, and the French fort on the river Penobscot, the whole
+territory from this river to the mouth of the St Lawrence remaining
+British territory till its cession in 1667. In December 1654 Cromwell
+despatched Penn and Venables with a fleet of thirty-eight ships and 2500
+soldiers to the West Indies, their numbers being raised by recruits at
+the islands to 7000 men. The attack on Hispaniola, however, was a
+disastrous failure, and though a landing at Jamaica and the capture of
+the capital, Santiago de la Vega, was effected, the expedition was
+almost annihilated by disease; and Penn and Venables returned to
+England, when Cromwell threw them into the Tower. Cromwell, however,
+persevered, reminding Fortescue, who was left in command, that the war
+was one against the "Roman Babylon," that they were "fighting the Lord's
+battles"; and he sent out reinforcements under Sedgwick, offering
+inducements to the New Englanders to migrate to Jamaica. In spite of
+almost insuperable difficulties the colony took root, trade began, the
+fleet lay in wait for the Spanish treasure ships, the settlements of the
+Spaniards were raided, and their repeated attempts to retake the island
+were successfully resisted. In 1658 Colonel Edward Doyley, the governor,
+gained a decisive victory over thirty companies of Spanish foot, and
+sent ten of their flags to Cromwell. The Protector, however, did not
+live to witness the final triumph of his undertaking, which gave to
+England, as he had wished, "the mastery of those seas," ensuring the
+English colonies against Spanish attacks, and being maintained and
+followed up at the Restoration.
+
+
+  Parliamentary difficulties.
+
+  The major-generals.
+
+Meanwhile, the first parliament of the Protectorate had met in September
+1654. A scheme of electoral reform had been carried by which members
+were taken from the small and corrupt boroughs and given to the large
+hitherto unrepresented towns, and which provided for thirty
+representatives from Scotland and from Ireland. Instead, however, of
+proceeding with the work of practical legislation, accepting the
+Instrument of Government without challenge as the basis of its
+authority, the parliament immediately began to discuss and find fault
+with the constitution and to debate about "Fundamentals." About a
+hundred members who refused to engage not to attempt to change the form
+of government were excluded on the 12th of September. The rest sat on,
+discussing the constitution, drawing up lists of damnable heresies and
+of incontrovertible articles of faith, producing plans for the reduction
+of the army and demanding for themselves its control. Incensed by the
+dilatory and factious proceedings of the House, Cromwell dismissed the
+parliament on the 22nd of January 1655. Various dangerous plots against
+his government and person were at this time rife. Vane, Ludlow, Robert
+Overton, Harrison and Major Wildman, the head of the Levellers, were all
+arrested, while the royalist rising under Penruddock was crushed in
+Devonshire. Other attacks upon his authority were met with the same
+resort to force. The judges and lawyers began to question the legality
+of his ordinances, and to doubt their competency to convict royalist
+prisoners of treason. A merchant named Cony refused to pay customs not
+imposed by parliament, his counsel declaring their levy by ordinance to
+be contrary to Magna Carta, and Chief Justice Rolle resigning in order
+to avoid giving judgment. Cromwell was thus inevitably drawn farther
+along the path of arbitrary government. He arrested the persons who
+refused to pay taxes, and sent Cony's lawyers to the Tower. Hitherto he
+had been scrupulously impartial in raising the best men to the judicial
+bench, including the illustrious Matthew Hale, but he now appointed
+compliant judges, and, alluding to Magna Carta in terms impossible to
+transcribe for modern readers, declared that "it should not control his
+actions which he knew were for the safety of the Commonwealth." The
+country was now divided into twelve districts each governed by a
+major-general, to whom was entrusted the duty of maintaining order,
+stamping out disaffection and plots, and executing the laws relating to
+public morals. They had power to transport royalists and those who could
+not produce good characters, and supported themselves by a special tax
+of 10% on the incomes of the royalist gentry. Enormous numbers of
+ale-houses were closed--a proceeding which excited intense resentment
+and was probably no slight cause of the royalist reaction. Still more
+serious an encroachment upon the constitution perhaps even than the
+institution of the major-generals was Cromwell's tampering with the
+municipal franchise by confiscating the charters, depriving the
+burgesses, now hostile to his government, of their parliamentary votes,
+and limiting the franchise to the corporation; thereby corrupting the
+national liberties at their very source, and introducing an evil
+precedent only too readily followed by Charles II. and James II.
+
+
+  Refusal of the crown.
+
+It was in these embarrassed and perilous circumstances that Cromwell
+summoned a new parliament in the summer of 1656. In spite of the
+influence and interference of the major-generals a large number of
+members hostile to the government were returned, of whom Cromwell's
+council immediately excluded nearly a hundred. The major-generals were
+the object of general attack, while the special tax on the royalists was
+declared unjust, and the bill for its continuation rejected by a large
+majority. An attempt at the assassination of Cromwell by Miles
+Sindercombe added to the general feeling of anxiety and unrest. The
+military rule excited universal hostility; there was an earnest desire
+for a settled and constitutional government, and the revival of the
+monarchy in the person of Cromwell appeared the only way of obtaining
+it. On the 23rd of February 1657 the _Remonstrance_ offering Cromwell
+the crown was moved by Sir Christopher Packe in the parliament and
+violently resisted by the officers and the army party, one hundred
+officers waiting upon Cromwell on the 27th to petition against his
+acceptance of it. On the 25th of March the _Remonstrance_, now termed
+the _Petition and Advice_, and including a new scheme of government, was
+passed by a majority of 123 to 62 in spite of the opposition of the
+officers; and on the 31st it was presented to Cromwell in the Banqueting
+House at Whitehall whence Charles I. had stepped out on to the scaffold.
+Cromwell replied by requesting a brief delay to ask counsel of God and
+his own heart. On the 8th of May about thirty officers presented a
+petition to parliament against the revival of the monarchy, and
+Fleetwood, Desborough and Lambert threatened to lay down their
+commissions. Accordingly Cromwell the same day refused the crown
+definitely, greatly to the astonishment both of his followers and his
+enemies, who considered his decision a fatal neglect of an opportunity
+of consolidating his rule and power. In particular, his acceptance of
+the crown would have guaranteed his followers, under the act of Henry
+VII., from liability in the future to the charge of high treason for
+having given allegiance to himself as a _de facto_ king. Cromwell
+himself, however, seems to have regarded the question of title as of
+secondary importance, as merely (to use his own words) "a feather in the
+hat," "a shining bauble for crowds to gaze at or kneel to." "Your
+father," wrote Sir Francis Russell to Henry Cromwell, "hath of late made
+more wise men fools than ever; he laughs and is merry, but they hang
+down their heads and are pitifully out of countenance."
+
+On the 25th of May the petition was presented to Cromwell again, with
+the title of Protector substituted for that of King, and he now accepted
+it. On the 26th of June 1657 he was once more installed as Protector,
+this time, however, with regal ceremony in contrast with the simple
+formalities observed on the first occasion, the heralds proclaiming his
+accession in the same manner as that of the kings. Cromwell's government
+seemed now established on the firmer footing of law and national
+approval, he himself obtaining the powers though not the title of a
+constitutional monarch, with a permanent revenue of Ł1,300,000 for the
+ordinary expenses of the administration, the command of the forces, the
+right to nominate his successor and, subject to the approval of
+parliament, the members of the council and of the new second chamber now
+established, while at the same time the freedom of parliament was
+guaranteed in its elections. Difficulties, however, appeared immediately
+the parliament got to work. The republicans hostile to the Protectorate,
+excluded before, now returned, took the places vacated by strong
+supporters of Cromwell who had been removed to the Lords, and attacked
+the authority of the new chamber, opened communications with the
+disaffected in the city and army, protested against unparliamentary
+taxation and arbitrary imprisonment, and demanded again the supremacy of
+parliament. In consequence Cromwell summoned both Houses to his presence
+on the 4th of February 1658, and having pointed out the perils to which
+they were once more exposing the state, dissolved parliament, dismissing
+the members with the words, "let God be judge between me and you."
+
+During the period following the dissolution Cromwell's power appeared
+outwardly at least to be at its height. The revolts of royalists and
+sectaries against his government had been easily suppressed, and the
+various attempts to assassinate him, contemptuously referred to by
+Cromwell as "little fiddling things," were anticipated and prevented by
+an excellent system of police and spies, and by his bodyguard of 160
+men. The victory at Dunkirk increased his reputation, while Louis XIV.
+showed his respect for the ruler of England by the splendid reception
+given to the Protector's envoy, Lord Fauconberg, and by a complimentary
+mission despatched to England.
+
+The great career, the incidents of which we have been following, was
+now, however, drawing to a close. Cromwell's health had long been
+impaired by the hardships of campaigning. Now at the age of 58 he was
+already old, and his firm, strong signature had become feeble and
+trembling. The responsibilities and anxieties of government unassisted
+by parliament, and the continued struggle against the force of anarchy,
+weighed upon him and exhausted his physical powers. "It has been
+hitherto," Cromwell said, "a matter of, I think, but philosophical
+discourse, that a great place, a great authority, is a great burthen. I
+know it is." "I can say in the presence of God, in comparison of whom we
+are but like poor creeping ants upon the earth, I would have lived under
+my woodside to have kept a flock of sheep rather than undertook such a
+government as this." "I doubt not to say," declared his steward
+Maidston, "it drank up his spirits, of which his natural constitution
+afforded a vast stock, and brought him to his grave."
+
+
+  Death.
+
+Domestic bereavements added further causes of grief and of weakened
+vitality. On the 6th of February 1658 he lost his favourite daughter,
+Elizabeth Claypole, and he was much cast down by the shock of his
+bereavement and of her long sufferings. Shortly afterwards he fell ill
+of an intermittent fever, but seemed to recover. On the 20th of August
+George Fox met him riding at the head of his guards in the park at
+Hampton Court, but declared "he looked like a dead man." The next day he
+again fell ill and was removed from Hampton Court to Whitehall, where
+his condition became worse. The anecdotes believed and circulated by the
+royalists that Cromwell died in all the agonies of remorse and fear are
+entirely false. On the 31st of August he seemed to rally, and one who
+slept in his bedchamber and who heard him praying, declared, "a public
+spirit to God's cause did breathe in him to the very last." During the
+next few days he grew weaker and resigned himself to death. "I would,"
+he said, "be willing to be further serviceable to God and his people,
+but my work is done." For the first time doubts as to his spiritual
+state seemed to have troubled him. "Tell me is it possible to fall from
+grace?" he asked the attendant minister. "No, it is not possible," the
+latter replied. "Then," said Cromwell, "I am safe, for I know that I was
+once in grace." He refused medicine to induce sleep, declaring "it is
+not my design to drink or to sleep, but my design is to make what haste
+I can to be gone." Towards the morning of the 3rd of September he again
+spoke, "using divers holy expressions, implying much inward consolation
+and peace," together with "some exceeding self-debasing words,
+annihilating and judging himself." He died on the afternoon of the same
+day, his day of triumph, the anniversary both of Dunbar and of
+Worcester. His body was privately buried in the chapel of Henry VII. in
+Westminster Abbey, the public funeral taking place on the 23rd of
+November, with great ceremony and on the same scale as that of Philip
+II. of Spain, and costing the enormous sum of Ł60,000. At the
+Restoration his body was exhumed, and on the 30th of January 1661, the
+anniversary of the execution of Charles I., it was drawn on a sledge
+from Holborn to Tyburn, together with the bodies of Ireton and Bradshaw,
+accompanied by "the universal outcry and curses of the people." There it
+was hanged on a gallows, and in the evening taken down, when the head
+was cut off and set up upon Westminster Hall, where it remained till as
+late as 1684, the trunk being thrown into a pit underneath the gallows.
+According to various legends Cromwell's last burial place is stated to
+be Westminster Abbey, Naseby Field or Newburgh Abbey; but there appears
+to be no evidence to support them, or to create any reasonable doubt
+that the great Protector's dust lies now where it was buried, in the
+neighbourhood of the present Connaught Square.
+
+
+  Cromwell's military genius.
+
+As a military commander Cromwell was as prompt as Gustavus, as ardent as
+Condé, as exact as Turenne. These, moreover, were soldiers from their
+earliest years. Condé's fame was established in his twenty-second year,
+Gustavus was twenty-seven and Turenne thirty-three at the beginning of
+their careers as commanders-in-chief. Cromwell, on the other hand, was
+forty-three when he fought in his first battle. In less than two years
+he had taken his rank as one of the great cavalry leaders of history.
+His campaigns of 1648 and 1651 placed him still higher as a great
+commander. Worcester, his crowning victory, has been indicated by a
+German critic as the prototype of Sédan. Yet his early military
+education could have consisted at most of the perusal of the _Swedish
+Intelligencer_ and the practice of riding. It is not, therefore, strange
+that Cromwell's first essays in war were characterised more by energy
+than technical skill. It was some time before he realized the spirit of
+cavalry tactics, of which he was later so complete a master. At first he
+speaks with complacence of a _męlée_, and reports that he and his men
+"agreed to charge" the enemy. But before long he came to understand, as
+no other commander of the age save Gustavus understood it, the value of
+true "shock-action." Of Marston Moor he writes, "we never charged but we
+routed them"; and thereafter his battles were decided by the shock of
+closed squadrons, the fresh impulse of a second and even a third line,
+and above all by the unquestioning discipline and complete control over
+their horses to which he trained his men. This gave them not merely
+greater steadiness, but, what was far more important, the power of
+rallying and reforming for a second effort. The Royalist cavalry was
+disorganized by victory as often as by defeat, and illustrated on
+numerous fields the now discredited maxim that cavalry cannot charge
+twice in one day. Cromwell shares with Frederick the Great the credit of
+founding the modern cavalry spirit. As a horsemaster he was far superior
+to Murat. His marches in the eastern campaign of 1643 show a daily
+average at one time of 28 m. as against the 21 of Murat's cavalry in the
+celebrated pursuit after Jena. And this result he achieved with men of
+less than two years' service, men, too, more heavily equipped and worse
+mounted than the veterans of the _Grande Armée_. It has been said that
+his battles were decided by shock action; the real emphasis should be
+laid upon the word "decided." The swift, unhesitating charge was more
+than unusual in the wars of the time, and was possible only because of
+the peculiar earnestness of the men who fought the English war. The
+professional soldiers of the Continent could rarely be brought to force
+a decision; but the English, contending for a cause, were imbued with
+the spirit of the modern "nation in arms"; and having taken up arms
+wished to decide the quarrel by arms. This feeling was not less
+conspicuous in the far-ranging rides, or raids, of the Cromwellian
+cavalry. At one time, as in the case of Blechingdon, they would perform
+strange exploits worthy of the most daring hussars; at another their
+speed and tenacity paralyses armies. Not even Sheridan's horsemen in
+1864-65 did their work more effectively than did the English squadrons
+in the Preston campaign. Cromwell appreciated this feeling at its exact
+worth, and his pre-eminence in the Civil War was due to this highest
+gift of a general, the power of feeling the pulse of his army.
+Resolution, vigour and clear sight marked his conduct as a
+commander-in-chief. He aimed at nothing less than the annihilation of
+the enemy's forces, which Clausewitz was the first to define, a hundred
+and fifty years later, as the true objective of military operations. Not
+merely as exemplifying the tactical envelopment, but also as embodying
+the central idea of grand strategy, was Worcester the prototype of
+Sédan. The contrast between a campaign of Cromwell's and one of
+Turenne's is far more than remarkable, and the observation of a military
+critic who maintains that Cromwell's art of war was two centuries in
+advance of its time, finds universal acceptance.
+
+At a time when throughout the rest of Europe armies were manoeuvring
+against one another with no more than a formal result, the English and
+Scots were fighting decisive battles; and Cromwell's battles were more
+decisive than those of any other leader. Until his fiery energy made
+itself felt, hardly any army on either side actually suffered rout; but
+at Marston Moor and Naseby the troops of the defeated party were
+completely dissolved, while at Worcester the royalist army was
+annihilated. Dunbar attested his constancy and gave proof that Cromwell
+was a master of the tactics of all arms. Preston was an example like
+Austerlitz of the two stages of a battle as defined by Napoleon, the
+first _flottante_, the second _foudroyante_.
+
+Cromwell's strategic manoeuvres, if less adroit than those of Turenne or
+Montecucculi, were, in accordance with his own genius and the temper of
+his army, directed always to forcing a decisive battle. That he was also
+capable of strategy of the other type was clear from his conduct of the
+Irish War. But his chief work was of a different kind and done on a
+different scale. The greatest feat of Turenne was the rescue of one
+province in 1674-1675; Cromwell, in 1648 and again in 1651, had
+two-thirds of England and half of Scotland for his theatre of war.
+Turenne levelled down his methods to suit the ends which he had in view.
+The task of Cromwell was far greater. Any comparison between the
+generalship of these two great commanders would therefore be misleading,
+for want of a common basis. It is when he is contrasted with other
+commanders, not of the age of Louis XIV., but of the Civil War, that
+Cromwell's greatness is most conspicuous. Whilst others busied
+themselves with the application of the accepted rules of the Dutch, the
+German, and other formal schools of tactical thought, Cromwell almost
+alone saw clearly into the heart of the questions at issue, and evolved
+the strategy, the tactics, and the training suited to the work to which
+he had set his hand.
+
+
+  Cromwell's statesmanship.
+
+Cromwell's career as a statesman has been already traced in its
+different spheres, and an endeavour has been made to show the breadth
+and wisdom of his conceptions and at the same time the cause of the
+immediate failure of his constructive policy. Whether if Cromwell had
+survived he would have succeeded in gradually establishing legal
+government is a question which can never be answered. His administration
+as it stands in history is undoubtedly open to the charge that after
+abolishing the absolutism of the ancient monarchy he substituted for it,
+not law and liberty, but a military tyranny far more despotic than the
+most arbitrary administration of Charles I. The statement of Vane and
+Ludlow, when they refused to acknowledge Cromwell's government, that it
+was "in substance a re-establishment of that which we all engaged
+against," was true. The levy of ship money and customs by Charles sinks
+into insignificance beside Cromwell's wholesale taxation by ordinances;
+the inquisitional methods of the major-generals and the unjust and
+exceptional taxation of royalists outdid the scandals of the extra-legal
+courts of the Stuarts; the shipment of British subjects by Cromwell as
+slaves to Barbados has no parallel in the Stuart administration; while
+the prying into morals, the encouragement of informers, the attempt to
+make the people religious by force, were the counterpart of the Laudian
+system, and Cromwell's drastic treatment of the Irish exceeded anything
+dreamed of by Strafford. He discovered that parliamentary government
+after all was not the easy and plain task that Pym and Vane had
+imagined, and Cromwell had in the end no better justification of his
+rule than that which Strafford had suggested to Charles I.,--"parliament
+refusing (to give support and co-operation in carrying on the
+government) you are acquitted before God and man." The fault was no
+doubt partly Cromwell's own. He had neither the patience nor the tact
+for managing loquacious parliamentary pedants. But the chief
+responsibility was not his but theirs. John Morley (_Oliver Cromwell_,
+p. 297) has truly observed of the execution of Charles I., that it was
+"an act of war, and was just as defensible or just as assailable, and on
+the same grounds, as the war itself." The parliamentary party took leave
+of legality when they took up arms against the sovereign, and it was
+therefore idle to dream of a formally legal sanction for any of their
+subsequent revolutionary proceedings. An entirely fresh start had to be
+made. A new foundation had to be laid on which a new system of legality
+might be reared. It was for this that Cromwell strove. If the Rump or
+the Little Parliament had in a business-like spirit assumed and
+discharged the functions of a constituent assembly, such a foundation
+might have been provided. It was only when five years had passed since
+the death of the king without any "settlement of the nation" being
+arrived at, that Cromwell at last accepted a constitution drafted by his
+military officers, and attempted to impose it on the parliament. And it
+was not until the parliament refused to acknowledge the Instrument as
+the required starting point for the new legality, that Cromwell in the
+last resort took arbitrary power into his hands as the only method
+remaining for carrying on the government. For much as he hated
+arbitrariness, he hated anarchy still more. While therefore Cromwell's
+administration became in practice little different from that of
+Strafford, the aims and ideals of the two statesmen had nothing in
+common. It is therefore profoundly true, as observed by S. R. Gardiner
+(_Cromwell_, p. 315), that "what makes Cromwell's biography so
+interesting in his perpetual effort to walk in the paths of legality--an
+effort always frustrated by the necessities of the situation. The
+man--it is ever so with the noblest--was greater than his work." The
+nature of Cromwell's statesmanship is to be seen rather in his struggles
+against the retrograde influences and opinions of his time, in the many
+political reforms anticipated though not originated or established by
+himself, and in his religious, perhaps fanatical, enthusiasm, than in
+the outward character of his administration, which, however, in spite of
+its despotism shows itself in its inner spirit of justice, patriotism
+and self-sacrifice, so immeasurably superior to that of the Stuarts.
+
+
+  Personal character.
+
+Cromwell's personal character has been inevitably the subject of
+unceasing controversy. According to Clarendon he was "a brave bad man,"
+with "all the wickedness against which damnation is pronounced and for
+which hell fire is prepared." Yet he cannot deny that "he had some
+virtues which have caused the memory of some men in all ages to be
+celebrated"; and admits that "he was not a man of blood," and that he
+possessed "a wonderful understanding in the natures and humour of men,"
+and "a great spirit, an admirable circumspection and sagacity and a most
+magnanimous resolution." According to contemporary republicans he was a
+mere selfish adventurer, sacrificing the national cause "to the idol of
+his own ambition." Richard Baxter thought him a good man who fell before
+a great temptation. The writers of the next century generally condemned
+him as a mixture of knave, fanatic and hypocrite, and in 1839 John
+Forster endorsed Landor's verdict that Cromwell lived a hypocrite and
+died a traitor. These crude ideas of Cromwell's character were
+extinguished by Macaulay's irresistible logic, by the publication of
+Cromwell's letters by Carlyle in 1845, which showed Cromwell clearly to
+be "not a man of falsehoods, but a man of truth"; and by Gardiner, whom,
+however, it is somewhat difficult to follow when he represents Cromwell
+as "a typical Englishman." In particular that conception which regarded
+"ambition" as the guiding motive in his career has been dispelled by a
+more intimate and accurate knowledge of his life; this shows him to have
+been very little the creator of his own career, which was largely the
+result of circumstances outside his control, the influence of past
+events and of the actions of others, the pressure of the national will,
+the natural superiority of his own genius. "A man never mounts so high,"
+Cromwell said to the French ambassador in 1647, "as when he does not
+know where he is going." "These issues and events," he said in 1656,
+"have not been forecast, but were providences in things." His
+"hypocrisy" consists principally in the Biblical language he employed,
+which with Cromwell, as with many of his contemporaries, was the most
+natural way of expressing his feelings, and in the ascription of every
+incident to the direct intervention of God's providence, which was
+really Cromwell's sincere belief and conviction. In later times
+Cromwell's character and administration have been the subject of almost
+too indiscriminate eulogy, which has found tangible shape in the statue
+erected to his memory at Westminster in 1899. Here Cromwell's effigy
+stands in the midst of the sanctuaries of the law, the church, and the
+parliament, the three foundations of the state which he subverted, and
+in sight of Whitehall where he destroyed the monarchy in blood. Yet
+Cromwell's monument is not altogether misplaced in such surroundings,
+for in him are found the true principles of piety, of justice, of
+liberty and of governance.
+
+John Maidston, Cromwell's steward, gives the "character of his person."
+"His body was compact and strong, his stature under six foot (I believe
+about two inches), his head so shaped as you might see it a storehouse
+and a shop both of a vast treasury of natural parts." "His temper
+exceeding fiery, as I have known, but the flame of it, ... kept down for
+the most part, was soon allayed with those moral endowments he had. He
+was naturally compassionate towards objects in distress even to an
+effeminate measure; though God had made him a heart wherein was left
+little room for fear, ... yet did he exceed in tenderness towards
+sufferers. A larger soul I think hath seldom dwelt in a house of clay
+than his was. I believe if his story were impartially transmitted and
+the unprejudiced world well possessed with it, she would add him to her
+nine worthies." By his wife Elizabeth Bourchier, Cromwell had four sons,
+Robert (who died in 1639), Oliver (who died in 1644 while serving in his
+father's regiment), Richard, who succeeded him as Protector, and Henry.
+He also had four daughters. Of these Bridget was the wife successively
+of Ireton and Fleetwood, Elizabeth married John Claypole, Mary was wife
+of Thomas Belasyse, Lord Fauconberg; and Frances was the wife of Sir
+Robert Rich, and secondly of Sir John Russell. The last male descendant
+of the Protector was his great-great-grandson, Oliver Cromwell of
+Cheshunt, who died in 1821. By the female line, through his children
+Henry, Bridget and Frances, the Protector has had numerous descendants,
+and is the ancestor of many well-known families.[6]
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A detailed bibliography, with the chief authorities for
+  particular periods, will be found in the article in the _Dict. of Nat.
+  Biography_, by C. H. Firth (1888). The following works may be
+  mentioned: S. R. Gardiner's _Hist. of England_ (1883-1884) and of the
+  _Great Civil War_ (1886), _Cromwell's Place in History_ (1897),
+  _Oliver Cromwell_ (1901), and _History of the Commonwealth and
+  Protectorate_ (1894-1903); _Cromwell_, by C. H. Firth (1900); _Oliver
+  Cromwell_, by J. Morley (1904); _The Last Years of the Protectorate,
+  1656-1658_, 2 vols., by C. H. Firth (1909); _Oliver Cromwell_, by
+  Fred. Harrison (1903); _Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell_, by
+  T. Carlyle, ed. by S. C. Lomas, with an introd. by C. H. Firth (the
+  best edition, rejecting the spurious Squire papers, 1904); _Oliver
+  Cromwell_, by F. Hoenig (1887); _Oliver Cromwell, the Protector_, by
+  R. F. D. Palgrave (1890); _Oliver Cromwell ... and the Royalist
+  Insurrection ... of March 1655_, by the same author (1903); _Oliver
+  Cromwell_, by Theodore Roosevelt (1900); _Oliver Cromwell_, by R.
+  Pauli (tr. 1888); _Cromwell, a Speech delivered at the Cromwell
+  Tercentenary Celebration 1899_, by Lord Rosebery (1900); _The Two
+  Protectors_, by Sir Richard Tangye (valuable for its illustrations,
+  1899); _Life of Sir Henry Vane_, by W. W. Ireland (1905); _Die Politik
+  des Protectors Oliver Cromwell in der Auffassung und Tätigkeit ... des
+  Staatssekretärs John Thurloe_, by Freiherr v. Bischofshausen (1899);
+  _Cromwell as a Soldier_, by T. S. Baldock (1899); _Cromwell's Army_,
+  by C. H. Firth (1902); _The Diplomatic Relations between Cromwell and
+  Charles X. of Sweden_, by G. Jones (1897); _The Interregnum_, by F. A.
+  Inderwick (dealing with the legal aspect of Cromwell's rule, 1891);
+  _Administration of the Royal Navy_, by M. Oppenheim (1896); _History
+  of the English Church during the Civil Wars_, by W. Shaw (1900); _The
+  Protestant Interest in Cromwell's Foreign Relations_, by J. N. Bowman
+  (1900); _Cromwell's Jewish Intelligencies_ (1891), _Crypto-Jews under
+  the Commonwealth_ (1894), _Menasseh Ben Israel's Mission to Oliver
+  Cromwell_ (1901), by L. Wolf.     (P. C. Y.; C. F. A.; R. J. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+   [1] _Life of Sir H. Vane_, by W. W. Ireland, 222.
+
+   [2] C. H. Firth, Cromwell, p. 324.
+
+   [3] John Morley, Oliver Cromwell, p. 393.
+
+   [4] Frederic Harrison, _Oliver Cromwell_, p. 214.
+
+   [5] John Morley, _Oliver Cromwell_, p. 483.
+
+   [6] Frederic Harrison, _Cromwell_, p. 34.
+
+
+
+
+CROMWELL, RICHARD (1626-1712), lord protector of England, eldest
+surviving son of Oliver Cromwell and of Elizabeth Bourchier, was born on
+the 4th of October 1626. He served in the parliamentary army, and in
+1647 was admitted a member of Lincoln's Inn. In 1649 he married Dorothy,
+daughter of Richard Mayor, or Major, of Hursley in Hampshire. He
+represented Hampshire in the parliament of 1654, and Cambridge
+University in that of 1656, and in November 1655 was appointed one of
+the council of trade. But he was not brought forward by his father or
+prepared in any way for his future greatness, and lived in the country
+occupied with field sports, till after the institution of the second
+protectorate in 1657 and the recognition of Oliver's right to name his
+successor. On the 18th of July he succeeded his father as chancellor of
+the university of Oxford, on the 31st of December he was made a member
+of the council of state, and about the same time obtained a regiment and
+a seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was received generally as his
+father's successor, and was nominated by him as such on his death-bed.
+He was proclaimed on the 3rd of September 1658, and at first his
+accession was acclaimed with general favour both at home and abroad.
+Dissensions, however, soon broke out between the military faction and
+the civilians. Richard's elevation, not being "general of the army as
+his father was," was distasteful to the officers, who desired the
+appointment of a commander-in-chief from among themselves, a request
+refused by Richard. The officers in the council, moreover, showed
+jealousy of the civil members, and to settle these difficulties and to
+provide money a parliament was summoned on the 27th of January 1659,
+which declared Richard protector, and incurred the hostility of the army
+by criticizing severely the arbitrary military government of Oliver's
+last two years, and by impeaching one of the major-generals. A council
+of the army accordingly established itself in opposition to the
+parliament, and demanded on the 6th of April a justification and
+confirmation of former proceedings, to which the parliament replied by
+forbidding meetings of the army council without the permission of the
+protector, and insisting that all officers should take an oath not to
+disturb the proceedings in parliament. The army now broke into open
+rebellion and assembled at St James's. Richard was completely in their
+power; he identified himself with their cause, and the same night
+dissolved the parliament. The Long Parliament (which re-assembled on
+the 7th of May) and the heads of the army came to an agreement to effect
+his dismissal; and in the subsequent events Richard appears to have
+played a purely passive part, refusing to make any attempt to keep his
+power or to forward a restoration of the monarchy. On the 25th of May
+his submission was communicated to the House. He retired into private
+life, heavily burdened with debts incurred during his tenure of office
+and narrowly escaping arrest even before he quitted Whitehall. In the
+summer of 1660 he left England for France, where he lived in seclusion
+under the name of John Clarke, subsequently removing elsewhere, either
+(for the accounts differ) to Spain, to Italy, or to Geneva. He was long
+regarded by the government as a dangerous person, and in 1671 a strict
+search was made for him but without avail. He returned to England about
+1680 and lived at Cheshunt, in the house of Sergeant Pengelly, where he
+died on the 12th of July 1712, being buried in Hursley church in
+Hampshire. Richard Cromwell was treated with general contempt by his
+contemporaries, and invidiously compared with his great father.
+According to Mrs Hutchinson he was "gentle and virtuous but a peasant in
+his nature and became not greatness." He was nevertheless a man of
+respectable abilities, of an irreproachable private character, and a
+good speaker.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, and
+  authorities there cited; Noble's _Memoirs of the Protectoral House of
+  Cromwell_ (1787); _Memoirs of the Protector ... and of his Sons_, by
+  O. Cromwell (1820); _The Two Protectors_, by Sir R. Tangye (1899);
+  _Kebleland and a Short Life of Richard Cromwell_, by W. T. Warren
+  (1900); _Letters and Speeches of O. Cromwell_, by T. Carlyle (1904);
+  _Eng. Hist. Review_, xiii. 93 (letters) and xviii. 79; _Cal. of State
+  Papers, Domestic, Lansdowne MSS._ in British Museum.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+
+
+CROMWELL, THOMAS, EARL OF ESSEX (1485?-1540), born probably not later
+than 1485 and possibly a year or two earlier, was the only son of Walter
+Cromwell, _alias_ Smyth, a brewer, smith and fuller of Putney. His
+grandfather, John Cromwell, seems to have belonged to the
+Nottinghamshire family, of whom the most distinguished member was Ralph,
+Lord Cromwell (1394?-1456), lord treasurer; and he migrated from
+Norwell, Co. Notts, to Wimbledon some time before 1461. John's son,
+Walter, seems to have acquired the _alias_ Smyth from being apprenticed
+to his uncle, William Smyth, "armourer," of Wimbledon. He was of a
+turbulent, vicious disposition, perpetually being fined in the
+manor-court for drunkenness, for evading the assize of beer, and for
+turning more than his proper number of beasts on to Putney Common. Once
+he was punished for a sanguinary assault, and his connexion with
+Wimbledon ceased in 1514 when he "falsely and fraudulently erased the
+evidences and terrures of the lord." Till that time he had flourished
+like the bay-tree.
+
+Under these circumstances the absence of Thomas Cromwell's name from the
+Wimbledon manor rolls is almost a presumption of respectability. Perhaps
+it would be safer to attribute it to Cromwell's absence from the manor.
+He is said to have quarrelled with his father--no great crime
+considering the father's character--and fled to Italy, where he served
+as a soldier in the French army at the battle of the Garigliano (Dec.
+1503). He escaped from the battle-field to Florence, where he was
+befriended by the banker Frescobaldi, a debt which he appears to have
+repaid with superabundant interest later on. He is next heard of at
+Antwerp as a trader, and about 1510 he was induced to accompany a
+Bostonian to Rome in quest of some papal indulgences for a Boston gild;
+Cromwell secured the boon by the timely present of some choice
+sweetmeats to Julius II. In 1512 there is some slight evidence that he
+was at Middelburg, and also in London, engaged in business as a merchant
+and solicitor. His marriage must have taken place about the same time,
+judging from the age of his son Gregory. His wife was Elizabeth Wykes,
+daughter of a well-to-do shearman of Putney, whose business Cromwell
+carried on in combination with his own.
+
+For about eight years after 1512 we hear nothing of Cromwell. A letter
+to him from Cicely, marchioness of Dorset, in which he is seen in
+confidential business relations with her ladyship, is probably earlier
+than 1520, and it is possible that Cromwell owed his introduction to
+Wolsey to the Dorset family. On the other hand, it is stated that his
+cousin, Robert Cromwell, vicar of Battersea under the cardinal, gave
+Thomas the stewardship of the archiepiscopal estate of York House. At
+any rate he was advising Wolsey on legal points in 1520, and from that
+date he occurs frequently not only as mentor to the cardinal, but to
+noblemen and others when in difficulties, especially of a financial
+character; he made large sums as a money-lender.
+
+In 1523 Cromwell emerges into public life as a member of parliament. The
+official returns for this election are lost and it is not known for what
+constituency he sat, but we have a humorous letter from Cromwell
+describing its proceedings, and a remarkable speech which he wrote and
+perhaps delivered, opposing the reckless war with France and indicating
+a sounder policy which was pursued after Wolsey's fall. If, he said, war
+was to be waged, it would be better to secure Boulogne than advance on
+Paris; if the king went in person and were killed without leaving a male
+heir, he hinted there would be civil war; it would be wiser to attempt a
+union with Scotland, and in any case the proposed subsidy would be a
+fatal drain on the resources of the realm. Neither Henry nor Wolsey was
+so foolish as to resent this criticism, and Cromwell lost nothing by it.
+He was made a collector of the subsidy he had opposed--a doubtful favour
+perhaps--and in 1524 was admitted at Gray's Inn; but he now became the
+most confidential servant of the cardinal. In 1525 he was Wolsey's agent
+in the dissolution of the smaller monasteries which were designed to
+provide the endowments for Wolsey's foundations at Oxford and Ipswich, a
+task which gave Cromwell a taste and a facility for similar enterprises
+on a greater scale later on. For these foundations Cromwell drew up the
+necessary deeds, and he was receiver-general of cardinal's college,
+constantly supervising the workmen there and at Ipswich. His ruthless
+vigour and his accessibility to bribes earned him such unpopularity that
+there were rumours of his projected assassination or imprisonment. All
+this constituted a further bond of sympathy between him and his master,
+and Cromwell grew in Wolsey's favour until his fall. His wife had died
+in 1527 or 1528, and in July 1529 he made his will, in which one of the
+chief beneficiaries was his nephew, Richard Williams, alias Cromwell,
+the great-grandfather of the protector.
+
+Wolsey's disgrace reduced Cromwell to such despair that Cavendish once
+found him in tears and at his prayers "which had been a strange sight in
+him afore." Many of the cardinal's servants had been taken over by the
+king, but Cromwell had made himself particularly obnoxious. However, he
+rode to court from Esher to "make or mar," as he himself expressed it,
+and offered his services to Norfolk. Possibly he had already paved the
+way by the pensions and grants which he induced Wolsey to make through
+him, out of the lands and revenues of his bishoprics and abbeys, to
+nobles and courtiers who were hard pressed to keep up the lavish style
+of Henry's court. Cromwell could be most useful to the government in
+parliament, and the government, represented by Norfolk, undertook to use
+its influence in procuring him a seat, on the natural understanding that
+Cromwell should do his best to further government business in the House
+of Commons. This was on the 2nd of November 1529; the elections had been
+made, and parliament was to meet on the morrow. A seat was, however,
+found or made for Cromwell at Taunton. He signalized himself by a
+powerful speech in opposition to the bill of attainder against Wolsey
+which had already passed the Lords. The bill was thrown out, possibly
+with Henry's connivance, though no theory has yet explained its curious
+history so completely as the statement of Cavendish and other
+contemporaries, that its rejection was due to the arguments of Cromwell.
+Doubtless he championed his fallen chief not so much for virtue's sake
+as for the impression it would make on others. He did not feel called
+upon to accompany Wolsey on his exile from the court.
+
+Cromwell had now, according to Cardinal Pole, whose story has been too
+readily accepted, been converted into an "emissary of Satan" by the
+study of Machiavelli's _Prince_. In the one interview which Pole had
+with Cromwell, the latter, so Pole wrote ten years later in 1539,
+recommended him to read a new Italian book on politics, which Pole says
+he afterwards discovered was Machiavelli's _Prince_. But this discovery
+was not made for some years: the _Prince_ was not published until 1532,
+three years after the conversation; there is evidence that Cromwell was
+not acquainted with it until 1537 or 1539, and there is nothing in the
+_Prince_ bearing on the precise point under discussion by Pole and
+Cromwell. On the other hand, the point is discussed in Castiglione's _Il
+Cortegiano_ which had just been published in 1528, and of which Cromwell
+promised to lend Bonner a copy in 1530. The _Cortegiano_ is the
+antithesis of the _Prince_; and there is little doubt that Pole's
+account is the offspring of an imagination heated by his own perusal of
+the Prince in 1538, and by Cromwell's ruin of the Pole family at the
+same time; until then he had failed to see in Cromwell the Machiavellian
+"emissary of Satan."
+
+Equally fanciful is Pole's ascription of the whole responsibility for
+the Reformation to Cromwell's suggestion. It was impossible for Pole to
+realize the substantial causes of that perfectly natural development,
+and it was his cue to represent Henry as having acted at the diabolic
+suggestion of Satan's emissary. In reality the whole programme, the
+destruction of the liberties and confiscation of the wealth of the
+church by parliamentary agency, had been indicated before Cromwell had
+spoken to Henry. The use of Praemunire had been applied to Wolsey;
+laymen had supplanted ecclesiastics in the chief offices of state; the
+plan of getting a divorce without papal intervention had been the
+original idea, which Wolsey had induced the king to abandon, and it had
+been revived by Cranmer's suggestion about the universities. The root
+idea of the supreme authority of the king had been asserted in Tyndale's
+_Obedience of a Christian Man_ published in 1528, which Anne Boleyn
+herself had brought to Henry's notice: "this," he said, "is a book for
+me and all kings to read," and Campeggio had felt compelled to warn him
+against these notions, of which Pole imagines that he had never heard
+until they were put into his head by Cromwell late in 1530. In the same
+way Cromwell's influence over the government from 1529-1533 has been
+grossly exaggerated. It was not till 1531 that he was admitted to the
+privy council nor till 1534 that he was made secretary, though he had
+been made master of the Jewel-House, clerk of the Hanaper and master of
+the Wards in 1532, and chancellor of the exchequer (then a minor office)
+in 1533. It is not till 1533 that his name is as much as mentioned in
+the correspondence of any foreign ambassador resident in London. This
+obscurity has been attributed to deliberate suppression: but no secrecy
+was made about Cranmer's suggestion, and it was not Henry's habit to
+assume a responsibility which he could devolve upon others. It is said
+that Cromwell's life would not have been safe, had he been known as the
+author of this policy; but that is not a consideration which would have
+appealed to Henry, and he was just as able to protect his minister in
+1530 as he was in 1536. Cromwell, in fact, was not the author of that
+policy, but he was the most efficient instrument in its execution.
+
+He was Henry's parliamentary agent, but even in this capacity his power
+has been overrated, and he is supposed to have invented those
+parliamentary complaints against the clergy, which were transmuted into
+the legislation of 1532. But the complaints were old enough; many of
+them had been heard in parliament nearly twenty years before, and there
+is ample evidence to show that the petition against the clergy
+represents the "infinite clamours" of the Commons against the Church,
+which the House itself resolved should be "put in writing and delivered
+to the king." The actual drafting of the statute, as of all the
+Reformation Acts between 1532 and 1539, was largely Cromwell's work; and
+the success with which parliament was managed during this period was
+also due to him. It was not an easy task, for the House of Commons more
+than once rejected government measures, and members were heard to
+threaten Henry VIII. with the fate of Richard III.; they even complained
+of Cromwell's reporting their proceedings to the king. That was his
+business rather than conveying imaginary royal orders to the House.
+"They be contented," he wrote in one of these reports, "that deed and
+writing shall be treason," but words were only to be misprision: they
+refused to include an heir's rebellion or disobedience in the bill "as
+rebellion is already treason, and disobedience is no cause of forfeiture
+of inheritance." There was, of course, room for manipulation, which
+Cromwell extended to parliamentary elections; but parliamentary opinion
+was a force of which he had to take account, and not a negligible
+quantity.
+
+From the date of his appointment as secretary in 1534, Cromwell's
+biography belongs to the history of England, but it is necessary to
+define his personal attitude to the revolution in which he was the
+king's most conspicuous agent. He was included by Foxe in his _Book of
+Martyrs_ to the Protestant faith: more recent historians regard him as a
+sacrilegious ruffian. Now, there were two cardinal principles in the
+Protestantism of the 16th century--the supremacy of the temporal
+sovereign over the church in matters of government, and the supremacy of
+the Scriptures over the Church in matters of faith. There is no room for
+doubt as to the sincerity of Cromwell's belief in the first of these two
+articles: he paid at his own expense for an English translation of
+Marsiglio of Padua's _Defensor Pacis_, the classic medieval advocate of
+that doctrine; he had a scheme for governing England by means of
+administrative councils nominated by the king to the detriment of
+parliament; and he urged upon Henry the adoption of the maxim of the
+Roman civil law--_quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem_. He wanted,
+in his own words, "one body politic" and no rival to the king's
+authority; and he set the divine right of kings against the divine right
+of the papacy. There is more doubt about the sincerity of Cromwell's
+attachment to the second article; it is true that he set up a Bible in
+every parish church, and regarded them as invaluable; and the
+correspondents who unbosom themselves to him are all of a Protestant way
+of thinking. But Protestantism was the greatest support of absolute
+monarchy. Hence its value in Cromwell's eyes. Of religious conviction
+there is in him little trace, and still less of the religious
+temperament. He was a polished representative of the callous, secular
+middle class of that most irreligious age. Sentiment found no place, and
+feeling little, in his composition; he used the axe with as little
+passion as the surgeon does the knife, and he operated on some of the
+best and noblest in the land. He saw that it was wiser to proscribe a
+few great opponents than to fall on humbler prey; but he set law above
+justice, and law to him was simply the will of the state.
+
+In 1534 Cromwell was appointed master of the Rolls, and in 1535
+chancellor of Cambridge University and visitor-general of the
+monasteries. The policy of the Dissolution has been theoretically
+denounced, but practically approved in every civilized state, Catholic
+as well as Protestant. Every one has found it necessary, sooner or
+later, to curtail or to destroy its monastic foundations; only those
+which delayed the task longest have generally lagged farthest behind in
+national progress. The need for reform was admitted by a committee of
+cardinals appointed by Paul III. in 1535, and it had been begun by
+Wolsey. Cromwell was not affected by the iniquities of the monks except
+as arguments for the confiscation of their property. He had boasted that
+he would make Henry VIII. the richest prince in Christendom; and the
+monasteries, with their direct dependence on the pope and their
+cosmopolitan organization, were obstacles to that absolute authority of
+the national state which was Cromwell's ideal. He had learnt how to
+visit monasteries under Wolsey, and the visitation of 1535 was carried
+out with ruthless efficiency. During the storm which followed, Henry
+took the management of affairs into his own hands, but Cromwell was
+rewarded in July 1536 by being knighted, created lord privy seal, Baron
+Cromwell, and vicar-general and viceregent of the king in "Spirituals."
+
+In this last offensive capacity he sent a lay deputy to preside in
+Convocation, taking precedence of the bishops and archbishops, and
+issued his famous Injunctions of 1536 and 1538; a Bible was to be
+provided in every church; the _Paternoster_, Creed and Ten Commandments
+were to be recited by the incumbent in English; he was to preach at
+least once a quarter, and to start a register of births, marriages and
+deaths. During these years the outlook abroad grew threatening because
+of the alliance, under papal guarantee, between Charles V. and Francis
+I.; and Cromwell sought to counterbalance it by a political and
+theological union between England and the Lutheran princes of Germany.
+The theological part of the scheme broke down in 1538 when Henry
+categorically refused to concede the three reforms demanded by the
+Lutheran envoys. This was ominous, and the parliament of 1539, into
+which Cromwell tried to introduce a number of personal adherents, proved
+thoroughly reactionary. The temporal peers were unanimous in favour of
+the Six Articles, the bishops were divided, and the Commons for the most
+part agreed with the Lords. Cromwell, however, succeeded in suspending
+the execution of the act, and was allowed to proceed with his one
+independent essay in foreign policy. The friendship between Francis and
+Charles was apparently getting closer; Pole was exhorting them to a
+crusade against a king who was worse than the Turk; and anxious eyes
+searched the Channel in 1539 for signs of the coming Armada. Under these
+circumstances Henry acquiesced in Cromwell's negotiations for a marriage
+with Anne of Cleves. Anne, of course, was not a Lutheran, and the state
+religion in Cleves was at least as Catholic as Henry's own. But her
+sister was married to the elector of Saxony, and her brother had claims
+on Guelders, which Charles V. refused to recognize. Guelders was to the
+emperor's dominions in the Netherlands what Scotland was to England, and
+had often been used by France in the same way, and an alliance between
+England, Guelders, Cleves and the Schmalkaldic League would, Cromwell
+thought, make Charles's position in the Netherlands almost untenable.
+Anne herself was the weak point in the argument; Henry conceived an
+invincible repugnance to her from the first; he was restrained from an
+immediate breach with his new allies only by fear of Francis and
+Charles. In the spring of 1540 he was reassured on that score; no attack
+on him from that quarter was impending; there was a rift between the two
+Catholic sovereigns, and there was no real need for Anne and her German
+friends.
+
+From that moment Cromwell's fate was sealed; the Lords loathed him as an
+upstart even more than they had loathed Wolsey; he had no church to
+support him; Norfolk and Gardiner detested him from pique as well as on
+principle, and he had no friend in the council save Cranmer. As lay
+viceregent he had given umbrage to nearly every churchman, and he had
+put all his eggs in the one basket of royal favour, which had now failed
+him. Cromwell did not succumb without an effort, and a desperate
+struggle ensued in the council. In April the French ambassador wrote
+that he was tottering to his fall; a few days later he was created earl
+of Essex and lord great chamberlain, and two of his satellites were made
+secretaries to the king; he then despatched one bishop to the Tower, and
+threatened to send five others to join him. At last Henry struck as
+suddenly and remorselessly as a beast of prey; on the 10th of June
+Norfolk accused him of treason; the whole council joined in the attack,
+and Cromwell was sent to the Tower. A vast number of crimes was laid to
+his charge, but not submitted for trial. An act of attainder was passed
+against him without a dissentient voice, and after contributing his mite
+towards the divorce of Anne, he was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 28th
+of July, repudiating all heresy and declaring that he died in the
+Catholic faith.
+
+In estimating Cromwell's character it must be remembered that his father
+was a blackguard, and that he himself spent the formative years of his
+life in a vile school of morals. A ruffian he doubtless was, as he says,
+in his youth, and he was the last man to need the tuition of
+Machiavelli. Nevertheless he civilized himself to a certain extent; he
+was not a drunkard nor a forger like his father; from personal
+immorality he seems to have been singularly free; he was a kind master,
+and a stanch friend; and he possessed all the outward graces of the
+Renaissance period. He was not vindictive, and his atrocious acts were
+done in no private quarrel, but in what he conceived to be the interests
+of his master and the state. Where those interests were concerned he
+had no heart and no conscience and no religious faith; no man was more
+completely blighted by the 16th century worship of the state.
+
+  The authorities for the early life of Cromwell are the Wimbledon manor
+  rolls, used by Mr John Phillips of Putney in _The Antiquary_ (1880),
+  vol. ii., and the _Antiquarian Mag._ (1882), vol. ii.; Pole's
+  _Apologia_, i. 126; Bandello's _Novella_, xxxiv.; Chapuys' letter to
+  Granvelle, 21 Nov. 1535; and Foxe's _Acts and Mon._ From 1522 see
+  _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vols. iii.-xvi.; Cavendish's
+  _Life of Wolsey_; Hall's _Chron._; Wriothesley's _Chron._ These and
+  practically all other available sources have been utilized in R. B.
+  Merriman's _Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell_ (2 vols., 1902). For
+  Cromwell and Machiavelli see Paul van Dyke's _Renascence Portraits_
+  (1906), App.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS (c. 1840-   ), Boer general, was born about 1840 in
+the Transvaal and in 1881 took part in the first Boer War in the rank of
+commandant. He commanded in the siege of the British garrison at
+Potchefstroom, though he was unable to force their surrender until after
+the conclusion of the general armistice. The Boer leader was at this
+time accused of withholding knowledge of this armistice from the
+garrison (see POTCHEFSTROOM). He held various official positions in the
+years 1881-1899, and commanded the Boer force which compelled the
+surrender of the Jameson raiders at Doornkop (Jan. 2, 1896). In the war
+of 1899 Cronje was general commanding in the western theatre of war, and
+began the siege of Kimberley. He opposed the advance of the British
+division under Lord Methuen, and fought, though without success, three
+general actions at Belmont, Graspan and Modder River. At Magersfontein,
+early in December 1899, he completely repulsed a general attack made
+upon his position, and thereby checked for two months the northward
+advance of the British column. In the campaign of February 1900, Cronje
+opposed Lord Roberts's army on the Magersfontein battleground, but he
+was unable to prevent the relief of Kimberley; retreating westward, he
+was surrounded near Paardeberg, and, after a most obstinate resistance,
+was forced to surrender with the remnant of his army (Feb. 27, 1900). As
+a prisoner of war Cronje was sent to St Helena, where he remained until
+released after the conclusion of peace (see TRANSVAAL: _History_).
+
+
+
+
+CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM (1832-   ), English chemist and physicist, was born
+in London on the 17th of June 1832, and studied chemistry at the Royal
+College of Chemistry under A. W. von Hofmann, whose assistant he became
+in 1851. Three years later he was appointed an assistant in the
+meteorological department of the Radcliffe observatory, Oxford, and in
+1855 he obtained a chemical post at Chester. In 1861, while conducting a
+spectroscopic examination of the residue left in the manufacture of
+sulphuric acid, he observed a bright green line which had not been
+noticed previously, and by following up the indication thus given he
+succeeded in isolating a new element, thallium, a specimen of which was
+shown in public for the first time at the exhibition of 1862. During the
+next eight years he carried out a minute investigation of this metal and
+its properties. While determining its atomic weight, he thought it
+desirable, for the sake of accuracy, to weigh it in a vacuum, and even
+in these circumstances he found that the balance behaved in an anomalous
+manner, the metal appearing to be heavier when cold than when hot. This
+phenomenon he explained as a "repulsion from radiation," and he
+expressed his discovery in the statement that in a vessel exhausted of
+air a body tends to move away from another body hotter than itself.
+Utilizing this principle he constructed the radiometer (q.v.), which he
+was at first disposed to regard as a machine that directly transformed
+light into motion, but which was afterwards perceived to depend on
+thermal action. Thence he was led to his famous researches on the
+phenomena produced by the discharge of electricity through highly
+exhausted tubes (sometimes known as "Crookes' tubes" in consequence),
+and to the development of his theory of "radiant matter" or matter in a
+"fourth state," which led up to the modern electronic theory. In 1883 he
+began an inquiry into the nature and constitution of the rare earths. By
+repeated fractionations he was able to divide yttrium into distinct
+portions which gave different spectra when exposed in a high vacuum to
+the spark from an induction coil. This result he considered to be due,
+not to any removal of impurities, but to an actual splitting-up of the
+yttrium molecule into its constituents, and he ventured to draw the
+provisional conclusion that the so-called simple bodies are in reality
+compound molecules, at the same time suggesting that all the elements
+have been produced by a process of evolution from one primordial stuff
+or "protyle." A later result of this method of investigation was the
+discovery of a new member of the rare earths, monium or victorium, the
+spectrum of which is characterized by an isolated group of lines, only
+to be detected photographically, high up in the ultra-violet; the
+existence of this body was announced in his presidential address to the
+British Association at Bristol in 1898. In the same address he called
+attention to the conditions of the world's food supply, urging that with
+the low yield at present realized per acre the supply of wheat would
+within a comparatively short time cease to be equal to the demand caused
+by increasing population, and that since nitrogenous manures are
+essential for an increase in the yield, the hope of averting starvation,
+as regards those races for whom wheat is a staple food, depended on the
+ability of the chemist to find an artificial method for fixing the
+nitrogen of the air. An authority on precious stones, and especially the
+diamond, he succeeded in artificially making some minute specimens of
+the latter gem; and on the discovery of radium he was one of the first
+to take up the study of its properties, in particular inventing the
+spinthariscope, an instrument in which the effects of a trace of radium
+salt are manifested by the phosphorescence produced on a zinc sulphide
+screen. In addition to many other researches besides those here
+mentioned, he wrote or edited various books on chemistry and chemical
+technology, including _Select Methods of Chemical Analysis_, which went
+through a number of editions; and he also gave a certain amount of time
+to the investigation of psychic phenomena, endeavouring to effect some
+measure of correlation between them and ordinary physical laws. He was
+knighted in 1897, and received the Royal (1875), Davy (1888), and Copley
+(1904) medals of the Royal Society, besides filling the offices of
+president of the Chemical Society and of the Institution of Electrical
+Engineers. He married Ellen, daughter of W. Humphrey, of Darlington, and
+their golden wedding was celebrated in 1906.
+
+
+
+
+CROOKSTON, a city and the county-seat of Polk county, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
+on the Red Lake river in the Red River valley, about 300 m. N.W. of
+Minneapolis, and about 25 m. E. of Grand Forks, North Dakota. Pop.
+(1890) 3457; (1900) 5359; (1905, state census) 6794, 2049 being
+foreign-born, including 656 from Norway (2 Norwegian weeklies are
+published), 613 from Canada, 292 from Sweden; (1910 U.S. census) 7559.
+Crookston is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific
+railways. It has a Carnegie library, and the St Vincent and Bethesda
+hospitals, and is the seat of a Federal Land Office and of a state
+agricultural high school (with an experimental farm). Dams on the Red
+Lake river provide a fine water-power, and among the city's manufactures
+are lumber, leather, flour, farm implements, wagons and bricks. The city
+is situated in a fertile farming region, and is a market for grain,
+potatoes and other agricultural products, and lumber. Crookston was
+settled about 1872, was incorporated in 1879, received its first city
+charter in 1883, and adopted a new one in 1906. It was named in honour
+of William Crooks, an early settler.
+
+
+
+
+CROP (a word common in various forms, such as Germ. _Kropf_, to many
+Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of
+anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in
+Fr. as _croupe_, whence the English "crupper"; and in Ital. _groppo_,
+whence English "group"), the _ingluvies_, or pouched expansion of a
+bird's oesophagus, in which the food remains to undergo a preparatory
+process of digestion before being passed into the true stomach. From the
+meaning of "top" or "head," as applied to a plant, herb or flower, comes
+the common use of the word for the produce of cereals or other
+cultivated plants, the wheat-crop, the cotton-crop and the like, and
+generally, "the crops"; more particular expressions are the
+"white-crop," for such grain crops as barley or wheat, which whiten as
+they grow ripe and "green-crop" for such as roots or potatoes which do
+not, and also for those which are cut in a green state, like clover (see
+AGRICULTURE). Other uses, more or less technical, of the word are, in
+leather-dressing, for the whole untrimmed hide; in mining and geology,
+for the "outcrop" or appearance at the surface of a vein or stratum and,
+particularly in tin mining, of the best part of the ore produced after
+dressing. A "hunting-crop" is a short thick stock for a whip, with a
+small leather loop at one end, to which a thong may be attached. From
+the verb "to crop," i.e. to take off the top of anything, comes "crop"
+meaning a closely cut head of hair, found in the name "croppy" given to
+the Roundheads at the time of the Great Rebellion, to the Catholics in
+Ireland in 1688 by the Orangemen, probably with reference to the
+priests' tonsures, and to the Irish rebels of 1798, who cut their hair
+short in imitation of the French revolutionaries.
+
+
+
+
+CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS (1823-1900), American landscape painter, was
+born at Rossville, Staten Island, New York, on the 18th of February
+1823. After practising architecture for several years, he turned his
+attention to painting, studying in Italy from 1847 to 1850. In 1851 he
+was elected a member of the National Academy of Design. From 1857 to
+1863 he had a studio in London, and after his return to America enjoyed
+a considerable vogue, particularly as a painter of vivid autumnal
+effects, along the lines of the Hudson River school. He was one of the
+original members of the American Water Color Society. He continued
+actively in this profession until within a few days of his death, at
+Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, on the 22nd of June 1900. He made the
+architectural designs for the stations of the elevated railways in New
+York City.
+
+
+
+
+CROQUET (from Fr. _croc_, a crook, or crooked stick), a lawn game played
+with balls, mallets, hoops and two pegs. The game has been evolved,
+according to some writers, from the _paille-maille_ which was played in
+Languedoc at least as early as the 13th century. Under the name of _le
+jeu de la crosse_, or _la crosserie_, a similar game was at the same
+period immensely popular in Normandy, and especially at Avranches, but
+the object appears to have been to send the ball as far as possible by
+driving it with the mallet (see _Sports et jeux d'adresse_, 1904, p.
+203). Pall Mall, a fashionable game in England in the time of the
+Stuarts, was played with a ball and a mallet, and with two hoops or a
+hoop and a peg, the game being won by the player who ran the hoop or
+hoops and touched the peg under certain conditions in the fewest
+strokes. Croquet certainly has some resemblance to _paille-maille_,
+played with more hoops and more balls. It is said that the game was
+brought to Ireland from the south of France, and was first played on
+Lord Lonsdale's lawn in 1852, under the auspices of the eldest daughter
+of Sir Edmund Macnaghten. It came to England in 1856, or perhaps a few
+years earlier, and soon became popular.
+
+In 1868 the first all-comers' meeting was held at Moreton-in-the-Marsh.
+In the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed, the annual
+contest for the championship taking place on the grounds of this club at
+Wimbledon.[1] But after being for ten years or so the most popular game
+for the country house and garden party, croquet was in its turn
+practically ousted by lawn tennis, until, with improved implements and a
+more scientific form of play, it was revived about 1894-1895. In
+1896-1897 was formed the United All England Croquet Association, on the
+initiative of Mr Walter H. Peel. Under the name of the Croquet
+Association, with more than 2000 members and nearly a hundred affiliated
+clubs (1909), this body is the recognized ruling authority on croquet in
+the British Islands. Its headquarters are at the Roehampton Club, where
+the championship and champion cup competitions are held each year.
+
+_The Game and its Implements._--The requisites for croquet are a level
+grass lawn, six hoops, two posts or pegs, balls, mallets, and hoop-clips
+to mark the progress of the players. The usual game is played between
+two sides, each having two balls, the side consisting of two players in
+partnership, each playing one ball, or of one player playing both balls.
+The essential characteristic of croquet is the scientific combination
+between two balls in partnership against the other two. The balls are
+distinguished by being coloured blue, red, black and yellow, and are
+played in that order, blue and black always opposing the other two.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of croquet ground, showing setting of
+hoops and pegs, and order of play in accordance with the official Laws
+(1909) of the Croquet Association.]
+
+The ground for match play measures 35 yds. by 28 yds., and should be
+carefully marked out with white lines. In each corner a white spot is
+marked 1 yd. from each boundary. The hoops are made of round iron, not
+less than ˝ in. and not more than ž in. in diameter, and standing 12 in.
+out of the ground. For match play they are 3ž or 4 in. across, inside
+measurement. They are set up as in the accompanying diagram, the numbers
+and arrows indicating the order and direction in which they must be
+passed. Each hoop is run twice, and each peg struck once. The pegs may
+be struck from any direction.
+
+The pegs are 1˝ in. in diameter and when fixed stand 18 in. above the
+ground. The balls were formerly made of boxwood (earlier still of
+beechwood); composition balls are now in general use for tournaments.
+They must be 3-5/8 in. in diameter and 15 oz. to 16˝ oz. in weight. It
+will be seen that for match play the hoops are only 1/8 or at the most
+3/8 in. wider than the diameter of the ball. The mallets may be of any
+size and weight, but the head must be made of wood (metal may be used
+only for weighting or strengthening purposes), and the ends must be
+parallel and similar. Only one mallet may be used in the course of a
+game, except in the case of _bona fide_ damage.
+
+The object of the player is to score the points of the game by striking
+his ball through each of the hoops and against each of the pegs in a
+fixed order; and the side wins which first succeeds in scoring all the
+points with both the balls of the side. A metal clip corresponding in
+colour with the player's ball is attached to the hoop or peg which that
+ball has next to make in the proper order, as a record of its progress
+in the game. No point is scored by passing through a hoop or hitting a
+peg except in the proper order. Thus, if a player has in any turn or
+turns driven his ball successively through hoops 1, 2, and 3, his clip
+is attached to hoop 4, and the next point to be made by him will be
+that hoop; and so on till all the points (hoops and pegs) have been
+scored. Each player starts in turn from any point in a "baulk" or area 3
+ft. wide along the left-hand half of the "southern" boundary, marked A
+on the diagram, of the lawn--till 1906, from a point 1 ft. in front of
+the middle of hoop 1. If he fails either to make a point or to
+"roquet"[2] (i.e. drive his ball against) another ball in play, his turn
+is at an end and the next player in order takes his turn in like manner.
+If he succeeds in scoring a point, he is entitled (as in billiards) to
+another stroke; he may then either attempt to score another point, or he
+may roquet a ball. Having roqueted a ball--provided he has not already
+roqueted the same ball in the same turn without having scored a point in
+the interval--he is entitled to two further strokes: first he must "take
+croquet," i.e. he places his own ball (which from the moment of the
+roquet is "dead" or "in hand") in contact with the roqueted ball on any
+side of it, and then strikes his own ball with his mallet, being bound
+to move or shake both balls perceptibly. If at the beginning of a turn
+the striker's ball is in contact with another ball, a "roquet" is held
+to have been made and "croquet" must be taken at once. After taking
+croquet the striker is entitled to another stroke, with which he may
+score another point, or roquet another ball not previously roqueted in
+the same turn since a point was scored, or he may play for safety. Thus,
+by skilful alternation of making points and roqueting balls, a "break"
+may be made in which point after point, and even all the points in the
+game (for the ball in play), may be scored in a single turn, in addition
+to 3 or 4 points for the partner ball. The chief skill in the game
+perhaps consists in playing the stroke called "taking croquet" (but see
+below on the "rush"). Expert players can drive both balls together from
+one end of the ground to the other, or send one to a distance while
+retaining the other, or place each with accuracy in different directions
+as desired, the player obtaining position for scoring a point or
+roqueting another ball according to the strategical requirements of his
+position. Care has, however, to be taken in playing the croquet-stroke
+that both balls are absolutely moved or perceptibly shaken, and that
+neither of them be driven over the boundary line, for in either event
+the player's next stroke is forfeited and his turn brought summarily to
+an end.
+
+There are three distinct methods of holding the mallet among good
+players. A comparatively small number still adhere to the once universal
+"side stroke," in which the player faces more or less at right angles to
+the line of aim, and strikes the ball very much like a golfer, with his
+hands close together on the mallet shaft. The majority use "front play,"
+in which the player faces in the direction in which he proposes to send
+the ball. The essential characteristic of this stroke is that eye, hand
+and ball should be in the same vertical plane, and the stroke is rather
+a swing--the "pendulum stroke"--than a hit. There are two ways of
+playing it. The majority of right-handed front players swing the mallet
+outside the right foot, holding it with the left hand as a pivot at the
+top of the shaft, while the right hand (about 12 in. lower down) applies
+the necessary force, though it must always be borne in mind that the
+heavy mallet-head, weighing from 3 to 3˝ lb. or even more, does the work
+by itself, and the nearer the stroke is to a simple swing, like that of
+a pendulum, the more likely it is to be accurate. Either the right or
+the left foot may be in advance, and should be roughly parallel to the
+line of aim, the player's weight being mainly on the rear foot. Most of
+the best Irish and some English players swing the mallet between their
+feet, using a grip like that of the side player or golfer, with the
+hands close together, and often interlocking. It is claimed that the
+loss of power caused by the hampered swing--usually compensated by an
+extra heavy mallet--is more than counterbalanced by the greater accuracy
+in aim. The beginner is well advised to try all these methods, and adopt
+that which comes most natural to him. Skirted players, of course, are
+unable to use the Irish stroke; and, as one of the most meritorious
+features of croquet is that it is the only out-of-door game in which men
+and women can compete on terms of real equality, this has been put
+forward as a reason for barring it, if it is actually an advantage.
+
+When a croquet ground is thoroughly smooth and level, the game gives
+scope for considerable skill; a great variety of strokes may be played
+with the mallet, each having its own well-defined effect on the
+behaviour of the balls, while a knowledge of angles is essential.
+Skilful tactics are at least as necessary as skilful execution to enable
+the player so to dispose the balls on the ground while making a break
+that they may most effectively assist him in scoring his points. The
+tactics of croquet are in this respect similar to those of billiards,
+that the player tries to make what progress he can during his own break,
+and to leave the balls "safe" at the end of it; he must also keep in
+mind the needs of the other ball of his side by leaving his own ball, or
+the last player's ball, or both, within easy roqueting distance or in
+useful positions, and that of the next player isolated. Good judgment is
+really more valuable than mechanical skill. Croquet is a game of
+combination, partners endeavouring to keep together for mutual help, and
+to keep their opponents apart. It is important always to leave the next
+player in such a position that he will be unable to score a point or
+roquet a ball; a break, however profitable, which does not end by doing
+this is often fatal. Formerly this might be done by leaving the next
+player's ball in such a position that either a hoop or a peg lay between
+it and all the other balls ("wiring"), or so near to a hoop or peg that
+there was no room for a proper stroke to be taken in the required
+direction. Under rule 36 of the _Laws of Croquet_ for 1906, a ball left
+in such a position, provided it were within a yard of the obstacle
+("close-wired"), might at the striker's option be moved one yard in any
+direction. This rule left to the striker whose ball was "wired" more
+than a yard from the hoop or peg ("distance-wired") the possibility of
+hitting his ball in such a way as to jump the obstacle. The jump-shot
+is, however, very bad for the lawn, and in 1907 a further provision was
+made by which the player whose ball is left "wired" from all the other
+balls by the stroke of an opponent may lift it and play from the "baulk"
+area. This practically means that "wiring" is impossible. The most that
+can be done is to "close-wire" the next player from two balls and leave
+him with a difficult shot at the third. If, however, the next player's
+ball has not been moved by the adversary, the adversary is entitled to
+wire the balls as best he can.
+
+The following is a specimen of elementary croquet tactics. If a player
+is going up to hoop 5 (diagram 1) in the course of a break, he should
+have contrived, if possible, to have a ball waiting for him at that hoop
+and another at hoop 6. With the aid of the first he runs hoop 5 and
+sends it on to the turning peg, stopping his ball in taking croquet
+close to the ball at 6. The corner hoops are the difficult ones, and
+after running hoop 6 the assisting ball is croqueted to 1 back, the peg
+being struck with the aid of the ball already there, which is again
+struck and driven to 2 back. If the player has been able to leave the
+fourth ball in the centre of the ground (known as a centre ball), he
+hits this after taking croquet, takes croquet, going off it to the ball
+at 1 back, and continues the break, leaving the centre ball where it
+will be useful for 3 back and 4 back. A first-class player should,
+however, be able to make a break with 3 balls almost as easily as with
+4. A useful device, especially in a losing game, is to get rid of the
+opponent's advanced ball if a "rover" (i.e. one which has run all the
+hoops and is for the winning peg) by croqueting it in such a way that it
+hits the peg and is thus out of the game. This can be done only by a
+ball which is itself also a rover. The opponent has then only one turn
+out of every three, and may be rendered practically helpless by leaving
+him always in a "safe" position. Inasmuch as a skilful player can cause
+an opponent's ball to pass through the last two or even three hoops in
+the course of his turn and then peg it out, it is considered prudent to
+leave unrun the last three hoops until the partner's ball is well
+advanced. There is a perennial agitation in the croquet world for a law
+prohibiting the player from pegging out his opponent's ball. Many good
+players also think it desirable that the four-ball break should be
+restricted or wholly forbidden, e.g. by barring the dead ball.
+
+To "rush" a ball is to roquet it hard so that it proceeds for a
+considerable distance in a desired direction. This stroke requires
+absolute accuracy and often considerable force, which must be applied in
+such a way as to drive the player's ball evenly; otherwise it is very
+liable, especially if the ground be not perfectly smooth, to jump the
+object ball. The rush stroke is absolutely essential to good play, as it
+enables croquet to be taken (e.g.) close to the required hoop, whereas
+to croquet into position from a great distance and also provide a ball
+for use after running the hoop is extremely difficult, often impossible.
+To "rush" successfully, the striker's ball must lie near the object
+ball, preferably, though not necessarily, in the line of the rush. By
+means of the rush it is possible to accomplish the complete round with
+the assistance of one ball only. To "cut" a ball is to hit it on the
+edge and cause it to move at some desired angle. "Rolling croquet" is
+made either by hitting near the top of the player's ball which gives it
+"follow," or by making the mallet so hit the ball as to keep up a
+sustained pressure. The first impact must, however, result in a
+distinctly audible single tap; if a prolonged rattle or a second tap is
+heard the stroke is foul. The passing stroke is merely an extension of
+this. Here the player's ball proceeds a greater distance than the
+croqueted ball, but in somewhat the same direction. The "stop stroke" is
+made by a short, sharp tap, the mallet being withdrawn immediately after
+contact; the player's ball only rolls a short distance, the other going
+much farther. The "jump stroke" is made by striking downwards on to the
+ball, which can thus be made to jump over another ball, or even a hoop.
+"Peeling" (a term derived from Walter H. Peel, a famous advocate of the
+policy) is the term applied to the device of putting a partner's or an
+opponent's ball through the hoops with a view to ultimately pegging it
+out.
+
+The laws of croquet, and even the arrangement of the hoops, have not
+attained complete uniformity wherever the game is played. Croquet
+grounds are not always of full size, and some degree of elasticity in
+the rules is perhaps necessary to meet local conditions. The laws by
+which matches for the championship and all tournaments are governed are
+issued annually by the Croquet Association; and though from time to time
+trifling amendments may be made, they have probably reached permanence
+in essentials.
+
+  See _The Encyclopaedia of Sport; The Complete Croquet Player_ (London,
+  1896); the latest _Laws of Croquet_, published annually by the Croquet
+  Association, and its official organ _The Croquet Gazette_. For the
+  principles of the game and its history in England, see C. D. Locock,
+  _Modern Croquet Tactics_ (London, 1907); A. Lillie, _Croquet up to
+  Date_ (London, 1900).
+
+_Croquet in the United States: Roque._--Croquet was brought to America
+from England soon after its introduction into that country, and enjoyed
+a wide popularity as a game for boys and girls before the Civil War (see
+Miss Alcott's _Little Women_, cap. 12). American croquet is quite
+distinct from the modern English game. It is played on a lawn 60 ft. by
+30, and preserves the old-fashioned English arrangement of ten hoops,
+including a central "cage" of two hoops. The balls, coloured red, white,
+blue and black, are 3ź in. in diameter, and the hoops are from 3˝ to 4
+in. wide, according to the skill of the players. This game, however, is
+not taken seriously in the United States; the _Official Croquet Guide_
+of Mr Charles Jacobus emphasizes "the ease with which the game can be
+established," since almost every country home has a grass plot, and "no
+elaboration is needed." The scientific game of croquet in the United
+States is known as "roque." Under this title a still greater departure
+from the English game has been elaborated on quite independent lines
+from those of the English Croquet Association since 1882, in which year
+the National Roque Association was formed. Roque also suffered from the
+popularity of lawn tennis, but since 1897 it has developed almost as
+fast as croquet in England. A great national championship tournament is
+held in Norwich, Conn., every August, and the game--which is fully as
+scientific as modern English croquet--has numerous devotees, especially
+in New England.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of roque ground, showing setting of
+arches and stakes and order of play, in accordance with the official
+laws (1906) of the National Roque Association.]
+
+Roque is played, not on grass, but on a prepared surface something like
+a cinder tennis-court. The standard ground, as adopted by the National
+Association in 1903, is hexagonal in shape, with ten arches (hoops) and
+two stakes (pegs) as shown in diagram 2. The length is 60 ft., width 30,
+and the "corner pieces" are 6 ft. long. An essential feature of the
+ground is that it is surrounded by a raised wooden border, often lined
+with india-rubber to facilitate the rebound of the ball, and it is
+permissible to play a "carom" (or rebounding shot) off this border; a
+skilful player can often thus hit a ball which is wired to a direct
+shot. A boundary line is marked 28 in. inside the border, on which a
+ball coming to rest outside it must be replaced. The hoops are run in
+the order marked on the diagram, so that the game consists of 36 points.
+Red and white are always partners against blue and black, and the
+essential features and tactics of the game are, _mutatis mutandis_, the
+same as in modern English croquet--i.e. the skilful player goes always
+for a break and utilizes one or both of the opponent's balls in making
+it. The balls are 3ź in. in diameter, of hard rubber or composition, and
+the arches are 3-3/8 or 3˝ in. wide for first- and second-class players
+respectively; they are made of steel ˝ in. in diameter and stand about 8
+in. out of the ground. The stakes are 1 in. in diameter and only 1˝ in.
+above the ground. The mallets are much shorter than those commonly
+employed in England, the majority of players using only one hand, though
+the two-handed "pendulum stroke," played between the legs, finds an
+increasingly large number of adherents, on account of the greater
+accuracy which it gives. The "jump shot" is a necessary part of the
+player's equipment, as dead wiring is allowed; it is supplemented by the
+carom off the border or off a stake or arch, and roque players justly
+claim that their game is more like billiards than any other out-of-door
+game.
+
+The game of roque is opened by scoring (stringing) for lead from an
+imaginary line through the middle wicket (cage), the player whose ball
+rests nearest the southern boundary line having the choice of lead and
+balls. The balls are then placed on the four corner spots marked A in
+diagram, partner balls being diagonally opposite one another, and the
+starting ball having the choice of either of the upper corners. The
+leader, say red, usually begins by shooting at white; if he misses, a
+carom off the border will leave him somewhere near his partner, blue.
+White then shoots at red or blue, with probably a similar result. Blue
+is then "in," with a certain roquet and the choice of laying for red or
+going for an immediate break himself. The general strategy of the game
+corresponds to that of croquet, the most important differences being
+that "pegging out" is not allowed, and that on the small ground with its
+ten arches and two stakes the three-ball break is usually adopted, the
+next player or "danger ball" being wired at the earliest opportunity.
+
+  See Spalding's _Official Roque Guide_, edited by Mr Charles Jacobus
+  (New York, 1906).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This was largely the work of W. T. Whitmore-Jones (1831-1872),
+    generally known as W. Jones Whitmore, who subsequently formed the
+    short-lived National Croquet Club, and was largely responsible for
+    the first codification of the laws.
+
+  [2] The words "roquet" and "croquet" are pronounced as in French,
+    with the t mute.
+
+
+
+
+CRORE (Hindustani _karor_), an Anglo-Indian term for a hundred _lakhs_
+or ten million. It is in common use for statistics of trade and
+especially coinage. In the days when the rupee was worth its face value
+of 2s., a crore of rupees was exactly worth a million sterling, but now
+that the rupee is fixed at 15 to the Ł1, a crore is only worth Ł666,666.
+
+
+
+
+CROSBY, HOWARD (1826-1891), American preacher and teacher,
+great-grandson of Judge Joseph Crosby of Massachusetts and of Gen.
+William Floyd of New York, a signer of the Declaration of Independence,
+was born in New York City on the 27th of February 1826. He graduated in
+1844 from the University of the City of New York (now New York
+University); became professor of Greek there in 1851, and in 1859 became
+professor of Greek in Rutgers College, New Brunswick, New Jersey, where
+two years later he was ordained pastor of the first Presbyterian church.
+From 1870 to 1881 he was chancellor of the University of the City of New
+York; from 1872 to 1881 was one of the American revisers of the English
+version of the New Testament; and in 1873 was moderator of the general
+assembly of the Presbyterian Church. He took a prominent part in
+politics, urged excise reform, opposed "total abstinence," was one of
+the founders and was the first president of the New York Society for the
+Prevention of Crime, and pleaded for better management of Indian affairs
+and for international copyright. Among his publications are _The Lands
+of the Moslem_ (1851), _Bible Companion_ (1870), _Jesus: His Life and
+Works_ (1871), _True Temperance Reform_ (1879), _True Humanity of
+Christ_ (1880), and commentaries on the book of Joshua (1875), Nehemiah
+(1877) and the New Testament (1885).
+
+His son, ERNEST HOWARD CROSBY (1856-1907), was a social reformer, and
+was born in New York City on the 4th of November 1856. He graduated at
+the University of the City of New York in 1876 and at Columbia Law
+School in 1878; served in the New York Assembly in 1887-1889, securing
+the passage of a high-licence bill; in 1889-1894 was a judge of the
+Mixed Tribunal at Alexandria, Egypt, resigning upon coming under the
+influence of Tolstoy; and died in New York City on the 3rd of January
+1907. He was the first president (1894) of the Social Reform Club of New
+York City, and was president in 1900-1905 of the New York
+Anti-Imperialist League; was a leader in settlement work and in
+opposition to child labour, and was a disciple of Tolstoy as to
+universal peace and non-resistance, and of Henry George in his belief in
+the "single tax" principle. His writings, many of which are in the
+manner of Walt Whitman, comprise _Plain Talk in Psalm and Parable_
+(1899), _Swords and Ploughshares_ (1902), and _Broadcast_ (1905), all in
+verse; an anti-military novel, _Captain Jinks, Hero_ (1902); and essays
+on Tolstoy (1904 and 1905) and on Garrison (1905).
+
+
+
+
+CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION (Lat. _crux_, _crucis_[1]). The meaning
+ordinarily attached to the word "cross" is that of a figure composed of
+two or more lines which intersect, or touch each other transversely.
+Thus, two pieces of wood, or other material, so placed in juxtaposition
+to one another, are understood to form a cross. It should be noted,
+however, that Lipsius and other writers speak of the single upright
+stake to which criminals were bound as a cross, and to such a stake the
+name of _crux simplex_ has been applied. The usual conception, however,
+of a cross is that of a compound figure.
+
+Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient times. It is
+known to have been used by nations such as those of Assyria, Egypt,
+Persia, by the Greeks, Carthaginians, Macedonians, and from very early
+times by the Romans. It has been thought, too, that crucifixion was also
+used by the Jews themselves, and that there is an allusion to it (Deut.
+xxi. 22, 23) as a punishment to be inflicted.
+
+Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment of
+crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first of all usually
+stripped naked, and bound to an upright stake, where he was so cruelly
+scourged with an implement, formed of strips of leather having pieces of
+iron, or some other hard material, at their ends, that not merely was
+the flesh often stripped from the bones, but even the entrails partly
+protruded, and the anatomy of the body was disclosed. In this pitiable
+state he was reclothed, and, if able to do so, was made to drag the
+stake to the place of execution, where he was either fastened to it, or
+impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, where a single stake
+was employed, we have the _crux simplex_ of Lipsius. The other method is
+that with which we are more familiar, and which is described in the New
+Testament account of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. In such a case,
+after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a
+gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of
+execution, and he was then fastened to it by iron nails driven through
+the outstretched arms and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as
+the cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position. In
+other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder, and was then
+fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness, or state of collapse,
+from which the criminal must often have suffered, had much to do in
+deciding this. It is not quite clear which of these two plans was
+followed in the case of the crucifixion of Christ, but the more general
+opinion has been that He was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that
+it was then lifted into position. The contrary opinion, has, however,
+prevailed to some extent, and there are representations of the
+crucifixion which depict Him as mounting a ladder placed against the
+cross. Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious
+desire, on the part of their authors, to emphasize the voluntary
+offering of Himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as being
+intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may be noted,
+however, that among the "Emblems of the Passion," as they are called,
+and which were very favourite devices in the middle ages, the ladder is
+not infrequently found in conjunction with the crown of thorns, nails,
+spear, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+From its simplicity of form, the cross has been used both as a religious
+symbol and as an ornament, from the dawn of man's civilization. Various
+objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have
+been found, marked with crosses of different designs, in almost every
+part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded
+numberless examples, while numerous instances, dating from the later
+Stone Age to Christian times, have been found in nearly every part of
+Europe. The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian
+times, and among non-Christian peoples, may probably be regarded as
+almost universal, and in very many cases it was connected with some form
+of nature worship. Two of the forms of the pre-Christian cross which are
+perhaps most frequently met with are the tau cross, so named from its
+resemblance to the Greek capital letter [Tau], and the _svastika_ or
+_fylfot_[2] [svastika], also called "_Gammadion_" owing to its form
+being that of four Greek capital letters _gamma_ [Gamma] placed
+together. The tau cross is a common Egyptian device, and is indeed
+often called the Egyptian cross. The _svastika_ has a very wide range of
+distribution, and is found on all kinds of objects. It was used as a
+religious emblem in India and China at least ten centuries before the
+Christian era, and is met with on Buddhist coins and inscriptions from
+various parts of India. A fine sepulchral urn found at Shropham in
+Norfolk, and now in the British Museum, has three bands of cruciform
+ornaments round it. The two uppermost of these are plain circles, each
+of which contains a plain cross; the lowest band is formed of a series
+of squares, in each of which is a _svastika_. In the Vatican Museum
+there is an Etruscan fibula of gold which is marked with the _svastika_,
+but it is a device of such common occurrence on objects of pre-Christian
+origin, that it is hardly necessary to specify individual instances. The
+cross, as a device in different forms, and often enclosed in a circle,
+is of frequent occurrence on coins and medals of pre-Christian date in
+France and elsewhere. Indeed, objects marked with pre-Christian crosses
+are to be seen in every important museum.
+
+The death of Christ on a cross necessarily conferred a new significance
+on the figure, which had hitherto been associated with a conception of
+religion not merely non-Christian, but in its essence often directly
+opposed to it. The Christians of early times were wont to trace, in
+things around them, hidden prophetical allusions to the truth of their
+faith, and such a testimony they seem to have readily recognized in the
+use of the cross as a religious emblem by those whose employment of it
+betokened a belief most repugnant to their own. The adoption by them of
+such forms, for example, as the tau cross and the _svastika_ or _fylfot_
+was no doubt influenced by the idea of the occult Christian significance
+which they thought they recognized in those forms, and which they could
+use with a special meaning among themselves, without at the same time
+arousing the ill-feeling or shocking the sentiment of those among whom
+they lived.
+
+It was not till the time of Constantine that the cross was publicly used
+as the symbol of the Christian religion. Till then its employment had
+been restricted, and private among the Christians themselves. Under
+Constantine it became the acknowledged symbol of Christianity, in the
+same way in which, long afterwards, the crescent was adopted as the
+symbol of the Mahommedan religion. Constantine's action was no doubt
+influenced by the vision which he believed he saw of the cross in the
+sky with the accompanying words [Greek: en toutô nika], as well as by
+the story of the discovery of the true cross by his mother St Helena in
+the year 326. The legend is that, when visiting the holy places in
+Palestine, St Helena was guided to the site of the crucifixion by an
+aged Jew who had inherited traditional knowledge as to its position.
+After the ground had been dug to a considerable depth, three crosses
+were found, as well as the superscription placed over the Saviour's head
+on the cross, and the nails with which he had been crucified. The cross
+of the Lord was distinguished from the other two by the working of a
+miracle on a crippled woman who was stretched upon it. This finding, or
+"invention," of the holy cross by St Helena is commemorated by a
+festival on the 3rd of May, called the "Invention of the Holy Cross."
+The legend was widely accepted as true, and is related by writers such
+as St Ambrose, Rufinus, Sulpicius Severus and others, but it is
+discounted by the existence of an older legend, according to which the
+true cross was found in the reign of Tiberius, and while St James the
+Great was bishop of Jerusalem, by Protonice, the wife of Claudius.
+
+In recent times an attempt has been made to reconcile the two accounts,
+by attributing to St Helena the rediscovery of the true cross,
+originally found by Protonice, and which had been buried again on the
+spot. A change was made in 1895 in the _Diario Romano_, when the word
+_Ritrovamento_ was substituted for that of _Invenzione_, in the name of
+the festival of the 3rd of May. After St Helena's discovery a church was
+built upon the site, and in it she placed the greater portion of the
+cross. The remaining portion she conveyed to Byzantium, and thence
+Constantine sent a piece to Rome, where it is said to be still preserved
+in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme, which was built to receive so
+precious a relic. It is exposed for the veneration of the faithful on
+Good Friday, 3rd of May, and the third Sunday in Lent, each year.
+
+Another festival of the holy cross is kept on the 14th of September, and
+is known as the "Exaltation of the Holy Cross." It seems to have
+originated with the dedication, in the year 335, of the churches built
+on the sites of the crucifixion and the holy sepulchre. The observance
+of this festival passed from Jerusalem to Constantinople, and thence to
+Rome, where it appears to have been introduced in the 7th century. By
+some it is thought that the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross had its
+origin in Constantine's vision of the cross in the sky in the year 317,
+but whether it originated then, or, as is more generally supposed, at
+the dedication of the churches at Jerusalem, there is no doubt that it
+was afterwards kept with much greater solemnity in consequence of the
+recovery of the portion of the cross St Helena had left at Jerusalem,
+which had been taken away in the Persian victory, and was restored to
+Jerusalem by Heraclitus in 627. Pope Clement VIII. (1592-1604) raised
+the festival of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross to the dignity,
+liturgically known as that of a Greater Double.
+
+Before leaving the story of St Helena and the cross, it may be
+convenient to allude briefly to the superscription placed over the
+Saviour's head, and the nails, which it is said that she found with the
+cross. The earlier tradition as to the superscription is obscure, but it
+would seem that it ought to be considered part of the relic which
+Constantine sent to Rome. By some means it was entirely lost sight of
+until the year 1492, when it is said that it was accidentally found in a
+vault in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme at Rome. Pope Alexander
+III. published a bull certifying to the truth of this rediscovery of the
+relic, and authenticated its character.
+
+As regards the nails, a question has arisen whether there were three or
+four. In the earliest pictures of the Crucifixion the feet are shown as
+separately nailed to the cross, but at a later period they are crossed,
+and a single nail fixes them. In the former case there would be four
+nails, and in the latter only three. Four is the number generally
+accepted, and it is said that one was cast by St Helena into the sea,
+during a storm, in order to subdue the waves, another is said (but the
+legend cannot be traced far back) to have been beaten out into the iron
+circlet of the crown of Lombardy, while the remaining two are reputed to
+be preserved among the relics at Milan and Trier respectively.
+
+The employment of the cross as the Christian symbol has been so manifold
+in its variety and application, and the different forms to which the
+figure has been adapted and elaborated are so complex, that it is only
+possible to deal with the outline of the subject.
+
+We learn from Tertullian and other early Christian writers of the
+constant use which the Christians of those days made of the sign of the
+cross. Tertullian (_De Cor. Mil._ cap. iii.) says: "At each journey and
+progress, at each coming in and going out, at the putting on of shoes,
+at the bath, at meals, at the kindling of lights, at bedtime, at sitting
+down, whatsoever occupation engages us, we mark the brow with the sign
+of the cross." With so frequent an employment of the sign of the cross
+in their domestic life, it would be strange if we did not find that it
+was very frequently used in the public worship of the church. The
+earliest liturgical forms are comparatively late, and are without
+rubrics, but the allusions by different writers in early times to the
+ceremonial use of the sign of the cross in the public services are so
+numerous, and so much importance was attached to it, that we are left in
+no manner of doubt on the point. St Augustine, indeed, speaks of the
+sacraments as not duly ministered if the use of the sign of the cross
+were absent from their ministration (_Hom. cxviii. in S. Joan._). Of the
+later liturgical use of the sign of the cross there is little need to
+speak, as a reference to the service books of the Greek and Latin
+churches will plainly indicate the frequency of, and the importance
+attached to, its employment. Its occasional use is retained by the
+Lutherans, and in the Church of England it is authoritatively used at
+baptism, and at the "sacring" or anointing of the sovereign at the
+coronation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+Passing from the sign to the material figures of the cross, a very usual
+classification distinguishes three main forms: (1) the _crux immissa_,
+or _capitata_ [Latin cross] (fig. 3) known also as the Latin cross, or
+if each limb is of the same length, + (fig. 4) as the Greek cross; (2)
+the _crux decussata_, formed like the letter ×, and (3) the _crux
+commissa_ or tau cross, already mentioned. It was on a crux immissa that
+Christ is believed to have been crucified. The _crux decussata_ is known
+as St Andrew's cross, from the tradition that St Andrew was put to death
+on a cross of that form. The _crux commissa_ is often called St
+Anthony's cross, probably only because it resembles the crutch with
+which the great hermit is generally depicted.
+
+The cross in one form or other appears, appropriately, on the flags and
+ensigns of many Christian countries. The English cross of St George is a
+plain red cross on a white ground, the Scottish cross of St Andrew is a
+plain diagonal white cross on a blue ground, and the Irish cross of St
+Patrick is a plain diagonal red cross on a white ground. These three
+crosses are combined in the Union Jack (see FLAG).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+The cross has also been adopted by many orders of knighthood. Perhaps
+the best known of these is the cross of the knights of Malta. It is a
+white cross of eight points on a black ground (fig. 5) and is the proper
+Maltese cross, a name which is often wrongly applied to the cross
+_patée_ (fig. 6). The knights of the Garter use the cross of St George,
+as do those of the order of St Michael and St George, the knights of the
+Thistle use St Andrew's cross, and those of St Patrick the cross of St
+Patrick charged with a shamrock leaf. The cross of the Danish order of
+the Dannebrog (fig. 7) affords a good example of this use of the cross.
+It is in form a white cross patée, superimposed upon a red one of the
+same form, and is surmounted by the royal cipher and crown, and has upon
+its surface the royal cipher repeated, and the legend, or motto, "_Gud
+og Kongen_" = "God and the King." (For crosses of monastic orders see
+COSTUME.)
+
+Akin to the crosses of knightly orders are those which figure as charges
+on coats of arms. The science of heraldry evolved a wonderful variety of
+cross-forms during the period it held sway in the middle ages. The
+different forms of cross used in heraldry are, in fact, so numerous that
+it is only the larger works on that subject which attempt to record them
+all. For such crosses see HERALDRY.
+
+In the middle ages the cross form, in one way or another, was
+predominant everywhere, and was introduced whenever opportunity offered
+itself for doing so. The larger churches were planned on its outline, so
+that the ridge line of their roofs proclaimed it far and wide. This was
+more particularly followed in the north of Europe, but when it was first
+introduced is not quite certain. All the ancient cathedral churches of
+England and Wales are cruciform in plan, except Llandaff.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Cross of the Dannebrog.]
+
+The artistic skill and ingenuity of the medieval designer has produced
+cross designs of endless variety, and of singular elegance and beauty.
+Some of the most beautiful of these designs are the gable crosses of the
+old churches. Fig. 8 shows the west gable cross of Washburn church,
+Worcestershire; fig. 9 that of the nave of Castle Acre church, Norfolk;
+and fig. 10 the east gable cross of Hethersett church in that county.
+They may be taken as good examples of a type of cross which is often of
+great beauty, but it is overlooked, owing to its bad position for
+observation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+Other architectural crosses, of great beauty of design, are those which
+occur on the grave slabs of the middle ages. Instances of a plainer type
+occur in Saxon times, but it was not till after the 11th century that
+they were fashioned after the intricate and beautiful designs with which
+our ancient churches are, as a rule, so plentifully supplied. Sometimes
+these crosses are incised in the slab, and almost as often they are
+executed in low relief. The long shaft of the cross is most commonly
+plain, but there are a very large number of instances in which this is
+not so, and in which branches, with leaf designs, are thrown out at
+intervals the entire length of the shaft. In some cases the shaft rises
+from a series of steps at its base, and in such a case the name of a
+Calvary cross is applied to it. Fig. 11, from Stradsett church, Norfolk,
+and fig. 12 from Bosbury church, Herefordshire, are good examples of the
+designs at the head of sepulchral crosses. Often, by the side of the
+cross, an emblem or symbol is placed, denoting the calling in life of
+the person commemorated. Thus a sword is placed to indicate a knight or
+soldier, a chalice for a priest, and so forth; but it would be
+travelling beyond the scope of this article to enter into a discussion
+as to such symbols.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+Of upright standing crosses, the Irish and Iona types are well known,
+and their great artistic beauty and elaboration and excellence of
+sculpture are universally recognized. These crosses are sometimes spoken
+of as "Runic Crosses"; and the interlacing knotwork design with which
+many of them are ornamented is also at times spoken of as "Runic." This
+is an erroneous application of the word, and has arisen from the fact
+that some of these crosses bear inscriptions in Runic characters.
+Standing crosses, of different kinds, were commonly set up in every
+suitable place during the middle ages, as the mutilated bases and shafts
+still remaining readily testify. Such crosses were erected in the centre
+of the market place, in the churchyard, on the village green, or as
+boundary stones, or marks to guide the traveller. Some, like the Black
+Friars cross at Hereford, were preaching stations, others, like the
+beautiful Eleanor crosses at Northampton, Geddington and Waltham, were
+commemorative in character. Of these latter crosses, which marked the
+places where the funeral procession of Queen Eleanor halted, there were
+originally ten or more, erected between 1241 and 1294. They were placed
+at Lincoln, Northampton, Stony Stratford, Woburn, Dunstable, St Albans,
+Waltham and London (Cheapside and Charing Cross). The cross at
+Geddington differs in outline from those at Northampton and Waltham, and
+it is not recorded on the roll of accounts for the nine others, all of
+which are mentioned, but there is no real doubt that it commemorates the
+resting of the coffin of the queen in Geddington church on its way from
+Harby. These crosses, like the Black Friars cross at Hereford, are
+elaborate architectural erections, and very similar to them in this
+respect are the beautiful market crosses at Winchester, Chichester,
+Salisbury, Devizes, Shepton Mallet, Leighton Buzzard, &c. Of churchyard
+crosses, as distinguished from memorial crosses in churchyards, one only
+is believed to have escaped in a perfect condition the ravages of time,
+and the fanaticism of the past. It stands in the churchyard of Somerby,
+in Lincolnshire (Tennyson's birthplace), and is a tall shaft surmounted
+by a pedimented tabernacle, on one side of which is the crucifixion, and
+on the other the figure of the Virgin and Child. Churchyard crosses may
+have been used as occasional preaching stations, for reading the Gospel
+in the Palm Sunday procession, and generally for public proclamations,
+made usually at the conclusion of the chief Sunday morning service, much
+in the same way that market crosses were used on market days as places
+for proclamations in the towns.
+
+Of the ecclesiastical use of the sign of the cross mention has already
+been made, and it is desirable to mention briefly one or two instances
+of the ecclesiastical use of the cross itself. From a fairly early
+period it has been the prerogative of an archbishop or metropolitan, to
+have a cross borne before him within the limits of his province. The
+question urged between the archbishops of Canterbury and York about the
+carrying of their crosses before them, in each other's province, was a
+fruitful source of controversy in the middle ages. The archiepiscopal
+cross must not be confused with the crozier or pastoral staff. The
+latter, which is formed with a crook at the end, is quite distinct, and
+is used by archbishops and bishops alike, who bear it with the left hand
+in processions, and when blessing the people. The archiepiscopal cross,
+on the contrary, is always borne before the archbishop, or during the
+vacancy of the archiepiscopal see before the guardian of the
+spiritualities _sede vacante_. The bishop of Dol in Brittany, of
+ordinary diocesan bishops, alone possessed the privilege of having a
+cross borne before him in his diocese. Good illustrations of the
+archiepiscopal cross occur on the monumental brasses of Archbishop
+Waldeby, of York (1397), at Westminster Abbey, and of Archbishop
+Cranley, of Dublin (1417) in New College chapel, Oxford.
+
+The custom of carrying a cross at the head of an ecclesiastical
+procession can be traced back to the end of the 4th century. The cross
+was originally taken from the altar, and raised on a pole, and so borne
+before the procession. Afterwards a separate cross was provided for
+processions, but in poor churches, where this was not the case, the
+altar cross continued to be used till quite a late period. A direction
+to this effect occurs as late as 1829, in the _Rituel_ published for the
+diocese of La Rochelle in that year. In England altar crosses were not
+very usual in the middle ages.
+
+As a personal ornament the cross came into common use, and was usually
+worn suspended by a chain from the neck. A cross of this kind, of very
+great interest and beauty, was found about 1690, on the breast of Queen
+Dagmar, the wife of Waldemar II., king of Denmark (d. 1213). It is of
+Byzantine design and workmanship, and is of enamelled gold (fig. 13
+shows both sides of it); on one side is the Crucifixion, and on the
+other side the half figure of our Lord in the centre, with the Virgin
+and St John the Evangelist on either side, and St Chrysostom and St
+Basil above and below. From the way in which such crosses were worn,
+hanging over the chest, they are called pectoral crosses. At the present
+day a pectoral cross forms part of the recognized insignia of a Roman
+Catholic bishop, and is worn by him over his robes, but this official
+use of the pectoral cross is not ancient, and no instance is known of it
+in England before the Reformation. The custom appears to have taken
+rise in the 16th century on the continent. It was not unusual to wear
+cruciform reliquaries, as objects of personal adornment, and such a
+reliquary was found on the body of St Cuthbert, when his tomb was opened
+in 1827, but it was placed under, and not over his episcopal vestments,
+and formed no part of his bishop's attire. The custom of wearing a
+pectoral cross over ecclesiastical robes has, curiously enough, been
+copied from the comparatively modern Roman Catholic usage by the
+Lutheran bishops and superintendents in Scandinavia and Prussia; and in
+Sweden the cross is now delivered to the new bishop, on his installation
+in office, by the archbishop of Upsala, together with the mitre and
+crozier. Within the last generation the use of a pectoral cross, worn
+over their robes as part of the insignia of the episcopal office, has
+been adopted by some bishops of the Church of England, but it has no
+ancient sanction or authority.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Dagmar Cross.]
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Mortillet, _Le Signe de la croix avant le Christianisme_
+  (Paris, 1866); Bingham, _Antiquities of the Christian Church_;
+  Lipsius, _De Cruce Christi_; Lady Eastlake, _History of our Lord_,
+  vol. ii.; Cutts, _Manual of Sepulchral Slabs and Crosses_; (Anon.)
+  _Handbook to Christian and Ecclesiastical Rome_, part ii. (London,
+  1897); Veldeuer, _History of the Holy Cross_ (reprint, 1863).
+       (T. M. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Derivatives of the Latin _crux_ appear in many forms in European
+    languages, cf. Ger. _Kreuz_, Fr. _croix_, It. _croce_, &c.; the
+    English form seems Norse in origin (O.N. _Krosse_, mod. _Kors_). The
+    O.E. name was _rod_, rood (q.v.).
+
+  [2] The acceptance of this word as the English equivalent for this
+    peculiar form of the cross rests only, according to the _New English
+    Dictionary_, on a MS. of about 1500 in the Lansdowne collection,
+    which gives details for the erection of a memorial stained-glass
+    window, "... the fylfot in the nedermost pane under ther I knele
+    ..."; in the sketch given with the instructions a cross occupies the
+    space indicated. It is a question, therefore, whether "fylfot" is a
+    name for any device suitable to "fill the foot" of any design, or the
+    name peculiar to this particular form of cross. The word is not, as
+    was formerly accepted, a corruption of the O. Eng. _feowerfete_,
+    four-footed.
+
+
+
+
+CROSSBILL (Fr. _Bec-croisé_, Ger. _Kreuzschnabel_), the name given to a
+genus of birds, belonging to the family _Fringillidae_, or finches, from
+the unique peculiarity they possess among the whole class of having the
+horny sheaths of the bill crossing one another obliquely,[1] whence the
+appellation _Loxia_ ([Greek: loxos], _obliquus_), conferred by Gesner on
+the group and continued by Linnaeus. At first sight this singular
+structure appears so like a deformity that writers have not been wanting
+to account it such,[2] ignorant of its being a piece of mechanism most
+beautifully adapted to the habits of the bird, enabling it to extract
+with the greatest ease, from fir-cones or fleshy fruits, the seeds which
+form its usual and almost invariable food. Its mode of using this unique
+instrument seems to have been first described by Townson (_Tracts on
+Nat. Hist._, p. 116, London, 1799), but only partially, and it was
+Yarrell who, in 1829 (_Zool. Journ._, iv. pp. 457-465, pl. xiv. figs.
+1-7), explained fully the means whereby the jaws and the muscles which
+direct their movements become so effective in riving asunder cones or
+apples, while at the proper moment the scoop-like tongue is
+instantaneously thrust out and withdrawn, conveying the hitherto
+protected seed to the bird's mouth. The articulation of the mandible to
+the quadrate-bone is such as to allow of a very considerable amount of
+lateral play, and, by a particular arrangement of the muscles which move
+the former, it comes to pass that so soon as the bird opens its mouth
+the point of the mandible is brought immediately opposite to that of the
+maxilla (which itself is movable vertically), instead of crossing or
+overlapping it--the usual position when the mouth is closed. The two
+points thus meeting, the bill is inserted between the scales or into
+the pome, but on opening the mouth still more widely, the lateral motion
+of the mandible is once more brought to bear with great force to wrench
+aside the portion of the fruit attacked, and then the action of the
+tongue completes the operation, which is so rapidly performed as to defy
+scrutiny, except on very close inspection. Fortunately the birds soon
+become tame in confinement, and a little patience will enable an
+attentive observer to satisfy himself as to the process, the result of
+which at first seems almost as unaccountable as that of a clever
+conjuring trick.
+
+The common crossbill of the Palaearctic region (_Loxia curvirostra_) is
+about the size of a skylark, but more stoutly built. The young (which on
+leaving the nest have not the tips of the bill crossed) are of a dull
+olive colour with indistinct dark stripes on the lower parts, and the
+quills of the wings and tail dusky. After the first moult the difference
+between the sexes is shown by the hens inclining to yellowish-green,
+while the cocks become diversified by orange-yellow and red, their
+plumage finally deepening into a rich crimson-red, varied in places by a
+flame-colour. Their glowing hues, are, however, speedily lost by
+examples which may be kept in confinement, and are replaced by a dull
+orange, or in some cases by a bright golden-yellow, and specimens have,
+though rarely, occurred in a wild state exhibiting the same tints. The
+cause of these changes is at present obscure, if not unknown, and it
+must be admitted that their sequence has been disputed by some excellent
+authorities, but the balance of evidence is certainly in favour of the
+above statement. Depending mainly for food on the seeds of conifers, the
+movements of crossbills are irregular beyond those of most birds, and
+they would seem to rove in any direction and at any season in quest of
+their staple sustenance. But the pips of apples are also a favourite
+dainty, and it is recorded by the old chronicler Matthew Paris (_Hist.
+Angl._ MS. fol. 252), that in 1251 the orchards of England were ravaged
+by birds, "pomorum grana, & non aliud de eisdem pomis comedentes,"
+which, from his description, "Habebant autem partes rostri cancellatas,
+per quas poma quasi forcipi vel cultello dividebant," could be none
+other but crossbills. Notice of a like visitation in 1593 is recorded,
+but of late it has become evident that not a year passes without
+crossbills being observed in some part or other of England, while in
+certain localities in Scotland they seem to breed annually. The nest is
+rather rudely constructed, and the eggs, generally four in number,
+resemble those of the greenfinch, but are larger in size. This species
+ranges throughout the continent of Europe,[3] and occurs in the islands
+of the Mediterranean and in the fir-woods of the Atlas. In Asia it would
+seem to extend to Kamtschatka and Japan, keeping mainly to the
+forest-tracts.
+
+Three other forms of the genus also inhabit the Old World--two of them
+so closely resembling the common bird that their specific validity has
+been often questioned. The first of these, of large stature, the
+parrot-crossbill (_L. pityopsittacus_), comes occasionally to Great
+Britain, presumably from Scandinavia, where it is known to breed. The
+second (_L. himalayana_), which is a good deal smaller, is only known
+from the Himalaya Mountains. The third, the two-barred crossbill (_L.
+taenioptera_), is very distinct, and its proper home seems to be the
+most northern forests of the Russian empire, but it has occasionally
+occurred in western Europe and even in England.
+
+The New World has two birds of the genus. The first (_L. americana_),
+representing the common British species, but with a smaller bill, and
+the males easily recognizable by their more scarlet plumage, ranges from
+the northern limit of coniferous trees to the highlands of Mexico, or
+even farther. The other (_L. leucoptera_) is the equivalent of the
+two-barred crossbill, but smaller. It has twice occurred in England.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This peculiarity is found as an accidental malformation in the
+    crows (_Corvidae_) and other groups; it is comparable to the
+    monstrosities seen in rabbits and other members of the order
+    _Glires_, in which the incisor teeth grow to an inordinate length.
+
+  [2] A medieval legend ascribes the conformation of bill and
+    coloration of plumage to a divine recognition of the bird's pity,
+    bestowed on Christ at the crucifixion.
+
+  [3] Dr Malmgren found a small flock on Bear Island (lat. 74˝° N.),
+    but to this barren spot they must have been driven by stress of
+    weather.
+
+
+
+
+CROSSEN, or KROSSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on
+the Oder, here crossed by a bridge, at the influx of the Bober, 31 m.
+S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder by rail. Pop. (1900) 7369. Of the churches in
+the town three are Protestant and one Roman Catholic. Besides the
+modern school (Realprogymnasium), there are a technical school for
+viniculture and fruit-growing and a dairy school. There are
+manufactories of copper and brass ware, cloth, &c., while in the
+surrounding country the chief industries are fruit and grape growing.
+There is a brisk shipping trade, mainly in wine, fruit and fish. Crossen
+was founded in 1005 and was important during the middle ages as a point
+of passage across the Oder. It attained civic rights in 1232, was for a
+time the capital of a Silesian duchy, which, on the death of Barbara of
+Brandenburg, widow of the last duke, passed to Brandenburg (1482). In
+May 1886 the town was devastated by a whirlwind.
+
+
+
+
+CROSSING, in architecture, the term given to the intersection of the
+nave and transept, frequently surmounted by a tower or by a dome on
+pendentives.
+
+
+
+
+CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM (1826-1893), English geologist and Unitarian
+minister, was born at Lewes in Sussex, on the 7th of December 1826.
+After being trained for the ministry at Manchester New College
+(1843-1848), he became pastor of Friargate chapel, Derby, until 1852,
+when he accepted charge of a Unitarian congregation in Glasgow. In 1869
+he removed to Birmingham, where until the close of his life he was
+pastor of the Church of the Messiah. While in Glasgow his interest was
+awakened in geology by the perusal of A. C. Ramsay's _Geology of the
+Isle of Arran_, and from 1855 onwards he devoted his leisure to the
+pursuit of this science. He became an authority on glacial geology, and
+wrote much, especially in conjunction with David Robertson, on the
+post-tertiary fossiliferous beds of Scotland (_Trans. Geol. Soc.
+Glasgow_). He also prepared for the British Association a valuable
+series of Reports (1873-1892) on the erratic Blocks of England, Wales
+and Ireland. In conjunction with David Robertson and G. S. Brady he
+wrote the _Monograph of the Post Tertiary Entomostraca of Scotland_, &c.
+for the Palaeontographical Society (1874); and he edited H. Carvill
+Lewis' _Papers and Notes on the Glacial Geology of Great Britain and
+Ireland_, issued posthumously (1894). He died at Edgbaston, Birmingham,
+on the 1st of October 1893.
+
+  See _H. W. Crosskey: his Life and Work_, by R. A. Armstrong (with
+  chapter on his geological work by Prof. C. Lapworth, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+CROSS RIVER, a river of West Africa, over 500 m. long. It rises in 6° N,
+10° 30´ E. in the mountains of Cameroon, and flows at first N.W. In 8°
+48´ E., 5° 50´ N. are a series of rapids; below this point the river is
+navigable for shallow-draught boats. At 8° 20´ E., 6° 10´ N., its most
+northern point, the river turns S.W. and then S., entering the Gulf of
+Guinea through the Calabar estuary. The Calabar river, which rises about
+5° 30´ N., 8° 30´ E., has a course parallel to, and 10 to 20 m. east of,
+the Cross river. Near its mouth, on its east bank, is the town of
+Calabar (q.v.). It enters the estuary in 4° 45´ N. The Cross, Calabar,
+Kwa and other streams farther east, which rise on the flanks of the
+Cameroon Mountains, form a large delta. The Calabar and Kwa rivers are
+wholly within the British protectorate of Southern Nigeria, as is the
+Cross river from its mouth to the rapids mentioned. The upper course of
+the river is in German territory.
+
+
+
+
+CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT, in former times the method of disposing of
+executed criminals and suicides. At the cross-roads a rude cross usually
+stood, and this gave rise to the belief that these spots were selected
+as the next best burying-places to consecrated ground. The real
+explanation is that the ancient Teutonic peoples often built their
+altars at the cross-roads, and as human sacrifices, especially of
+criminals, formed part of the ritual, these spots came to be regarded as
+execution grounds. Hence after the introduction of Christianity,
+criminals and suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night,
+in order to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the
+pagans. An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous
+Tyburn in London, which stood on the spot where the Oxford, Edgware and
+London roads met.
+
+
+
+
+CROSS SPRINGER, in architecture, the block from which the diagonal ribs
+of a vault spring or start: the top of the springer is known as the
+skewback (see ARCH).
+
+
+
+
+CROTCH, WILLIAM (1775-1847), English musician, was born in Green's Lane,
+Norwich, on the 5th of July 1775. His father was a master carpenter. The
+child was extraordinarily precocious, and when scarcely more than two
+years of age he played upon an organ of his parent's construction
+something like the tune of "God save the King." At the age of four he
+came to London and gave daily recitals on the organ in the rooms of a
+milliner in Piccadilly. The precocity of his musical intuition was
+almost equalled by a singularly early aptitude for drawing. In 1786 he
+went to Cambridge as assistant to Dr Randall the organist. His oratorio
+_The Captivity of Judah_ was played at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, on the
+4th of June 1789. He was then only fourteen years of age. His intention
+of entering the church carried him to Oxford in 1788, but the superior
+attractions of a musical career acquired an increasing influence over
+him, and in 1790 he was appointed organist of Christ Church. At the
+early age of twenty-two he was appointed professor of music in the
+university of Oxford, and there in 1799 he took his degree of doctor in
+that art. In 1800 and the four following years he read lectures on music
+at Oxford. Next he was appointed lecturer on music to the Royal
+Institution, and subsequently, in 1822, principal of the London Royal
+Academy of Music. His last years were passed at Taunton in the house of
+his son, the Rev. W. R. Crotch, where he died suddenly on the 29th of
+December 1847. He published a number of vocal and instrumental
+compositions, of which the best is his oratorio _Palestine_, produced in
+1812. In 1831 appeared an 8vo volume containing the substance of his
+lectures on music, delivered at Oxford and in London. Previously, he had
+published three volumes of _Specimens of Various Styles of Music_. Among
+his didactic works is _Elements of Musical Composition and
+Thorough-Bass_ (London, 1812). The oratorio bearing the title _The
+Captivity of Judah_, and produced on the occasion of the installation of
+the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the university of Oxford in
+1834, is a totally different work from that which he wrote upon the same
+subject as a boy of fourteen. He arranged for the pianoforte a number of
+Handel's oratorios and operas, besides symphonies and quartetts of
+Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. The great expectations excited by his
+infant precocity were not fulfilled; for he manifested no extraordinary
+genius for musical composition. But he was an industrious student and a
+sound artist, and his name remains familiar in English musical history.
+
+
+
+
+CROTCHET (from the Fr. _croche_, a hook; whence also the Anglicized
+"crochet," pronounced as in French, for the knitting-work done with a
+hook instead of on pins), properly a small hook, and so used of the
+hook-like _setae_ or bristles found in certain worms which burrow in
+sand. In music, a "crotchet" is a note of half the value of a minim and
+double that of a quaver; it is marked by a round black head and a line
+without a tail or hook; the French _croche_ is used of a "quaver" which
+has a tail, but in ancient music the _semiminima_, the modern crotchet,
+is marked by an open note with a hook. Derived either from an old French
+proverbial phrase, _il a des crochues en teste_, or from a meaning of
+twist or turn, as in the similar expression "crank," comes the sense of
+a whim, fancy or perverse idea, seen also in the adjective "crotchety"
+of a fussy unreasonable person.
+
+
+
+
+CROTONA, CROTO or CROTON (Gr. [Greek: Krotôn], mod. Cotrone) a Greek
+town on the E. coast of the territory of the Bruttii (mod. _Calabria_),
+on a promontory 7 m. N.W. of the Lacinian promontory. It was founded by
+a colony of Achaeans led by Myscellus in 710 B.C. Its name was,
+according to the legend, that of a local prince who afforded hospitality
+to Heracles, but was accidentally killed by him and buried on the spot.
+Like Sybaris, it soon became a city of power and wealth. It was
+especially celebrated for its successes in the Olympic games from 588
+B.C. onwards, Milo being the most famous of its athletes. Pythagoras
+established himself here between 540 and 530 B.C. and formed a society
+of 300 disciples (among whom was Milo), who acquired considerable
+influence with the supreme council of 1000 by which the city was ruled.
+In 510 B.C. Crotona was strong enough to defeat the Sybarites, with whom
+it had previously been on friendly terms, and raze their city to the
+ground. Shortly afterwards, however, an insurrection took place, by
+which the disciples of Pythagoras were driven out, and a democracy
+established. The victory of the Locrians and Phlegians over Crotona in
+480 B.C. marked the beginning of its decline. It suffered after this
+from the attacks of Dionysius I., who became its master for twelve
+years, of the Bruttii, and of Agathocles, and even more from the
+invasion of Pyrrhus, after which in 277 the Romans obtained possession
+of it. Livy states that the walls had a length of 12 m. and that about
+half the area within them had at that time ceased to be inhabited. After
+the battle of Cannae Crotona revolted from Rome, and Hannibal made it
+his winter quarters for three years. It was made a colony by the Romans
+at the end of the war (194 B.C.). After that time but little is heard of
+it, though Petronius mentions the corrupt morals of its inhabitants; but
+it continues to be mentioned down to the Gothic wars. The importance of
+the city was mainly due to its harbour, which, though not a good one,
+was the only port between Tarentum and Rhegium. The original settlement
+occupied the hill above it (143 ft.) and later became the acropolis. Its
+healthy situation was famous in antiquity, and to this was ascribed its
+superiority in athletics; it was the seat also of a medical school which
+in the days of Herodotus was considered the first in Greece. Of the
+exact site of the ancient city and its remains practically nothing is
+known; a few fragments of the productions of its art preserved in
+private hands at Cotrone are described by F. von Duhn in _Notizie degli
+scavi_, 1897, 343 seq.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CROTONIC ACID (C4H6O2). Three acids of this empirical formula are known,
+viz. crotonic acid, isocrotonic acid and methacrylic acid; the
+constitutional formulae are--
+
+     HCˇCO(2)H,          HCˇCO2H               /CH3
+      ˇˇ                    ˇˇ           CH2:C
+     HCˇCH3             CH3ˇCH                 \CO2H.
+  Crotonic Acid.   Isocrotonic Acid.   Methacrylic Acid.
+
+The isomerism of crotonic and isocrotonic acids is to be explained on
+the assumption of a different spatial arrangement of the atoms in the
+molecule (see STEREOCHEMISTRY).
+
+Crotonic acid, so named from the fact that it was erroneously supposed
+to be a saponification product of croton oil, may be prepared by the
+oxidation of croton-aldehyde, CH3ˇCH:CHˇCHO, obtained by dehydrating
+aldol, or by treating acetylene successively with sulphuric acid and
+water; by boiling allyl cyanide with caustic potash; by the distillation
+of ß-oxybutyric acid; by heating paraldehyde with malonic acid and
+acetic acid to 100° C. (T. Komnenos, _Ann._, 1883, 218, p. 149).
+
+  CH2(COOH)2 + CH3CHO -> CH3CH:C(COOH)2 -> CH3ˇCH:CHˇCOOH;
+
+or by heating pyruvic acid with an excess of acetic anhydride and sodium
+acetate to 160-180° C. (B. Homolka, _Ber._, 1885, 18, p. 987). It
+crystallizes in needles (from hot water) which melt at 72° C. and boil
+at 180-181° C. It is moderately soluble in cold water. It combines
+directly with bromine, and, with fuming hydrobromic acid at 100° C., it
+gives chiefly [alpha]-brombutyric acid. With hydriodic acid it gives
+only ß-iodobutyric acid. Potash fusion converts it into acetic acid;
+nitric acid oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acids; chromic acid mixture
+to acetaldehyde and acetic acid, and potassium permanganate to
+[alpha]ß-dioxybutyric acid.
+
+Isocrotonic acid (Quartenylic acid) is obtained from ß-chlorisocrotonic
+acid, formed when acetoacetic ester is treated with phosphorus
+pentachloride and the product poured into water, by the action of sodium
+amalgam (A. Geuther). It is an oil, possessing a smell like that of
+butyric acid. It boils at 171.9° C., with partial conversion into
+crotonic acid; the transformation is complete when the acid is heated to
+170-180° C. in a sealed tube. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to
+ß[gamma]-dioxybutyric acid.
+
+Methacrylic acid was first obtained in the form of its ethyl ester by E.
+Frankland and B. F. Duppa (_Annalen_, 1865, 136, p. 12) by acting with
+phosphorus pentachloride on oxyisobutyric ester (CH3)2ˇC(OH)ˇCOOC2H5. It
+is, however, more readily obtained by boiling citra- or
+meso-brompyrotartaric acids with alkalis. It crystallizes in prisms,
+which are soluble in water, melt at 16° C., and boil at 160.5° C. When
+fused with an alkali, it forms propionic acid; with biomine it yields
+[alpha]ß-dibromisobutyric acid. Sodium amalgam reduces it to isobutyric
+acid. A polymeric form of methacrylic acid has been described by F.
+Engelhorn (_Ann._, 1880, 200, p. 70).
+
+
+
+
+CROTON OIL (_Crotonis Oleum_), an oil prepared from the seeds of _Croton
+Tiglium_, a tree belonging to the natural order Euphorbiaceae, and
+native or cultivated in India and the Malay Islands. The tree is from 15
+to 20 ft. in height, and has few and spreading branches, alternate,
+oval-oblong leaves, acuminate at the point, and covered when young with
+stellate hairs, and terminal racemes of small, downy, greenish-yellow,
+monoecious flowers. The male blossoms have five petals and fifteen
+stamens; the females have no petals but a large oblong ovary bearing
+three bifid styles. The fruit or capsule is obtusely three-cornered, and
+about the size of a hazel-nut; it contains three cells each enclosing a
+seed. The seeds resemble those of the castor-oil plant; they are about
+half an inch long, and two-fifths of an inch broad, and have a
+cinnamon-brown, brittle integument; between the two halves of the kernel
+lie the large cotyledons and radicle. The ocular distinction between the
+two kinds of seeds may be of great practical importance. The most
+obvious distinction is that the castor-oil seeds have a polished and
+mottled surface. The kernels contain from 50 to 60% of oil, which is
+obtained by pressing them, when bruised to a pulp, between hot plates.
+Croton oil is a transparent and viscid liquid of a brownish or
+pale-yellow tinge, and acrid, peculiar and persistent taste, a
+disagreeable odour and acid reaction. It is soluble in volatile oils,
+carbon disulphide, and ether, and to some extent in alcohol. It contains
+acetic, butyric and valeric acids, with glycerides of acids of the same
+series, and a volatile body, C5H8O2, tiglic acid, metameric with angelic
+acid, and identical with methylcrotonic acid, CH3ˇCH:C(CH3)(CO2H). The
+odour is due to various volatile acids, which are present to the extent
+of about 1%. A substance called crotonal appears to be responsible for
+its external, but not its internal, action. The latter is probably due
+to crotolinic acid, C9H14O2, which has active purgative properties. The
+maximum dose of croton oil is two minims, one-fourth of that quantity
+being usually ample.
+
+Applied to the skin, croton oil acts as a powerful irritant, inducing so
+much inflammation that definite pustules are formed. The destruction of
+the true skin gives rise to ugly scars which constitute, together with
+the pain caused by this application, abundant reason why croton oil
+should never be employed externally. Despite the pharmacopoeial liniment
+and the practice of a few, it may be said that this employment of croton
+oil is now entirely without justification or excuse.
+
+Taken internally, even in the minute doses already detailed, croton oil
+very soon causes much colic and the occurrence of a fluid diarrhoea
+which usually recurs several times. It is characteristic of this
+purgative that it is a hydragogue even in minimal dose, the fluid
+secretions of the bowel being most markedly increased. The drug appears
+to act only upon the small intestine. In somewhat larger doses it
+produces severe gastro-enteritis. The flow of bile is somewhat
+increased. Such effects may all be produced, even up to the discharge of
+blood, by the absorption of croton oil from the skin.
+
+The minuteness of the dose, the certainty of the action, and the large
+amount of fluid drained away constitute this the best drug for
+administration to an unconscious patient (especially in cases of
+apoplexy, when it is desirable to remove fluid from the body), or to
+insane patients who refuse to take any drug. One drop of the oil, placed
+on the back of the tongue, must inevitably be swallowed by reflex
+action. A dose should never be repeated. The characters of this drug
+obviously contra-indicate its use in all cases of organic disease or
+obstruction of the bowel, in pregnancy, or in cases of constipation in
+children or the aged.
+
+
+
+
+CROUP, a name formerly given to diseases characterized by distress in
+breathing accompanied by a metallic cough and some hoarseness of
+speech. It is now known that these symptoms are often associated with
+diphtheria (q.v.), spasmodic laryngitis (q.v.), and a third disease,
+spasmodic croup, to which the term is now alone applied. This occurs
+most frequently in children above two years of age; the child goes to
+bed quite well, and a few hours later suddenly awakes with great
+difficulty in inspiration, the chest wall becomes markedly retracted,
+and there is a metallic cough. The child becomes cyanosed, and, to the
+inexperienced nurse, seems in an almost moribund condition. In the
+course of four or five minutes, normal respiration starts again, and the
+attack is over for the time being; but it may recur several times a day.
+The seizure may be accompanied by convulsions, and death has occurred
+from dyspnoea. The best treatment is to plunge the child into a warm
+bath, and sponge the back and chest with cold water. Subsequently this
+can be done two or three times a day. Should the cyanosis become very
+severe, respiration can be restarted by making the child sick, either
+with a dose of ipecacuanha wine, or by forcing one's finger down the
+throat. Generally the bowels should be attended to; and the throat
+carefully examined for enlarged tonsils or adenoids, which if present
+should be treated.
+
+
+
+
+CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE (1663-1750), Swiss writer, was born at Lausanne.
+He was a many-sided man, whose numerous works on many subjects had a
+great vogue in their day, but are now forgotten. He has been described
+as an _initiateur plutôt qu'un créateur_, chiefly because he introduced
+at Lausanne the philosophy of Descartes in opposition to the reigning
+Aristotelianism, and also as a Calvinist pendant (for he was a pastor)
+of the French _abbés_ of the 18th century. He studied at Geneva, Leyden
+and Paris, before becoming (1700) professor of philosophy and
+mathematics at the academy of Lausanne, of which he was four times
+rector before 1724, when the theological disputes connected with the
+_Consensus_[1] led him to accept a chair of philosophy and mathematics
+at Groningen. In 1726 he was appointed governor to the young prince
+Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1735 returned to Lausanne with a good
+pension. In 1737 he was reinstated in his old chair, which he retained
+to his death. Gibbon, describing his first stay at Lausanne (1752-1755),
+writes in his _Autobiography_, "the logic of de Crousaz had prepared me
+to engage with his master Locke and his antagonist Bayle."
+
+  The most important of his works are: _Nouvel Essai de logique_ (1712),
+  _Géométrie des lignes et des surfaces rectilignes et circulaires_
+  (1712), _Traité du beau_ (1714), _Examen du traité de la liberté de
+  penser d'Antoine Collins_ (1718), _De l'éducation des enfants_ (1722,
+  dedicated to the then Princess of Wales), _Examen du pyrrhonisme
+  ancien et moderne_ (1733, an attack chiefly on Bayle), _Examen de
+  l'essai de M. Pope sur l'homme_ (1737, an attack on the Leibnitzian
+  theory of that poem), _Logique_ (6 vols., 1741), _De l'esprit humain_
+  (1741), and _Réflexions sur l'ouvrage intitulé: La Belle Wolfienne_
+  (1743).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The "Consensus ecclesiarum Helveticarum reformatarum" was a
+    document drawn up in 1675 and imposed in 1722--as a test of strict
+    Protestant orthodoxy as to the doctrine of grace--by Bern on its
+    subjects in Lausanne and Vaux.
+
+
+
+
+CROW (Dutch, _kraai_, Ger. _Krähe_, Fr. _corbeau_, Lat. _corvus_), a
+name most commonly applied in Britain to the bird properly called a rook
+(_Corvus frugilegus_), but perhaps originally peculiar to its congener,
+nowadays usually distinguished as the black or carrion-crow (_C.
+corone_). By ornithologists it is also used in a far wider sense, as
+under the title crows, or _Corvidae_, is included a vast number of birds
+from almost all parts of the world, and this family is probably the most
+highly developed of the whole class _Aves_. Leaving out of account the
+best known of these, as the raven, rook, daw, pie and jay, with their
+immediate allies, our attention will here be confined to the crows in
+general; and then the species of the family to which the appellation is
+more strictly applicable may be briefly considered. All authorities
+admit that the family is very extensive, and is capable of being parted
+into several groups, but scarcely any two agree. Especially must reserve
+be exercised as regards the group _Streperinae_, or piping crows,
+belonging to the Australian Region, and referred by some writers to the
+shrikes (_Laniidae_): and the jays too have been erected into a distinct
+family (_Garrulidae_), though it seems hardly possible to separate them
+even as a subfamily from the pies (_Pica_ and its neighbours), which
+lead almost insensibly to the typical crows (_Corvinae_). Dismissing
+these subjects for the present, it will perhaps be most convenient to
+treat of the two groups which are represented by the genera
+_Pyrrhocorax_ or choughs, and _Corvus_ or true crows in the most limited
+sense.
+
+_Pyrrhocorax_ comprehends at least two very good species, which have
+been needlessly divided generically. The best known of them is the
+Cornish chough (_P. graculus_), formerly a denizen of the precipitous
+cliffs of the south coast of England, of Wales, of the west and north
+coasts of Ireland, and some of the Hebrides, but now greatly reduced in
+numbers, and only found in such places as are most free from the
+intrusion of man or of daws (_Corvus monedula_), which last seem to be
+gradually dispossessing it of its sea-girt strongholds, and its present
+scarcity is probably in the main due to its persecution by its kindred.
+In Britain, indeed, it would appear to be only one of the survivors of a
+more ancient fauna, for in other countries where it is found it has been
+driven inland, and inhabits the higher mountains of Europe and North
+Africa. In the Himalayas a larger form occurs, which has been
+specifically distinguished (_P. himalayanus_), but whether justifiably
+so may be doubted. The general colour is a glossy black, and it has the
+bill and legs bright red. The remaining species (_P. alpinus_) is
+altogether a mountaineer, and does not affect a sea-shore life.
+Otherwise it frequents much the same kind of localities, but it does not
+occur in Britain. The alpine chough is somewhat smaller than its
+congener, and is easily distinguished by its shorter and bright yellow
+bill. Remains of both have been found in French caverns the deposits in
+which were formed during the "Reindeer Age." Commonly placed by
+systematists next to _Pyrrhocorax_ is the Australian genus _Corcorax_,
+represented by a single species (_C. melanorhamphus_), but this
+assignment of the bird, which is chiefly a frequenter of woodlands,
+cannot be admitted without hesitation.
+
+Coming now to what may be literally considered crows, our attention is
+mainly directed to the black or carrion-crow (_Corvus corone_) and the
+grey, hooded or Royston crow (_C. cornix_). Both these inhabit Europe,
+but their range and the time of their appearance are very different. The
+former is, speaking generally, a summer visitant to the south-western
+part of Europe, and the latter occupies the north-eastern portion--an
+irregular line drawn diagonally from about the Firth of Clyde to the
+head of the Adriatic roughly marking their respective distribution. But
+both are essentially migrants, and hence it follows that when the black
+crow, as summer comes to an end, retires southward, the grey crow moves
+downward, and in many districts replaces it during winter. Further than
+this, it has been incontestably proved that along or near the boundary
+where these two birds march they not infrequently interbreed, and it is
+believed that the hybrids, which sometimes wholly resemble one or other
+of the parents and at other times assume an intermediate plumage, pair
+indiscriminately among themselves or with the pure stock. Hence it has
+seemed to many ornithologists who have studied the subject, that these
+two birds, so long unhesitatingly regarded as distinct species, are only
+local races of one and the same dimorphic species. No structural
+difference--or indeed any difference except that of range (already
+spoken of) and colour--can be detected, and the problem they offer is
+one of which the solution is exceedingly interesting if not important to
+zoologists in general.[1] Almost omnivorous in their diet, there is
+little edible that comes amiss to them, and, except in South America,
+they are mostly omnipresent. The fish-crow of North America (_C.
+ossifragus_) demands a few words, since it betrays a taste for maritime
+habits beyond that of other species, but the crows of Europe are not
+averse on occasion to prey cast up by the waters. The house-crow of
+India (_C. splendens_) is not very nearly allied to its European
+namesakes, from which it can be readily distinguished by its smaller
+size and the lustrous tints of its darkest feathers; while its
+confidence in the human race has been so long encouraged by its
+intercourse with an unarmed and inoffensive population that it becomes a
+plague to the European abiding or travelling where it is abundant.
+Hardly a station or camp in British India is free from a crowd of
+feathered followers of this species, ready to dispute with the kites and
+the cooks the very meat at the fire.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] As bearing upon this question may be mentioned the fact that the
+    crow of Australia (_C. australis_) is divisible into two forms or
+    races, one having the irides white, the other of a dark colour. It is
+    stated that they keep apart and do not intermix.
+
+
+
+
+CROWBERRY, or CRAKEBERRY, the English name for a low-growing heath-like
+shrub, found on heaths and rocks in Scotland, Ireland and mountainous
+parts of England. It is known botanically as _Empetrum nigrum_, and has
+slender, wiry, spreading branches covered with short, narrow, stiff
+leaves, the margins of which are recurved so as to form a hollow
+cylinder concealing the hairy under face of the leaf--a device to avoid
+excessive loss of water from the leaf under the exposed conditions in
+which the plant grows. The minute flowers are succeeded by black,
+edible, berry-like fruits, one-fourth to one-third of an inch in
+diameter. The plant has a wide distribution, occurring in suitable
+localities throughout the north temperate zone, and on the Andes of
+South America.
+
+
+
+
+CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH (Welsh _crwth_; Fr. _crout_; Ger. _Chrotta_,
+_Hrotta_), a medieval stringed instrument derived from the lyre,
+characterized by a sound-chest having a vaulted back and an open space
+left at each side of the strings to allow the hand to pass through in
+order to stop the strings on the finger-board. The Welsh crwth, which
+survived until the end of the 18th century, is best represented by a
+specimen of that date preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and
+described and illustrated by Carl Engel.[1] The instrument consists of a
+rectangular sound-chest 22 in. long, 9˝ in. wide and 2 in. deep; the
+body is scooped out of a single block, the flat belly being glued on.
+Right through the sound-chest on each side of the finger-board is the
+characteristic open space left for the hand to pass through. There are
+two circular sound-holes; the left foot of the flat bridge, which lies
+obliquely across the belly, passes through the left sound-hole and rests
+inside on the back of the instrument. Six catgut strings fastened to a
+tail-piece are wound round pegs at the top of the crwth; four of these
+strings lie over the sound-board and bridge, and are set in vibration by
+means of a bow, while the two others, used as drones and stretched
+across the left-hand aperture, are twanged by the thumb of the left
+hand. The shape and shallowness of the bridge make it impossible to
+sound a single string with the bow; the arrangement of the strings
+suggests that they were intended to be sounded in pairs. The instrument
+is tuned thus: [Music notes].
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Welsh Crwth, 18th century.]
+
+  At the beginning of the 19th century, William Bingley[2] heard a Welsh
+  peasant playing national airs on a crwth strung as follows:--[Music
+  notes]. Sir John Hawkins[3] relates that in his time there was still a
+  Welshman living in Anglesea who understood how to play the crwth
+  according to traditional usage. Edward Jones[4] and Daines
+  Barrington[5] both give an account of the Welsh crwth of the 18th
+  century which agrees substantially with Engel's; the illustration
+  communicated by Daines Barrington shows the strings of the crwth drawn
+  through holes at the top, and fastened on the back, as on the Persian
+  rebab and other Oriental stringed instruments. On these somewhat
+  scanty authentic records of the instrument, several historians of
+  music have based an illogical claim that the crwth, or rather chrotta
+  or rotta, mentioned by Venantius Fortunatus as a British instrument,
+  was the Welsh crwth as it was known in the 18th century, and was the
+  earliest bowed instrument, and therefore the ancestor of the violin.
+  The lines of Fortunatus, who was bishop of Poictiers during the second
+  half of the 6th century, ran thus:--[6]
+
+    "Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi Barbarus harpa,
+     Graecus Achilliaca, chrotta Britanna canat."
+
+  The bow is not mentioned by Fortunatus, and there is no ground
+  whatever for believing that the Welsh crwth was played with a bow in
+  the 6th century, or indeed for several centuries after. The stringing
+  of the Welsh crwth with the two drone strings still twanged, the form
+  of the body without incurvations, the flat bridge which rendered
+  bowing, even in the most highly developed specimens of the 18th
+  century, a difficult task, together with what is known of the early
+  history of the chrotta and rotta derived from the lyre and cithara and
+  like them twanged by fingers or plectrum, all make the claim
+  untenable. Carl Engel was probably the first to expose the fallacy in
+  his work on the violin.[7]
+
+  British lexicographers all agree in deriving the words crwth, crowd
+  and other forms of the name, from some word meaning a bulging
+  protuberant bellying form, while in German the etymology of the word
+  _Chrotta_ is given as _Chrota_ or _Chreta_, the O.H.G. for _Kröte_ =
+  toad, _Schildkröte_ = tortoise. This word _Chrotta_ was undoubtedly
+  the German equivalent term for the lyre of Hermes, having as back a
+  tortoise-shell, [Greek: chelys] in Greek and _testudo_ in Latin.
+  Chrotta was also spelt _hrotta_, and it is easy to see how this became
+  rotta. A thoughtful and suggestive treatment of the whole subject will
+  be found in Engel's work, to which reference has been made. Just as
+  the lyre and cithara, which appeared to be similar to the casual
+  observer, and are indeed still confused at the present day, were
+  instruments differing essentially in construction[8]; so there were,
+  during the early middle ages, while lyre and cithara were still in
+  transition, two types of chrotta or rotta. (1) The rotta or improved
+  cithara had a body either rectangular with the corners rounded, or
+  guitar-shaped with incurvations, back and sound-board being nearly or
+  quite flat, joined as in the cithara by ribs or sides. This rotta must
+  be reckoned among the early ancestors of the violin before the advent
+  of the bow; it was known both as rotta and cithara, and with a neck
+  added it became the guitar-fiddle. (2) The tortoise or lyre chrotta
+  consisted of a protuberant, very convex back cut out of a block of
+  wood, to which was glued a flat sound-board, at first like the lyre,
+  without intermediary ribs. This instrument became the crwth, and there
+  was no further development. The first step in the transition of both
+  lyre and cithara was the incorporation of arms and cross-bar into the
+  body, the same outline being preserved; the second step was the
+  addition of a finger-board against which the strings were stopped,
+  thus increasing the compass while restricting the number of strings to
+  three or four; the third step, observed only in the rotta-cithara,
+  consisted in the addition of a neck,[9] as in the guitar. The crwth,
+  crowd, crouth did not undergo this third transition even when the bow
+  was used to set the strings in vibration.
+
+  [Illustration: Drawn from a plate in Auguste de Bastard's _Peintures
+  et ornements de la bible de Charles le Chauve_.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Early Crwth, 9th century.]
+
+  The earliest representation of the crwth yet discovered dates from the
+  Carolingian period. In the miniatures of the Bible of Charles the
+  Bald,[10] in the Bibliothčque Nationale, Paris, one of the musicians
+  of King David is seen stopping strings on the finger-board with his
+  left hand and plucking them with the right (fig. 2); this crwth has
+  only three strings, and may be the crwth _trîthant_ of Wales. A second
+  example occurs in the Bible of St Paul,[11] another of the magnificent
+  MSS. prepared for Charles the Bald, and preserved during the middle
+  ages in the monastery of St Paul _extra muros_ in Rome (now deposited
+  in that of St Calixtus in Rome). Other representations are in the
+  miniatures of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. To Edward Heron-Allen
+  (_De fidiculis opuscula_, viii., 1895) is due the discovery of a
+  representation of the Welsh crwth, showing the form still retained in
+  the 18th cent. On the seal of Roger Wade (1316) is a crwth differing
+  but little from the specimen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The
+  14th-century instrument had four strings instead of six, and the foot
+  of the bridge does not appear to pass through the sound-hole--a detail
+  which may have escaped the notice of the artist who cut the seal. The
+  original seal lies in the muniment room at Berkeley Castle in
+  Gloucestershire attached to a defeasance of a bond between the
+  _crowder_ and his debtor Warren de l'Isle, and a cast (see fig. 3) is
+  preserved at the British Museum. The British Museum also possesses two
+  interesting MSS. which concern the crwth: one of these (Add. MS. 14939
+  ff. 4 and 27) contains an extract made by Lewis Morris in 1742 from an
+  ancient Welsh MS. of "Instructions supposed to be wrote for the
+  Crowd"; the other (Add. MS. 15036 ff. 65b and 66) consists of tracings
+  from a 16th-century Welsh MS. copied in 1610 of a bagpipe, a harp and
+  a _krythe_, together with the names of those who played the last at
+  the Eisteddfod. The drawing is crude, and shows an instrument similar
+  to Roger Wade's crowd, but having three strings instead of four.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Crowd on a 14th-century Seal.]
+
+  The genealogical tree of the violin given below shows the relative
+  positions of both kinds of rotta and chrotta.
+
+               Egyptian lyre-kissar                            Assyrian ketharah
+                        |                                              |
+                        |                                   +----------+---------+
+               Greek lyre or chelys                         |                    |
+                        |                             Greek cithara      Persian cithara
+                   Roman testudo                            |                    |
+                        |                            Roman fidicula     Arab cuitra, guitra
+          +-------------+-------------+--------+            |                or cuitara
+          |             |             |        |            |                    |
+        Latin    Old High Germ.  Anglo-Saxon  Welsh    Cithara in                |
+       chrotta,     Chrota or       crowd     crwth    transition,       Moorish guitarra
+     rotta, rote      Chreta                            or rotta
+                                                            |
+                      +-------------------------------------+----------------+
+                      |                                     |                |
+              Spanish viguela or                    Guitarra Latina     Fidel, fidula,
+               vihuela de arco                     or vihuela de mano  fyella, fythele,
+                      |                                     |               &c.
+                      |                                     |                |
+                      |                              Spanish guitar          |
+              +-------+---------+---------------+                            |
+              |                 |               |                            |
+        Italian viola     French vielle   Guitar-fiddle                    Fiddle
+              |             or viole
+           Violin
+
+  The Welsh crwth was therefore obviously not an exclusively Welsh
+  instrument, but only a late 18th-century survival in Wales of an
+  archaic instrument once generally popular in Europe but long obsolete.
+  An interesting article on the subject in German by J. F. W. Wewertem
+  will be found in _Monatshefte für Musik_ (Berlin, 1881), Nos. 7-12, p.
+  151, &c.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _Early History of the Violin Family_ (London, 1883), pp.
+    24-36.
+
+  [2] See _A Tour round North Wales_ (London, 1804), vol. ii. p. 332.
+
+  [3] _History of Music_ (London, 1766), vol. ii. bk. iii. ch. iii.,
+    description and illustration.
+
+  [4] _Musical and Poetical Relicks of Welsh Bards_ (London, 1794),
+    illustration of crwth, also reproduced by Carl Engel; see note above.
+
+  [5] _Archaeologia_, vol. iii. (London, 1775).
+
+  [6] Venantius Fortunatus, Poëmata, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245; see
+    Migne's _Patrologia Sacra_, vol. 88.
+
+  [7] _Op. cit._ chapters "Crwth," "Chrotta," "Rotta."
+
+  [8] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _Orchestral Instruments_, part ii.,
+    "The Precursors of the Violin Family" (London, 1909), pp. 14 to 23,
+    with illustrations.
+
+  [9] See also Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. ch. vii., "The Cithara in
+    Transition," pp. 111-135 with illustrations.
+
+  [10] See Auguste de Bastard, _Peintures et ornements des MSS. de
+    France_, and _Peintures, ornements, &c., de la bible de Charles le
+    Chauve_, in facsimile (Paris, 1883).
+
+  [11] See J. O. Westwood, _Photographic Facsimile of the Bible of St
+    Paul_ (London, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+CROWE, EYRE EVANS (1799-1868), English journalist and historian, was
+born about the year 1799. He commenced his work as a writer for the
+London newspaper press in connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, and he
+afterwards became a leading contributor to the _Examiner_ and the _Daily
+News_. Of the latter journal he was principal editor for some time
+previous to his death. The department he specially cultivated was that
+of continental history and foreign politics. He published _Lives of
+Foreign Statesmen_ (1830), _The Greek and the Turk_ (1853), and _Reigns
+of Louis XVIII. and Charles X._ (1854). These were followed by his most
+important work, the _History of France_ (5 vols., 1858-1868). It was
+founded upon original sources, in order to consult which the author
+resided for a considerable time in Paris. He died in London on the 25th
+of February 1868.
+
+
+
+
+CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER (1828-1896), English consular official and art
+critic, son of Eyre Crowe, was born in London on the 25th of October
+1828. At an early age he showed considerable aptitude for painting and
+entered the studio of Delaroche in Paris, where his father was
+correspondent of the _Morning Chronicle_. During the Crimean War he was
+the correspondent of the _Illustrated London News_, and during the
+Austro-Italian War represented _The Times_ in Vienna. He was British
+consul-general in Leipzig from 1860 to 1872, and in Düsseldorf from 1872
+to 1880, when he was appointed commercial attaché in Berlin, being
+transferred in a like capacity to Paris in 1882. In 1883 he was
+secretary to the Danube Conference in London; in 1889 plenipotentiary at
+the Samoa Conference in Berlin; and in 1890 British envoy at the
+Telegraph Congress in Paris, in which year he was made K.C.M.G. During a
+sojourn in Italy, 1846-1847, he cemented a lifelong friendship with the
+Italian critic Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (1820-1897), and together
+they produced several historical works on art of classic importance,
+notably _Early Flemish Painters_ (London, 1857); _A New History of
+Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century_ (London,
+1864-1871, 5 vols.). In 1895 Crowe published _Reminiscences of
+Thirty-Five Years of My Life_. He died at Schloss Gamburg in Bavaria on
+the 6th of September 1896.
+
+  Crowe and Cavalcaselle's great _History of Painting_ was under
+  revision by Crowe up to the time of his death, and then by S. A.
+  Strong (d. 1904) and Langton Douglas, who in 1903 brought out vols. i.
+  and ii. of Murray's new six-volume edition, the 3rd vol., edited by
+  Langton Douglas, appearing in 1909. A reprint of the original edition,
+  brought up to date by annotations by Edward Huttons, was published by
+  Dent in 3 vols. in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CROW INDIANS, or ABSAROKAS (the name for a species of hawk), a tribe of
+North American Indians of Siouan stock. They are now settled to the
+number of some 1800 on a reservation in southern Montana to the south of
+the Yellowstone river. Their original range included this reservation
+and extended eastward and southward, and no part of the country for
+hundreds of miles around was safe from their raids. They have ever been
+known as marauders and horse-stealers, and, though they have generally
+been cunning enough to avoid open war with the whites, they have robbed
+them whenever opportunity served. Physically they are tall and athletic,
+with very dark complexions.
+
+
+
+
+CROWLAND, or CROYLAND, a market-town in the S. Kesteven or Stamford
+parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; in a low fen district
+on the river Welland, 8 m. N.E. of Peterborough, and 4 m. from Postland
+station on the March-Spalding line of the Great Northern and Great
+Eastern railways, and Peakirk on the Great Northern. Pop. (1901) 2747. A
+monastery was founded here in 716 by King Ćthelbald, in honour of St
+Guthlac of Mercia (d. 714), a young nobleman who became a hermit and
+lived here, and, it was said, had foretold Ćthelbald's accession to the
+throne. The site of St Guthlac's cell, not far from the abbey, is known
+as Anchor (anchorite's) Church Hill. After the abbey had suffered from
+the Danish incursions in 870, and had been burnt in that year and in
+1091, a fine Norman abbey was raised in 1113. Remains of this building
+appear in the ruined nave and tower arch, but the most splendid fragment
+is the west front, of Early English date, with Perpendicular
+restoration. The west tower is principally in this style. The north
+aisle is restored and used as the parish church. Among the abbots was
+Ingulphus (1085-1109), to whom was formerly attributed the _Historia
+Monasterii Croylandensis_. A curious triangular bridge remains,
+apparently of the 14th century, but referred originally to the middle of
+the 9th century, which spanned three streams now covered, and affords
+three footways which meet at an apex in the middle.
+
+The town of Crowland grew up round the abbey. By a charter dated 716,
+Ćthelbald granted the isle of Crowland, free from all secular services,
+to the abbey with a gift of money, and leave to build and enclose the
+town. The privileges thus obtained were confirmed by numerous royal
+charters extending over a period of nearly 800 years. Under Abbot
+Ćgelric the fens were tilled, the monastery grew rich, and the town
+increased in size, enormous tracts of land being held by the abbey at
+the Domesday Survey. The town was nearly destroyed by fire (1469-1476),
+but the abbey tenants were given money to rebuild it. By virtue of his
+office the abbot had a seat in parliament, but the town was never a
+parliamentary borough. Abbot Ralph Mershe in 1257 obtained a grant of a
+market every Wednesday, confirmed by Henry IV. in 1421, but it was
+afterwards moved to Thorney. The annual fair of St Bartholomew, which
+originally lasted twelve days, was first mentioned in Henry III.'s
+confirmatory charter of 1227. The dissolution of the monastery in 1539
+was fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered under the
+thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the position of an
+unimportant village. The abbey lands were granted by Edward VI. to Lord
+Clinton, from whose family they passed in 1671 to the Orby family. The
+inhabitants formerly carried on considerable trade in fish and wild
+fowl.
+
+  See R. Gough, _History and Antiquities of Croyland_ (Bibl. Top. Brit.
+  iii. No. 11) (London, 1783); W. G. Searle, _Ingulf and the Historia
+  Croylandensis_ (Camb. Antiq. Soc., No. 27); Dugdale, _Monasticon_, ii.
+  91 (London, 1846; Cambridge, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CROWLEY, ROBERT (1518?-1588), English religious and social reformer, was
+born in Gloucestershire, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, of
+which he was successively demy and fellow. Coming to London, he set up a
+printing-office in Ely Rents, Holborn, where he printed many of his own
+writings. As a typographer, his most notable production was an edition
+of _Pierce Plowman_ in 1550, and some of the earliest Welsh printed
+books came from his press. As an author, his first venture seems to have
+been his "Information and Petition against the Oppressors of the poor
+Commons of this realm," which internal evidence shows to have been
+addressed to the parliament of 1547. It contains a vigorous plea for a
+further religious reformation, but is more remarkable for its attack on
+the "more than Turkish tyranny" of the landlords and capitalists of that
+day. While repudiating communism, Crowley was a Christian Socialist, and
+warmly approved the efforts of Protector Somerset to stop enclosures. In
+his _Way to Wealth_, published in 1550, he laments the failure of the
+Protector's policy, and attributes it to the organized resistance of the
+richer classes. In the same year he published (in verse) _The Voice of
+the last Trumpet blown by the seventh Angel_; it is a rebuke in twelve
+"lessons" to twelve different classes of people; and a similar
+production was his _One-and-Thirty Epigrams_ (1550). These, with
+_Pleasure and Pain_ (1551), were edited for the Early English Text
+Society in 1872 (Extra Ser. xv.). The dozen or more other works which
+Crowley published are more distinctly theological: indeed, the failure
+of the temporal policy he advocated seems to have led Crowley to take
+orders, and he was ordained deacon by Ridley on the 29th of September
+1551. During Mary's reign he was among the exiles at Frankfort. At
+Elizabeth's accession he became a popular preacher, was made archdeacon
+of Hereford in 1559, and prebendary of St Paul's in 1563, and was
+incumbent first of St Peter's the Poor in London, and then of St Giles'
+without Cripplegate. He refused to minister in the "conjuring garments
+of popery," and in 1566 was deprived and imprisoned for resisting the
+use of the surplice by his choir. He stated his case in "A brief
+Discourse against the Outward Apparel and Ministering Garments of the
+Popish Church," a tract "memorable," says Canon Dixon, "as the first
+distinct utterance of Nonconformity." He continued to preach
+occasionally, and in 1576 was presented to the living of St Lawrence
+Jewry. Nor had he abandoned his connexion with the book trade, and in
+1578 he was admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company. He died on
+the 18th of June 1588, and was buried in St Giles'. The most important
+of his works not hitherto mentioned is his continuation of Languet and
+Cooper's _Epitome of Chronicles_ (1559).
+
+  See J. M. Cowper's _Pref. to the Select Works of Crowley_ (1872);
+  Strype's Works; Gough's _General Index to Parker Soc. Publ._;
+  Machyn's _Diary_; Macray's _Reg. Magdalen College_; Newcourt's _Rep.
+  Eccles. Lond._; Hennessy's _Nov. Rep. Eccl._ (1898); Le Neve's _Fasti
+  Eccl. Angl._; Pocock's Burnet; Pollard's _England under Somerset_; R.
+  W. Dixon's _Church History_.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CROWN, an English silver coin of the value of five shillings, hence
+often used to express the sum of five shillings. It was originally of
+gold and was first coined in the reign of Henry VIII. Edward VI.
+introduced silver crowns and half-crowns, and down to the reign of
+Charles II. crowns and half-crowns and sometimes double crowns were
+struck both in gold and silver. In the reign of Edward VI. also was
+introduced the practice of dating coins and marking them with their
+current value. The "Oxford crown" struck in the reign of Charles I. was
+designed by Rawlins (see NUMISMATICS: _Medieval_). Since the reign of
+Charles II. the crown has been struck in silver only. At one time during
+the 19th century it was proposed to abandon the issue of the crown, and
+from 1861 until 1887 none was struck, but since the second issue in 1887
+it has been freely in circulation again.
+
+
+
+
+CROWN and CORONET, an official or symbolical ornament worn on or round
+the head. The crown (Lat. _corona_) at first had no regal significance.
+It was a garland, or wreath, of leaves or flowers, conferred on the
+winners in the athletic games. Afterwards it was often made of gold, and
+among the Romans was bestowed as a recognition of honourable service
+performed or distinction won, and on occasion it took such a form as to
+correspond with, or indicate the character of, the service rendered. The
+_corona obsidionalis_ was formed of grass and flowers plucked on the
+spot and given to the general who conquered a city. The _corona civica_,
+made of oak leaves with acorns, was bestowed on the soldier who in
+battle saved the life of a Roman citizen. The mural crown (_corona
+muralis_) was the decoration of the soldier who was the first to scale
+the walls of a besieged city, and was usually a circlet of gold adorned
+with a series of turrets. The naval crown (_corona navalis_), decorated
+in like manner with a series of miniature prows of ships, was the reward
+of him who gained a notable victory at sea. These latter crowns form
+charges in English heraldry (see HERALDRY).
+
+Many other forms of crown were used by the Romans, as the conqueror's
+triumphal crown of laurel, the myrtle crown, and the convivial, bridal,
+funeral and other crowns. Some of the emperors wore crowns on occasion,
+as Caligula and Domitian, at the games, and stellate or spike crowns are
+depicted on the heads of several of the emperors on their coins, but no
+idea of imperial sovereignty was indicated thereby. The Roman people,
+who had accepted imperial rule as a fact, were very jealous of the
+employment of its emblem on the part of their rulers. That emblem was
+the diadem, and although the diadem and crown are frequently confused
+with each other they were quite distinct, and it is well to bear this in
+mind. The diadem, which was of eastern origin, was a fillet or band of
+linen or silk, richly embroidered, and was worn tied round the forehead.
+Selden (_Titles of Honour_, chap. viii. sect. 8) says that the diadem
+and crown "have been from ancient times confounded, yet the diadem
+strictly was a very different thing from what a crown now is or was, and
+it was no other then than only a fillet of silk, linen, or some such
+thing." It is desirable to remember the distinction, for, although
+diadem and crown are now used as synonymous terms, the two were
+originally quite distinct. The confusion between them has, perhaps, come
+about from the fact that the modern crown seems to be rather an
+evolution from the diadem than the lineal descendant of the older
+crowns. The linen or silk diadem was eventually exchanged for a flexible
+band of gold, which was worn in its place round the forehead. The
+further development of the crown from this was readily effected by the
+addition of an upper row of ornament. Thus the medieval and modern
+crowns may be considered as radiated diadems, and so the diadem and
+crown have become, as it were, merged in one another.
+
+Among the historical crowns of Europe, the Iron Crown of Lombardy, now
+preserved at Monza, claims notice. It is a band of iron, enclosed in a
+circlet formed of six plates of gold, hinged one to the other, and
+richly jewelled and enamelled. It is regarded with great reverence,
+owing to a legend that the inner band of iron has been hammered out of
+one of the nails of the true cross. The crown is so small, the diameter
+being only 6 in., and the circlet only 2˝ in. in width, that doubts have
+been felt as to whether it was originally intended to be worn on the
+head or was merely meant to be a votive crown. The legend as to the iron
+being that of one of the nails of the cross is rejected by Muratori and
+others, and cannot be traced far back. How it arose or how any credence
+came to be reposed in the legend, it is difficult to surmise. Another
+historical crown is that of Charlemagne, preserved at Vienna. It is
+composed of a series of four larger and four smaller plaques of gold,
+rounded at the tops and set together alternately. The larger plaques are
+richly ornamented with emeralds and sapphires, and the smaller plaques
+have each an enamelled figure of Our Lord, David, Solomon, and Hezekiah
+respectively. A jewelled cross rises from the large front plaque, and an
+arch bearing the name of the emperor Conrad springs across from the back
+of this cross to the back of the crown.
+
+At Madrid there is preserved the crown of Svintilla, king of the
+Visigoths, 621-631. It is a circlet of thick gold set with pearls,
+sapphires and other stones. It has been given as a votive offering at
+some period to a church, as was often the custom. Attached to its upper
+rim are the chains whereby to suspend it, and from the lower rim hang
+letters of red-coloured glass or paste which read +SVINTILANVS REX
+OFFERET. Two other Visigothic crowns are also preserved with it in the
+Armeria Real.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Papal Tiara (without the _infulae_).]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 2-4 from Meyer's _Konversations Lexikon_.
+
+FIG. 2.--Crown of the Holy Roman Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Crown of the German Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Crown of the Austrian Empire.]
+
+In 1858 a most remarkable discovery was made near Toledo, of eight gold
+crowns of the 7th century, fashioned lavishly with barbaric splendour.
+They are now in the Cluny Museum at Paris, having been purchased for
+Ł4000, the intrinsic value of the gold, without reckoning that of the
+jewels and precious stones, being not less than Ł600. The largest and
+most magnificent is the crown of Reccesvinto, king of the Visigoths from
+653 to 675. It is composed of a circlet of pure gold set with pearls and
+precious stones in great profusion, which gives it a most sumptuous
+appearance. It is 9 in. in diameter and more than ˝ in. in thickness,
+the width of the circlet being 4 in. It has also been given as a votive
+offering to a church, and has the chains to hang it by attached to the
+upper rim, while from the lower rim depend pearls, sapphires and a
+series of richly jewelled letters 2 in. each in depth, which read
++RECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. The second of these crowns in size is
+generally thought to be that of the queen of Reccesvinto. It has no
+legend, but merely a cross hanging from it. The six others are smaller,
+and are all most richly ornamented. They are believed to have been the
+crowns of Reccesvinto's children. From one of them hangs a legend which
+relates that they were an offering to a church, which has been
+identified with much probability as that of Sorbas, a small town in the
+province of Almeria. It has been surmised that in the disturbances which
+soon afterwards followed they were buried out of sight for safety, where
+they were eventually discovered absolutely unharmed centuries
+afterwards. For a detailed description of these most remarkable crowns
+the reader must be referred to a paper by the late Mr Albert Way
+(_Archaeological Journal_, xvi. 253). Mr Way, in the article alluded to,
+says of the custom of offering crowns to churches that frequent notices
+of the usage may be found in the lives of the Roman pontiffs by
+Anastasius. "They are usually described as having been placed over the
+altar, and in many instances mention is made of jewelled crosses of gold
+appended within such crowns as an accessory ornament.... The crowns
+suspended in churches suggested doubtless the sumptuous pensile
+luminaries, frequently designated from a very early period as _coronae_,
+in which the form of the royal circlet was preserved in much larger
+proportions, as exemplified by the remarkable _corona_ still to be seen
+suspended in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle over the crypt in which
+the body of Charlemagne was deposited."
+
+Of modern continental crowns the imperial crown of Austria (fig. 4) may
+be mentioned. It is composed of a circlet of gold, adorned with precious
+stones and pearls, heightened with fleurs-de-lys, and is raised above
+the circlet in the form of a cap which is opened in the middle, so that
+the lower part is crescent-shaped; across this opening from front to
+back rises an arched fillet, enriched with pearls and surmounted by an
+orb, on which is a cross of pearls.
+
+The papal _tiara_ (a Greek word, of Persian origin, for a form of
+ancient Persian popular head-dress, standing high erect, and worn
+encircled by a diadem by the kings), the triple crown worn by the popes,
+has taken various forms since the 9th century. It is important to
+remember that the tiaras in old Italian pictures are inventions of the
+artists and not copied from actual examples. In its present shape,
+dating substantially from the Renaissance, it is a peaked head-covering
+not unlike a closed mitre (q.v.), round which are placed one above the
+other three circlets or open crowns.[1] Two bands, or _infulae_, as they
+are called, hang from it as in the case of a mitre. The tiara is the
+crown of the pope as a temporal sovereign (see TIARA).
+
+Pictorial representations in early manuscripts, and the rude effigies on
+their coins, are not very helpful in deciding as to the form of crown
+worn by the Anglo-Saxon and Danish kings of England before the Norman
+Conquest. In some cases it would appear as if the diadem studded with
+pearls had been worn, and in others something more of the character of a
+crown. We reach surer ground after the Conquest, for then the great
+seals, monumental effigies, and coins become more and more serviceable
+in determining the forms the crown took.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.
+
+Royal Crowns. William I. to Henry IV.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.
+
+Royal Crowns. Henry V. to Charles I.]
+
+The crown of William the Conqueror and his immediate successors seems to
+have been a plain circlet with four uprights, which terminated in
+trefoils (fig. 5), but Henry I. enriched the circlet with pearls or gems
+(fig. 6), and on his great seal the trefoils have something of the
+character of fleurs-de-lys. The effigy of Richard I. at Fontevrault
+shows a development of the crown; the trefoil heads are expanded, and
+are chased and jewelled. The crown of John is shown on his effigy at
+Worcester, though unfortunately it is rather badly mutilated. It shows,
+however, that the upper ornament was of fleurons set with jewels. Fig. 7
+shows generally this development of the crown in a restored form. The
+crown on the effigy of Henry III. at Westminster had a beaded row below
+the circlet, which is narrow and plain, and from it rises a series of
+plain trefoils with slightly raised points between them. The tomb was
+opened in 1774, and on the king's head was found an imitation crown of
+tin or latten gilt, with trefoils rising from its upper edge. This,
+although only made of base metal for the king's burial, may nevertheless
+be taken as exhibiting the form of the royal crown at the time, and it
+may be usefully compared with that on the effigy of the king, which was
+made in Edward I.'s reign (fig. 8). Edward I. used a crown of very
+similar design. In the crown of Edward II. we have perhaps the most
+graceful and elegant of all the forms which the English medieval crown
+assumed (fig. 9), and it seems to have continued without any marked
+alteration during the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. The crown on
+the head of the effigy of Henry IV. at Canterbury evidently represents
+one of great magnificence, both of design and ornament. What is perhaps
+lost of the grace of form of the crown of Edward II. is made up for by a
+profusion of adornment and ornamentation unsurpassed at any later period
+(fig. 10). The circlet is much wider and is richly chased and jewelled,
+and from it rise eight large leaves, the intervening spaces being filled
+with fleurs-de-lys of definite outline. It will be noted that this crown
+is, like its predecessors, what is known as an open crown, without any
+arches rising from the circlet, but in the accounts of the coronation of
+Henry IV. by Froissart and Waurin it is distinctly stated that the crown
+was arched in the form of a cross. This is the earliest mention of an
+arched crown, which is not represented on the great seal till that of
+Edward IV. in 1461. The crown, as shown on Henry IV.'s effigy, very
+probably represents the celebrated "Harry crown" which was afterwards
+broken up and employed as surety for the loan required by Henry V. when
+he was about to embark on his expedition to France. Fig. 11 shows the
+crown of Henry V. The crown of Henry VI. seems to have had three
+arches, and there is the same number shown on the crown of Henry VII.,
+which ensigns the hawthorn bush badge of that king. The crown of Edward
+IV. (fig. 12) shows two arches, and a crown similarly arched appears on
+the great seal of Richard III. Crowns, both open and arched, are
+represented in sculpture and paintings until the end of the reign of
+Edward IV., and the royal arms are occasionally ensigned by an open
+crown as late as the reign of Henry VIII. The crown of Henry VII. on his
+effigy in Westminster Abbey shows a circlet surmounted by four crosses
+and four fleurs-de-lys alternately, and has two arches rising from it. A
+similar crown appears on the great seal of Henry VIII. The crown of
+Henry VII. (fig. 13), which ensigns the royal arms above the south door
+of King's College chapel, Cambridge, has the motto of the order of the
+Garter round the circlet. Fig. 14 shows the form of crown used by Edward
+VI., but a tendency (not shown in the illustration) began of flattening
+the arches of the crown, and on some of the coins of Elizabeth the
+arches are not merely flattened, but are depressed in the centre, much
+after the character of the arches of the crown on many of the silver
+coins of the 19th century prior to 1887. The crowns of James I. and
+Charles I. had four arches, springing from the alternate crosses and
+fleurs-de-lys of the circlet (fig. 15). The crown which strangely enough
+surmounts the shield with the arms of the Commonwealth on the coins of
+Oliver Cromwell (as distinguished from those of the Commonwealth itself,
+which have no crown) is a royal crown with alternate crosses and
+fleurs-de-lys round the circlet, and is surmounted by three arches,
+which, though somewhat flattened, are not bent. On them rests the orb
+and cross. The crown used by Charles II. (fig. 16) shows the arches
+depressed in the centre, a feature of the royal crown which seems to
+have been continued henceforward till 1887, when the pointed form of the
+arches was resumed, in consonance with an idea that such a form
+indicated an imperial rather than a regal crown, Queen Victoria having
+been proclaimed empress of India in 1877. In the foregoing account the
+changes of the form of the crowns of the kings have been briefly
+noticed. Those crowns were the personal crowns, worn by the different
+kings on various state occasions, but they were all crowned before the
+Commonwealth with the ancient crown of St Edward, and the queens consort
+with that of Queen Edith. There were, in fact, two sets of regalia, the
+one used for the coronations and kept at Westminster, and the other that
+used on other occasions by the kings and kept in the Tower. The crowns
+of this latter set were the personal crowns made to fit the different
+wearers, and are those which have been briefly described. The crown of
+St Edward, with which the sovereigns were crowned, had a narrow circlet
+from which rose alternately four crosses and four fleurs-de-lys, and
+from the crosses sprang two arches, which at their crossing supported an
+orb and cross. These arches must have been a later addition, and
+possibly were first added for the coronation of Henry IV. (_vide
+supra_). Queen Edith's crown had a plain circlet with, so far as can be
+determined, four crosses of pearls or gems on it, and a large cross
+patée rising from it in front, and arches of jewels or pearls
+terminating in a large pearl at the top. A valuation of these ancient
+crowns was made at the time of the Commonwealth prior to their
+destruction. From this valuation we learn that St Edward's crown was of
+gold filigree or "wirework" as it is called, and was set with stones,
+and was valued at Ł248. Queen Edith's crown was found to be only of
+silver-gilt, with counterfeit pearls, sapphires and other stones, and
+was only valued at Ł16. At the Restoration an endeavour was made to
+reproduce as well as possible the old crowns and regalia according to
+their ancient form, and a new crown of St Edward was made on the lines
+of the old one for the coronation of Charles II. The framework of this
+crown, bereft of its jewels, is in the possession of Lady Amherst of
+Hackney. The crowns of James II., William III. and Anne generally
+resembled it in form (fig. 16). The later crowns of the Georges and
+William IV. are represented in general form in fig. 17. Although the
+marginal note in the coronation order of Queen Victoria indicates "K.
+Edward's crown" as that with which the late queen was to be crowned, it
+was actually the state or imperial crown worn by the sovereign when
+leaving the church after the ceremony that was used. It had been altered
+for the coronation, and the arches were formed of oak leaves (fig. 18).
+Fig. 19 shows Queen Victoria's crown with raised arches and without the
+inner cap of estate, which since the reign of Henry VII. has been
+degraded into forming a lining to the crowns of the sovereigns and the
+coronets of the peers. Fig. 20 shows the coronation crown of King Edward
+VII. The crown of Scotland, preserved with the Scottish regalia at
+Edinburgh, is believed to be composed of the original circlet worn by
+King Robert the Bruce. James V. made additions to it in 1535, and in
+general characteristics it much resembles an English crown of that date.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.
+
+Recent Forms of the English Crown.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.
+
+Coronation Crowns of Queen Victoria and King Edward VII.]
+
+The kings of arms in England, Scotland and Ireland wear crowns, the
+ornamentation of which round the upper rim of the circlet is composed of
+a row of acanthus or oak leaves. Round the circlet is the singularly
+inappropriate text from Psalm li., "_Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam
+misericordiam tuam_." The form of these crowns seems to have been
+settled in the reign of Charles II. Before that period they varied at
+different times, according to representations given of them in grants of
+arms, &c.
+
+This brings us to the crowns of lesser dignity, known for that reason as
+coronets, and worn by the five orders of peers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.
+
+Coronets of Dukes, Marquesses and Earls.]
+
+The use of crowns by dukes originated in 1362, when Edward III. created
+his sons Lionel and John dukes of Clarence and Lancaster respectively.
+This was done by investing them with a sword, a cap of maintenance or
+estate, and with a circlet of gold set with precious stones, which was
+imposed on the head. Previous to this dukes had been invested at their
+creation by the girding on of a sword only. In 1387 Richard II. created
+Richard de Vere marquess of Dublin, and invested him by girding on a
+sword, and by placing a golden circlet on his head. The golden circlet
+was confined to dukes and marquesses till 1444, when Henry VI. created
+Henry Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, premier earl, and the letters patent
+effecting this concede that the earl and his heirs shall wear a golden
+circlet on the head on feast days, even in the royal presence. As to the
+form of these circlets we have no clear knowledge. The dignity of a
+viscount was first created by Henry VI. in 1439, but nothing is said of
+any insignia pertaining to that dignity. It is believed that a circlet
+of gold with an upper rim of pearls was first conferred on a viscount by
+James I., who conceded it to Robert Cecil, Viscount Cranborne. However,
+in 1625-1626 it is definitely recorded that the viscounts carried their
+coronets in their hands in the coronation procession from Westminster
+Hall to the Abbey church. The use of a coronet by the barons dates from
+the coronation of Charles II., and by letters patent of the 7th of
+August 1661 their coronet is described as a circle of gold with six
+pearls on it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.
+
+Coronets of Viscounts and Barons.]
+
+At the present day the coronet of a duke (fig. 21) is formed of a
+circlet of gold, from which rise eight strawberry leaves. The coronet of
+a marquess (fig. 22) differs from that of a duke in having only four
+strawberry leaves, the intervening spaces being occupied by four low
+points which are surmounted by pearls. The coronet of an earl (fig. 23)
+differs again by having eight tall rays on each of which is set a pearl,
+the intervening spaces being occupied by strawberry leaves one-fourth of
+the height of the rays. The coronet of a viscount (fig. 24) has sixteen
+small pearls fixed to the golden circlet, and the coronet of a baron
+(fig. 25) has six large pearls similarly arranged.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. G. Wickham Legg, _English Coronation Records_
+  (London, 1901); _The Ancestor_, Nos. i. and ii. (London, 1902);
+  Stothard, _The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain_ (London, 1817).
+       (T. M. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A coloured drawing, done in the first half of the 18th century,
+    of the magnificent tiara made by the celebrated goldsmith, Caradosso,
+    for Julius II., is in the Print-Room, British Museum. It was
+    re-fashioned by Pius VI., but went with other treasure as part of the
+    indemnity to Napoleon. The splendid emerald at the summit, which was
+    engraved with the arms of Gregory XIII., was restored by Napoleon and
+    now adorns another papal tiara at Rome. In this drawing the three
+    crowns (a feature introduced at the beginning of the 14th century)
+    are represented by three bands of X-shaped ornament in enamelled
+    gold.
+
+
+
+
+CROWN DEBT, in English law, a debt due to the crown. By various
+statutes--the first dating from the reign of Henry VIII. (1541)--the
+crown has priority for its debts before all other creditors. At common
+law the crown always had a lien on the lands and goods of debtors by
+record, which could be enforced even when they had passed into the hands
+of other persons. The difficulty of ascertaining whether lands were
+subject to a crown lien or not was often very great, and a remedy was
+provided by the Judgments Act 1839, and the Crown Suits Act 1865. Now
+by the Land Charges Act 1900, no debt due to the crown operates as a
+charge on land until a writ of execution for the purpose of enforcing it
+has been registered under the Land Charges Registration and Searches Act
+1888. By the Act of 1541 specialty debts were put practically on the
+same footing as debts by record. Simple contract debts due to the crown
+also become specialty debts, and the rights of the crown are enforced by
+a summary process called an _extent_ (see WRIT).
+
+
+
+
+CROWNE, JOHN (d. c. 1703), British dramatist, was a native of Nova
+Scotia. His father "Colonel" William Crowne, accompanied the earl of
+Arundel on a diplomatic mission to Vienna in 1637, and wrote an account
+of his journey. He emigrated to Nova Scotia where he received a grant of
+land from Cromwell, but the French took possession of his property, and
+the home government did nothing to uphold his rights. When the son came
+to England his poverty compelled him to act as gentleman usher to an
+Independent lady of quality, and his enemies asserted that his father
+had been an Independent minister. He began his literary career with a
+romance, _Pandion and Amphigenia, or the History of the coy Lady of
+Thessalia_ (1665). In 1671 he produced a romantic play, _Juliana, or the
+Princess of Poland_, which has, in spite of its title, no pretensions to
+rank as an historical drama. The earl of Rochester procured for him,
+apparently with the sole object of annoying Dryden by infringing on his
+rights as poet-laureate, a commission to supply a masque for performance
+at court. _Calisto_ gained him the favour of Charles II., but Rochester
+proved a fickle patron, and his favour was completely alienated by the
+success of Crowne's heroic play in two parts, _The Destruction of
+Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian_ (1677). This piece contained a thinly
+disguised satire on the Puritan party in the description of the
+Pharisees, and about 1683 he produced a distinctly political play, _The
+City Politiques_, satirizing the Whig party and containing characters
+which were readily recognized as portraits of Titus Oates and others.
+This made him many enemies, and he petitioned the king for a small place
+that would release him from the necessity of writing for the stage. The
+king exacted one more comedy, which should, he suggested, be based on
+the _No pued esser_ of Moreto. This had already been unsuccessfully
+adapted, as Crowne discovered later, by Sir Thomas St Serfe, but in
+Crowne's hands it developed into _Sir Courtly Nice, It Cannot Be_
+(1685), a comedy which kept its place as a stock piece for nearly a
+century. Unfortunately Charles II. died before the play was completed,
+and Crowne was disappointed of his reward. He continued to write plays,
+and it is stated that he was still living in 1703, but nothing is known
+of his later life.
+
+Crowne was a fertile writer of plays with an historical setting, in
+which heroic love was, in the fashion of the French romances, made the
+leading motive. The prosaic level of his style saved him as a rule from
+the rant to be found in so many contemporary heroic plays, but these
+pieces are of no particular interest. He was much more successful in
+comedy of the kind that depicts "humours."
+
+  _The History of Charles the Eighth of France, or The Invasion of
+  Naples by the French_ (1672) was dedicated to Rochester. In _Timon_,
+  generally supposed to have been written by the earl, a line from this
+  piece--"whilst sporting waves smil'd on the rising sun"--was held up
+  to ridicule. _The Ambitious Statesman, or The Loyal Favourite_ (1679),
+  one of the most extravagant of his heroic efforts, deals with the
+  history of Bernard d'Armagnac, Constable of France, after the battle
+  of Agincourt; _Thyestes, A Tragedy_ (1681), spares none of the horrors
+  of the Senecan tragedy, although an incongruous love story is
+  interpolated; _Darius, King of Persia_ (1688), _Regulus_ (acted 1692,
+  pr. 1694) and _Caligula_ (1698) complete the list of his tragedies.
+  _The Country Wit: A Comedy_ (acted 1675, pr. 1693), derived in part
+  from Moličre's _Le Sicilien, ou l'amour peintre_, is remembered for
+  the leading character, Sir Mannerly Shallow; _The English Frier; or
+  The Town Sparks_ (acted 1689, pr. 1690), perhaps suggested by
+  Moličre's _Tartuffe_, ridicules the court Catholics, and in Father
+  Finical caricatures Father Petre; and _The Married Beau; or The
+  Curious Impertinent_ (1694), is based on the _Curioso Impertinente_ in
+  Don Quixote. He also produced a version of Racine's _Andromaque_, an
+  adaptation from Shakespeare's Henry VI., and an unsuccessful comedy,
+  _Justice Busy_.
+
+  See _The Dramatic Works of John Crowne_ (4 vols., 1873), edited by
+  James Maidment and W. H. Logan for the _Dramatists of the
+  Restoration_.
+
+
+
+
+
+CROWN LAND, in the United Kingdom, land belonging to the crown, the
+hereditary revenues of which were surrendered to parliament in the reign
+of George III.
+
+In Anglo-Saxon times the property of the king consisted of (a) his
+private estate, (b) the demesne of the crown, comprising palaces, &c.,
+and (c) rights over the folkland of the kingdom. By the time of the
+Norman Conquest the three became merged into the estate of the crown,
+that is, land annexed to the crown, held by the king as king. The king,
+also, ceased to hold as a private owner,[1] but he had full power of
+disposal by grant of the crown lands, which were increased from time to
+time by confiscation, escheat, forfeiture, &c. The history of the crown
+lands to the reign of William III. was one of continuous alienation to
+favourites. Their wholesale distribution by William III. necessitated
+the intervention of parliament, and in the reign of Queen Anne an act
+was passed limiting the right of alienation of crown lands to a period
+of not more than thirty-one years or three lives. The revenue from the
+crown lands was also made to constitute part of the civil list. At the
+beginning of his reign George III. surrendered his interest in the crown
+lands in return for a fixed "civil list" (q.v.). The control and
+management of the crown lands is now regulated by the Crown Lands Act
+1829 and various amending acts. Under these acts their management is
+entrusted to the commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues, who
+have certain statutory powers as to leasing, selling, exchanging, &c.
+
+In theory, also, state lands in the British colonies are supposed to be
+vested in the crown, and they are called crown lands; actually, however,
+the various colonial legislatures have full control over them and power
+of disposal. The term "crown-lands," in Austria, is applied to the
+various provinces into which that country is divided. (See AUSTRIA.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The duchy of Lancaster, which was the private property of Henry
+    IV. before he ascended the throne, was assured to him and his heirs
+    by a special act of parliament. In the first year of Henry VII. it
+    was united to the crown, but as a separate property.
+
+
+
+
+CROWN POINT, a village of Essex county, New York, U.S.A., in a township
+of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. of Albany and about 10 m. N. of
+Ticonderoga, on the W. shore of Lake Champlain. Pop. of the township
+(1890) 3135; (1900) 2112; (1905) 1890; (1910) 1690; of the village,
+about 1000. The village is served by the Delaware & Hudson Railway and
+by the Champlain Canal. Among the manufactures are lumber and
+woodenware. Graphite has been found in the western part of the township,
+and spar is mined. In 1609 Champlain fought near here the engagement
+with the Iroquois Indians which marked the beginning of the long enmity
+between the Five (later Six) Nations and the French. Subsequently Dutch
+and English traders trafficked in the vicinity, the latter maintaining
+here for many years a regular trading-post. In 1731 the French built
+here Fort Frédéric, the first military post at Crown Point, and the
+place was subsequently for many years of considerable strategic
+importance, owing to its situation on Lake Champlain, which with Lake
+George furnished a comparatively easy route from Canada to New York.
+Twice during the French and Indian War, in 1755 and again in 1756,
+English and colonial expeditions were sent against it in vain; it
+remained in French hands until 1759, when, after Lord Jeffrey Amherst's
+occupation of Ticonderoga, the garrison joined that of the latter place
+and retreated to Canada. Crown Point was then occupied by Amherst, who
+during the winter of 1759-1760 began the construction, about a quarter
+of a mile from the old Fort Frédéric, of a large fort, which was
+garrisoned but was never completed; the ruins of this fort (not of Fort
+Frédéric) still remain. At the outbreak of the War of Independence, on
+the 11th of May 1775, the fort, whose garrison then consisted of only a
+dozen men, was captured by Colonel Seth Warner and a force of "Green
+Mountain Boys," sent from Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen; and it remained in
+American hands save for a brief period in 1777, when it was occupied by
+a detachment of Burgoyne's invading army.
+
+
+
+
+CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI (1809?-1891), African missionary-bishop, was born
+at Ochugu in the Yoruba country, West Africa, and was sold into slavery
+in 1821. Next year he was rescued, with many other captives, by H.M.
+ship "Myrmidon," and was landed at Sierra Leone. Educated there in a
+missionary school, he was baptized on the 11th of December 1825. In time
+he became a teacher at Furah Bay, and afterwards an energetic missionary
+on the Niger. He came to England in 1842, entered the Church Missionary
+College at Islington, and in June 1843 was ordained by Bishop Blomfield.
+Returning to Africa, he laboured with great success amongst his own
+people and afterwards at Abeokuta. Here he devoted himself to the
+preparation of school-books, and the translation of the Bible and
+Prayer-Book into Yoruba and other dialects. He also established a trade
+in cotton, and improved the native agriculture. In 1857 he commenced the
+third expedition up the Niger, and after labouring with varied success,
+returned to England and was consecrated, on St Peter's Day 1864, first
+bishop of the Niger territories. Before long a commencement was made of
+the missions to the delta of the Niger, and between 1866 and 1884
+congregations of Christians were formed at Bonny, Brass and New Calabar,
+but the progress made was slow and subject to many impediments. In 1888
+the tide of persecution turned, and several chiefs embraced
+Christianity, and on Crowther's return from another visit to England,
+the large iron church known as "St Stephen's cathedral" was opened.
+Crowther died of paralysis on the 31st of December 1891, having
+displayed as a missionary for many years untiring industry, great
+practical wisdom, and deep piety.
+
+
+
+
+CROYDON, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Surrey,
+England, suburban to London, 10 m. S. of London Bridge. Pop. (1891)
+102,695; (1901) 133,895. The borough embraces a great residential
+district. Several railway stations give it communication with all parts
+of the metropolis, the principal railways serving it being the London,
+Brighton & South Coast and the South-Eastern & Chatham. It stands near
+the sources of the river Wandle, under Banstead Downs, and is a place of
+great antiquity. The original site, farther west than the present town,
+is mentioned in Domesday Book. The derivation indicated is from the O.
+Fr. _croie dune_, chalk hill. The supposition that here was the Roman
+station of _Noviomagus_ is rejected. The site is remarkable for the
+number of springs which issue from the soil. One of these, called the
+"Bourne," bursts forth a short way above the town at irregular intervals
+of one to ten years or more; and after running a torrent for two or
+three months, as quickly vanishes. Until its course was diverted it
+caused destructive floods. This phenomenon seems to arise from rains
+which, falling on the chalk hills, sink into the porous soil and
+reappear after a time from crevices at lower levels. The manor of
+Croydon was presented by William the Conqueror to Archbishop Lanfranc,
+who is believed to have founded the archiepiscopal palace there, which
+was the occasional residence of his successors till about 1750, and of
+which the chapel and hall remain. Addington Park, 3˝ m. from Croydon,
+was purchased for the residence, in 1807, of the archbishop of
+Canterbury, but was sold in consequence of Archbishop Temple's decision
+to reside at the palace, Canterbury. The neighbouring church, which is
+Norman and Early English, contains several memorials of archbishops.
+Near the park a group of tumuli and a circular encampment are seen.
+Croydon is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Canterbury. The
+parish church of St John the Baptist appears to have been built in the
+14th and 15th centuries, but to have contained remains of an older
+building. The church was restored or rebuilt in the 16th century, and
+again restored by Sir Gilbert Scott in 1857-1859. It was destroyed by
+fire, with the exception of the tower, on the 5th of January 1867, and
+was at once rebuilt by Scott on the old lines. In 1596 Archbishop
+Whitgift founded the hospital or almshouse which bears his name, and
+remains in its picturesque brick buildings surrounding two quadrangles.
+His grammar school was housed in new buildings in 1871, and is a
+flourishing day school. The principal public building of Croydon is that
+erected by the corporation for municipal business; it included
+court-rooms and the public library. At Addiscombe in the neighbourhood
+was formerly a mansion dating from 1702, and acquired by the East India
+Company in 1809 for a Military College, which on the abolition of the
+Company became the Royal Military College for the East Indian Army, and
+was closed in 1862. Croydon was formed into a municipal borough in 1883,
+a parliamentary borough, returning one member, in 1885, and a county
+borough in 1888. The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36
+councillors. Area, 9012 acres.
+
+
+
+
+CROZAT, PIERRE (1661-1740), French art collector, was born at Toulouse,
+one of a family who were prominent French financiers and collectors. He
+became treasurer to the king in Paris, and gradually acquired a
+magnificent collection of pictures and _objets d'art_. Between 1729 and
+1742 a finely illustrated work was published in two volumes, known as
+the _Cabinet Crozat_, including the finest pictures in French
+collections. Most of his own treasures descended to his nephews, Louis
+François (d. 1750), Joseph Antoine (d. 1750), and Louis Antoine (d.
+1770), and were augmented by them, being dispersed after their deaths;
+the collection of Louis Antoine Crozat went to St Petersburg.
+
+
+
+
+CROZET ISLANDS, an uninhabited group in the Indian Ocean, in 46°-47° S.
+and 51° E. They are mountainous, with summits from 4000 to 5000 ft.
+high, and are disposed in two divisions--Penguin or Inaccessible, Hog,
+Possession and East Islands; and the Twelve Apostles. Like Kerguelen,
+and other clusters in these southern waters, they appear to be of
+igneous formation; but owing to the bleak climate and their inaccessible
+character they are seldom visited, and have never been explored since
+their discovery in 1772 by Marion-Dufresne, after one of whose officers
+they are named. Possession, the highest, has a snowy peak said to exceed
+5000 ft. Hog Island takes its name from the animals which were here let
+loose by an English captain many years ago, but have since disappeared.
+Rabbits burrow in the heaps of scoria on the slopes of the mountains.
+
+
+
+
+CROZIER, WILLIAM (1855-   ), American artillerist and inventor, born at
+Carrollton, Carroll county, Ohio, on the 19th of February 1855, was the
+son of Robert Crozier (1827-1895), chief justice of Kansas in 1863-1866,
+and a United States senator from that state from December 1873 to
+February 1874. He graduated at West Point in 1876, was appointed a 2nd
+lieutenant in the 4th Artillery, and served on the Western frontier for
+three years against the Sioux and Bannock Indians. From 1879 to 1884 he
+was instructor in mathematics at West Point, and was superintendent of
+the Watertown (Massachusetts) Arsenal from 1884 to 1887. In 1888 he was
+sent by the war department to study recent developments in artillery in
+Europe, and upon his return he was placed in full charge of the
+construction of gun carriages for the army, and with General Adelbert R.
+Buffington (1837-   ), the chief of ordnance, he invented the
+Buffington-Crozier disappearing gun carriage (1896). He also invented a
+wire-wound gun, and perfected many appliances connected with heavy and
+field ordnance. In 1890 he attained the rank of captain. During the
+Spanish-American War he was inspector-general for the Atlantic and Gulf
+coast defences. In 1899 he was one of the American delegates to the
+Peace Conference at the Hague. He later served in the Philippine Islands
+on the staffs of Generals John C. Bates and Theodore Schwan, and in 1900
+was chief of ordnance on the staff of General A. R. Chaffee during the
+Pekin Relief Expedition. In November 1901 he was appointed
+brigadier-general and succeeded General Buffington as chief of ordnance
+of the United States army. His _Notes on the Construction of Ordnance_,
+published by the war department, are used as text-books in the schools
+for officers, and he is also the author of other important publications
+on military subjects.
+
+
+
+
+CROZIER, or pastoral staff, one of the insignia of a bishop, and
+probably derived from the _lituus_ of the Roman augurs. It is
+crook-headed, and borne by bishops and archbishops alike (see PASTORAL
+STAFF). The word "crozier" or "crosier" represents the O. Fr. _crocier_,
+Med. Lat. _crociarius_, the bearer of the episcopal crook (Med. Lat.
+_crocea_, _croccia_, &c., Fr. _croc_). The English representative of
+_crocea_ was _crose_, later _crosse_, which, becoming confused with
+"cross" (q.v.), was replaced by "crozier-staff" or "crozier's staff,"
+and then, at the beginning of the 16th century, by "crozier" (see J. T.
+Taylor, _Archaeologia_, Iii., "On the Use of the Terms Crosier, Pastoral
+Staff and Cross").
+
+
+
+
+CRUCIAL (from Lat. _crux_, a cross), that which has the form of a cross,
+as the "crucial ligaments" of the knee-joint, which cross each other,
+connecting the femur and the tibia. From Francis Bacon's expression
+_instantia crucis_ (taken, as he says, from the finger-post or _crux_ at
+cross-roads) for a phenomenon which decides between two causes which
+have each similar analogies in its favour, comes the use of "crucial"
+for that which decides between two alternatives, hence, generally, as a
+synonym for "critical." The word is also used, with a reference to the
+use of a "crucible," of something which tests and tries.
+
+
+
+
+CRUCIFERAE, or Crucifer family, a natural order of flowering plants,
+which derives its name from the cruciform arrangement of the four petals
+of the flower. It is an order of herbaceous plants, many of which, such
+as wallflower, stock, mustard, cabbage, radish and others, are
+well-known garden or field-plants. Many of the plants are annuals; among
+these are some of the commonest weeds of cultivation, shepherd's purse
+(_Capsella Bursa-pastoris_), charlock (_Brassica Sinapis_), and such
+common plants as hedge mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_),
+Jack-by-the-hedge (_S. Alliaria_ or _Alliaria officinalis_). Others are
+biennials producing a number of leaves on a very short stem in the first
+year, and in the second sending up a flowering shoot at the expense of
+the nourishment stored in the thick tap-root during the previous
+season. Under cultivation this root becomes much enlarged, as in turnip,
+swede and others. Wallflower (_Cheiranthus Cheiri_) (fig. 1) is a
+perennial. The leaves when borne on an elongated stem are arranged
+alternately and have no stipules. The flowers are arranged in racemes
+without bracts; during the life of the flower its stalk continues to
+grow so that the open flowers of an inflorescence stand on a level (that
+is, are corymbose). The flowers are regular, with four free sepals
+arranged in two pairs at right angles, four petals arranged crosswise in
+one series, and two sets of stamens, an outer with two members and an
+inner with four, in two pairs placed in the middle line of the flower
+and at right angles to the outer series. The four inner stamens are
+longer than the two outer; and the stamens are hence collectively
+described as tetradynamous. The pistil, which is above the rest of the
+members of the flower, consists of two carpels joined at their edges to
+form the ovary, which becomes two-celled by subsequent ingrowth of a
+septum from these united edges; a row of ovules springs from each edge.
+The fruit is a pod or siliqua splitting by two valves from below upwards
+and leaving the placentas with the seeds attached to the _replum_ or
+framework of the septum. The seeds are filled with the large embryo, the
+two cotyledons of which are variously folded. In germination the
+cotyledons come above ground and form the first green leaves of the
+plant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Wallflower (_Cheiranthus Cheiri_), reduced. 1,
+Flower in vertical section. 2, Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower
+in _Barbarea_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cruciferae._ Floral Diagram (_Brassica_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Cardamine pratensis._ Flower with Perianth
+removed. (After Baillon.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cruciferous Fruits. (After Baillon.)
+
+  A, _Cheiranthus Cheiri._
+  B, _Lepidium sativum._
+  C, _Capsella Bursa-pastoris._
+  D, _Lunaria biennis_, showing the septum after the carpels have fallen
+       away.
+  E, _Crambe maritima._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Seeds of _Cruciferae_ cut across to show the
+radicle and cotyledons. (After Baillon.)
+
+  A, _Cheiranthus Cheiri._
+  B, _Sisymbrium Alliaria._
+
+Figures 2-5 are from Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.]
+
+Pollination is effected by aid of insects. The petals are generally
+white or yellow, more rarely lilac or some other colour, and between the
+bases of the stamens are honey-glands. Some or all of the anthers become
+twisted so that insects in probing for honey will touch the anthers with
+one side of their head and the capitate stigma with the other. Owing,
+however, to the close proximity of stigma and anthers, very slight
+irregularity in the movements of the visiting insect will cause
+self-pollination, which may also occur by the dropping of pollen from
+the anthers of the larger stamens on to the stigma.
+
+Cruciferae is a large order containing nearly 200 genera and about 1200
+species. It has a world-wide distribution, but finds its chief
+development in the temperate and frigid zones, especially of the
+northern hemisphere, and as Alpine plants. In the subdivision of the
+order into tribes use is made of differences in the form of the fruit
+and the manner of folding of the embryo. When the fruit is several times
+longer than broad it is known as a siliqua, as in stock or wallflower;
+when about as long as broad, a silicula, as in shepherd's purse.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Honesty (_Lunaria biennis_), showing Flower and
+Fruit. Reduced.]
+
+The order is well represented in Britain--among others by _Nasturtium_
+(_N. officinale_, water-cress), _Arabis_ (rock-cress), _Cardamine_
+(bitter-cress), _Sisymbrium_ (hedge mustard, &c.; _S. Irio_ is London
+rocket, so-called because it sprang up after the fire of 1666),
+_Brassica_ (cabbage and mustard), _Diplotaxis_ (rocket), _Cochlearia_
+(scurvy-grass), _Capsella_ (shepherd's purse), _Lepidium_ (cress),
+_Thlaspi_ (penny-cress), _Cakile_ (sea rocket), _Raphanus_ (radish), and
+others. Of economic importance are species of _Brassica_, including
+mustard (_B. nigra_), white mustard, used when young in salads (_B.
+alba_), cabbage (q.v.) and its numerous forms derived from _B.
+oleracea_, turnip (_B. campestris_), and swede (_B. Napus_), _Raphanus
+sativus_ (radish), _Cochlearia Armoracia_ (horse-radish), _Nasturtium
+officinale_ (water-cress), _Lepidium sativum_ (garden cress). _Isatis_
+affords a blue dye, woad. Many of the genera are known as ornamental
+garden plants; such are _Cheiranthus_ (wallflower), _Matthiola_ (stock),
+_Iberis_ (candy-tuft), _Alyssum_ (Alison), _Hesperis_ (dame's violet),
+Lunaria (honesty) (fig. 6), _Aubrietia_ and others.
+
+
+
+
+CRUDEN, ALEXANDER (1701-1770), author of the well-known concordance
+(q.v.) to the English Bible, was born at Aberdeen on the 31st of May
+1701. He was educated at the grammar school, Aberdeen, and studied at
+Marischal College, intending to enter the ministry. He took the degree
+of master of arts, but soon after began to show signs of insanity owing
+to a disappointment in love. After a term of confinement he recovered
+and removed to London. In 1722 he had an engagement as private tutor to
+the son of a country squire living at Eton Hall, Southgate, and also
+held a similar post at Ware. Years afterwards, in an application for the
+title of bookseller to the queen, he stated that he had been for some
+years corrector for the press in Wild Court. This probably refers to
+this time. In 1729 he was employed by the 10th earl of Derby as a reader
+and secretary, but was discharged on the 7th of July for his ignorance
+of French pronunciation. He then lodged in a house in Soho frequented
+exclusively by Frenchmen, and took lessons in the language in the hope
+of getting back his post with the earl, but when he went to Knowsley in
+Lancashire, the earl would not see him. He returned to London and opened
+a bookseller's shop in the Royal Exchange. In April 1735 he obtained the
+title of bookseller to the queen by recommendation of the lord mayor and
+most of the Whig aldermen. The post was an unremunerative sinecure. In
+1737 he finished his concordance, which, he says, was the work of
+several years. It was presented to the queen on the 3rd of November
+1737, a fortnight before her death.
+
+Although Cruden's biblical labours have made his name a household word
+among English-speaking people, he was disappointed in his hopes of
+immediate profit, and his mind again became unhinged. In spite of his
+earnest and self-denying piety, and his exceptional intellectual powers,
+he developed idiosyncrasies, and his life was marred by a harmless but
+ridiculous egotism, which so nearly bordered on insanity that his
+friends sometimes thought it necessary to have him confined. He paid
+unwelcome addresses to a widow, and was confined in a madhouse in
+Bethnal Green. On his release he published a pamphlet dedicated to Lord
+H. (probably Harrington, secretary of state) entitled _The London
+Citizen exceedingly injured, or a British Inquisition Displayed_. He
+also published an account of his trial, dedicated to the king. In
+December 1740 he writes to Sir H. Sloane saying he has been employed
+since July as Latin usher in a boarding-school at Enfield. He then found
+work as a proof-reader, and several editions of Greek and Latin classics
+are said to have owed their accuracy to his care. He superintended the
+printing of one of Matthew Henry's commentaries, and in 1750 printed a
+small _Compendium of the Holy Bible_ (an abstract of the contents of
+each chapter), and also reprinted a larger edition of the _Concordance_.
+
+About this time he adopted the title of "Alexander the Corrector," and
+assumed the office of correcting the morals of the nation, especially
+with regard to swearing and Sunday observance. For this office he
+believed himself divinely commissioned, but he petitioned parliament for
+a formal appointment in this capacity. In April 1755 he printed a letter
+to the speaker and other members of the House of Commons, and about the
+same time an "Address to the King and Parliament." He was in the habit
+of carrying a sponge, with which he effaced all inscriptions which he
+thought contrary to good morals. In September 1753, through being
+involved in a street brawl, he was confined in an asylum in Chelsea for
+seventeen days at the instance of his sister, Mrs Wild. He brought an
+unsuccessful action against his friends, and seriously proposed that
+they should go into confinement as an atonement. He published an account
+of this second restraint in "The Adventures of Alexander the Corrector."
+He made attempts to present to the king in person an account of his
+trial, and to obtain the honour of knighthood, one of his predicted
+honours. In 1754 he was nominated as parliamentary candidate for the
+city of London, but did not go to the poll. In 1755 he paid unwelcome
+addresses to the daughter of Sir Thomas Abney, of Newington (1640-1722),
+and then published his letters and the history of his repulse in the
+third part of his "Adventures." In June and July 1755 he visited Oxford
+and Cambridge. He was treated with the respect due to his learning by
+officials and residents in both universities, but experienced some
+boisterous fooling at the hands of the undergraduates. At Cambridge he
+was knighted with mock ceremonies. There he appointed "deputy
+correctors" to represent him in the university. He also visited Eton,
+Windsor, Tonbridge and Westminster schools, where he appointed four boys
+to be his deputies. (An _Admonition to Cambridge_ is preserved among
+letters from J. Neville of Emmanuel to Dr Cox Macro, in the British
+Museum.) _The Corrector's Earnest Address to the Inhabitants of Great
+Britain_, published in 1756, was occasioned by the earthquake at Lisbon.
+In 1762 he saved an ignorant seaman, Richard Potter, from the gallows,
+and in 1763 published a pamphlet recording the history of the case.
+Against John Wilkes, whom he hated, he wrote a small pamphlet, and used
+to delete with his sponge the number 45 wherever he found it, this being
+the offensive number of the _North Briton_. In 1769 he lectured in
+Aberdeen as "Corrector," and distributed copies of the fourth
+commandment and various religious tracts. The wit that made his
+eccentricities palatable is illustrated by the story of how he gave to a
+conceited young minister whose appearance displeased him _A Mother's
+Catechism dedicated to the young and ignorant_. The _Scripture
+Dictionary_, compiled about this time, was printed in Aberdeen in two
+volumes shortly after his death. Alexander Chalmers, who in his boyhood
+heard Cruden lecture in Aberdeen and wrote his biography, says that a
+verbal index to Milton, which accompanied the edition of Thomas Newton,
+bishop of Bristol, in 1769, was Cruden's.
+
+The second edition of the Bible _Concordance_ was published in 1761, and
+presented to the king in person on the 21st of December. The third
+appeared in 1769. Both contain a pleasing portrait of the author. He is
+said to have gained Ł800 by these two editions. He returned to London
+from Aberdeen, and died suddenly while praying in his lodgings in Camden
+Passage, Islington, on the 1st of November 1770. He was buried in the
+ground of a Protestant dissenting congregation in Dead Man's Place,
+Southwark. He bequeathed a portion of his savings for a Ł5 bursary at
+Aberdeen, which preserves his name on the list of benefactors of the
+university.     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+CRUDEN, a village and parish on the E. coast of Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
+Pop. of parish (1901) 3444. It is situated at the head of Cruden Bay,
+29ž m. N.N.E. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway
+company's branch line from Ellon to Boddam. The golf-course of 18 holes
+is one of the best in Scotland, and there is a sandy beach, with good
+bathing. There is some good fishing at Port Erroll, also called Ward of
+Cruden. Prehistoric remains have been found in the parish, and near
+Ardendraught, not far from the shore, Malcolm II. is said to have
+defeated Canute in 1014. The Water of Cruden, which rises a few miles to
+the west, flows through the village into the North Sea. Slains Castle, a
+seat of the earl of Erroll, lies to the north of Cruden, but must not be
+confounded with the old castle of Slains, about 5 m. to the south-west,
+near the point where, according to tradition, the "St Catherine" of the
+Spanish Armada foundered in 1588. The Bullers of Buchan are within 2 m.
+walk of Cruden.
+
+
+
+
+CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. _crualté_, mod. _cruauté_, from the Lat.
+_crudelitas_), the intentional infliction of pain or suffering. It is
+only necessary to deal here with the legal relations involved. Statutory
+provision for the prevention of cruelty to those who are unable to
+protect themselves has been particularly marked in the 19th century. The
+increase of legislation for the protection of children, lunatics and
+animals is a proof of the growing humanitarianism of the age. There was
+at one time a tendency among jurists to question whether, for instance,
+the prevention of cruelty to animals was not a recognition of a certain
+quasi-right in animals, or whether it was merely that such exhibitions
+as bull- and bear-baiting, cock-fights, &c., were demoralizing to the
+public generally. The true fact seems to be that the first introduction
+of such legislation was undoubtedly due to the desire for the promotion
+of humanity, but that the principle, for the recognition of which the
+time was not yet ripe, had to be excused in the eyes of the public by
+the plea that cruelty had a demoralizing effect upon spectators (see A.
+V. Dicey, _Law and Opinion in England_, p. 188; T. E. Holland,
+_Jurisprudence_, 10th ed., p. 372).
+
+_Cruelty to Animals._--The English common law has never taken cognizance
+of the commission of acts of cruelty upon animals, and direct
+legislation upon the subject, dating from the 19th century, was due in a
+great measure to public agitation, supported by the Royal Society for
+the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded in 1824). Various acts
+were passed in 1822 (known as Martin's Act), 1835 and 1837, and these
+were amended and consolidated by the Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and
+1854, which, with the Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900, are
+the main acts upon the subject. There are also, in addition, many other
+acts that impose certain liabilities in respect of animals and
+indirectly prevent cruelty. The Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and 1854
+render liable to prosecution and fine practically any act of cruelty to
+an animal; such acts as dubbing a cock, cropping the ears of a dog or
+dishorning cattle, are offences. The latter practice, however, is
+allowed both in Scotland and Ireland, the courts having held that the
+advantages to be obtained from dishorning outweigh the pain caused by
+the operation. The word "animal" is defined as meaning "any domestic
+animal" of whatever kind or species, and whether a quadruped or not. The
+act of 1849 also forbids bull- and bear-baiting, or fighting between any
+kinds of animals; requires the provision of food and water to animals
+impounded; lays down regulations as to the treatment of animals sent for
+slaughter, and imposes a penalty for improperly conveying animals. The
+Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900 extends to wild animals in
+captivity that protection which the acts of 1849 and 1854 conferred on
+domestic animals, making exception of any act done or any omission in
+the preparation of animals for the food of man or for sport. The word
+"animal" in the act includes bird, beast, fish or reptile. The Dogs Act
+1865 rendered owners of dogs liable for injuries to cattle and sheep;
+the Dogs Act 1906 extended the owner's liability for injury done to any
+cattle by a dog, and further, where a dog is proved to have injured
+cattle or chased sheep it may be treated as a dangerous dog and must be
+kept under proper control or be destroyed. The Drugging of Animals Act
+1876 imposes a penalty on giving poisonous drugs to any domestic animal
+unlawfully. The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed for the purpose
+of regulating the practice of vivisection (q.v.). The Ground Game Act
+1880, prohibits night shooting, or the use of spring traps above ground
+or poison. The Injured Animals Act 1907 enables police constables to
+cause any animal when mortally or seriously injured to be slaughtered.
+The Diseases of Animals Act 1894 and orders under it are for the purpose
+of securing animals from unnecessary suffering, as well as from disease.
+Finally, the Wild Birds Protection Acts 1880 to 1904, with various game
+acts (see GAME LAWS), extend the protection of the law to wild birds.
+The acts establish a close time for wild birds and impose penalties for
+shooting or taking them within that time; prohibit the exposing or
+offering for sale within certain dates any wild bird recently killed or
+taken unless bought or received from some person residing out of the
+United Kingdom; the taking or destroying of wild birds' eggs, the
+setting of pole traps, and the taking of a wild bird by means of a hook
+or other similar instrument.
+
+For the law relating to the prevention of cruelty to children see
+CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; for cruelty in the sense of such conduct as
+entitles a husband or wife to judicial separation see DIVORCE.
+     (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE (1792-1878), English artist, caricaturist and
+illustrator, was born in London on the 27th of September 1792. By
+natural disposition and collateral circumstances he may be accepted as
+the type of the born humoristic artist predestined for this special form
+of art. His grandfather had taken up the arts, and his father, Isaac
+Cruikshank, followed the painter's profession. Amidst these surroundings
+the children were born and brought up, their first playthings the
+materials of the arts their father practised. George followed the family
+traditions with amazing facility, easily surpassing his compeers as an
+etcher. When the father died, about 1811, George, still in his teens,
+was already a successful and popular artist. All his acquisitions were
+native gifts, and of home-growth; outside training, or the serious
+apprenticeship to art, were dispensed with, under the necessity of
+working for immediate profit. This lack of academic training the artist
+at times found cause to regret, and at some intervals he made exertions
+to cultivate the knowledge obtainable by studying from the antique and
+drawing from life at the schools. From boyhood he was accustomed to turn
+his artistic talents to ready account, disposing of designs and etchings
+to the printsellers, and helping his father in forwarding his plates.
+Before he was twenty his spirited style and talent had secured popular
+recognition; the contemporary of Gillray, Rowlandson, Alken, Heath,
+Dighton, and the established caricaturists of that generation, he
+developed great proficiency as an etcher. Gillray's matured and trained
+skill had some influence upon his executive powers, and when the older
+caricaturist passed away in 1815, George Cruikshank had already taken
+his place as a satirist. Prolific and dexterous beyond his competitors,
+for a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals with fine
+impartiality. Satirical capital came to him from every public
+event,--wars abroad, the enemies of England (for he was always fervidly
+patriotic), the camp, the court, the senate, the Church; low life, high
+life; the humours of the people, the follies of the great. In this
+wonderful gallery the student may grasp the popular side of most
+questions which for the time being engaged public attention. George
+Cruikshank's technical and manipulative skill as an etcher was such that
+Ruskin and the best judges have placed his productions in the foremost
+rank; in this respect his works have been compared favourably with the
+masterpieces of etching. He died at 263 Hampstead Road on the 1st of
+February 1878. His remains rest in St Paul's cathedral.
+
+A vast number of Cruikshank's spirited cartoons were published as
+separate caricatures, all coloured by hand; others formed series, or
+were contributed to satirical magazines, the _Satirist_, _Town Talk_,
+_The Scourge_ (1811-1816) and the like ephemeral publications. In
+conjunction with William Hone's scathing tracts, G. Cruikshank produced
+political satires to illustrate the series of facetiae and miscellanies,
+like _The Political House that Jack Built_ (1819).
+
+Of a more genially humoristic order are his well-known book
+illustrations, now so deservedly esteemed for their inimitable fun and
+frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which
+he excelled. Early in this series came _The Humorist_ (1819-1821) and
+_Life in Paris_ (1822). The well-known series of _Life in London_,
+conjointly produced by the brothers I. R. and G. Cruikshank, has enjoyed
+a prolonged reputation, and is still sought after by collectors. Grimm's
+_Collection of German Popular Stories_ (1824-1826), in two series, with
+22 inimitable etchings, are in themselves sufficient to account for G.
+Cruikshank's reputation. To the first fourteen volumes (1837-1843) of
+_Bentley's Miscellany_ Cruikshank contributed 126 of his best plates,
+etched on steel, including the famous illustrations to _Oliver Twist_,
+_Jack Sheppard_, _Guy Fawkes_ and _The Ingoldsby Legends_. For W.
+Harrison Ainsworth, Cruikshank illustrated _Rookwood_ (1836) and _The
+Tower of London_ (1840); the first six volumes of _Ainsworth's Magazine_
+(1842-1844) were illustrated by him with several of his finest suites of
+etchings. For C. Lever's _Arthur O'Leary_ he supplied 10 full-page
+etchings (1844), and 20 spirited graphic etchings for Maxwell's lurid
+_History of the Irish Rebellion in 1798_ (1845). Of his own
+speculations, mention must be made of _George Cruikshank's Omnibus_
+(1841) and _George Cruikshank's Table Book_ (1845), as well as his
+_Comic Almanack_ (1835-1853). _The Life of Sir John Falstaff_ contained
+20 full-page etchings (1857-1858). These are a few leading items amongst
+the thousands of illustrations emanating from that fertile imagination.
+As an enthusiastic teetotal advocate, G. Cruikshank produced a long
+series of pictures and illustrations, pictorial pamphlets and tracts;
+the best known of these are _The Bottle_, 8 plates (1847), with its
+sequel, _The Drunkard's Children_, 8 plates (1848), with the ambitious
+work, _The Worship of Bacchus_, published by subscription after the
+artist's oil painting, now in the National Gallery, London, to which it
+was presented by his numerous admirers.
+
+  See _Cruikshank's Water-Colours_, with introduction by Joseph Grego
+  (London, 1903).     (J. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+CRUNDEN, JOHN (d. 1828), English architectural and mobiliary designer.
+Most of his early inspiration was drawn from Chippendale and his school,
+but he fell later under the influence of a bastard classicism. He
+produced a very large number of designs which were published in numerous
+volumes; among the most ambitious were ornamental centres for ceilings
+in which he introduced cupids with bows and arrows, Fame sounding her
+trumpet, and such like motives. Sport and natural history supplied him
+with many other themes, and one of his ceilings is a hunting scene
+representing a "kill." His principal works were _Designs for Ceilings_;
+_Convenient and Ornamental Architecture_; _The Carpenter's Companion for
+Chinese Railings, Gates_, &c. (1770); _The Joiner and Cabinet-maker's
+Darling_, or _Sixty Designs for Gothic, Chinese, Mosaic and Ornamental
+Frets_ (1765); and _The Chimney Piece Maker's Daily Assistant_ (1776).
+Much of his work was either absurd or valueless.
+
+
+
+
+CRUSADES, the name given to the series of wars for delivering the Holy
+Land from the Mahommedans, so-called from the cross worn as a badge by
+the crusaders. By analogy the term "crusade" is also given to any
+campaign undertaken in the same spirit.
+
+1. _The Meaning of the Crusades._--The Crusades may be regarded partly
+as the _decumanus fluctus_ in the surge of religious revival, which had
+begun in western Europe during the 10th, and had mounted high during the
+11th century; partly as a chapter, and a most important chapter, in the
+history of the interaction of East and West. Contemporaries regarded
+them in the former of these two aspects, as "holy wars" and "pilgrims'
+progresses" towards Christ's Sepulchre; the reflective eye of history
+must perhaps regard them more exclusively from the latter point of view.
+Considered as holy wars the Crusades must be interpreted by the ideas
+of an age which was dominated by the spirit of otherworldliness, and
+accordingly ruled by the clerical power which represented the other
+world. They are a _novum salutis genus_--a new path to Heaven, to tread
+which counted "for full and complete satisfaction" _pro omni
+poenitentia_ and gave "forgiveness of sins" (_peccaminum remissio_)[1];
+they are, again, the "foreign policy" of the papacy, directing its
+faithful subjects to the great war of Christianity against the infidel.
+As such a _novum salutis genus_, the Crusades connect themselves with
+the history of the penitentiary system; as the foreign policy of the
+Church they belong to that clerical purification and direction of feudal
+society and its instincts, which appears in the institution of "God's
+Truce" and in chivalry itself. The penitentiary system, according to
+which the priest enforced a code of moral law in the confessional by the
+sanction of penance--penance which must be performed as a condition of
+admission to the sacrament of the Eucharist--had been from early times a
+great instrument in the civilization of the raw Germanic races. Penance
+might consist in fasting; it might consist in flagellation; it might
+consist in pilgrimage. The penitentiary pilgrimage, which seems to have
+been practised as early as A.D. 700, was twice blessed; not only was it
+an act of atonement in itself, like fasting and flagellation; it also
+gained for the pilgrim the merit of having stood on holy ground. Under
+the influence of the Cluniac revival, which began in the 10th century,
+pilgrimages became increasingly frequent; and the goal of pilgrimage was
+often Jerusalem. Pilgrims who were travelling to Jerusalem joined
+themselves in companies for security, and marched under arms; the
+pilgrims of 1064, who were headed by the archbishop of Mainz, numbered
+some 7000 men. When the First Crusade finally came, what was it but a
+penitentiary pilgrimage under arms--with the one additional object of
+conquering the goal of pilgrimage? That the Pilgrims' Progress should
+thus have turned into a Holy War is a fact readily explicable, when we
+turn to consider the attempts made by the Church, during the 11th
+century, to purify, or at any rate to direct, the feudal instinct for
+private war (_Fehde_). Since the close of the 10th century diocesan
+councils in France had been busily acting as legislatures, and enacting
+"forms of peace" for the maintenance of God's Peace or Truce (_Pax Dei_
+or _Treuga Dei_). In each diocese there had arisen a judicature
+(_judices pacis_) to decide when the form had been broken; and an
+executive, or _communitas pacis_, had been formed to enforce the
+decisions of the judicature. But it was an easier thing to consecrate
+the fighting instinct than to curb it; and the institution of chivalry
+represents such a clerical consecration, for ideal ends and noble
+purposes, of the martial impulses which the Church had hitherto
+endeavoured to check. In the same way the Crusades themselves may be
+regarded as a stage in the clerical reformation of the fighting laymen.
+As chivalry directed the layman to defend what was right, so the
+preaching of the Crusades directed him to attack what was wrong--the
+possession by "infidels" of the Sepulchre of Christ. The Crusades are
+the offensive side of chivalry: chivalry is their parent--as it is also
+their child. The knight who joined the Crusades might thus still indulge
+the bellicose side of his genius--under the aegis and at the bidding of
+the Church; and in so doing he would also attain what the spiritual side
+of his nature ardently sought--a perfect salvation and remission of
+sins. He might butcher all day, till he waded ankle-deep in blood, and
+then at nightfall kneel, sobbing for very joy, at the altar of the
+Sepulchre--for was he not red from the winepress of the Lord? One can
+readily understand the popularity of the Crusades, when one reflects
+that they permitted men to get to the other world by fighting hard on
+earth, and allowed them to gain the fruits of asceticism by the ways of
+hedonism. Nor was the Church merely able, through the Crusades, to
+direct the martial instincts of a feudal society; it was also able to
+pursue the object of its own immediate policy, and to attempt the
+universal diffusion of Christianity, even at the edge of the sword, over
+the whole of the known world.
+
+Thus was renewed, on a greater scale, that ancient feud of East and
+West, which has never died. For a thousand years, from the Hegira in 622
+to the siege of Vienna in 1683, the peril of a Mahommedan conquest of
+Europe was almost continually present. From this point of view, the
+Crusades appear as a reaction of the West against the pressure of the
+East--a reaction which carried the West into the East, and founded a
+Latin and Christian kingdom on the shores of Asia. They protected Europe
+from the new revival of Mahommedanism under the Turks; they gave it a
+time of rest in which the Western civilization of the middle ages
+developed. But the relation of East and West during the Crusades was not
+merely hostile or negative. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was the
+meeting-place of two civilizations: on its soil the East learned from
+the West, and--perhaps still more--the West learned from the East. The
+culture developed in the West during the 13th century was not only
+permitted to develop by the protection of the Crusades, it grew upon
+materials which the Crusades enabled it to import from the East. Yet the
+debt of Europe to the Crusades in this last respect has perhaps been
+unduly emphasized. Sicily was still more the meeting-place of East and
+West than the kingdom of Jerusalem; and the Arabs of Spain gave more to
+the culture of Europe than the Arabs of Syria.
+
+2. _Historical Causes of the Crusades._--Within fifteen years of the
+Hegira Jerusalem fell before the arms of Omar (637), and it continued to
+remain in the hands of Mahommedan rulers till the end of the First
+Crusade. For centuries, however, a lively intercourse was maintained
+between the Latin Church in Jerusalem, which the clemency of the Arab
+conquerors tolerated, and the Christians of the West. Charlemagne in
+particular was closely connected with Jerusalem: the patriarch sent him
+the keys of the city and a standard in 800; and in 807 Harun al-Rashid
+recognized this symbolical cession, and acknowledged Charlemagne as
+protector of Jerusalem and owner of the church of the Sepulchre.
+Charlemagne founded a hospital and a library in the Holy City; and later
+legend, when it made him the first of crusaders and the conqueror of the
+Holy Land, was not without some basis of fact. The connexion lasted
+during the 9th century; kings like Alfred of England and Louis of
+Germany sent contributions to Jerusalem, while the Church of Jerusalem
+acquired estates in the West. During the 10th century this intercourse
+still continued; but in the 11th century interruptions began to come.
+The fanaticism of the caliph Hakim destroyed the church of the Sepulchre
+and ended the Frankish protectorate (1010); and the patronage of the
+Holy Places, a source of strife between the Greek and the Latin Churches
+as late as the beginning of the Crimean War, passed to the Byzantine
+empire in 1021. This latter change in itself made pilgrimages from the
+West increasingly difficult: the Byzantines, especially after the schism
+of 1054, did not seek to smooth the way of the pilgrim, and Victor II.
+had to complain to the empress Theodora of the exactions practised by
+her officials. But still worse for the Latins was the capture of
+Jerusalem by the Seljukian Turks in 1071. Without being intolerant, the
+Turks were a rougher and ruder race than the Arabs of Egypt whom they
+displaced; while the wars between the Fatimites of Egypt and the
+Abbasids of Bagdad, whose cause was represented by the Seljuks, made
+Syria (one of the natural battle-grounds of history) into a troubled and
+unquiet region. The native Christians suffered; the pilgrims of the West
+found their way made still more difficult, and that at a time when
+greater numbers than ever were thronging to the East. Western Christians
+could not but feel hampered and checked in their natural movement
+towards the fountain-head of their religion, and it was natural that
+they should ultimately endeavour to clear the way. In much the same way,
+at a later date and in a lesser sphere, the closing of the trade-routes
+by the advance of the Ottoman Turks led traders to endeavour to find new
+channels, and issued in the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and the
+discovery of America. Nor, indeed, must it be forgotten that the search
+for new and more direct connexions with the routes of Oriental trade is
+one of the motives underlying the Crusades themselves, and leading to
+what may be called the 13th-century discovery of Asia.
+
+It was thus natural, for these reasons, that the conquest of the Holy
+Land should gradually become an object for the ambition of Western
+Christianity--an object which the papacy, eager to realize its dream of
+a universal Church subject to its sway, would naturally cherish and
+attempt to advance. Two causes combined to make this object still more
+natural and more definite. On the one hand, the reconquest of lost
+territories from the Mahommedans by Christian powers had been proceeding
+steadily for more than a hundred years before the First Crusade; on the
+other hand, the position of the Eastern empire after 1071 was a clear
+and definite summons to the Christian West, and proved, in the event,
+the immediate occasion of the holy war. As early as 970 the recovery of
+the territories lost to Mahommedanism in the East had been begun by
+emperors like Nicephoras Phocas and John Zimisces: they had pushed their
+conquests, if only for a time, as far as Antioch and Edessa, and the
+temporary occupation of Jerusalem is attributed to the East Roman arms.
+At the opposite end of the Mediterranean, in Spain, the Omayyad
+caliphate was verging to its fall: the long Spanish crusade against the
+Moor had begun; and in 1018 Roger de Toeni was already leading Normans
+into Catalonia to the aid of the native Spaniard. In the centre of the
+Mediterranean the fight between Christian and Mahommedan had been long,
+but was finally inclining in favour of the Christian. The Arabs had
+begun the conquest of Sicily from the East Roman empire in 827, and they
+had attacked the mainland of Italy as early as 840. The popes had put
+themselves at the head of Italian resistance: in 848 Leo IV. is already
+promising a sure and certain hope of salvation to those who die in
+defence of the cross; and by 916, with the capture of the Arab fortress
+on the Garigliano, Italy was safe. Then came the reconquest of the
+Mediterranean islands near Italy. The Pisans conquered Sardinia at the
+instigation of Benedict VIII. about 1016; and, in a thirty years' war
+which lasted from 1060 to 1090, the Normans, under a banner blessed by
+Pope Alexander II., wrested Sicily from the Arabs. The Norman conquest
+of Sicily may with justice be called a crusade before the Crusades; and
+it cannot but have given some impulse to that later attempt to wrest
+Syria from the Mahommedans, in which the virtual leader was Bohemund, a
+scion of the same house which had conquered Sicily. But while the
+Christians of the West were thus winning fresh ground from the
+Mahommedans, in the course of the 11th century, the East Roman empire
+had now to bear the brunt of a Mahommedan revival under the Seljuks--a
+revival which, while it crushed for a time the Greeks, only acted as a
+new incentive to the Latins to carry their arms to the East. The
+Seljukian Turks, first the mercenaries and then the masters of the
+caliph, had given new life to the decadent caliphate of Bagdad. Under
+the rule of their sultans, who assumed the rôle of mayors of the palace
+in Bagdad about the middle of the 11th century, they pushed westwards
+towards the caliphate of Egypt and the East Roman empire. While they
+wrested Jerusalem from the former (1071), in the same year they
+inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern emperor at Manzikert. The
+result of the defeat was the loss of almost the whole of Asia Minor; the
+dominions of the Turks extended to the sea of Marmora. An appeal for
+assistance, such as was often to be heard again in succeeding centuries,
+was sent by Michael VII. of Constantinople to Gregory VII. in 1073.
+Gregory listened to the appeal; he projected--not, indeed, as has often
+been said, a crusade,[2] but a great expedition, which should recover
+Asia Minor for the Eastern empire, in return for a union of the Eastern
+with the Western Church. In 1074 Gregory actually assembled a
+considerable army; but his disagreement with Robert Guiscard, followed
+by the outbreak of the war of investitures, hindered the realization of
+his plans, and the only result was a precedent and a suggestion for the
+events of 1095. The appeal of Michael VII. was re-echoed by Alexius
+Comnenus himself. Brave and sage as he was, he could hardly cope at one
+and the same time with the hostility of the Normans on the west, of the
+Petchenegs (Patzinaks) on the north, and of the Seljuks on the east and
+south. Already in 1087 and 1088 he had appealed to Baldwin of Flanders,
+verbally and by letter,[3] for troops; and Baldwin had answered the
+appeal. The same appeal was made, more than once, to Urban II.; and the
+answer was the First Crusade. The First Crusade was not, indeed, what
+Alexius had asked or expected to receive. He had appealed for
+reinforcements to recover Asia Minor; he received hundreds of thousands
+of troops, independent of him, and intending to conquer Jerusalem for
+themselves, though they might incidentally recover Asia Minor for the
+Eastern empire on their way. Alexius may almost be compared to a
+magician, who has uttered a charm to summon a ministering spirit, and is
+surrounded on the instant by legions of demons. In truth the appeal of
+Alexius had set free forces in the West which were independent of, and
+even ultimately hostile to, the interests of the Eastern empire.
+
+The primary force, which thus transmuted an appeal for reinforcements
+into a holy war for the conquest of Palestine, was the Church. The
+creative thought of the middle ages is clerical thought. It is the
+Church which creates the Carolingian empire, because the clergy thinks
+in terms of empire. It is the Church which creates the First Crusade,
+because the clergy believes in penitentiary pilgrimages, and the war
+against the Seljuks can be turned into a pilgrimage to the Sepulchre;
+because, again, it wishes to direct the fighting instinct of the laity,
+and the consecrating name of Jerusalem provides an unimpeachable
+channel; above all, because the papacy desires a perfect and universal
+Church, and a perfect and universal Church must rule in the Holy Land.
+But it would be a mistake to regard the Crusades (as it would be a
+mistake to regard the Carolingian empire) as a _pure_ creation of the
+Church, or as _merely_ due to the policy of a theocracy directing men to
+the holy war which is the only war possible for a theocracy. It would be
+almost truer, though only half the truth, to say that the clergy gave
+the name of Crusade to sanctify interests and ambitions which, while set
+on other ends than those of the Church, happened to coincide in their
+choice of means. There was, for instance, the ambition of the adventurer
+prince, the younger son, eager to carve a principality in the far East,
+of whom Bohemund is the type; there was the interest of Italian towns,
+anxious to acquire the products of the East more directly and cheaply,
+by erecting their own emporia in the eastern Mediterranean. The former
+was the driving force which made the First Crusade successful, where
+later Crusades, without its stimulus, for the most part failed; the
+latter was the one staunch ally which alone enabled Baldwin I. and
+Baldwin II. to create the kingdom of Jerusalem. So far as the Crusades
+led to permanent material results in the East, they did so in virtue of
+these two forces. Unregulated enthusiasm might of itself have achieved
+little or nothing; enthusiasm caught and guided by the astute Norman,
+and the no less astute Venetian or Genoese, could not but achieve
+tangible results. The principality or the emporium, it is true, would
+supply motives to the prince and the merchant only; and it may be urged
+that to the mass of the crusaders the religious motive was all in all.
+In this way we may return to the view that the First Crusade, at any
+rate, was _un fait ecclésiastique_. It is indeed true that to thousands
+the hope of acquiring spiritual merit must have been a great motive; it
+is also true, as the records of crusading sermons show, that there was a
+strong element of "revivalism" in the Crusades, and that thousands were
+hurried into taking the cross by a gust of that uncontrollable
+enthusiasm which is excited by revivalist meetings to-day. But it must
+also be admitted that there were motives of this world to attract the
+masses to the Crusades. Famine and pestilence at home drove men to
+emigrate hopefully to the golden East. In 1094 there was pestilence from
+Flanders to Bohemia: in 1095 there was famine in Lorraine. _Francigenis
+occidentalibus facile persuaderi poterat sua rura relinquere; nam
+Gallias per annos aliquot nunc seditio civilis, nunc fames, nunc
+mortalitas nimis afflixerat._[4] No wonder that a stream of emigration
+set towards the East, such as would in modern times flow towards a newly
+discovered gold-field--a stream carrying in its turbid waters much
+refuse, tramps and bankrupts, camp-followers and hucksters, fugitive
+monks and escaped villeins, and marked by the same motley grouping, the
+same fever of life, the same alternations of affluence and beggary,
+which mark the rush for a gold-field to-day.
+
+Such were the forces set in movement by Urban II., when, after holding a
+synod at Piacenza (March, 1095), and receiving there fresh appeals from
+Alexius, he moved to Clermont, in the S.E. of France, and there on the
+26th of November delivered the great speech which was followed by the
+First Crusade. In this speech he appealed, indeed, for help for the
+Greeks, _auxilio ... saepe acclamato indigis_ (Fulcher i. c. i.); but
+the gist of his speech was the need of Jerusalem. Let the truce of God
+be observed at home; and let the arms of Christians be directed to the
+winning of Jerusalem in an expedition which should count for full and
+complete penance. Like Gregory, Urban had thus sought for aid for the
+Eastern empire; unlike Gregory, who had only mentioned the Holy
+Sepulchre in a single letter, and then casually, he had struck the note
+of Jerusalem. The instant cries of _Deus vult_ which answered the note
+showed that Urban had struck aright. Thousands at once took the cross;
+the first was Bishop Adhemar of Puy, whom Urban named his legate and
+made leader of the First Crusade (for the holy war, according to Urban's
+original conception, must needs be led by a clerk). Fixing the 15th of
+August 1096 as the time for the departure of the crusaders, and
+Constantinople as the general rendezvous, Urban returned from France to
+Italy. It is noticeable that it was on French soil that the seed had
+been sown.[5] Preached on French soil by a pope of French descent, the
+Crusades began--and they continued--as essentially a French (or perhaps
+better Norman-French) enterprise; and the kingdom which they established
+in the East was essentially a French kingdom, in its speech and its
+customs, its virtues and its vices. It was natural that France should be
+the home of the Crusades. She was already the home of the Cluniac
+movement, the centre from which radiated the truce of God, the chosen
+place of chivalry; she could supply a host of feudal nobles, somewhat
+loosely tied to their place in society, and ready to break loose for a
+great enterprise; she had suffered from battle and murder, pestilence
+and famine, from which any escape was welcome. To the Normans
+particularly the Crusades had an intimate appeal. They appealed to the
+old Norse instinct for wandering--an instinct which, as it had long
+before sent the Norseman eastward to find his El Dorado of Micklegarth,
+could now find a natural outlet in the expedition to Jerusalem: they
+appealed to the Norman religiosity, which had made them a people of
+pilgrims, the allies of the papacy, and, in England and Sicily,
+crusaders before the Crusades: finally, they appealed to that desire to
+gain fresh territory, upon which Malaterra remarks as characteristic of
+Norman princes.[6] No wonder, then, that the crusading armies were
+recruited in France, or that they were led by men of the stock of the
+d'Hautevilles. Meanwhile newly-conquered England had its own problems to
+solve; and Germany, torn by civil war, and not naturally quick to
+kindle, could only deride the "delirium" of the crusader.[7]
+
+3. _Course of the First Crusade._--The First Crusade falls naturally
+into two parts. One of these may be called the Crusade of the people:
+the other may be termed the Crusade of the princes. Of these the
+people's Crusade--prior in order of time, if only secondary in point of
+importance--may naturally be studied first. The sermon of Urban II. at
+Clermont became the staple for wandering preachers, among whom Peter the
+Hermit distinguished himself by his fiery zeal.[8] Riding on an ass from
+place to place through France and along the Rhine, he carried away by
+his eloquence thousands of the poor. Some three or four months before
+the term fixed by Urban II., in April and May 1096, five divisions of
+_pauperes_ had already collected. Three of these, led by Fulcher of
+Orleans, Gottschalk and William the Carpenter respectively, failed to
+reach even Constantinople. The armies of Fulcher and Gottschalk were
+destroyed by the Hungarians in just revenge for their excesses (June);
+the third, after joining in a wild _Judenhetze_ in the towns of the
+valley of the Rhine, during which some 10,000 Jews perished as the
+first-fruits of crusading zeal, was scattered to the winds in Hungary
+(August). Two other divisions, however, reached Constantinople in
+safety. The first of these, under Walter the Penniless, passed through
+Hungary in May, and reached Constantinople, where it halted to wait for
+the Hermit, in the middle of July. The second, led by Peter himself,
+passed safely through Hungary, but suffered severely in Bulgaria, and
+only attained Constantinople with sadly diminished numbers at the end of
+July. These two divisions (which in spite of good treatment by Alexius
+began to commit excesses against the Greeks) united and crossed the
+Bosporus in August, Peter himself remaining in Constantinople. By the
+end of October they had perished utterly at the hands of the Seljuks; a
+heap of whitening bones also remained to testify to the later crusaders,
+when they passed in the spring of 1097, of the fate of the people's
+Crusade.
+
+Meanwhile the knights had already begun to assemble in March 1096. In
+small bands, and by divers ways, they streamed gradually southward and
+eastward, in a steady flow, throughout 1096. But three large divisions,
+under three considerable leaders, were pre-eminent among the rest.
+Godfrey of Bouillon, with his brother Baldwin, led the crusaders of
+Lorraine along "the road of Charles the Great," through Hungary, to
+Constantinople, where he arrived on the 23rd of December. Raymund of
+Toulouse (the first prince to join the crusading movement) along with
+Bishop Adhemar, the papal commissary, led the Provençals down the coast
+of Illyria, and then due east to Constantinople, arriving towards the
+end of April 1097. Bohemund of Otranto, the destined leader of the
+Crusade, with his nephew Tancred, led a fine force of Normans by sea to
+Durazzo, and thence by land to Constantinople, which he reached about
+the same time as Raymund. To the same great rendezvous other leaders
+also gathered, some of higher rank than Godfrey or Raymund or Bohemund,
+but none destined to exercise an equal influence on the fate of the
+Crusade. Hugh of Vermandois, younger brother of Philip I. of France, had
+reached Constantinople in November 1096, in a species of honourable
+captivity, and had done Alexius homage; Robert of Normandy and Stephen
+of Blois, to whom Urban II. had given St Peter's banner at Lucca, only
+arrived--the last of the crusaders--in May 1097 (their original
+companion in arms, Count Robert of Flanders, having left them to winter
+at Bari, and crossed to Constantinople before the end of 1096).
+
+Thus was gathered at Constantinople, in the spring of 1097, a great
+host, which Fulcher computes at 600,000 men (I. c. iv.), Urban II. at
+300,000, and which was probably some 150,000 strong.[9] Before we follow
+this host into Asia, we may pause to inquire into the various factors
+which would determine its course, or condition its activity. On the
+Western side, and among the crusaders themselves, there were two factors
+of importance, already mentioned above--the aims of the adventurer
+prince, and the interests of the Italian merchant; while on the Eastern
+side there are again two--the policy of the Greeks, and the condition of
+the Mahommedan East. We have already seen that among the princes who
+joined the First Crusade there were some who were rather _politiques_
+than _dévots_, and who aimed at the acquisition of temporal profit as
+well as of spiritual merit. Of these the type--and, it may almost be
+said, the inspirer of the rest--was Bohemund. From the first he had an
+Eastern principality in his mind's eye; and if we may judge from the
+follower of Bohemund who wrote the _Gesta Francorum_, there had already
+been some talk at Constantinople of Antioch as the seat of this
+principality. Bohemund's policy seems to have inspired Baldwin, the
+brother of Godfrey of Bouillon to emulation; on the one hand he strove
+to thwart the endeavours of Tancred, the nephew of Bohemund, to begin
+the foundation of the Eastern principality for his uncle by conquering
+Cilicia, and, on the other, he founded a principality for himself in
+Edessa. Raymond of Provence, the third and last of the great
+_politiques_ of the First Crusade, was, like Baldwin, envious of
+Bohemund; and jealousy drove him first to attempt to wrest Antioch from
+Bohemund, and then to found a principality of Tripoli to the south of
+Antioch, which would check the growth of his power. The political
+motives of these three princes, and the interaction of their different
+policies, was thus a great factor in determining the course and the
+results of the First Crusade. The influence of the Italian towns did not
+make itself greatly felt till after the end of the First Crusade, when
+it made possible the foundation of a kingdom in Jerusalem, in addition
+to the three principalities established by Bohemund, Baldwin and
+Raymond; but during the course of the Crusade itself the Italian ships
+which hugged the shores of Syria were able to supply the crusaders with
+provisions and munition of war, and to render help in the sieges of
+Antioch and Jerusalem.[10] Sea-power had thus some influence in
+determining the victory of the crusaders.
+
+In the East the conditions were, on the whole, favourable to the
+crusaders. The one difficulty--and it was serious--was the attitude
+adopted by Alexius. Confronted by crusaders where he had asked for
+auxiliaries, Alexius had two alternative policies presented to his
+choice. He might, in the first place, have frankly admitted that the
+crusaders were independent allies, and treating them as equals, he might
+have waged war in concert with them, and divided the conquests achieved
+in the war. A boundary line might have been drawn somewhere to the N.W.
+of Antioch; and the crusaders might have been left to acquire what they
+could to the south and east of that line. Unhappily, clinging to the
+conviction that all the lands which the crusaders would traverse were
+the "lost provinces" of his empire, he induced the crusaders to do him
+homage, so that, whatever they conquered, they would conquer in his
+name, and whatever they held, they would hold by his grant and as his
+vassals. Thus Hugh of Vermandois became the man of Alexius in November
+1096; Godfrey of Bouillon was induced, not without difficulty, to do
+homage in January 1097; and in April and May the other leaders,
+including Bohemund and the obstinate Raymond himself, followed his
+example. The policy of Alexius was destined to produce evil results,
+both for the Eastern empire and for the crusading movement. The West had
+already its grievances against the East: the Greek emperors had taken
+advantage of their protectorate of the Holy Places to lay charges on
+the pilgrims, against which the Papacy had already been forced to
+remonstrate; nor were the Italian towns, with the exception of favoured
+Venice, disposed to be friendly to the great monopolist city of
+Constantinople. The old dissension of the Eastern and Western Churches
+had blazed out afresh in 1054; and the policy of Alexius only added new
+rancours to an old grudge, which culminated in the Latin conquest of
+Constantinople in 1204. On the other hand, the success of the crusading
+movement was imperilled, both now and afterwards, by the jealousy of the
+Comneni. Always hostile to the principality, which Bohemund established
+in spite of his oath, they helped by their hostility to cause the loss
+of Edessa in 1144, and thus to hasten the disintegration of the Latin
+kingdom of Jerusalem. Yet one must remember, in justice to Alexius, the
+gravity of the problem by which he was confronted; nor was the conduct
+of the crusaders themselves such that he could readily make them his
+brethren in arms.
+
+The condition of Asia Minor and Syria in 1097 was almost altogether such
+as to favour the success of the crusaders. The Seljukian sultans had
+only achieved a military occupation of the country which they had
+conquered. There were Seljukian garrisons in towns like Nicaea and
+Antioch, ready to offer an obstinate resistance to the crusaders; and
+here and there in the country there were Seljukian armies, either
+cantoned or nomadic. But the inhabitants of the towns were often hostile
+to the garrisons, and over wide tracts of country there were no forces
+at all. Accordingly, when the crusaders had captured the town at Nicaea,
+and defeated the Seljukian field-army at Dorylaeum their way lay clear
+before them through Asia Minor. Not only so, but they could count, at
+the very least, on a benevolent neutrality from the native population;
+while from the Armenian principalities in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which
+survived unsubdued in the general deluge of Seljukian conquest, they
+could expect active assistance (the hope of which will explain the
+north-easterly line of march which they followed after leaving
+Heraclea). But the purely military character of the Seljukian occupation
+helped the crusaders in yet another way. Strong generals were needed in
+the separate divisions of the empire, and these, as has always been the
+case in Eastern empires, made themselves independent in their spheres of
+command, because there was no organization to keep them together under a
+single control. On the death of Malik Shah, the last of the great
+Seljukian emperors (1092), the empire dissolved. A new sultan,
+Barkiyaroq or Barkiarok, ruled in Bagdad (1094-1104); but in Asia Minor
+Kilij Arslan held sway as the independent sultan of Konia (Iconium),
+while the whole of Syria was also practically independent. Not only was
+Syria thus weakened by being detached from the body of the Seljukian
+empire; it was divided by dissensions within, and assailed by the
+Fatimite caliph of Egypt from without. In 1095 two brothers, Ridwan and
+Dekak, ruled in Aleppo and Damascus respectively; but they were at war
+with one another, and Yagi-sian, the ruler of Antioch, was a party to
+their dissensions. Ridwan and Yagi-sian were only stopped in an attack
+on Damascus by news of the approach of the crusaders, which led the
+latter to throw himself hastily into Antioch, in the autumn of 1097.
+Meanwhile the Fatimites were not slow to take advantage of these
+dissensions. A great religious difference divided the Fatimite caliph of
+Cairo, the head of the Shiite sect, from the Abbasid caliph of Bagdad,
+who was the head of the Sunnites. The difference may be compared to the
+dissension between the Greek and the Latin Churches; but it had perhaps
+more of the nature of a political difference. In any case, it hampered
+the Mahommedans as much as the jealousy between Alexius and the Latins
+hampered the progress of the Crusade. The crusading princes were well
+enough aware of the gulf which divided the caliph of Cairo from the
+Sunnite princes of Syria; and they sought by envoys to put themselves
+into connexion with him, hoping by his aid to gain Jerusalem (which was
+then ruled for the Turks by Sokman, the son of the amir Ortok).[11] But
+the caliph preferred to act for himself, and took advantage of the wars
+of the Syrian princes, and of the terror inspired by the advance of the
+crusaders to conquer Jerusalem (August 1098). But though the leaders of
+the First Crusade did not succeed in utilizing the dissensions of the
+Mahommedans as fully as they desired, it still remains true that these
+dissensions very largely explain their success. It was the disunion of
+the Syrian amirs, and the division between the Abbasids and the
+Fatimites, that made possible the conquest of the Holy City and the
+foundation of the kingdom of Jerusalem. When a power arose in Mosul,
+about 1130, which was able to unify Syria--when, again, in the hands of
+Saladin, unified Syria was in turn united to Egypt--the cause of Latin
+Christianity in the East was doomed.
+
+We are now in a position to follow the history of the First Crusade. By
+the beginning of May 1097 the crusaders were crossing the Bosporus, and
+entering the dominions of Kilij Arslan. Their first operation was the
+siege of Nicaea, defended by a Seljuk garrison, but eventually captured,
+with the aid of Alexius, after a month's siege (June 18). Alexius took
+possession of the town; and though he rewarded the crusading princes
+richly, some discontent was excited by his action. After the capture of
+Nicaea, the field-army of Kilij Arslan had to be met. In a long and
+obstinate encounter, it was defeated at Dorylaeum (July 1); and the
+crusaders marched unmolested in a south-easterly direction to Heraclea.
+Here Tancred, followed by Baldwin, turned into Cilicia, and began to
+take possession of the Cilician towns, and especially of Tarsus--thus
+beginning, it would seem, the creation of the Norman principality of
+Antioch. The main army turned to the N.E., in the direction of Caesarea
+(in order to bring itself into touch with the Armenian princes of this
+district), and then marched southward again to Antioch. At Marash, half
+way between Caesarea and Antioch, Baldwin, who had meanwhile wrested
+Tarsus from Tancred, rejoined the ranks; but he soon left the main body
+again, and struck eastward towards Edessa, to found a principality
+there. At the end of October the crusaders came into position before
+Antioch, which was held by Yagi-sian, and began the siege of the city,
+which lasted from October 21, 1097, to June 3, 1098. The great figure in
+the siege was naturally Bohemund (who had also been the hero of
+Dorylaeum). He repelled attempts at relief made by Dekak (Dec. 31, 1097)
+and Ridwan (Feb. 9, 1098); he put the besiegers in touch with the
+Genoese ships lying in the harbour of St Simeon, the port of Antioch
+(March 1098)--a move which at once served to remedy the want of
+provisions from which the crusaders suffered, and secured materials for
+the building of castles, with which Bohemund sought--in the Norman
+fashion--to overawe the besieged city. But it was finally by the
+treachery of one of Yagi-sian's commanders, the amir Firuz, that
+Bohemund was able to effect its capture. The other leaders had, however,
+to promise him possession of the city, before he would bring his
+negotiations with Firuz to a conclusion; and the matter was so long
+protracted that an army of relief under Kerbogha of Mosul was only at a
+distance of three days' march, when the city was taken (June 3, 1098).
+The besiegers were no sooner in the city, than they were besieged in
+their turn by Kerbogha; and the twenty-five days which followed were the
+worst period of stress and strain which the crusaders had to encounter.
+Under the pressure of this strain "spiritualistic" phenomena began to
+appear. It was in the ranks of the Provençals, where the religiosity of
+Count Raymund seems to have extended to his followers, that these
+phenomena appeared; and they culminated in the discovery of the Holy
+Lance, which had pierced the side of the Saviour. The excitement
+communicated itself to the whole army; and the nervous strength which it
+gave enabled the crusaders to meet and defeat Kerbogha in the open
+(June 28), but not before many of their number, including even Count
+Stephen of Blois, had deserted and fled.
+
+With the discovery of the Lance, which became as it were a Provençal
+asset, Count Raymund assumes a new importance. Mingled with the
+religiosity of his nature there was much obstinacy and self-seeking; and
+when Kerbogha was finally repelled, he began to dispute the possession
+of Antioch with Bohemund, pleading in excuse his oath to Alexius. The
+struggle lasted for some months, and helped to delay the further
+progress of the crusaders. Raymund, indeed, left Antioch in November,
+and moved S.E. to Marra; but his men still held two positions in
+Antioch, from which they were not dislodged by Bohemund till January
+1099. Expelled from Antioch, the obstinate Raymund endeavoured to
+recompense himself in the south (where indeed he subsequently created
+the county of Tripoli); and from February to May 1099 he occupied
+himself with the siege of Arca, to the N.E. of Tripoli. It was during
+the siege of Arca that Peter Bartholomew, to whom the vision of the Holy
+Lance had first appeared, was subjected, with no definite result, to the
+ordeal of fire--the hard-headed Normans doubting the genuine character
+of any Provençal vision, the more when, as in this case, it turned to
+the political advantage of the Provençals. The siege was long
+protracted; the mass of the pilgrims were anxious to proceed to
+Jerusalem, and, as the altered tone of the author of the _Gesta_
+sufficiently indicates, thoroughly weary of the obstinate political
+bickerings of Raymund and Bohemund. Here Godfrey of Bouillon finally
+came to the front, and placing himself at the head of the discontented
+pilgrims, he forced Raymund to accept the offers of the amir of Tripoli,
+to desist from the siege, and to march to Jerusalem (in the middle of
+May 1099). Bohemund remained in Antioch: the other leaders pressed
+forward, and following the coast route, arrived before Jerusalem in the
+beginning of June. After a little more than a month's siege, the city
+was finally captured (July 15). The slaughter was terrible; the blood of
+the conquered ran down the streets, until men splashed in blood as they
+rode. At nightfall, "sobbing for excess of joy," the crusaders came to
+the Sepulchre from their treading of the winepress, and put their
+blood-stained hands together in prayer. So, on that day of July, the
+First Crusade came to an end.
+
+It remained to determine the future government of Jerusalem; and here
+the eternal problem of the relations of Church and State emerged. It
+might seem natural that the Holy City, conquered in a holy war by an
+army of which the pope had made a churchman, Bishop Adhemar, the leader,
+should be left to the government of the Church. But Adhemar had died in
+August 1098 (whence, in large part, the confusion and bickerings which
+followed in the end of 1098 and the beginning of 1099); nor were there
+any churchmen left of sufficient dignity or weight to secure the triumph
+of the ecclesiastical cause. In the meeting of the crusaders on the 22nd
+of July, some few voices were raised in support of the view that a
+"spiritual vicar" should first be chosen in the place of the late
+patriarch of Jerusalem (who had just died in Cyprus), before the
+election of any lay ruler was taken in hand. But the voices were not
+heard; and the princes proceeded at once to elect a lay ruler. Raymund
+of Provence refused to accept their nomination, nominally on the pious
+ground that he did not wish to reign where Christ had suffered on the
+cross; though one may suspect that the establishment of a principality
+in Tripoli--in which he had been interrupted by the pressure of the
+pilgrims--was still the first object of his ambition. The refusal of
+Raymund meant the choice of Godfrey of Bouillon, who had, as we have
+seen, become prominent since the siege of Arca; and Godfrey accordingly
+became--not king, but "advocate of the Holy Sepulchre," while a few days
+afterwards Arnulf, the chaplain of Robert of Normandy, and one of the
+sceptics in the matter of the Holy Lance, became "vicar" of the vacant
+patriarchate. Godfrey's first business was to repel an Egyptian attack,
+which he accomplished successfully at Ascalon, with the aid of the other
+crusaders (August 12). At the end of August the other crusaders
+returned,[12] and Godfrey was left with a small army of 2000 men, and
+the support of Tancred, now prince of Galilee, to rule in some four
+isolated districts--Jaffa, Jerusalem, Ramlah and Haifa. At the end of
+the year came Bohemund and Godfrey's brother Baldwin (now count of
+Edessa) on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The result of Bohemund's visit was
+new trouble for Godfrey. Bohemund procured the election of Dagobert, the
+archbishop of Pisa, to the vacant patriarchate, disliking Arnulf, and
+perhaps hoping to find in the new patriarch a political supporter.
+Bohemund and Godfrey together became Dagobert's vassals; and in the
+spring Godfrey even seems to have entered into an agreement with the
+patriarch to cede Jerusalem and Jaffa into his hands, in the event of
+acquiring other lands or towns, especially Cairo, or dying without
+direct heirs. When Godfrey died in July 1100 (after successful forays
+against the Mahommedans which took him as far as Damascus), it might
+seem as if a theocracy were after all to be established in Jerusalem, in
+spite of the events of 1099.
+
+4. _The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem under the First Three Kings,[13]
+1100-1143._--The theocracy, however, was not destined to be established.
+Godfrey had died without direct heirs; but in far Edessa there was his
+brother Baldwin, ready to take his place. Dagobert had at first
+consented to the dying Godfrey's wish that Baldwin should be his
+successor; but when Godfrey died he saw an opportunity too precious to
+be missed, and opposed Baldwin, counting on the support of Bohemund, to
+whom he sent an appeal for assistance.[14] But a party in Jerusalem,
+headed by the late "vicar" Arnulf, opposed itself to the hierarchical
+pretensions of Dagobert and the Norman influence by which they were
+backed; and this party, representing the Lotharingian laity, carried the
+day. Baldwin was summoned from Edessa; and when he arrived, towards the
+end of the year, he was crowned king by Dagobert himself. Thus was
+founded, on Christmas day 1100, the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem; and thus
+was the possibility of a theocracy finally annihilated. A feudal kingdom
+of Frankish seigneurs was to be planted on the soil of Palestine,
+instead of a _dominium temporale_ of the patriarch like that of the pope
+in central Italy. Nor were any great difficulties with the Church to
+hamper the growth of this kingdom. For two years, indeed, a struggle
+raged between Baldwin I. and Dagobert: Baldwin accused the patriarch of
+treachery, and attempted to force him to contribute to the defence of
+the kingdom. But in 1102 the struggle ceased with the deposition of the
+patriarch and the victory of the king; and though it was renewed for a
+time by the patriarch Stephen in the reign of Baldwin II. (1128-1130),
+the new struggle was of short duration, and was soon ended by Stephen's
+death.
+
+The establishment of a kingdom in Jerusalem in 1100 was a blow, not only
+to the Church but to the Normans of Antioch. At the end of 1099 any
+contemporary observer must have believed that the capital of Latin
+Christianity in the East was destined to be Antioch. Antioch lay in one
+of the most fertile regions of the East; Bohemund was almost, if not
+quite, the greatest genius of his generation; and when he visited
+Jerusalem at the end of 1099, he led an army of 25,000 men--and those
+men, at any rate in large part, Normans. What could Godfrey avail
+against such a force? Yet the principality of Godfrey was destined to
+higher things than that of Bohemund. Jerusalem, like Rome, had the
+shadow of a mighty name to lend prestige to its ruler; and as residence
+in Rome was one great reason of the strength of the medieval papacy, so
+was residence in Jerusalem a reason for the ultimate supremacy of the
+Lotharingian kings. Jerusalem attracted the flow of pilgrims from the
+West as Antioch never could; and though the great majority of the
+pilgrims were only birds of passage, there were always many who stayed
+in the East. There was thus a steady immigration into the kingdom, to
+strengthen its armies and recruit with new blood the vigour of its
+inhabitants. Still more important perhaps was the fact that the ports of
+the kingdom attracted the Italian towns; and it was therefore to the
+kingdom that they lent the strength of their armies and the skill of
+their siege-artillery--in return, it is true, for concessions of
+privileges so considerable as to weaken the resources of the kingdom
+they helped to create. While Jerusalem possessed these advantages,
+Antioch was not without its defects. It had to meet--or perhaps it would
+be more true to say, it brought upon itself--the hostility of strong
+Mahommedan powers in the vicinity. As early as 1100 Bohemund was
+captured in battle by Danishmend of Sivas; and it was his captivity,
+depriving the patriarch as it did of Norman assistance, which allowed
+the uncontested accession of Baldwin I. Again, in 1104, the Normans,
+while attempting to capture Harran, were badly defeated on the river
+Balikh, near Rakka; and this defeat may be said to have been fatal to
+the chance of a great Norman principality.[15] But the hostility of
+Alexius, aided and abetted by the jealousy of Raymund of Toulouse, was
+almost equally fatal. Alexius claimed Antioch; was it not the old
+possession of his empire, and had not Bohemund done him homage? Raymund
+was ready to defend the claims of Alexius; was not Bohemund a successful
+rival? Thus it came about that Alexius and Raymund became allies; and by
+the aid of Alexius Raymund established, from 1102 onwards, the
+principality which, with the capture of Tripoli in 1109, became the
+principality of Tripoli, and barred the advance of Antioch to the south.
+Meanwhile the armies of Alexius not only prevented any farther advance
+to the N.W., but conquered the Cilician towns (1104). No wonder that
+Bohemund flung himself in revenge on the Eastern empire in 1108--only,
+however, to meet with a humiliating defeat at Durazzo.
+
+Thus it was that Baldwin waxed while Bohemund waned. The growth of
+Baldwin's kingdom, as it was suggested above, owed more to the interests
+of Italian traders than it did to crusading zeal. In 1100, indeed, it
+might appear that a new Crusade from the West, which the capture of
+Antioch in 1098 had begun, and the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 had
+finally set in motion, was destined to achieve great things for the
+nascent kingdom. Thousands had joined this new Crusade, which should
+deal the final blow to Mahommedanism: among the rest came the first of
+the troubadours, William IX., Count of Poitiers, to gather copy for his
+muse, and even some, like Stephen of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois, who
+had joined the First Crusade, but had failed to reach Jerusalem. The new
+crusaders cherished high plans; they would free Bohemund and capture
+Bagdad. But each of the three sections of their army was routed in turn
+in Asia Minor by the princes of Sivas, Aleppo and Harran, in the middle
+of 1101; and only a few escaped to report the crushing disaster. Baldwin
+I. had thus no assistance to expect from the West, save that of the
+Italian towns. From an early date Italian ships had followed the
+crusaders. There were Genoese ships in St Simeon's harbour in the spring
+of 1098 and at Jaffa in 1099; in 1099 Dagobert, the archbishop of Pisa,
+led a fleet from his city to the Holy Land; and in 1100 there came to
+Jaffa a Venetian fleet of 200 sail, whose leaders promised Venetian
+assistance in return for freedom from tolls and a third of each town
+they helped to conquer. But it was the Genoese who helped Baldwin I.
+most. The Venetians already enjoyed, since 1080, a favoured position in
+Constantinople, and had the less reason to find a new emporium in the
+East; while Pisa connected itself, through Dagobert, with Antioch[16]
+rather than with Jerusalem, and was further, in 1111, invested by
+Alexius with privileges, which made an outlet in the Holy Land no longer
+necessary. But the Genoese, who had helped with provisions and
+siege-tackle in the capture of Antioch and of Jerusalem, had both a
+stronger claim on the crusaders, and a greater interest in acquiring an
+eastern emporium. An alliance was accordingly struck in 1101 (Fulcher
+II. c. vii.), by which the Genoese promised their assistance, in return
+for a third of all booty, a quarter in each town captured, and a grant
+of freedom from tolls. In this way Baldwin I. was able to take Arsuf and
+Caesarea in 1101 and Acre in 1104. But Genoese aid was given to others
+beside Baldwin (it enabled Raymund to capture Byblus in 1104, and his
+successor, William, to win Tripoli in 1109); while, on the other hand,
+Baldwin enjoyed other aid besides that of the Genoese. In 1110, for
+example, he was enabled to capture Sidon by the aid of Sigurd of Norway,
+the Jorsalafari, who came to the Holy Land with a fleet of 55 ships,
+starting in 1107, and in a three years' "wandering," after the old Norse
+fashion, fighting the Moors in Spain, and fraternizing with the Normans
+in Sicily. At a later date, in the reign of Baldwin II., Venice also
+gave her aid to the kings of Jerusalem. Irritated by the concessions
+made by Alexius to the Pisans in 1111, and furious at the revocation of
+her own privileges by John Comnenus in 1118, the republic naturally
+sought a new outlet in the Holy Land. A Venetian fleet of 120 sail came
+in 1123, and after aiding in the repulse of an attack, which the
+Egyptians had taken advantage of Baldwin II.'s captivity to deliver,
+they helped the regent Eustace to capture Tyre (1124), in return for
+considerable privileges--freedom from toils throughout the kingdom, a
+quarter in Jerusalem, baths and ovens in Acre, and in Tyre one-third of
+the city and its suburbs, with their own court of justice and their own
+church. After thus gaining a new footing in Tyre, the Venetians could
+afford to attack the islands of the Aegean as they returned, in revenge
+for the loss of their privileges in Constantinople; but the hostility
+between Venice and the Eastern empire was soon afterwards appeased, when
+John Comnenus restored the old privileges of the Venetians. The
+Venetians, however, maintained their position in Palestine; and their
+quarters remained, along with those of the Genoese, as privileged
+commercial franchises in an otherwise feudal state.
+
+In this way the kingdom of Jerusalem expanded until it came to embrace a
+territory stretching along the coast from Beirut (captured in 1110[17])
+to el-Arish on the confines of Egypt--a territory whose strength lay not
+in Judaea, like the ancient kingdom of David, but, somewhat
+paradoxically (though commercial motives explain the paradox), in
+Phoenicia and the land of the Philistines. With all its length, the
+territory had but little breadth: towards the north it was bounded by
+the amirate of Damascus; in the centre, it spread little, if at all,
+beyond the Jordan; and it was only in the south that it had any real
+extension. Here there were two considerable annexes. To the south of the
+Dead Sea stretched a tongue of land, reaching to Aila, at the head of
+the eastern arm of the Red Sea. This had been won by Baldwin I., by way
+of revenge for the attacks of the Egyptians on his kingdom; and here, as
+early as 1116, he had built the fort of Monreal, half way between Aila
+and the Dead Sea. To the east of the Dead Sea, again, lay a second strip
+of territory, in which the great fortress was Krak (Kerak) of the
+Desert, planted somewhere about 1140 by the royal butler, Paganus, in
+the reign of Fulk of Jerusalem. These extensions in the south and east
+had also, it is easy to see, a commercial motive. They gave the kingdom
+a connexion of its own with the Red Sea and its shipping; and they
+enabled the Franks to control the routes of the caravans, especially
+the route from Damascus to Egypt and the Red Sea. Thus, it would appear,
+the whole of the expansion of the Latin kingdom (which may be said to
+have attained its height in 1131, at the death of Baldwin II.) may be
+shown to have been dictated, at any rate in large part, by economic
+motives; and thus, too, it would seem that two of the most powerful
+motives which sway the mind of man--the religious motive and the desire
+for gain--conspired to elevate the kingdom of Jerusalem (at once the
+country of Christ, and a natural centre of trade) to a position of
+supremacy in Latin Syria. During this process of growth the kingdom
+stood in relation to two sects of powers--the three Frankish
+principalities in northern Syria, and the Mahommedan powers both of the
+Euphrates and the Nile--whose action affected its growth and character.
+
+Of the three Frankish principalities, Edessa, founded in 1098 by Baldwin
+I. himself, was a natural fief of Jerusalem. Baldwin de Burgh, the
+future Baldwin II., ruled in Edessa as the vassal of Baldwin I. from
+1100 to 1118; and thereafter the county was held in succession by the
+two Joscelins of Tell-bashir until the conquest of Edessa by Zengi in
+1144. Lying to the east of the Euphrates, at once in close contact with
+the Armenians, and in near proximity to the great route of trade which
+came up the Euphrates to Rakka, and thence diverged to Antioch and
+Damascus, the county of Edessa had an eventful if brief life. The county
+of Tripoli, the second of these principalities, had also come under the
+aegis of Jerusalem at an early date. Founded by Raymund of Toulouse,
+between 1102 and 1105, with the favour of Alexius and the alliance of
+the Genoese, it did not acquire its capital of Tripoli till 1109. Even
+before the conquest of Tripoli, there had been dissensions between
+William, the nephew and successor of Raymund, and Bertrand, Raymund's
+eldest son, which it had needed the interference of Baldwin I. to
+compose; and it was only by the aid of the king that the town of Tripoli
+had been taken. At an early date therefore the county of Tripoli had
+already come under the influence of the kingdom. Meanwhile the
+principality of Antioch, ruled by Tancred, after the departure of
+Bohemund (1104-1112), and then by Roger his kinsman (1112-1119), was,
+during the reign of Baldwin I., busily engaged in disputes both with its
+Christian neighbours at Edessa and Tripoli, and with the Mahommedan
+princes of Mardin and Mosul. On the death of Roger in 1119, the
+principality came under the regency of Baldwin II. of Jerusalem, until
+1126, when Bohemund II. came of age. Bohemund had married a daughter of
+Baldwin; and on his death in 1130 Baldwin II. had once more become the
+guardian of Antioch. From his reign therefore Antioch may be regarded as
+a dependency of Jerusalem; and thus the end of Baldwin's reign (1131)
+may be said to mark the time when the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem stands
+complete, with its own boundaries stretching from Beirut in the north to
+el-Arish and Aila in the south, and with the three Frankish powers of
+the north admitting its suzerainty.
+
+The Latin power thus established and organized in the East had to face
+in the north a number of Mahommedan amirs, in the south the caliph of
+Egypt. The disunion between the Mahommedans of northern Syria and the
+Fatimites of Egypt, and the political disintegration of the former, were
+both favourable to the success of the Franks; but they had nevertheless
+to maintain their ground vigorously both in the north and the south
+against almost incessant attacks. The hostility of the decadent
+caliphate of Cairo was the less dangerous; and though Baldwin I. had at
+the beginning of his reign to meet annual attacks from Egypt, by the end
+he had pushed his power to the Red Sea, and in the very year of his
+death (1118) he had penetrated along the north coast of Egypt as far as
+Farama (Pelusium). The plan of conquering Egypt had indeed presented
+itself to the Franks from the first, as it continued to attract them to
+the end; and it is significant that Godfrey himself, in 1100, promised
+Jerusalem to the patriarch, "as soon as he should have conquered some
+other great city, and especially Cairo." But the real menace to the
+Latin kingdom lay in northern Syria; and here a power was eventually
+destined to rise, which outstripped the kings of Jerusalem in the race
+for Cairo, and then--with the northern and southern boundaries of
+Jerusalem in its control--was able to crush the kingdom as it were
+between the two arms of a vice. Until 1127, however, the Mahommedans of
+northern Syria were disunited among themselves. The beginning of the
+12th century was the age of the atabegs (regents or stadtholders). The
+atabegs formed a number of dynasties, which displaced the descendants of
+the Seljukian amirs in their various principalities. These dynasties
+were founded by emancipated mamelukes, who had held high office at court
+and in camp under powerful amirs, and who, on their death, first became
+stadtholders for their descendants, and then usurped the throne of their
+masters. There was an atabeg dynasty in Damascus founded by Tughtigin
+(1103-1128): there was another to the N.E., that of the Ortokids,
+represented by Sokman, who established himself at Kaifa in Diarbekr
+about 1101, and by his brother Ilghazi, who received Mardin from Sokman
+about 1108, and added to it Aleppo in 1117.[18] But the greatest of the
+atabegs were those of Mosul on the Tigris--Maudud, who died in 1113;
+Aksunkur, his successor; and finally, greatest of all, Zengi himself,
+who ruled in Mosul from 1127 onwards.
+
+Before the accession of Zengi, there had been constant fighting, which
+had led, however, to no definite result, between the various Mahommedan
+princes and the Franks of northern Syria. The constant pressure of
+Tancred of Antioch and Baldwin de Burgh of Edessa led to a series of
+retaliations between 1110 and 1115; Edessa was attacked in 1110, 1111,
+1112 and 1114; and in 1113 Maudud of Mosul had even penetrated as far as
+the vicinity of Acre and Jerusalem.[19] But the dissensions of the
+Mahommedans made their attacks unavailing; in 1115, for instance, we
+find Antioch actually aided by Ilghazi and Tughtigin against Aksunkur of
+Mosul. Again, in the reign of Baldwin II., there was steady fighting in
+the north; Roger of Antioch was defeated by Ilghazi at Balat in 1119,
+and Baldwin II. himself was captured by Balak, the successor of Ilghazi,
+in 1123, but on the whole the Franks held the upper hand. Baldwin
+conquered part of the territory of Aleppo (in 1121 and the following
+years), and extorted a tribute from Damascus (1126). But when Zengi
+established himself in Mosul in 1127, the tide gradually began to turn.
+He created for himself a great and united principality, comprising not
+only Mosul, but also Aleppo,[20] Harran, Nisibin and other districts;
+and in 1130, Alice, the widow of Bohemund II., sought his alliance in
+order to maintain herself in power at Antioch. In the beginning of the
+reign of Fulk of Jerusalem (1131-1143) the progress of Zengi was steady.
+He conquered in 1135 several fortresses in the east of the principality
+of Antioch, and in this year and the next pressed the count of Tripoli
+hard; while in 1137 he defeated Fulk at Barin, and forced the king to
+capitulate and surrender the town. If Fulk had been left alone to wage
+the struggle against Zengi, and if Zengi had enjoyed a clear field
+against the Franks, the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem might have come
+far sooner than it did.[21] But there were two powers which aided Fulk,
+and impeded the progress of Zengi--the amirate of Damascus and the
+emperors of Constantinople. The position of Damascus is a position of
+crucial importance from 1130 to 1154. Lying between Mosul and Jerusalem,
+and important both strategically and from its position on the great
+route of commerce from the Euphrates to Egypt, Damascus became the
+arbiter of Syrian politics. During the greater part of the period
+between 1130 and 1154 the policy of Damascus was guided by the vizier
+Muin-eddin Anar, who ruled on behalf of the descendants of the atabeg
+Tughtigin. He saw the importance of finding an ally against the ambition
+of Zengi, who had already attacked Damascus in 1130. The natural ally
+was Jerusalem. As early as 1133 the alliance of the two powers had been
+concluded; and in 1140 the alliance was solemnly renewed between Fulk
+and the vizier. Henceforth this alliance was a dominant factor in
+politics. One of the great mistakes made by the Franks was the breach of
+the alliance in 1147--a breach which was widened by the attack directed
+against Damascus during the Second Crusade; and the conquest of Damascus
+by Nureddin in 1154 was ultimately fatal to the Latin kingdom, removing
+as it did the one possible ally of the Franks, and opening the way to
+Egypt for the atabegs of Mosul.
+
+The alliance of the emperors of Constantinople was of far more dubious
+value to the kings of Jerusalem. We have already seen that it was the
+theory of the Eastern emperors--a theory which logically followed from
+the homage of the crusaders to Alexius--that the conquests of the
+crusaders belonged to their empire, and were held by the crusading
+princes as fiefs. We have seen that the action of Bohemund at Antioch
+was the negation of this theory, and that Alexius in consequence helped
+Raymund to establish himself in Tripoli as a thorn in the side of
+Bohemund, and sent an army and a fleet which wrested from the Normans
+the towns of Cilicia (1104). The defeat of Bohemund at Durazzo in 1108
+had resulted in a treaty, which made Antioch a fief of Alexius; but
+Tancred (who in 1107 had recovered Cilicia from the Greeks) refused to
+fulfil the terms of the treaty, and Alexius (who attempted--but in
+vain--to induce Baldwin I. to join an alliance against Tancred in 1112)
+was forced to leave Antioch independent. Thus, although Alexius had been
+able, in the wake of the crusading armies, to recover a large belt of
+land round the whole coast of Asia Minor,--the interior remaining
+subject to the sultans of Konia (Iconium) and the princes of Sivas,--he
+left the territories to the east of the western boundary of Cilicia in
+the hands of the Latins when he died in 1118. Not for 20 years after his
+death did the Eastern empire make any attempt to gain Cilicia or wrest
+homage from Antioch. But in 1137 John Comnenus appeared, instigated by
+the opportunity of dissensions in Antioch, and received its long-denied
+homage, as well as that of Tripoli; while in the following year he
+entered into hostilities with Zengi, without, however, achieving any
+considerable result. In 1142 he returned again, anxious to create a
+principality in Cilicia and Antioch for his younger son Manuel. The
+people of Antioch refused to submit; a projected visit to Jerusalem,
+during which John was to unite with Fulk in a great alliance against the
+Moslem, fell through; and in the spring of 1143 the emperor died in
+Cilicia, with nothing accomplished. On the whole, the interference of
+the Comneni, if it checked Zengi for the moment in 1138, may be said to
+have ultimately weakened and distracted the Franks, and to have helped
+to cause the loss of Edessa (1144), which marks the turning-point in the
+history of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
+
+5. _Organization of the Kingdom._--Before we turn to describe the Second
+Crusade, which the loss of Edessa provoked, and to trace the fall of the
+kingdom, which the Second Crusade rather hastened than hindered, we may
+pause at this point to consider the organization of the Frankish
+colonies in Syria. The first question which arises is that of the
+relation of the kingdom of Jerusalem to the three counties or
+principalities of Antioch, Tripoli and Edessa, which acknowledged their
+dependence upon it. The degree of this dependence was always a matter of
+dispute. The rights of the king of Jerusalem chiefly appear when there
+is a vacancy or a minority in one of the principalities, or when there
+is dissension either inside one of the principalities or between two of
+the princes. On the death of one of the princes without heirs of full
+age, the kings of Jerusalem were entitled to act as regents, as Baldwin
+II. did twice at Antioch, in 1119 and 1130; but the kings regarded this
+right of regency as a burden rather than a privilege, and it is indeed
+characteristic of the relation of the king to the three princes, that it
+imposes upon him duties without any corresponding rights. It is his duty
+to act as regent; it is his duty to compose the dissensions in the
+principality of Antioch, and to repress the violences of the prince
+towards his patriarch (1154); it is his duty to reconcile Antioch with
+Edessa, when the two fall to fighting. The princes on their side acted
+independently: if they joined the king with their armies, it was as
+equals doing a favour; and they sometimes refused to join until they
+were coerced. They made their own treaties with the Mahommedans, or
+attacked them in spite of the king's treaties; they dated their
+documents by the year of their own reign, and they had each their
+separate laws or assizes. There was, in a word, co-ordination rather
+than subordination; nor did the kings ever attempt to embark on a policy
+of centralization.
+
+The relation of the king to his own barons within his immediate kingdom
+of Jerusalem is not unlike the relation of the king to the three
+princes. In Norman England the king insisted on his rights; in Frankish
+Jerusalem the barons insisted on his duties. The circumstances of the
+foundation of the kingdom explain its characteristics. As the crusaders
+advanced to Jerusalem, says Raymund of Agiles (c. xxxiii.), it was their
+rule that the first-comer had the right to each castle or town, provided
+that he hoisted his standard and planted a garrison there. The feudal
+nobility was thus the first to establish itself, and the king only came
+after its institution--the reverse of Norman England, where the king
+first conquered the country, and then plotted it out among his nobles.
+The predominance of the nobility in this way became as characteristic of
+feudalism in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem as the supremacy of the
+crown was of contemporary feudalism in England; and that predominance
+expressed itself in the position and powers of the high court, in which
+the ultimate sovereignty resided. The kingdom of Jerusalem consisted of
+a society of peers, in which the king might be _primus_, but in which he
+was none the less subject to a punctilious law, regulating his position
+equally with that of every member of the society. In such a society the
+election of the head by the members may seem natural; and in the case of
+Godfrey and the first two Baldwins this was the case. But the conception
+of the equality of the king and his peers in the long run led to
+hereditary monarchy; for if the king held his kingdom as a fief, like
+other nobles, the laws of descent which applied to a fief applied to the
+kingdom, and those laws demanded heredity. Yet the high court, which
+decided all problems of descent, would naturally intervene if a problem
+of descent arose, as it frequently did, in the kingdom; and thus the
+barons had the right of deciding between different claimants, and also
+of formally "approving" each new successor to the throne. The conception
+of the kingdom as a fief not only subjected it to the jurisdiction of
+the high court; it involved the more disastrous result that the kingdom,
+like other fiefs, might be carried by an heiress to her husband; and the
+proximate causes of the collapse of the kingdom in 1187 depend on this
+fact and the dissensions which it occasioned.
+
+Thus conceived as the holder of a great fief, the king had only the
+rights of _suzerain_ over the four great baronies and the twelve minor
+fiefs of his kingdom. He had not those rights of sovereign which the
+Norman kings of England inherited from their Anglo-Saxon predecessors,
+or the Capetian kings of France from the Carolings; nor was he able
+therefore to come into direct touch with each of his subjects, which
+William I., in virtue of his sovereign rights, was able to attain by the
+Salisbury oath of 1086. Amalric I. indeed, by his _assise sur la
+ligčce_, attempted to reach the vassals of his vassals; he admitted
+arričre-vassaux to the _haute cour_, and encouraged them to carry their
+cases to it in the first instance. But this is the only attempt at that
+policy of _immédiatisation_ which in contemporary England was carried to
+far greater lengths; and even this attempt was unsuccessful. No alliance
+was actually formed between the king and the mesne nobility against the
+immediate baronage. The body of the tenants-in-chief continued to limit
+the power of the crown: their consent was necessary to legislation, and
+grants of fiefs could not be made without their permission. Nor was the
+crown only limited in this way. The _duties_ of the king towards his
+tenants are prominent in the _assises_. The king's oath to his men binds
+him to respect and maintain their rights, which are as prominent as are
+his duties; and if the men feel that the royal oath has not been kept,
+they may lawfully refuse military service (_gager le roi_), and may even
+rise in authorized and legal rebellion. The system of military service
+and the organization of justice corresponded to the part which the
+monarchy was thus constrained to play. The vassal was bound to pay
+military service, not, as in western Europe, for a limited period of
+forty days, but for the whole year--the Holy Land being, as it were, in
+a perpetual state of siege. On the other hand, the vassal was not bound
+to render service, unless he were _paid_ for his service; and it was
+only famine, or Saracen devastation, which freed the king from the
+obligation of paying his men. The king was also bound to insure the
+horses of his men by a system called the _restor_: if a vassal lost his
+horse otherwise than by his own fault, it must be replaced by the
+treasury (which was termed, as it also was in Norman Sicily, the
+_secretum_).[22] But the king had another force in addition to the
+feudal levy--a paid force of _soudoyers_,[23] holding fiefs, not of
+land, but of pay (_fiefs de soudée_). Along with this paid cavalry went
+another branch of the army, the Turcopuli, a body of light cavalry,
+recruited from the Syrians and Mahommedans, and using the tactics of the
+Arabs; while an infantry was found among the Armenians, the best
+soldiers of the East, and the Maronites, who furnished the kingdom with
+archers. To all these various forces must be added the knights and
+native levies of the great orders, whose masters were practically
+independent sovereigns like the princes of Antioch and Tripoli;[24] and
+with these the total levy of the kingdom may be reckoned at some 25,000
+men. But the strength of the kingdom lay less perhaps in the army than
+in the magnificent fortresses which the nobility, and especially the two
+orders, had built; and the most visible relic of the crusades to-day is
+the towering ruins of a fortress like Krak (Kerak) des Chevaliers, the
+fortress of the Knights of St John in the principality of Tripoli. These
+fortresses, garrisoned not by the king, as in Norman England, but by
+their possessors, would only strengthen the power of the feudatories,
+and help to dissipate the kingdom into a number of local units.
+
+In the organization of its system of justice the kingdom showed its most
+characteristic features. Two great central courts sat in Jerusalem to do
+justice--the high court of the nobles, and the court of burgesses for
+the rest of the Franks. (1) The high court was the supreme source of
+justice for the military class; and in its composition and procedure the
+same limitation of the crown, which appears in regard to military
+service, is again evident. The high court is not a _curia regis_, but a
+_curia baronum_, in which the theory of _judicium parium_ is fully
+realized. If the king presides in the court, the motive of its action is
+none the less the preservation of the rights of the nobles, and not, as
+in England, the extension of the rights of the crown. It is a court of
+the king's peers: it tries cases of dispute between the king and his
+peers--with regard, for instance, to military service--and it settles
+the descent of the title of king. (2) The court of burgesses was almost
+equally sovereign within its sphere. While the body of the noblesse
+formed the high court, the court of the burgesses was composed of twelve
+legists (probably named by the king) under the presidency of the
+_vicomte_--a knight also named by the king, who was a great financial as
+well as a judicial officer. The province of the court included all acts
+and contracts between burgesses, and extended to criminal cases in which
+burgesses were involved. Like the high court, the court of burgesses had
+also its assizes[25]--a body of unwritten legal custom. The independent
+position of the burgesses, who thus assumed a position of equality by
+the side of the feudal class, is one of the peculiarities of the kingdom
+of Jerusalem. It may be explained by reference to the peculiar
+conditions of the kingdom. Burgesses and nobles, however different in
+status, were both of the same Frankish stock, and both occupied the same
+superior position with regard to the native Syrians. The commercial
+motive, again, had been one of the great motives of the crusade; and the
+class which was impelled by that motive would be both large and, in view
+of the quality of the Eastern goods in which it dealt, exceptionally
+prosperous. Finally, when one remembers how, during the First Crusade,
+the _pedites_ had marched side by side with the _principes_, and how,
+from the beginning of 1099, they had practically risen in revolt against
+the selfish ambitions of princes like Count Raymund, it becomes easy to
+understand the independent position which the burgesses assumed in the
+organization of the kingdom. Burgesses could buy and possess property in
+towns, which knights were forbidden to acquire; and though they could
+not intermarry with the feudal classes, it was easy and regular for a
+burgess to thrive to knighthood. Like the nobles, again, the burgesses
+had the right of confirming royal grants and of taking part in
+legislation; and they may be said to have formed--socially, politically
+and judicially--an independent and powerful estate. Yet (with the
+exception of Antioch, Tripoli and Acre in the course of the 13th
+century) the Frankish towns never developed a communal government: the
+domain of their development was private law and commercial life.
+
+Locally, the consideration of the system of justice administered in the
+kingdom involves some account of three things--the organization of the
+fiefs, the position of the Italian traders in their quarters, and the
+privileges of the Church. Each fief was organized like the kingdom. In
+each there was a court for the noblesse, and a court (or courts) for the
+bourgeoisie. There were some thirty-seven _cours de bourgeoisie_
+(several of the fiefs having more than one), each of which was under the
+presidency of a _vicomte_, while all were independent of the court of
+burgesses at Jerusalem. Of the feudal courts there were some twenty-two.
+Each of these followed the procedure and the law of the high court; but
+each was independent of the high court, and formed a sovereign court
+without any appeal. On the other hand, the revolution wrought by Amalric
+I. in the status of the _arričre-vassaux_, which made them members of
+the high court, allowed them to carry their cases to Jerusalem in the
+first instance, if they desired. Apart from this, the characteristic of
+seignorial justice is its independence and its freedom from the central
+court; though, when we reflect that the central court is a court of
+seigneurs, this characteristic is seen to be the logical result of the
+whole system. Midway between the seignorial _cours de bourgeoisie_ and
+the privileged jurisdictions of the Italian quarter, there were two
+kinds of courts of a commercial character--the _cours de la fonde_ in
+towns where trade was busy, and the _cours de la chaîne_ in the
+sea-ports. The former courts, under their bailiffs, gradually absorbed
+the separate courts which the Syrians had at first been permitted to
+enjoy under their own _reďs_; and the bailiff with his 6 assessors (4
+Syrians and 2 Franks) thus came to judge both commercial cases and cases
+in which Syrians were involved. The _cours de la chaîne_, whose
+institution is assigned to Amalric I. (1162-1174), had a civil
+jurisdiction in admiralty cases, and, like the _cours de la fonde_, they
+were composed of a bailiff and his assessors. Distinct from all these
+courts, if similar in its sphere, is the court which the Italian quarter
+generally enjoyed in each town under its own consuls--a court privileged
+to try all but the graver cases, like murder, theft and forgery. The
+court was part of the general immunity which made these quarters
+_imperia in imperio_: their exemptions from tolls and from financial
+contributions is parallel to their judicial privileges. Regulated by
+their mother-town, both in their trade and their government, these
+Italian quarters outlasted the collapse of the kingdom, and continued to
+exist under Mahommedan rulers. The Church had its separate courts, as in
+the West; but their province was perhaps greater than elsewhere. The
+church courts could not indeed decide cases of perjury; but, on the
+other hand, they tried all matters in which clerical property was
+concerned, and all cases of dispute between husband and wife. In other
+spheres the immunities and exemptions of the Church offered a far more
+serious problem, and especially in the sphere of finance. Perhaps the
+supreme defect of the kingdom of Jerusalem was its want of any financial
+basis. It is true that the king had a revenue, collected by the vicomte
+and paid into the _secretum_ or treasury--a revenue composed of tolls on
+the caravans and customs from the ports, of the profits of monopolies
+and the proceeds of justice, of poll-taxes on Jews and Mahommedans, and
+of the tributes paid by Mahommedan powers. But his expenditure was
+large: he had to pay his feudatories; and he had to provide fiefs in
+money and kind to those who had not fiefs of land. The contributions
+sent to the Holy Land by the monarchs of western Europe, as commutations
+in lieu of personal participation in crusades, might help; the fatal
+policy of razzias against the neighbouring Mahommedan powers might
+procure temporary resources; but what was really necessary was a wide
+measure of native taxation, such as was once, and once only, attempted
+in 1183. To any such measure the privileges of the Italian quarters, and
+still more those of the Church, were inimical. In spite of provisions
+somewhat parallel to those of the English statute of mortmain, the
+clergy continued to acquire fresh lands at the same time that they
+refused to contribute to the defence of the kingdom, and rigorously
+exacted the full quota of tithe from every source which they could tap,
+and even from booty captured in war. The richest proprietor in the Holy
+Land,[26] but practically immune from any charges on its property, the
+Church helped, unconsciously, to ruin the kingdom which it should have
+supported above all others. It refused to throw its weight into the
+scale, and to strengthen the hands of the king against an over-mighty
+nobility. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the Church did
+not, after the first struggle between Dagobert and Baldwin I., actively
+oppose by any hierarchical pretensions the authority of the crown. The
+assizes may speak of patriarch and king as conjoint seigneurs in
+Jerusalem; but as a matter of fact the king could secure the nomination
+of his own patriarch, and after Dagobert the patriarchs are, with the
+temporary exception of Stephen in 1128, the confidants and supporters of
+the kings. It was the two great orders of the Templars and the
+Hospitallers which were, in reality, most dangerous to the kingdom.
+Honeycombed as it was by immunities--of seigneurs, of Italian quarters,
+of the clergy--the kingdom was most seriously impaired by these
+overweening immunists, who, half-lay and half-clerical, took advantage
+of their ambiguous position to escape from the duties of either
+character. They built up great estates, especially in the principality
+of Tripoli; they quarrelled with one another, until their dissensions
+prevented any vigorous action; they struggled against the claims of the
+clergy to tithes and to rights of jurisdiction; they negotiated with the
+Mahommedans as separate powers; they conducted themselves towards the
+kings as independent sovereigns. Yet their aid was as necessary as their
+influence was noxious. Continually recruited from the West, they
+retained the vigour which the native Franks of Palestine gradually lost;
+and their corporate strength gave a weight to their arms which made them
+indispensable.
+
+In describing the organization of the kingdom, we have also been
+describing the causes of its fall. It fell because it had not the
+financial or political strength to survive. "Les vices du gouvernement
+avaient été plus puissants que les vertus des gouvernants." But the
+vices were not only vices of the government: they were also vices,
+partly inevitable, partly moral, in the governing race itself. The
+climate was no doubt responsible for much. The Franks of northern Europe
+attempted to live a life that suited a northern climate under a southern
+sun. They rode incessantly to battle over burning sands, in full
+armour--chain mail, long shield and heavy casque--as if they were on
+their native French soil. The ruling population was already spread too
+thin for the work which it had to do; and exhausted by its efforts, it
+gradually became extinct. A constant immigration from the West, bringing
+new blood and recruiting the stock, could alone have maintained its
+vigour; and such immigration never came. Little driblets of men might
+indeed be added to the numbers of the Franks; but the great bodies of
+crusaders either perished in Asia Minor, as in 1101 and 1147, or found
+themselves thwarted and distrusted by the native Franks. It was indeed
+one of the misfortunes of the kingdom that its inhabitants could never
+welcome the reinforcements which came to their aid.[27] The barons
+suspected the crusaders of ulterior motives, and of designing to get new
+principalities for themselves. In any case the native Frank, accustomed
+to commercial intercourse and diplomatic negotiations with the
+Mahommedans, could hardly share the unreasoning passion to make a dash
+for the "infidel." As with the barons, so with the burgesses: they
+profited too much by their intercourse with the Mahommedans to abandon
+readily the way of peaceful commerce, and they were far more ready to
+hinder than to help any martial enterprise. Left to itself, the native
+population lost physical and moral vigour. The barons alternated between
+the extravagances of Western chivalry and the attractions of Eastern
+luxury: they returned from the field to divans with frescoed walls and
+floors of mosaic, Persian rugs and embroidered silk hangings. Their
+houses, at any rate those in the towns, had thus the characteristics of
+Moorish villas; and in them they lived a Moorish life. Their sideboards
+were covered with the copper and silver work of Eastern smiths and the
+confectioneries of Damascus. They dressed in flowing robes of silk, and
+their women wore oriental gauzes covered with sequins. Into these divans
+where figures of this kind moved to the music of Saracen instruments,
+there entered an inevitable voluptuousness and corruption of manners.
+The hardships of war and the excesses of peace shortened the lives of
+the men; the kingdom of Jerusalem had eleven kings within a century.
+While the men died, the women, living in comparative indolence, lived
+longer lives. They became regents to their young children; and the
+experience of all medieval minorities reiterates the lesson--woe to the
+land where the king is a child and the regent a woman. Still worse was
+the frequent remarriage of widowed princesses and heiresses. By the
+assizes of the high court, the widow, on the death of her husband, took
+half of the estate for herself, and half in guardianship for her
+children. _Liberae ire cum terra_, widows carried their estates or
+titles to three or four husbands; and as in 15th-century England, the
+influence of the heiress was fatal to the peace of the country. At
+Antioch, for instance, after the death of Bohemund II. in 1130, his
+widow Alice headed a party in favour of the marriage of the heiress
+Constance to Manuel of Constantinople, and did not scruple to enter into
+negotiations with Zengi of Mosul. Her policy failed; and Constance
+successively married Raymund of Antioch and Raynald of Chatillon. The
+result was the renewed enmity of the Greek empire, while the French
+adventurers who won the prize ruined the prospects of the Franks by
+their conduct. In the kingdom matters were almost worse. There was
+hardly any regular succession to the throne; and Jerusalem, as Stubbs
+writes, "suffered from the weakness of hereditary right and the
+jealousies of the elective system" at one and the same time. With the
+frequent remarriages of the heiresses of the kingdom, relationships grew
+confused and family quarrels frequent; and when Sibylla carried the
+crown to Guy de Lusignan, a newcomer disliked by all the relatives of
+the crown, she sealed the fate of the kingdom.
+
+It may be doubted--though it seems a harsh verdict to pass on a kingdom
+founded by religious zeal on holy soil--whether the kingdom possessed
+that moral basis which alone can give a right of survival to any
+institution or organization. The crusading states had been founded by
+adventurers who thirsted for gain; and the primitive appetite did not
+lose its edge with the progress of time. We cannot be certain, indeed,
+how far the Frankish lords oppressed their Syrian tenants: the stories
+of such oppression have been discredited; while if we may trust the
+evidence of a Mahommedan traveller, Ibn Jubair, the lot of the
+Mahommedan who lived on Frankish manors was better than it had been
+under their native lords.[28] But the habits of the Franks were none the
+less habits of lawless greed: they swooped down from their castles, as
+Raynald of Chatillon did from Krak of the Desert, to capture Saracens
+and hold them to ransom or to plunder caravans. The lust of unlawful
+gain had infected the Frankish blood, as it seems to have infected
+England during the Hundred Years' War; and in either case nemesis
+infallibly came. The Moslems might have endured a state of "infidels";
+they could not endure a state of brigands.
+
+6. _The History of the Kingdom and the Crusades from the Loss of Edessa
+in 1144 to the Fall of Jerusalem in 1187._--The years 1143-1144 are in
+many ways the turning point in the history of the Latin East. In 1143
+began the reign of the first native king;[29] and about this date may be
+placed the final organization of the kingdom, witnessed by the
+completion of its body of customary law. At the same date, however, the
+decline of the kingdom also begins; the fall of Edessa is the beginning
+of the end. In 1143 John Comnenus and Fulk had just died, and Zengi,
+seeing his way clear, threw himself on the great Christian outpost,
+against which the tides of Mahommedan attack had so often vainly surged,
+and finally entered on Christmas Day 1144. Two years later Zengi died;
+but he left an able successor in his son, Nureddin, and an attempt to
+recover Edessa was successfully repelled in November 1146. Not only so,
+but in the spring of 1147 the Franks were unwise enough to allow the
+hope of gaining two small towns to induce them to break the vital
+alliance with Damascus. Thus, in itself, the position of affairs in the
+Holy Land in 1147 was certainly ominous; and the kingdom might well seem
+dependent for its safety on such aid as it might receive from the West.
+
+Early in 1145 news had come from Antioch to Eugenius III. of the fall of
+Edessa, and at the end of the year he had sent an encyclical to
+France--the natural soil, as we have seen, of crusading zeal. The
+response was instantaneous: the king of France himself, who bore on his
+conscience the burden of an unpunished massacre by his troops at Vitry
+in 1142,[30] took the crusading vow on the Christmas day of 1145. But
+the greatest success was attained when St Bernard--no great believer in
+pilgrimages, and naturally disposed to doubt the policy of a second
+Crusade--was induced by the pope to become the preacher of the new
+movement. To the crusading king of France St Bernard added the king of
+Germany, when, in Christmas week of 1146, he induced Conrad III. to take
+the vow by his sermon in the cathedral of Spires. Thus was begun the
+Second Crusade,[31] under auspices still more favourable than those
+which attended the beginning of the First, seeing that kings now took
+the place of knights, while the new crusaders would no longer be
+penetrating into the wilds, but would find a friendly basis of
+operations ready to their hands in Frankish Syria. But the more
+favourable the auspices, the greater proved the failure. Already at the
+final meeting at Étampes, in 1147, difficulties arose. Manuel Comnenus
+demanded that all conquests made by the crusaders should be his fiefs;
+and the question was debated whether the crusaders should follow the
+land route through Hungary, along the old road of Charlemagne, or should
+go by sea to the Holy Land. In this question the envoys of Manuel and of
+Roger of Sicily, who were engaged in hostilities with one another, took
+opposite sides. Conrad, related by marriage to Manuel, decided in favour
+of the land route, which Manuel desired because it brought the Crusade
+more under his direction, and because, if the route by sea were
+followed, Roger of Sicily might be able to divert the crusading ships
+against Constantinople. As it was, a struggle raged between Roger and
+Manuel during the whole progress of the Crusade, which greatly
+contributed towards its failure, preventing, as it did, any assistance
+from the Eastern empire. Nor was there any real unity among the
+crusaders themselves. The crusaders of northern Germany never went to
+the Holy Land at all; they were allowed the crusaders' privileges for
+attacking the Wends to the east of the Elbe--a fact which at once
+attests the cleavage between northern and southern Germany (intensified
+of late years by the war of investitures), and anticipates the age of
+the Teutonic knights and their long Crusade on the Baltic. The crusaders
+of the Low Countries and of England took the sea route, and attacked and
+captured Lisbon on their way, thus helping to found the kingdom of
+Portugal, and achieving the one real success which was gained by the
+Second Crusade.[32] Among the great army of crusaders who actually
+marched to Jerusalem there was little real unity. Conrad and Louis VII.
+started separately, and at different times, in order to avoid
+dissensions between their armies; and when they reached Asia Minor
+(after encountering some difficulties in Greek territory) they still
+acted separately. Eager to win the first spoils, the German crusaders,
+who were in advance of the French, attempted a raid into the sultanate
+of Iconium; but after a stern fight at Dorylaeum they were forced to
+retreat (October 1147), and for the most part perished by the way. Louis
+VII., who now appeared, was induced by this failure to take the long and
+circuitous route by the west coast of Asia Minor; but even so he had
+lost the majority of his troops when he reached the Holy Land in 1148.
+Here he joined Conrad (who had come by sea from Constantinople) and
+Baldwin III., and after some deliberation the three sovereigns resolved
+to attack Damascus. The attack was impolitic: Damascus was the one ally
+which could help the Franks to stem the advance of Nureddin. It proved
+as futile as it was impolitic; for the vizier of Damascus,
+Muin-eddin-Anar, was able to sow dissension between the native Franks
+and the crusaders; and by bribes and promises of tribute he succeeded in
+inducing the former to make the siege an absolute failure, at the end of
+only four days (July 28th, 1148). The Second Crusade now collapsed.
+Conrad returned to Constantinople in the autumn of 1148, and Louis VII.
+returned by sea to France in the spring of 1149. The only effects of
+this great movement were effects prejudicial to the ends towards which
+it was directed. The position of the Franks in the Holy Land was not
+improved by the attack on Damascus; while the ignominious failure of a
+Crusade led by two kings brought the whole crusading movement into
+discredit in western Europe, and it was utterly in vain that Suger and
+St Bernard attempted to gather a fresh Crusade in 1150.
+
+The result of the failure of the Second Crusade was the renewal of
+Nureddin's attacks. The rest of the county of Edessa, including
+Tell-bashir on the west, was now conquered (1150); while Raymund of
+Antioch was defeated and killed (in 1149), and several towns in the east
+of his principality were captured. Baldwin III. attempted to make head
+against these troubles, partly by renewing the old alliance with
+Damascus, partly by drawing closer to Manuel of Constantinople. For the
+next twenty years, during the reigns of Baldwin and his brother Amalric
+I., there is indeed a close connexion between the kingdom of Jerusalem
+and the East Roman empire. Baldwin and Amalric both married into the
+Comnenian house, while Manuel married Mary of Antioch, the daughter of
+Raymund. In the north Manuel enjoyed the homage of Antioch, which his
+father had gained in 1137, and the nominal possession of Tell-bashir,
+which had been ceded to him by Baldwin III.: in the south he joined with
+Amalric I. in the attempt to acquire Egypt (1168-1171). In this way he
+acquired a certain ascendancy over the Latin kings: Baldwin III. rode
+behind him at Antioch in 1159 without any of the insignia of royalty,
+and in an inscription at Bethlehem of 1172 Amalric I. had the name of
+the emperor written above his own.[33] The patronage of Constantinople,
+to which Jerusalem was thus practically surrendered, contributed to some
+slight extent in maintaining the kingdom against Nureddin. But there
+were dissensions within, both between Baldwin and his mother, Melisinda,
+who sought to protract her regency unduly, and between contending
+parties in Antioch, where the hand of Constance, Raymund's widow, was a
+desirable prize[34]; while from without the horns of the crescent were
+slowly closing in on the kingdom. Nureddin pursued in his policy the
+tactics which the Mahommedans used against the Franks in battle: he
+sought to envelop their territories on every side. In 1154 fell
+Damascus, and the crescent closed perceptibly in the north: the most
+valuable ally of the kingdom was lost, and the way seemed clear from
+Aleppo (the peculiar seat of Nureddin's power) into Egypt. On the other
+hand, in 1153 Baldwin III. had taken Ascalon, which for fifty years had
+mocked the efforts of successive kings, and by this stroke he might
+appear to have closed for Nureddin the route to Egypt, and to have
+opened a path for its conquest by the Franks. For the future, events
+hinged on the situation of affairs in Egypt, and in Egypt the fate of
+the kingdom of Jerusalem was finally decided (see EGYPT: _History_,
+"Mahommedan Period"). There was a race for the possession of the country
+between Nureddin's lieutenant Shirguh or Shirkuh and Amalric I., the
+brother and successor of Baldwin III.; and in the race Shirkuh proved
+the winner.
+
+Since the days of Godfrey and Baldwin I., Egypt had been a goal of
+Latin ambition, and the capture of Ascalon must obviously have given
+form and strength to the projects for its conquest. Plans of attack were
+sketched: routes were traced: distances were measured; and finally in
+1163 there came the impulse from within which turned these plans into
+action. The Shiite caliphs of Egypt were by this time the playthings of
+contending viziers, as the Sunnite caliphs of Bagdad had long been the
+puppets of Turkish sultans or amirs; and in 1164 Amalric I. and Nureddin
+were fighting in Egypt in support of two rival viziers, Dirgham and
+Shawar. For Nureddin the fight meant the acquisition of an heretical
+country for the true faith of the Sunnite, and the final enveloping of
+the Latin kingdom:[35] for Amalric it meant the escape from Nureddin's
+net, and a more direct and lucrative contact with Eastern trade. Into
+the vicissitudes of the fight it is not necessary here to enter; but in
+the issue Nureddin won, in spite of the support which Manuel gave to
+Amalric. Nureddin's Kurdish lieutenant, Shirguh, succeeded in
+establishing in power the vizier whom he favoured, and finally in
+becoming vizier himself (January 1169); and when he died, his nephew
+Saladin (Sala-ed-din) succeeded to his position (March 1169), and made
+himself, on the death of the caliph in 1171, sole ruler in Egypt. Thus
+the Shiite caliphate became extinct: in the mosques of Cairo the name of
+the caliph of Bagdad was now used; and the long-disunited Mahommedans at
+last faced the Christians as a solid body. But nevertheless the kingdom
+of Jerusalem continued almost unmenaced, and practically undiminished,
+for the next sixteen years. If a religious union had been effected
+between Egypt and northern Syria, political disunion still remained; and
+the Franks were safe as long as it lasted. Saladin acted as the peer of
+Nureddin rather than as his subject; and the jealousy between the two
+kept both inactive till the death of Nureddin in 1174. Nureddin only
+left a minor in his place: Amalric, who died in the same year, left a
+son (Baldwin IV.) who was not only a minor but also a leper; and thus
+the stage seemed cleared for Saladin. He was confronted, however, by
+Raymund, count of Tripoli, the one man of ability among the decadent
+Franks, who acted as guardian of the kingdom; while he was also occupied
+in trying to win for himself the Syrian possessions of Nureddin. The
+task engaged his attention for nine years. Damascus he acquired as early
+as 1174; but Raymund supported the heir of Nureddin in his capital at
+Aleppo, and it was not until 1183 that Saladin entered the city, and
+finally brought Egypt and northern Syria under a single rule.
+
+The hour of peril for the Latin kingdom had now at last struck. It had
+done little to prepare itself for that hour. Repeated appeals had been
+sent to the West from the beginning of the Egyptian affair (1163)
+onwards; while in 1184-1185 a great mission, on which the patriarch of
+Jerusalem and the masters of the Templars and the Hospitallers were all
+present, came to France and England, and offered the crown of Jerusalem
+to Philip Augustus and Henry II. in turn, in order to secure their
+presence in the Holy Land.[36] The only result of these appeals was the
+rise of a regular system of taxation in France and England, _ad
+sustentationem Jerosolimitanae terrae_, which starts about 1185 (though
+there had already been isolated taxes in 1147 and 1166), and which has
+been described as the beginning of modern taxation. In the East itself,
+with the exception of the tax of 1183,[37] nothing was done that was
+good, and two things were done which were evil. Sibylla married her
+second husband, Guy de Lusignan, in 1180--a marriage destined to be the
+cause of many dissensions; for Sibylla, the eldest daughter of Amalric
+I., carried to her husband--a French adventurer--a presumptive title to
+the crown, which would never be admitted without dispute. In 1186 Guy
+eventually became king, after the death of Baldwin V. (Sibylla's son by
+her first marriage); but his coronation was in violation of the promise
+given to Raymund of Tripoli (that in the event of the death of Baldwin
+V. without issue the succession should be determined by the pope, the
+emperor and the kings of France and England), and Guy, with a weak
+title, was unable to exercise any real control over the kingdom. At this
+point another French adventurer, who had already made himself somewhat
+of a name in Antioch, gave the final blow to the kingdom. Raynald of
+Chatillon, the second husband of Constance of Antioch, after languishing
+in captivity from 1159 to 1176, had been granted the seignory of Krak,
+to the east and south of the Dead Sea. From this point of vantage he
+began depredations on the Red Sea (1182), building a fleet, and seeking
+to attack Medina and Mecca--a policy which may be interpreted either as
+mere buccaneering, or as a calculated attempt to deal a blow at
+Mahommedanism in its very centre. Driven from the Red Sea by Saladin, he
+turned from buccaneering to brigandage, and infested the great
+trade-route from Damascus to Egypt, which passed close by his seignory.
+In 1186 he attacked a caravan in which the sister of Saladin was
+travelling, thus violating a four years' truce, which, after some two
+years' skirmishing, Saladin and Raymund of Tripoli had made in the
+previous year owing to the general prevalence of famine.[38] The
+coronation of one French adventurer and the conduct of another, whom the
+first was unable to control, meant the ruin of the kingdom; and Saladin
+at last delivered in full force his long-deferred attack. The Crusade
+was now at last answered by the counter-Crusade--the _jihad_; for though
+for many years past Saladin had, in his attempt to acquire all the
+inheritance of Nureddin, left Palestine unmenaced and intact, his
+ultimate aim was always the holy war and the recovery of Jerusalem. The
+acquisition of Aleppo could only make that supreme object more readily
+attainable; and so Saladin had spent his time in acquiring Aleppo, but
+only in order that he might ultimately "attain the goal of his desires,
+and set the mosque of Asha free, to which Allah once led in the night
+his servant Mahomet." Thus it was on a kingdom of crusaders who had lost
+the crusading spirit that a new Crusade swept down; and Saladin's army
+in 1187 had the spirit and the fire of the Latin crusaders of 1099. The
+tables were turned; and fighting on their own soil for the recovery of
+what was to them too a holy place, the Mahommedans easily carried the
+day. At Tiberias a little squadron of the brethren of the two Orders
+went down before Saladin's cavalry in May; at Hattin the levy _en masse_
+of the kingdom, some 20,000 strong, foolishly marching over a sandy
+plain under the heat of a July sun, was utterly defeated; and after a
+fortnight's siege Jerusalem capitulated (October 2nd, 1187). In the
+kingdom itself nothing was left to the Latins by the end of 1189 except
+the city of Tyre; and to the north of the kingdom they only held Antioch
+and Tripoli, with the Hospitallers' fortress at Margat. The fingers of
+the clock had been pushed back; once more things were as they had been
+at the time of the First Crusade; once more the West must arm itself for
+the holy war and the recovery of Jerusalem--but now it must face a
+united Mahommedan world, where in 1096 it had found political and
+religious dissension, and it must attempt its vastly heavier task
+without the morning freshness of a new religious impulse, and with
+something of the weariness of a hundred years of struggle upon its
+shoulders.
+
+7. _The Forty Years' Crusade for the Recovery of Jerusalem,
+1189-1229._--The forty years from 1189 to 1229 form a period of
+incessant crusading, occupied by Crusades of every kind. There are the
+Third, Fifth and Sixth Crusades against the "infidel" Mahommedans
+encamped in the Holy Land; there is the Albigensian Crusade against the
+heretic Cathars; there is the Fourth Crusade, directed in the issue
+against the schismatic Greeks; lastly, there are the Crusades waged by
+the papacy against revolted Christians--John of England and Frederick
+II. Our concern lies with the first kind of Crusade, and with the other
+three only so far as they bear on the first, and as they illustrate the
+immense widening which the term "Crusade" now underwent--a widening
+accompanied by its inevitable corollary of shallowness of motive and
+degradation of impulse.
+
+_The Third Crusade, 1189-1192._--Conrad of Montferrat was, as much as
+any one man, responsible for the Third Crusade. Compelled to leave the
+court of Constantinople, which he had been serving, he had sailed for
+the Holy Land and reached Tyre about three weeks after the battle of
+Hattin. He had saved Tyre; and from it he sent his appeals to the West.
+Not the least effective of these appeals was a great poster which he had
+circulated in Europe, and which represented the Holy Sepulchre denied by
+the horses of the Mahommedans. Meanwhile the papacy, as soon as the news
+reached Rome, despatched encyclicals throughout Europe; and soon a new
+Crusade was in full swing. But the Third Crusade, unlike the First, does
+not spring from the papacy, which was passing through one of its epochs
+of depression; it springs from the lay power, which, represented by the
+three strong monarchies of Germany, England and France, was at this time
+dominant in Europe. In Germany it was the solemn national diet of Mainz
+(Easter 1188) which "swore the expedition" to the Holy Land; in France
+and England the agreement of the two kings decided upon a joint Crusade.
+The very means which Philip Augustus and Henry II. took, in order to
+further the Crusade, show its lay aspect. A scheme of taxation--the
+Saladin tithe--was imposed on all who did not take the cross; and this
+taxation, while on the one hand it drove many to take the cross in order
+to escape its incidence, on the other hand provided a necessary
+financial basis for military operations.[39] The lay basis of the Third
+Crusade made it, in one sense, the greatest of all Crusades, in which
+all the three great monarchs of western Europe participated; but it also
+made it a failure, for the kings of France and England, changing
+_caelum_, _non animum_, carried their political rivalries into the
+movement, in which it had been agreed that they should be sunk.
+Spiritually, therefore, the Third Crusade is inferior to the First,
+however imposing it may be in its material aspects. Yet it must be
+admitted that the idea of a spiritual regeneration accompanied the
+crusading movement of 1188. Europe had sinned in the face of God;
+otherwise Jerusalem would never have fallen; and the idea of a spiritual
+reform from within, as the necessary corollary and accompaniment of the
+expedition of Christianity without, breathes in some of the papal
+letters, just as, during the conciliar movement, the _causa
+reformationis_ was blended with the _causa unionis_.
+
+We may conceive of the Third Crusade under the figure of a number of
+converging lines, all seeking to reach a common centre. That centre is
+Acre. The siege of Acre, as arduous and heroic in many of its episodes
+as the siege of Troy, had been begun in the summer of 1189 by Guy de
+Lusignan, who, captured by Saladin at the battle of Hattin, and released
+on parole, had at once broken his word and returned to the attack. The
+army which was besieging Acre was soon joined by various contingents;
+for Acre, after all, was the vital point, and its capture would open the
+way to Jerusalem. Two of these contingents alone concern us here--the
+German and the Anglo-French. Frederick I. of Germany, using a diplomacy
+which corresponds to the lay character of the Third Crusade, had sought
+to prepare his way by embassies to the king of Hungary, the Eastern
+emperor and the sultan of Iconium. Starting from Regensburg in May 1189,
+the German army marched quietly through Hungary; but difficulties arose,
+as they had arisen in 1147, as soon as the frontiers of the Eastern
+empire were reached. The emperor Isaac Angelus had not only the old
+grudge of all Eastern emperors against the "upstart" emperor of the
+West; he had also allied himself with Saladin, in order to acquire for
+his empire the patronage of the Holy Places and religious supremacy in
+the Levant. The difficulties between Frederick and Isaac Angelus became
+acute: in November 1189 Frederick wrote to his son Henry, asking him to
+induce the pope to preach a Crusade against the schismatic Greeks. But
+terms were at last arranged, and by the end of March 1190 the Germans
+had all crossed to the shores of Asia Minor. Taking a route midway
+between the eastern route of the crusaders of 1097 and the western route
+of Louis VII. in 1148, Frederick marched by Philadelphia and Iconium,
+not without dust and heat, until he reached the river Salof, in Armenian
+territory. Here, with the burden of the day now past, the fine old
+crusader--he had joined before in the Second Crusade, forty years
+ago--perished by accident in the river; and of all his fine army only a
+thousand men won their way through, under his son, Frederick of Swabia,
+to join the ranks before Acre (October 1190). The Anglo-French
+detachment achieved a far greater immediate success. War had indeed
+disturbed the original agreement of Gisors between Philip Augustus and
+Henry II., but a new agreement was made between Henry's successor,
+Richard I., and the French king at Nonancourt (December 1189), by which
+the two monarchs were to meet at Vezelay next year, and then follow the
+sea route to the Holy Land together. They met, and by different routes
+they both reached Sicily, where they wintered together (1190-1191). The
+enforced inactivity of a whole winter was the mother of disputes and bad
+blood; and when Philip sailed for the Holy Land, at the end of March
+1191, the failure of the Crusade was already decided. Richard soon
+followed; but while Philip sailed straight for Acre, Richard occupied
+himself by the way in conquering Cyprus--partly out of knight-errantry,
+and in order to avenge an insult offered to his betrothed wife
+Berengaria by the despot of the island, partly perhaps out of policy,
+and in order to provide a basis of supplies and of operations for the
+armies attempting to recover Palestine. In any case, he is the founder
+of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus (for he afterwards sold his new
+acquisition to Guy de Lusignan, who established a dynasty in the
+island); and thereby he made possible the survival of the institutions
+and assizes of Jerusalem, which were continued in Cyprus until it was
+conquered by the Ottoman Turks. From Cyprus Richard sailed to Acre,
+arriving on the 8th of June, and in little more than a month he was
+able, in virtue of the large reinforcements he brought, and in spite of
+dissensions in the Christian camp which he helped to foment, to bring
+the two years' siege to a successful issue (July 12th, 1191). It was
+indeed time; the privations of the besiegers during the previous winter
+had been terrible; and the position of affairs had only been made worse
+by the dissensions between Guy de Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, who
+had begun to claim the crown in return for his services, and had, on the
+death of Sibylla, the wife of Guy, reinforced his claim by a marriage
+with her younger sister, Isabella. In these dissensions it was
+inevitable that Philip Augustus and Richard I., already discordant,
+should take contrary sides; and while Richard naturally sided with Guy
+de Lusignan, who came from his own county of Poitou, Philip as naturally
+sided with Conrad. At the end of July it was decided that Guy should
+remain king for his life, and Conrad should be his successor; but as
+three days afterwards Philip Augustus began his return to France
+(pleading ill-health, but in reality eager to gain possession of
+Flanders), the settlement availed little for the success of the Crusade.
+Richard stayed in the Holy Land for another year, during which he won a
+battle at Arsuf and refortified Jaffa. But far more important than any
+hostilities are the negotiations which, for the whole year, Richard
+conducted with Saladin. They show the lay aspect of the Third Crusade;
+they anticipate the Crusade of Frederick II.--for Richard was attempting
+to secure the same concessions which Frederick secured by the same means
+which he used. They show again the closer approximation and better
+understanding with the Mahommedans, which marks this Crusade. Nothing is
+more striking in these respects than Richard's proposal that Saladin's
+brother should marry his own sister Johanna and receive Jerusalem and
+the contiguous towns on the coast. In the event, a peace was made for
+three years (September 2nd, 1192), by which Lydda and Ramlah were to be
+equally divided, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and small bodies of
+crusaders were to be allowed to visit the Holy Sepulchre. Meanwhile
+Conrad of Montferrat, at the very instant when his superior ability had
+finally forced Richard to recognize him as king, had been assassinated
+(April 1192): Guy de Lusignan had bought Cyprus from Richard, and had
+sailed away to establish himself there;[40] and Henry of Champagne,
+Richard's nephew, had been called to the throne of Jerusalem, and had
+given himself a title by marrying Conrad's widow, Isabella. In this
+condition Richard left the Holy Land, when he began his eventful return,
+in October 1192. The Crusade had failed--failed because a leaderless
+army, torn by political dissensions and fighting on a foreign soil,
+could not succeed against forces united by religious zeal under the
+banner of a leader like Saladin. Yet it had at any rate saved for the
+Christians the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, and some
+of the coast towns of the kingdom;[41] and if it had failed to
+accomplish its object, it had left behind, none the less, many important
+results. The difficulties which had arisen between Isaac Angelus and
+Frederick Barbarossa contain the germs of the Fourth Crusade; the
+negotiations between Richard and Saladin contain the germs of the Sixth.
+National rivalries had been accentuated and national differences brought
+into prominence by the meeting of the nations in a common enterprise;
+while, on the other hand, Mahommedans and Christians had fraternized as
+they had never done before during the progress of a Crusade. But what
+the Third Crusade showed most clearly was that the crusading movement
+was being lost to the papacy, and becoming part of the demesne of the
+secular state--organized by the state on its own basis of taxation, and
+conducted by the state according to its own method of negotiation. This
+after all is the great change; and even the genius of an Innocent III.
+"could not make undone what had once been done." On the contrary, the
+thing once done would go further; and the state would take up the name
+of Crusade in order to cover, and under such cover to achieve, its own
+objects and ambitions, as in the future it was destined again and again
+to do.
+
+_The Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204._--The history of the Fourth Crusade is a
+history of the predominance of the lay motive, of the attempt of the
+papacy to escape from that predominance, and to establish its old
+direction of the Crusade, and of the complete failure of its attempt.
+Until the accession of Innocent III. in 1198 the lay motive was supreme;
+and its representative was Henry VI.--the greatest politician of his
+day, and in many ways the greatest emperor since Charlemagne. In 1195
+Amalric, the brother of Guy de Lusignan, and his successor in Cyprus,
+sought the title of king from Henry and did homage; and at the same time
+Leo of Lesser Armenia, in order to escape from dependence on the Eastern
+empire, took the same course. Henry thus gained a basis in the Levant;
+while the death of Saladin in 1193, followed by a civil war between his
+brother, Malik-al-Adil, and his sons for the possession of his
+dominions, weakened the position of the Mahommedans. As emperor, Henry
+was eager to resume the imperial Crusade which had been stopped by his
+father's death; while both as Frederick's successor and as heir to the
+Norman kings of Sicily, who had again and again waged war against the
+Eastern empire, he had an account to settle with the rulers of
+Constantinople. The project of a Crusade and of an attack on
+Constantinople wove themselves into a single thread, in a way which very
+definitely anticipates the Fourth Crusade of 1202-1204. In 1195 Henry
+took the cross; some time before, he had already sent to Isaac Angelus
+to demand compensation for the injuries done to Frederick I., along with
+the cession of all territories ever conquered by the Norman kings of
+Sicily, and a fleet to co-operate with the new Crusade. In the same
+year, however, Isaac was dethroned by his brother, Alexius III.; but
+Henry married Isaac's daughter Irene to his brother, Philip of Swabia,
+and thus attempted to give the Hohenstaufen a new title and a valid
+claim against the usurper Alexius. Thus armed he pushed forward the
+preparations for the Crusade in Germany--a Crusade whose first object
+would have been an attack on Alexius III.; but in the middle of his
+preparations he died in Sicily in the autumn of 1197, and the Crusade
+collapsed. Some results were, however, achieved by a body of German
+crusaders which had sailed in advance of Henry; by its influence Amalric
+of Cyprus succeeded Henry of Champagne, who died in 1197, as king of
+Jerusalem, and a vassal of the emperor thus became ruler in the Holy
+Land; while the Teutonic order, which had begun as a hospital during the
+siege of Acre (1190-1191), now received its organization. Some of the
+coast towns, too, were recovered by the German crusaders, especially
+Beirut; and in 1198 the new king Amalric II. was able to make a truce
+with Malik-al-Adil for the next five years.
+
+"The true heir of Henry VI.," Ranke has said, "is Innocent III.," and
+nowhere is this more true than in respect of the crusading movement.
+Throughout the course of his crowded and magnificent pontificate,
+Innocent III. made the Crusade his ultimate object, and attempted to
+bring it back to its old religious basis and under its old papal
+direction. By the spring of 1200, owing to Innocent's exertions, a new
+Crusade was in full progress, especially in France, where Fulk of
+Neuilly played the part once played by Peter the Hermit. Like the First
+Crusade, the Fourth Crusade also--in its personnel, but not its
+direction--was a French enterprise; and its leading members were French
+feudatories like Theobald of Champagne (who was chosen leader of the
+Crusade), Baldwin of Flanders (the future emperor of Constantinople),
+and the count of Blois. The objective, which these three original chiefs
+of the Fourth Crusade proposed to themselves, was Egypt.[42] Since 1163
+the importance of acquiring Egypt had, as we have seen, been definitely
+understood, and in the summer of 1192 Richard I. had been advised by
+his counsellors that Cairo and not Jerusalem was the true point of
+attack; while in 1200 there was the additional reason for preferring an
+attack on Egypt, that the truce in the Holy Land between Amalric II. and
+Malik-al-Adil had still three years to run. It is Egypt therefore--to
+which, it must be remembered, the centre of Mahommedan power had now
+been virtually shifted, and to which motives of trade impelled the
+Italian towns (since from it they could easily reach the Red Sea, and
+the commerce of the Indian Ocean)--it is Egypt which is henceforth the
+normal goal of the Crusades. This is one of the many facts which
+differentiate the Crusades of the 13th from those of the preceding
+century. But, with Syria in the hands of the Mahommedans, the attack on
+Egypt must necessarily be directed by sea; and thus the Crusade
+henceforth becomes--what the Third Crusade, here as elsewhere the
+turning-point in crusading history, had already in part been--a maritime
+enterprise. Accordingly, early in 1201, envoys from each of the three
+chiefs of the Fourth Crusade (among whom was Villehardouin, the
+historian of the Crusade) came to Venice to negotiate for a passage to
+Egypt. An agreement was made between the doge and the envoys, by which
+transport and active help were to be given by Venice in return for
+85,000 marks and the cession of half of the conquests made by the
+crusaders. But the Fourth Crusade was not to be plain sailing to Egypt.
+It became involved in a maelstrom of conflicting political motives, by
+which it was swept to Constantinople. Here we must distinguish between
+cause and occasion. There were three great causes which made for an
+attack on Constantinople by the West. There was first of all the old
+crusading grudge against the Eastern empire, and its fatal policy of
+regarding the whole of the Levant as its lost provinces, to be restored
+as soon as conquered, or at any rate held in fee, by the Western
+crusaders--a policy which led the Eastern emperors either to give
+niggardly aid or to pursue obstructive tactics, and caused them to be
+blamed for the failure of the Crusades in 1101, and 1149, and in 1190.
+It is significant of the final result of these things that already in
+1147 Roger of Sicily, engaged in war with Manuel, had proposed the
+sea-route for the Second Crusade, perhaps with some intention of
+diverting it against Constantinople; and in the winter of 1189-1190
+Barbarossa, as we have seen, had actually thought and spoken of an
+attack on Constantinople. In the second place, there was the commercial
+grudge of Venice, which had only been given large privileges by the
+Eastern empire to desire still larger, and had, moreover, been annoyed
+not only by alterations or revocations of those privileges, such as the
+usurper Alexius III. had but recently attempted, but also by the
+temporary destruction of their colony in Constantinople in 1171. Lastly,
+and perhaps most of all, there is the old Norman blood-feud with
+Constantinople, as old as the old Norse seeking for Micklegarth, and
+keen and deadly ever since the Norman conquest of the Greek themes in
+South Italy (1041 onwards). The heirs of the Norman kings were the
+Hohenstaufen; and we have already seen Henry VI. planning a Crusade
+which would primarily have been directed against Constantinople. It is
+this Hohenstaufen policy which becomes the primary occasion of the
+diversion of the Fourth Crusade. Philip of Swabia, engaged in a struggle
+with the papacy, found Innocent III. planning a Guelph Crusade, which
+should be under the direction of the church; and to this Guelph project
+he opposed the Ghibelline plan of Henry VI., with such success that he
+transmuted the Fourth Crusade into a political expedition against
+Constantinople. To such a policy of transmutation he was urged by two
+things. On the one hand, the death of the count of Champagne (May 1201)
+had induced the crusaders to elect as their leader Boniface of
+Montferrat, the brother of Conrad; and Boniface was the cousin of
+Philip, and interested in Constantinople, where not only Conrad, but
+another brother as well, had served, and suffered for their service at
+the hands of their masters. On the other hand Alexius, the son of the
+dethroned Isaac Angelus, was related to Philip through his marriage with
+Irene; and Alexius had escaped to the German court to urge the
+restoration of his father. On Christmas day 1201, Philip, Alexius and
+Boniface all met at Hagenau[43] and formulated (one may suppose) a plan
+for the diversion of the Crusade. Events played into their hands. When
+the crusaders gathered at Venice in the autumn of 1202, it was found
+impossible to get together the 85,000 marks promised to Venice. The
+Venetians--already, perhaps, indoctrinated in the Hohenstaufen
+plan--indicated to the leaders a way of meeting the difficulty: they had
+only to lend their services to the republic for certain ends which it
+desired to compass, and the debt was settled. The conquest of Zara, a
+port on the Adriatic claimed by the Venetians from the king of Hungary,
+was the only object overtly mentioned; but the idea of the expedition to
+Constantinople was in the air, and the crusaders knew what was
+ultimately expected. It took time and effort to bring them round to the
+diversion: the pope--naturally enough--set his face sternly against the
+project, the more as the usurper, Alexius III., was in negotiation with
+him in order to win his support against the Hohenstaufen, and Innocent
+hoped to find, as Alexius promised, a support and a reinforcement for
+the Crusade in an alliance with the Greek empire. But they came round
+none the less, in spite of Innocent's renewed prohibitions. In November
+1202 Zara was taken; and at Zara the fatal decision was made. The young
+Alexius joined the army; and in spite of the opposition of stern
+crusaders like Simon de Montfort, who sailed away ultimately to
+Palestine, he succeeded by large promises in inducing the army to follow
+in his train to Constantinople. By the middle of July 1203
+Constantinople was reached, the usurper was in flight, and Isaac Angelus
+was restored to his throne. But when the time came for Alexius to fulfil
+his promises, the difficulty which had arisen at Venice in the autumn of
+1202 repeated itself. Alexius's resources were insufficient, and he had
+to beg the crusaders to wait at Constantinople for a year in order that
+he might have time. They waited; but the closer contact of a prolonged
+stay only brought into fuller play the essential antipathy of the Greek
+and the Latin. Continual friction developed at last into the open fire
+of war; and in March 1204 the crusaders resolved to storm
+Constantinople, and to divide among themselves the Eastern empire. In
+April Constantinople was captured; in May Baldwin of Flanders became the
+first Latin emperor of Constantinople. Venice had her own reward; a
+Venetian, Thomas Morosini, became patriarch; and the doge of Venice
+added "a quarter and a half" of the Eastern empire--chiefly the coasts
+and the islands--to the sphere of his sway. If Venetian cupidity had not
+originally deflected the Crusade (and it was the view of contemporary
+writers that Venice had committed her first treason against Christianity
+by diverting the Crusade from Egypt in order to get commercial
+concessions from Malik-al-Adil,[44]) yet it had at any rate profited
+exceedingly from that deflection; and the Hohenstaufen and their protégé
+Alexius only reaped dust and ashes. For, however Ghibelline might be the
+original intention, the result was not commensurate with the subtlety of
+the design, and the power of the pope was rather increased than
+diminished by the event of the Crusade. The crusaders appealed to
+Innocent to ratify the subjugation of a schismatic people, and the union
+of the Eastern and Western Churches; and Innocent, dazzled by the magic
+of the _fait accompli_, not unwillingly acquiesced. He might soothe
+himself by reflecting that the basis for the Crusade, which he had hoped
+to find in Alexius III., was still more securely offered by Baldwin; he
+could not but feel with pride that he had become "as it were pope and
+apostolicus of a second world." Yet the result of the Fourth Crusade was
+on the whole disastrous both for the papacy and for the crusading
+movement. The pope had been forced to see the helm of the Crusades
+wrenched from his grasp; and the Albigensian Crusade against the
+heretics of southern France was soon afterwards to show that the example
+could be followed, and that the land-hunger of the north French baronage
+could exploit a Crusade as successfully as ever did Hohenstaufen policy
+leagued with Venetian cupidity. The Crusade lost its _élan_ when it
+became a move in a political game. If the Third Crusade had been
+directed by the lay power towards the true spiritual end of all
+Crusades, the Fourth was directed by the lay power to its own lay ends;
+and the political and commercial motives, winch were deeply implicit
+even in the First Crusade, had now become dominantly explicit. In a
+simpler and more immediate sense, the capture of Constantinople was
+detrimental to the movement from which it sprang. The precarious empire
+which had been founded in 1204 drained away all the vigorous adventurers
+of the West for its support for many years to come, and the Holy Land
+was starved to feed a land less holy, but equally greedy of men.[45] No
+basis for the Crusades was ever to be found in the Latin empire of the
+East; and Innocent, after vainly hoping for the new Crusade which was to
+emerge from Constantinople, was by 1208 compelled to return to the old
+idea of a Crusade proceeding simply and immediately from the West to the
+East.
+
+_The Fifth Crusade, 1218-1221._--The glow and the glamour of the
+Crusades disappear save for the pathetic sunset splendours of St Louis,
+as Dandolo dies, and gallant Villehardouin drops his pen. But before St
+Louis sailed for Damietta there intervened the miserable failure of one
+Crusade, and the secular and diplomatic success of another. The Fifth
+Crusade is the last which is started in that pontificate of
+Crusades--the pontificate of Innocent III. It owed its origin to his
+feverish zeal for the recovery of Jerusalem, rather than to any pressing
+need in the Holy Land. Here there reigned, during the forty years of the
+loss of Jerusalem, an almost unbroken peace. Malik-al-Adil, the brother
+of Saladin, had by 1200 succeeded to his brother's possessions not only
+in Egypt but also in Syria, and he granted the Christians a series of
+truces (1198-1203, 1204-1210, 1211-1217). While the Holy Land was thus
+at peace, crusaders were also being drawn elsewhere by the needs of the
+Latin empire of Constantinople, or the attractions of the Albigensian
+Crusade.[46] But Innocent could never consent to forget Jerusalem, as
+long as his right hand retained its cunning. The pathos of the
+Children's Crusade of 1212 only nerved him to fresh efforts. A shepherd
+boy named Stephen had appeared in France, and had induced thousands to
+follow his guidance: with his boyish army he rode on a wagon southward
+to Marseilles, promising to lead his followers dry-shod through the
+seas. In Germany a child from Cologne, named Nicolas, gathered some
+20,000 young crusaders by the like promises, and led them into Italy.
+Stephen's army was kidnapped by slave-dealers and sold into Egypt; while
+Nicolas's expedition left nothing behind it but an after-echo in the
+legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. But for Innocent these outbursts of
+the revivalist element, which always accompanied the Crusades, had their
+moral: "the very children put us to shame," he wrote; "while we sleep
+they go forth gladly to conquer the Holy Land." In the fourth Lateran
+council of 1215 Innocent found his opportunity to rekindle the
+flickering fires. Before this great gathering of all Christian Europe he
+proclaimed a Crusade for the year 1217, and in common deliberation it
+was resolved that a truce of God should reign for the next four years,
+while for the same time all trade with the Levant should cease. Here
+were two things attempted--neither, indeed, for the first
+time[47]--which 14th century pamphleteers on the subject of the Crusades
+unanimously advocate as the necessary conditions of success; there was
+to be peace in Europe and a commercial war with Egypt. This
+statesmanlike beginning of a Crusade, preached, as no Crusade had ever
+been preached before, in a general council of all Europe, presaged well
+for its success. In Germany (where Frederick II. himself took the cross
+in this same year) a large body of crusaders gathered together: in 1217
+the south-east sent the duke of Austria and the king of Hungary to the
+Holy Land; while in 1218 an army from the north-west joined at Acre the
+forces of the previous year. Egypt had already been indicated by
+Innocent III. in 1215 as the goal of attack, and it was accordingly
+resolved to begin the Crusade by the siege of Damietta, on the eastern
+delta of the Nile. The original leader of the Crusade was John of
+Brienne, king of Jerusalem (who had succeeded Amalric II., marrying
+Maria, the daughter of Amalric's wife Isabella by her former husband,
+Conrad of Montferrat); but after the end of 1218 the cardinal legate
+Pelagius, fortified by papal letters, claimed the command. In spite of
+dissensions between the cardinal and the king, and in spite of the
+offers of Malik-al-Kamil (who succeeded Malik-al-Adil at the end of
+1218), the crusaders finally carried the siege to a successful
+conclusion by the end of 1219. The capture of Damietta was a
+considerable feat of arms, but nothing was done to clinch the advantage
+which had been won, and the whole of the year 1220 was spent by the
+crusaders in Damietta, partly in consolidating their immediate position,
+and partly in waiting for the arrival of Frederick II., who had promised
+to appear in 1221. In 1221 Hermann of Salza, the master of the Teutonic
+order, along with the duke of Bavaria, appeared in the camp before
+Damietta; and as it seemed useless to wait any longer for Frederick
+II.,[48] the cardinal, in spite of the opposition of King John, gave the
+signal for the march on Cairo. The army reached a fortress erected by
+the sultan in 1219 (afterwards, from 1221, the town of Mansura), and
+encamped there at the end of July. Here the sultan reiterated terms
+which he had already offered several times before--the cession of most
+of the kingdom of Jerusalem, the surrender of the cross (captured by
+Saladin in 1187), and the restoration of all prisoners. King John urged
+the acceptance of these terms. The legate insisted on a large indemnity
+in addition: the negotiations failed, and the sultan prepared for war.
+The crusaders were driven back towards Damietta; and at the end of
+August 1221 Pelagius had to make a treaty with Malik-al-Kamil, by which
+he gained a free retreat and the surrender of the Holy Cross at the
+price of the restoration of Damietta. The treaty was to last for eight
+years, and could only be broken on the coming of a king or emperor to
+the East. In pursuance of its terms the crusaders evacuated Egypt, and
+the Fifth Crusade was at an end. It is difficult to decide whether to
+blame the legate or the emperor more for its failure. If Frederick had
+only come in person, a single month of his presence might have meant
+everything: if Pelagius had only listened to King John, the sultan was
+ready to concede practically everything which was at issue. Unhappily
+Frederick preferred to put his Sicilian house in order, and the legate
+preferred to listen to the Italians, who had their own commercial
+reasons for wishing to establish a strong position in Egypt, and to the
+Templars and Hospitallers, who did not feel satisfied by the terms
+offered by the sultan, because he wished to retain in his hands the two
+fortresses of Krak and Monreal.
+
+_The Sixth Crusade_ (1228-1229) succeeded as signally as the Fifth
+Crusade had failed; but the circumstances under which it took place and
+the means by which it was conducted made its success still more
+disastrous than the failure of 1221. The last Crusade had, after all,
+been under papal control: if Richard I. had directed the Third Crusade,
+and the policy of the Hohenstaufen and the Venetians had directed the
+Fourth, it was a papal legate who had steered the Fifth to its ultimate
+fate. The Crusade of Frederick II. in 1228-1229 finds its analogy in the
+projected Crusade of Henry VI.; it is essentially lay. It is unique in
+the annals of the Crusades. Alone of all Crusades (though the Fourth
+Crusade offers some analogy) it was not blessed but cursed by the
+papacy: alone of all the Crusades it was conducted without a single act
+of hostility against the Mahommedan. St Louis, the true type of the
+religious crusader, once said that a layman ought only to argue with a
+blasphemer against Christian law by running his sword into the bowels of
+the blasphemer as far as it would go:[49] Frederick II. talked amicably
+with all unbelievers, if one may trust Arabic accounts, and he achieved
+by mere negotiation the recovery of Jerusalem, for which men had vainly
+striven with the sword for the forty years since 1187. It was in 1215
+that the leader of this strange Crusade had first taken the vow; it was
+twelve years afterwards when he finally attempted to carry the vow into
+effective execution. Again and again he had excused himself to the pope,
+and been excused by the pope, because the exigencies of his policy in
+Germany or Sicily tied his hands. After the failure of the Fifth
+Crusade--for which these delays were in part responsible--Honorius III.
+had attempted to bind him more intimately to the Holy Land by arranging
+a marriage with Isabella, the daughter of John of Brienne, and the
+heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1225 Frederick married Isabella,
+and immediately after the marriage he assumed the title of king in right
+of his wife, and exacted homage from the vassals of the kingdom.[50] It
+was thus as king of Jerusalem that Frederick began his Crusade in the
+autumn of 1227. Scarcely, however, had he sailed from Brindisi when he
+fell sick of a fever which had been raging for some time among the ranks
+of his army, while they waited for the crossing. He sailed back to
+Otranto in order to recover his health, but the new pope, Gregory IX.,
+launched in hot anger the bolt of excommunication, in the belief that
+Frederick was malingering once more. None the less the emperor sailed on
+his Crusade in the summer of 1228, affording to astonished Europe the
+spectacle of an excommunicated crusader, and leaving his territories to
+be invaded by papal soldiers, whom Gregory IX. professed to regard as
+crusaders against a non-Christian king, and for whom he accordingly
+levied a tithe from the churches of Europe. The paradox of Frederick's
+Crusade is indeed astonishing. Here was a crusader against whom a
+Crusade was proclaimed in his own territories; and when he arrived in
+the Holy Land he found little obedience and many insults from all but
+his own immediate followers. Yet by adroit use of his powers of
+diplomacy, and by playing upon the dissensions which raged between the
+descendants of Saladin's brother (Malik-al-Adil), he was able, without
+striking a blow, to conclude a treaty with the sultan of Egypt which
+gave him all that Richard I. had vainly attempted to secure by arduous
+fighting and patient negotiations. By the treaty of the 18th of February
+1229, which was to last for ten years, the sultan conceded to Frederick,
+in addition to the coast towns already in the possession of the
+Christians, Nazareth, Bethlehem and Jerusalem, with a strip of territory
+connecting Jerusalem with the port of Acre. As king of Jerusalem
+Frederick was now able to enter his capital: as one under
+excommunication, he had to see an interdict immediately fall on the
+city, and it was with his own hands--for no churchman could perform the
+office--that he had to take his crown from the altar of the church of
+the Sepulchre, and crown himself king of his new kingdom. He stayed in
+the Holy Land little more than a month after his coronation; and leaving
+in May he soon overcame the papal armies in Italy, and secured
+absolution from Gregory IX. (August 1229). By his treaty with the sultan
+he had secured for Christianity the last fifteen years of its possession
+of Jerusalem (1229-1244): no man since Frederick II. has ever recovered
+the holy places for the religion which holds them most holy. Yet the
+church might ask, with some justice, whether the means he had used were
+excused by the end which he had attained. After all, there was nothing
+of the holy war about the Sixth Crusade: there was simply huckstering,
+as in an Eastern bazaar, between a free-thinking, semi-oriental king of
+Sicily and an Egyptian sultan. It was indeed in the spirit of a king of
+Sicily, and not in the spirit--though it was in the rôle--of a king of
+Jerusalem, that Frederick had acted. It was from his Sicilian
+predecessors, who had made trade treaties with Egypt, that he had
+learned to make even the Crusade a matter of treaty. The Norman line of
+Sicilian kings might be extinct; their policy lived after them in their
+Hohenstaufen successors, and that policy, as it had helped to divert the
+Fourth Crusade to the old Norman objective of Constantinople, helped
+still more to give the Sixth Crusade its secular, diplomatic,
+non-religious aspect.
+
+Forty years of struggle ended in fifteen years' possession of Jerusalem.
+During those fifteen years the kingdom of Jerusalem was agitated by a
+struggle between the native barons, championing the principle that
+sovereignty resided in the collective baronage, and taking their stand
+on the assizes, and Frederick II., claiming sovereignty for himself, and
+opposing to the assizes the feudal law of Sicily. It is a struggle
+between the king and the _haute cour_: it is a struggle between the
+aristocratic feudalism of the Franks and the monarchical feudalism of
+the Normans. Already in Cyprus, in the summer of 1228, Frederick II. had
+insisted on the right of wardship which he enjoyed as overlord of the
+island,[51] and he had appointed a commission of five barons to exercise
+his rights. In 1229 this commission was overthrown by John of Ibelin,
+lord of Beirut, against whom it had taken proceedings. John of Beirut,
+like many of the Cypriot barons, was also a baron of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem; and resistance in the one kingdom could only produce
+difficulties in the other. Difficulties quickly arose when Frederick, in
+1231, sent Marshal Richard to Syria as his legate. This in itself was a
+serious matter; according to the assizes, the barons maintained, the
+king must either personally reside in the kingdom, or, in the event of
+his absence, be replaced by a regency. The position became more
+difficult, when the legate took steps against John of Beirut without any
+authorization from the high court. A gild was formed at Acre--the gild
+of St Adrian--which, if nominally religious in its origin, soon came to
+represent the political opposition to Frederick, as was significantly
+proved by its reception of the rebellious John of Beirut as a member
+(1232). The opposition was successful: by 1233 Frederick had lost all
+hold on Cyprus, and only retained Tyre in his own kingdom of Jerusalem.
+In 1236 he had to promise to recognize fully the laws of the kingdom:
+and when, in 1239, he was again excommunicated by Gregory IX., and a new
+quarrel of papacy and empire began, he soon lost the last vestiges of
+his power. Till 1243 the party of Frederick had been successful in
+retaining Tyre, and the baronial demand for a regency had remained
+without effect; but in that year the opposition, headed by the great
+family of Ibelin, succeeded, under cover of asserting the rights of
+Alice of Cyprus to the regency, in securing possession of Tyre, and the
+kingdom of Jerusalem thus fell back into the power of the baronage. The
+very next year (1244) Jerusalem was finally and for ever lost. Its loss
+was the natural corollary of these dissensions. The treaty of Frederick
+with Malik-al-Kamil (d. 1238) had now expired, and new succours and new
+measures were needed for the Holy Land. Theobald of Champagne had taken
+the cross as early as 1230, and 1239 he sailed to Acre in spite of the
+express prohibition of the pope, who, having quarrelled with Frederick
+II., was eager to divert any succour from Jerusalem itself, so long as
+Jerusalem belonged to his enemy. Theobald was followed (1240-1241) by
+Richard of Cornwall, the brother of Henry III., who, like his
+predecessor, had to sail in the teeth of papal prohibitions; but neither
+of the two achieved any permanent result, except the fortification of
+Ascalon. It was, however, by their own folly that the Franks lost
+Jerusalem in 1244. They consented to ally themselves with the ruler of
+Damascus against the sultan of Egypt; but in the battle of Gaza they
+were deserted by their allies and heavily defeated by Bibars, the
+Egyptian general and future Mameluke sultan of Egypt. Jerusalem, which
+had already been plundered and destroyed earlier in the year by
+Chorasmians (Khwarizmians), was the prize of victory, and Ascalon also
+fell in 1247.
+
+8. _The Crusades of St Louis._--As the loss of Jerusalem in 1187
+produced the Third Crusade, so its loss in 1244 produced the Seventh: as
+the preaching of the Fifth Crusade had taken place in the Lateran
+council of 1215, so that of the Seventh Crusade began in the council of
+Lyons of 1245. But the preaching of the Crusade by Innocent IV. at Lyons
+was a curious thing. On the one hand he repeated the provisions of the
+Fourth Lateran council on behalf of the Crusade to the Holy Land; on the
+other hand he preached a Crusade against Frederick II., and promised to
+all who would join the full benefits of absolution and remission of
+sins. While the papacy thus bent its energies to the destruction of the
+Crusades in their genuine sense, and preferred to use for its own
+political objects what was meant for Jerusalem, a layman took up the
+derelict cause with all the religious zeal which any pope had ever
+displayed. Paradoxically enough, it was now the turn for the papacy to
+exploit the name of Crusade for political ends, as the laity had done
+before; and it was left to the laity to champion the spiritual meaning
+of the Crusade even against the papacy.[52] It was at the end of the
+year in which Jerusalem had fallen that St Louis had taken the cross,
+and by all the means in his power he attempted to ensure the success of
+his projected Crusade. He sought to mediate, though with no success,
+between the pope and the emperor; he descended to a whimsical piety, and
+took his courtiers by guile in distributing to them, at Christmas,
+clothing on which a cross had been secretly stitched. He started in 1248
+with a gallant company, which contained his three brothers and the sieur
+de Joinville, his biographer; and after wintering in Cyprus he directed
+his army in the spring of 1249 against Egypt. The objective was
+unexpected: it may have been chosen by St Louis, because he knew how
+seriously the power of the sultan was undermined by the Mamelukes, who
+were in the very next year to depose the Ayyubite dynasty, which had
+reigned since 1171, and to substitute one of their number as sultan.
+Damietta was taken without a blow, and the march for Cairo was begun, as
+it had been begun by the legate Pelagius in 1221. Again the invading
+army halted before Mansura (December 1249); again it had to retreat.
+The retreat became a rout. St Louis was captured, and a treaty was made
+by which he had to consent to evacuate Damietta and pay a ransom of
+800,000 pieces of gold. Eventually St Louis was released on surrendering
+Damietta and paying one-half of his ransom, and by the middle of May
+1230 he reached Acre, having abandoned the Egyptian expedition. For the
+next four years he stayed in the Holy Land, seeking to do what he could
+for the establishing of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He was able to do but
+little. The struggle of papacy and empire paralysed Europe, and even in
+France itself there were few ready to answer the calls for help which St
+Louis sent home from Acre. The one answer was the Shepherds' Crusade, or
+Crusade of the Pastoureaux--"a religious Jacquerie," as it has been
+called by Dean Milman. It had some of the features of the Children's
+Crusade of 1212. That, too, had begun with a shepherd boy: the leader of
+the Pastoureaux, like the leader of the children, promised to lead his
+followers dry-shod through the seas; and tradition even said that this
+leader, "the master of Hungary," as he was called, was the Stephen of
+the Children's Crusade. But the anti-clerical feeling and action of the
+Shepherds was new and ominous; and moved by its enormities the
+government suppressed the new movement ruthlessly. None came to the aid
+of St Louis; and in 1254, on the death of his mother Blanche, the
+regent, he had to return to France.
+
+The final collapse of the kingdom of Jerusalem had been really
+determined by the battle of Gaza in 1244, and by the deposition of the
+Ayyubite dynasty by the Mamelukes. The Ayyubites had always been, on the
+whole, chivalrous and tolerant: Saladin and his successors,
+Malik-al-Adil and Malik-al-Kamil, had none of them shown an implacable
+enmity to the Christians. The Mamelukes, who are analogous to the
+janissaries of the Ottoman Turks, were made of sterner and more
+fanatical stuff; and Bibars, the greatest of these Mamelukes, who had
+commanded at Gaza in 1244, had been one of the leaders in 1250, and was
+destined to become sultan in 1260, was the sternest and most fanatical
+of them all. The Christians were, however, able to maintain a footing in
+Syria for forty years after St Louis' departure, not by reason of their
+own strength, but owing to two powers which checked the advance of the
+Mamelukes. The first of these was Damascus. The kingdom of Jerusalem, as
+we have seen, had profited by the alliance of Damascus as early as 1130,
+when the fear of the atabegs of Mosul had first drawn the two together;
+and when Damascus had been acquired by the rule of Mosul, the hostility
+between the house of Nureddin in Damascus and Saladin in Egypt had still
+for a time preserved the kingdom (from 1171 onwards). Saladin had united
+Egypt and Damascus; but after his death dissensions broke out among the
+members of his family,[53] which more than once led to wars between
+Damascus and Cairo. It has already been noticed that such a war between
+the sons of Malik-al-Adil accounts in large measure for the success of
+the Sixth Crusade; and it has been seen that the battle of Gaza was an
+act in the long drama of strife between Egypt and northern Syria. The
+revolution in Egypt in 1250 separated Damascus from Cairo more
+trenchantly than they had ever been separated since 1171: while a
+Mameluke ruled in Cairo, Malik-al-Nasir of Aleppo was elected as sultan
+by the emirs of Damascus. But an entirely new and far more important
+factor in the affairs of the Levant was the extension of the empire of
+the Mongols during the 13th century. That empire had been founded by
+Jenghiz Khan in the first quarter of the century; it stretched from
+Peking on the east to the Euphrates and the Dnieper on the west. Two
+things gave the Mongols an influence on the history of the Holy Land and
+the fate of the Crusades. In the first place, the south-western division
+of the empire, comprising Persia and Armenia, and governed about 1250 by
+the Khan Hulaku or Hulagu, was inevitably brought into relations, which
+were naturally hostile, with the Mahommedan powers of Syria and Egypt.
+In the second place, the Mongols of the 13th century were not as yet, in
+any great numbers, Mahommedans; the official religion was "Shamanism,"
+but in the Mongol army there were many Christians, the results of early
+Nestorian missions to the far East. This last fact in particular caused
+western Europe to dream of an alliance with the great khan "Prester
+John," who should aid in the reconquest of Jerusalem and the final
+conversion to Christianity of the whole continent of Asia. The Crusades
+thus widen out, towards their close, into a general scheme for the
+christianization of all the known world.[54] About 1220 James of Vitry
+was already hoping that 4000 knights would, with the assistance of the
+Mongols, recover Jerusalem; but it is in 1245 that the first definite
+sign of an alliance with the Mongols appears. In that year Innocent IV.
+sent a Franciscan friar, Joannes de Piano Carpini, to the Mongols of
+southern Russia, and despatched a Dominican mission to Persia. Nothing
+came of either of these missions; but through them Europe first began to
+know the interior of Asia, for Carpini was conducted by the Mongols as
+far as Karakorum, the capital of the great khan, on the borders of
+China. Again in 1252 St Louis (who had already begun to negotiate with
+the Mongols in the winter of 1248-1249) sent the friar William of
+Rubruquis to the court of the great khan; but again nothing came of the
+mission save an increase of geographical knowledge. It was in the year
+1260 when it first seemed likely that any results definitely affecting
+the course of the Crusades would flow from the action of the Mongols. In
+that year Hulagu, the khan of Persia, invaded Syria and captured
+Damascus. His general, a Christian named Kitboga, marched southwards to
+attack the Mamelukes of Egypt, but he was beaten by Bibars (who in the
+same year became sultan of Egypt), and Damascus fell into the hands of
+the Mamelukes. Once more, in spite of Mongol intervention, Damascus and
+Cairo were united, as they had been united in the hands of Saladin; once
+more they were united in the hands of a devout Mahommedan, who was
+resolved to extirpate the Christians from Syria.
+
+While these things were taking place around them, the Christians of the
+kingdom of Jerusalem only hastened their own fall by internal
+dissensions which repeated the history of the period preceding 1187. In
+part the war of Guelph and Ghibelline fought itself out in the East; and
+while one party demanded a regency, as in 1243, another argued for the
+recognition of Conrad, the son of Frederick II., as king. In part,
+again, a commercial war raged between Venice and Genoa, which attracted
+into its orbit all the various feuds and animosities of the Levant
+(1257). Beaten in the war, the Genoese avenged themselves for their
+defeat by an alliance with the Palaeologi, which led to the loss of
+Constantinople by the Latins (1261), and to the collapse of the Latin
+empire after sixty years of infirm and precarious existence. On a
+kingdom thus divided against itself, and deprived of allies, the arm of
+Bibars soon fell with crushing weight. The sultan, who had risen from a
+Mongolian slave to become a second Saladin, and who combined the
+physique and audacity of a Danton with the tenacity and religiosity of a
+Philip II., dealt blow after blow to the Franks of the East. In 1265
+fell Caesarea and Arsuf; in 1268 Antioch was taken, and the principality
+of Bohemund and Tancred ceased to exist.[55] In the years which followed
+on the loss of Antioch several attempts were made in the West to meet
+the progress of the new conqueror. In 1269 James the Conqueror of
+Aragon, at the bidding of the pope, turned from the long Spanish Crusade
+to a Crusade in the East in order to atone for his offences against the
+law matrimonial. An opportune storm, however, gave the king an excuse
+for returning home, as Frederick II. had done in 1227; and though his
+followers reached Acre, they hardly dared venture outside its walls, and
+returned home promptly in the beginning of 1270. More serious were the
+plans and the attempts of Charles of Anjou and Louis IX., in which the
+Crusades may be said to have finally ended, save for sundry disjointed
+epilogues in the 14th and 15th centuries.
+
+Charles of Anjou had succeeded, as a result of the long "crusade" waged
+by the papacy against the Hohenstaufen from the council of Lyons to the
+battle of Tagliacozzo (1245-1268), in establishing himself in the
+kingdom of Sicily. With the kingdom of Frederick II. and Henry VI. he
+also took over their policy--the "forward" policy in the East which had
+also been followed by the old Norman kings. On the one hand he aimed at
+the conquest of Constantinople as Henry VI. had done before; and by the
+treaty of Viterbo of 1267 he secured from the last Latin emperor of the
+East, Baldwin II., a right of eventual succession. On the other hand,
+like Frederick II., he aimed at uniting the kingdom of Jerusalem with
+that of Sicily; and here, too, he was able to provide himself with a
+title. On the death of Conradin, Hugh of Cyprus had been recognized in
+the East as king of Jerusalem (1269); but his pretensions were opposed
+by Mary of Antioch, a granddaughter of Amalric II., who was prepared to
+bequeath her claims to Charles of Anjou, and was therefore naturally
+supported by him. But the policy of Charles, which thus prepared the way
+for a Crusade similar to those of 1197 and 1202, was crossed by that of
+his brother Louis IX. Already in 1267 St Louis had taken the cross a
+second time, moved by the news of Bibars' conquests; and though the
+French baronage, including even Joinville himself, refused to follow the
+lead of their king, Prince Edward of England imitated his example. Louis
+had been led to think that the bey of Tunis might be converted, and in
+that hope he resolved to begin this eighth and last of the Crusades by
+an expedition to Tunis. Charles, as anxious to attack Constantinople as
+he was reluctant to attack Tunis, with which Sicily had long had
+commercial relations, was forced to abandon his own plans and to join in
+those of his brother.[56] St Louis had barely landed in Tunis when he
+sickened and died, murmuring "Jerusalem, Jerusalem" (August 1270); but
+Charles, who appeared immediately after his brother's death, was able to
+conduct the Crusade to a successful conclusion. Negotiating in the
+spirit of a Frederick II., and acting not as a Crusader but as a king of
+Sicily, he not only wrested a large indemnity from the bey for himself
+and the new king of France, but also secured a large annual tribute for
+his Sicilian exchequer. So ended the Eighth Crusade--much as the Sixth
+had done--to the profound disgust of many of the crusaders, including
+Prince Edward of England, who only arrived on the eve of the conclusion
+of the treaty. Baulked of any opportunity of joining in the main
+Crusade, Edward, after wintering in Sicily, conducted a Crusade of his
+own to Acre in the spring of 1271. For over a year he stayed in the Holy
+Land, making little sallies from Acre, and negotiating with the
+Mongols, but achieving no permanent results. He returned home at the end
+of 1272, the last of the western crusaders; and thus all the attempts of
+St Louis and Charles of Anjou, of James of Aragon and Edward of England
+left Bibars still in possession of all his conquests.
+
+Two projects of Crusades were started before the final expulsion of the
+Latins from Syria. In 1274, at the council of Lyons, Gregory X., who had
+been the companion of Edward in the Holy Land, preached the Crusade to
+an assembly which contained envoys from the Mongol khan and Michael
+Palaeologus as well as from many western princes. All the princes of
+western Europe took the cross; not only so, but Gregory was successful
+in uniting the Eastern and Western churches for the moment, and in
+securing for the new Crusade the aid of the Palaeologi, now thoroughly
+alarmed by the plans of Charles of Anjou. Thus was a papal Crusade
+begun, backed by an alliance with Constantinople, and thus were the
+plans of Charles of Anjou temporarily thwarted. But in 1276 Gregory X.
+died, and all his plans died with him; there was to be no union of the
+monarchs of the West with the emperor of the East in a common Crusade.
+Charles was able to resume his plans. In 1277 Mary of Antioch ceded to
+him her claims, and he was able to establish himself in Acre; in 1278 he
+took possession of the principality of Achaea. With these bases at his
+disposal he began to prepare a new Crusade, to be directed primarily
+(like that of Henry VI. in 1197, and like his own projected Crusade of
+1270) against Constantinople. Once more his plans were crossed finally
+and fatally: the Sicilian Vespers, and the coronation of Peter of Aragon
+as Sicilian king (1282), gave him troubles at home which occupied him
+for the rest of his days. This was the last serious attempt at a Crusade
+on behalf of the dying kingdom of Jerusalem which was made in the West;
+and its collapse was quickly followed by the final extinction of the
+kingdom. A precarious peace had reigned in the Holy Land since 1272,
+when Bibars had granted a truce of ten years; but the fall of the great
+power of Charles of Anjou set free Kala'un the successor of Bibars' son
+(who reigned little more than two years), to complete the work of the
+great sultan. In 1289 Kala'un took Tripoli, and the county of Tripoli
+was extinguished; in 1290 he died while preparing to besiege Acre, which
+was captured after a brave defence by his son and successor Khalil in
+1291. Thus the kingdom of Jerusalem came to an end. The Franks evacuated
+Syria altogether, leaving behind them only the ruins of their castles to
+bear witness, to this very day, of the Crusades they had waged and the
+kingdom they had founded and lost.
+
+9. _The Ghost of the Crusades._--The loss of Acre failed to stimulate
+the powers of Europe to any new effort. France, always the natural home
+of the Crusades, was too fully occupied, first by war with England and
+then by a struggle with the papacy, to turn her energies towards the
+East. But it is often the case that theory develops as practice fails;
+and as the theory of the Holy Roman Empire was never more vigorous than
+in the days of its decrepitude, so it was with the Crusades.
+Particularly in the first quarter of the 14th century, writers were busy
+in explaining the causes of the failures of past Crusades, and in laying
+down the lines along which a new Crusade must proceed. Several causes
+are recognized by these writers as accounting for the failure of the
+Crusades. Some of them lay the blame on the papacy; and it is true that
+the papacy had contributed towards the decay of the Crusades when it had
+allowed its own particular interests to overbear the general welfare of
+Christianity, and had dignified with the name and the benefits of a
+Crusade its own political war against the Hohenstaufen. Others again
+find in the princes of Europe the authors of the ruin of the Crusades;
+they too had preferred their own national or dynastic interests to the
+cause of a common Christianity. They had indeed, as has been already
+noticed, done even more; they had used the name of Crusade, from the
+days of Henry VI. onwards, as a cover and an excuse for secular
+ambitions of their own; and in this way they had certainly helped, in
+very large measure, to discourage the old religious zeal for the Holy
+War. Other writers, again, blame the commercial cupidity of the Italian
+towns; of what avail, they asked with no little justice, was the
+Crusade, when Venice and Genoa destroyed the naval bases necessary for
+its success by their internecine quarrels in the Levant (as in 1257),
+or--still worse--entered into commercial treaties with the common enemy
+against whom the Crusades were directed? On the very eve of the Fifth
+Crusade, Venice had concluded a commercial treaty with Malik-al-Kamil of
+Egypt; just before the fall of Acre the Genoese, the king of Aragon and
+the king of Sicily had all concluded advantageous treaties with the
+sultan Kala'un. A fourth cause, on which many writers dwelt,
+particularly at the time when the suppression of the Templars was in
+question, was the dissensions between the two orders of Templars and
+Hospitallers, and the selfish policy of merely pursuing their own
+interest which was followed by both in common. But one might enumerate
+_ad infinitum_ the causes of the failure of the Crusades. It is
+simplest, as it is truest, to say that the Crusades did not fail--they
+simply ceased; and they ceased because they were no longer in joint with
+the times. The moral character of Europe in 1300 was no longer the moral
+character of Europe in 1100; and the Crusades, which had been the active
+and objective embodiment of the other worldly Europe of 1100, were alien
+to the secular, legal, scholastic Europe of 1300. While Edward I. was
+seeking to found a united kingdom in Great Britain; while the Habsburgs
+were entrenching themselves in Austria; above all, while Philippe le Bel
+and his legists were consolidating the French monarchy on an absolutist
+basis, there could be little thought of the holy war. These were
+hard-headed men of affairs--men who would not lightly embark on joyous
+ventures, or seek for an ideal San Grail; nor were the popes, doomed to
+the Babylonian captivity for seventy long years at Avignon, able to call
+down the spark from on high which should consume all earthly ambitions
+in one great act of sacrifice.
+
+But it is long before the death of any institution is recognized; and it
+was inevitable that men should busy themselves in trying to rekindle the
+dead embers into new life. Pierre Dubois, in a pamphlet "_De
+recuperatione Sanctae Terrae_," addressed to Edward I. in 1307,
+advocates a general council of Europe to maintain peace and prevent the
+dissensions which--as, for instance, in 1192--had helped to cause the
+failure of past Crusades. Along with this advocacy of internationalism
+goes a plea for the disendowment of the Church, in order to provide an
+adequate financial basis for the future Crusade. Other proposals, made
+by men well acquainted with the East, are more definitely practical and
+less political in their intention. A blockade of Egypt by an
+international fleet, an alliance with the Mongols, the union of the two
+great orders--these are the three staple heads of these proposals.
+Something, indeed, was attempted, if little was actually done, under
+each of these three heads. The plan of an international fleet to coerce
+the Mahommedan is even to this day ineffective; but the Hospitallers,
+who acquired a new basis by the conquest of Rhodes in 1310, used their
+fleet to enforce a partial and, on the whole, ineffective blockade of
+the coast of the Levant. The union of the two orders, already suggested
+at the council of Lyons in 1245, was nominally achieved by the council
+of Vienne in 1311; but the so-called "union" was in reality the
+suppression of the Templars, and the confiscation of all their resources
+by the cupidity of Philippe le Bel. The alliance with the Mongols
+remained, from the first to the last, something of a chimera; and the
+last visionary hope vanished when the Mongols finally embraced
+Mahommedanism, as, by the end of the 14th century, they had almost
+universally done.
+
+Isolated enterprises somewhat of the character of a Crusade, but hardly
+serious enough to be dignified by that name, recur during the 14th
+century. The French kings are all crusaders--in name--until the
+beginning of the Hundred Years' War; but the only crusader who ever
+carried war in Palestine and sought to shake the hold of the Mamelukes
+on the Holy Land was Peter I., king of Cyprus from 1359 to 1369. Peter
+founded the order of the Sword for the delivery of Jerusalem; and
+instigated by his chancellor, P. de Mézičres (one of the last of the
+theorists who speculated and wrote on the Crusades), he attempted to
+revive the old crusading spirit throughout the west of Europe. The
+mission which he undertook with his chancellor for this purpose
+(1362-1365) only produced a crop of promises or excuses from sovereigns
+like Edward III. or the Emperor Charles IV.; and Peter was forced to
+begin the Crusade with such volunteers as he could collect for himself.
+In the autumn of 1365 he sacked Alexandria; in 1367 he ravaged the coast
+of Syria, and inflicted serious damages on the sultan of Egypt. But in
+1369 he was assassinated, and the last romantic figure of the Crusades
+died, leaving only the legacy of his memory to his chancellor de
+Mézičres, who for nearly forty years longer continued to be the preacher
+of the Crusades to Europe, advocating--what always continued to be the
+"dream of the old pilgrim"--a new order of knights of the Passion of
+Christ for the recovery and defence of Jerusalem. De Mézičres was the
+last to advocate seriously, as Peter I. was the last to attempt, a
+Crusade after the old fashion--an offensive war against Egypt for the
+recovery of the Holy Sepulchre.[57] From 1350 onwards the Crusade
+assumes a new aspect; it becomes defensive, and it is directed against
+the Ottoman Turks, a tribe of Turcomans who had established themselves
+in the sultanate of Iconium at the end of the 13th century, during the
+confusion and displacement of peoples which attended the Mongol
+invasions. As early as 1308 the Ottoman Turks had begun to settle in
+Europe; by 1350 they had organized their terrible army of janissaries.
+They threatened at once the débris of the old Latin empire in Greece and
+the archipelago, and the relics of the Byzantine empire round
+Constantinople; they menaced the Hospitallers in Rhodes and the
+Lusignans in Cyprus. It was natural that the popes should endeavour to
+form a coalition between the various Christian powers which were
+threatened by the Turks; and Venice, anxious to preserve her possessions
+in the Aegean, zealously seconded their efforts. In 1344 a Crusade, in
+which Venice, the Cypriots, and the Hospitallers all joined, ended in
+the conquest of Smyrna; in 1345 another Crusade, led by Humbert, dauphin
+of Vienne, ended in failure. The Turks continued their progress; in 1363
+they captured Philippopolis, and in 1365 they entered Adrianople; the
+whole Balkan peninsula was threatened, and even Hungary itself seemed
+doomed. Already in 1365 Urban VI. sought to unite the king of Hungary
+and the king of Cyprus in a common Crusade against the Turks; but it was
+not till 1396 that an attempt was at last made to supplement by a land
+Crusade the naval Crusades of 1344 and 1345. Master of Servia and of
+Bulgaria, as well as of Asia Minor, the sultan Bayezid was now
+threatening Constantinople itself. To arrest his progress, a Crusade,
+preached by Boniface IX., led by John the Fearless of Burgundy, and
+joined chiefly by French knights, was directed down the valley of the
+Danube into the Balkans; but the old faults stigmatized by de Mézičres,
+_divisio_ and _propria voluntas_, were the ruin of the crusading army,
+and at the battle of Nicopolis it was signally defeated. Not the Western
+Crusades but an Eastern rival, Timur (Tamerlane), king of Transoxiana
+and conqueror of southern Russia and India, was destined to arrest the
+progress of Bayezid; and from the battle of Angora (1402) till the days
+of Murad II. (1422) the Ottoman power was paralysed. Under Murad,
+however, it rose to its old height. To meet the new danger a new union
+of the churches of the East and the West was attempted. As in 1074
+Gregory VII. had dreamed of such a union, to be followed by a joint
+attack of East and West on the Seljuks, so in 1439, at the council of
+Florence, a new union of the two churches was again attempted and
+temporarily secured, in order that a united Christendom might face the
+new Turkish danger.[58] The logical result of the union was the Crusade
+of 1443. An army of cosmopolitan adventurers, led by the Cardinal
+Caesarini, joined the forces of Wladislaus of Poland and John Hunyadi
+of Transylvania, and succeeded in forcing on Murad II. a truce of ten
+years at Szegedin in 1444. But the crusaders broke the truce, to which
+Caesarini had never consented; and, attempting to better what was
+already good enough, they were defeated at Varna. Here the last Crusade
+ended; and nine years afterwards, in 1453, Mahommed II., the successor
+of Murad, captured Constantinople. It was in vain that the popes sought
+to gather a new Crusade for its recovery; Pius II., who had vowed to
+join the crusade in person, only reached Ancona in 1464 to find the
+crusaders deserting and to die. Yet the ghost of the Crusades still
+lingered. It became a convention of diplomacy, designed to cover any
+particularly sharp piece of policy which needed some excuse; and the
+treaty of Granada, formed between Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Aragon for
+the partition of Naples in 1500, was excused as a thing necessary in the
+interests of the Crusades. In a more noble fashion the Crusade survived
+in the minds of the navigators; "Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus,
+Albuquerque, and many others dreamed, and not insincerely, that they
+were labouring for the deliverance of the Holy Land, and they bore the
+Cross on their breasts."[59] "Don Henrique's scheme," it has been said,
+"represents the final effort of the crusading spirit; and the naval
+campaigns against the Moslem in the Indian seas, in which it culminated,
+forty years after Don Henrique's death, may be described as the last
+Crusade."[60]
+
+10. _Results of the Crusades._--In one vital respect the result of the
+Crusades may be written down as failure. They ended, not in the
+occupation of the East by the Christian West, but in the conquest of the
+West by the Mahommedan East. The Crusades began with the Seljukian Turk
+planted at Nicaea; they ended with the Ottoman Turk entrenched by the
+Danube. Nothing is more striking in history than the recession of
+Christianity in the East after the 13th century. In the 13th century the
+whole of Europe was Christian; part of Asia Minor still belonged to
+Greek Christianity, and there was a Christian kingdom in Palestine. Nor
+was this all. A wide missionary activity had begun in the 13th
+century--an activity which was the product of the Crusades and the
+contact with the Moslem which they brought, but which yet helped to
+check the Crusades, substituting as it did peaceful and spiritual
+conquests of souls for the violence and materialism of even a Holy War.
+The Eastern mission had been begun by St Francis, who had visited and
+attempted to convert the sultan of Egypt during the Fifth Crusade
+(1220); within a hundred years the little seed had grown into a great
+tree. A great field for missionary enterprise opened itself in the
+Mongol empire, in which, as has already been mentioned, there were many
+Christians to be found; and by 1350 this field had been so well worked
+that Christian missions and Christian bishops were established from
+Persia to Peking, and from the Dnieper to Tibet itself. But a Mahommedan
+reaction came, thanks in large measure to the zeal of Timur; and central
+Asia was lost to Christianity. Everywhere in the 15th century, in Europe
+and in Asia, the crescent was victorious over the cross; and Crusade and
+mission, whether one regards them as complementary or inimical, perished
+together.[61]
+
+But the history of the Crusades must be viewed rather as a chapter in
+the history of civilization in the West itself, than as an extension of
+Western dominion or religion to the East. It is a chapter very difficult
+to write, for while on the one hand an ingenious and speculative
+historian may refer to the influence of the Crusades almost everything
+which was thought or done between 1100 and 1300, a cautious writer who
+seeks to find documentary evidence for every assertion may be rather
+inclined to attribute to that influence little or nothing.[62] The
+dissolution of feudalism, the development of towns, the growth of
+scholasticism, all these and much more have been ascribed to the
+Crusades, when in truth they were concomitants rather than results, or
+at any rate, if in part the results of the Crusades, were in far larger
+part the results of other things. At most, therefore, it may be admitted
+that the Crusades _contributed_ to the dissolution of feudalism by
+putting property on the market and disturbing the validity of titles;
+that they aided the development of towns by vastly increasing the volume
+of trade; and that they furthered the growth of scholasticism by
+bringing the West into contact with the mind of the East. If we seek the
+peculiar and definite results of the Crusades, we must turn to narrower
+issues. In the first place, the Crusades represent the attempt of a
+feudal system, bound under the law of primogeniture to dispose of its
+younger sons. They are attempts at feudal colonization; and as such they
+resulted in a number of colonies--the kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingdom
+of Cyprus, the Latin empire of Constantinople. They resulted too in a
+number of "chartered companies"--that is to say, the three military
+orders, which, beginning as charitable societies, developed into
+military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into chartered
+companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable territories. In
+the second place, as has already been noticed, the Crusades represent
+the attempt of Western commerce to find new and more easy routes to the
+wealth of the East; and in this respect they led to various results. On
+the one hand they led to the establishment of emporia in the East--for
+instance, Acre, and after the fall of Acre Famagusta, both in their day
+great centres of Levantine trade. On the other hand, the commodities
+which poured into Venice and Genoa from the East had to find a route for
+their diffusion through Europe. The great route was that which led from
+Venice over the Brenner and up the Rhine to Bruges; and this route
+became the long red line of municipal development, along which--in
+Lombardy, Germany and Flanders--the great towns of the middle ages
+sprang to life. Partly as a result of this trade, ever pushing its way
+farther east, and partly as a result of the Asiatic missions, which were
+themselves an accompaniment and effect of the Crusades, a third great
+result of the Crusades came to light in the 13th century--the discovery
+of the interior of Asia, and an immense accession to the sphere of
+geography. When one remembers that missionaries like Piano Carpini, and
+traders like the Venetian Polos, either penetrated by land from Acre to
+Peking, or circumnavigated southern Asia from Basra to Canton, one
+realizes that there was, about 1300, a discovery of Asia as new and
+tremendous as the discovery of America by Columbus two centuries later.
+At the same time the old knowledge of nearer Asia was immensely
+deepened. It has already been noticed how military reconnaissances of
+the routes to Egypt came to be made; but more important were the
+guide-books, of which a great number were written to guide the pilgrims
+from one sacred spot of Bible history to another. There were medieval
+Baedekers in abundance for the use of the annual flow of tourists, who
+were carried every Easter by the vessels of the Italian towns or of the
+Orders to visit the Holy Land and to bathe in Jordan, to gather palms,
+and to see the miracle of fire at the Sepulchre.
+
+Colonization, trade, geography--these then are three things closely
+connected with the history of the Crusades. The development of the art
+of war, and the growth of a systematic taxation, are two debts which
+medieval Europe also owed to the Crusades. Partly by contact with the
+Byzantines, partly by conflict with the Mahommedans, the Franks learned
+new methods both of building and of attacking fortifications. The
+concentric castle, with its rings of walls, began to displace the old
+keep and bailey with their single wall, as the crusaders brought back
+news from the East.[63] The art of the sapper and miner, the use of
+siege instruments like the mangonel, and the employment of various
+"fires" as missiles, were all known among the Mahommedans; and in all
+these respects the Franks learned from their enemies. The common use of
+armorial bearings, and the practice of the tournament, may be Oriental
+in their origin; the latter has its affinities with the equestrian
+exercises of the Jerid, and the former, though of prehistoric antiquity,
+may have received a new impulse from contact with the Arabs. The
+military development which sprang from the Crusades is thus largely a
+matter of borrowing; the financial development is independent and
+indigenous in the West. As early as 1147 Louis VII. had imposed a tax in
+the interests of the Crusades; and that tax had been repeated by Louis,
+and imitated by Henry II. in 1166, while it had been still further
+extended in the Saladin tithe of 1188. The taxation of 1166 is important
+as the first to fall on "moveables"; the whole scheme of taxation may be
+regarded as the beginning of a modern system of taxation. But it was not
+only to the lay power that the Crusades gave an excuse for taxation; the
+papacy also profited. Tithes for the Crusades were first imposed on the
+clergy by Innocent III. at the Lateran council of 1215; and clerical
+taxation was thus part of the whole statesmanlike project of the Fifth
+Crusade as it was sketched by the great pope. Henceforth tithes for the
+Crusades are regular; under Gregory IX. they become a great part of the
+papal resources in the Crusade against the Hohenstaufen; and in the 16th
+century they are still a normal part of the government of the Church.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Syria in the 12th cetury, before the conquests of
+Saladin.]
+
+In many other ways the Europe over which the Crusades had passed was
+different from the Europe of the 11th century. In the first place, many
+political changes had been wrought, largely under its influence. Always
+in large part French, the Crusades had on the whole contributed to exalt
+the prestige of France, until it stood at the end of the 13th century
+the most considerable power in Europe. It was France which had colonized
+the Levant; it was the French tongue which was used in the Levant; and
+the results of the ancient and continuous connexion with the East are
+still to be traced to-day. Of the other great powers of Europe, England
+and Germany had been little changed by the Crusades, save that Germany
+had been extended towards the East by the conquests of the Teutonic
+Order; but the Eastern empire had been profoundly modified, and the
+papacy had suffered a great change. The Eastern empire had been for a
+time annihilated by the movement which in 1095 it had helped to evoke;
+and if it rose from its ashes in 1261 for two centuries of renewed life,
+it was never more than the shadow of its old self, with little hold on
+Asia Minor and less on Greece and the Archipelago, which the Latins
+still continued to occupy until they were finally conquered by the
+Ottoman Turks. The papacy, on the other hand, had grown as a result of
+the Crusades. Popes had preached them; popes had financed them; popes
+had sent their legates to lead them. Through them the popes had deposed
+the emperors of the West from their headship of the world, partly
+because through the Crusades the popes were able to direct the common
+Christianity of Europe in a foreign policy of their own without
+consultation with the emperor, partly because in the 13th century they
+were ultimately able to direct the Crusade itself against the empire.
+Yet while they had magnified, the Crusades had also corrupted the
+papacy. They became an instrument in its hands which it used to its own
+undoing. It cried Crusade when there was no Crusade; and the long
+Crusade against the Hohenstaufen, if it gave the papacy an apparent
+victory, only served in the long run to lower its prestige in the eyes
+of Europe. When we turn from the sphere of politics to the history of
+civilization and culture, we find the effects of the Crusades as deeply
+impressed, if not so definitely marked. The Crusades had sprung from the
+policy of a theocratic government counting on the motive of
+otherworldliness; they had helped in their course to overthrow that
+motive, and with it the government which it had made possible. In part
+they had provided a field in which the layman could prove that he too
+was a priest; in part they had brought the West into a living and
+continuous contact with a new faith and a new civilization. They had
+torn men loose from the ancestral custom of home to walk in new ways and
+see new things and hear new thoughts; and some broadening of view, some
+lessening in the intensity of the old one-sidedness, was the inevitable
+result. It is not so much that the West came into contact with a
+particular civilization in the East, or borrowed from that civilization;
+it is simply that the West came into contact with something unlike
+itself, yet in many ways as high as, if not higher than, itself. The
+spirit of _Nathan der Weise_ may not have been exactly the spirit
+engendered by the Crusades; and yet it is not without reason that
+Lessing stages the fable which teaches toleration in the Latin kingdom
+of Jerusalem. In any case the accusations made against the Templars at
+the time of their suppression prove that there was, at any rate in the
+ranks of those who knew the East, too little of absolute orthodoxy.
+While a new spirit which compares and tolerates thus sprang from the
+Crusades, the large sphere of new knowledge and experience which they
+gave brought new material at once for scientific thought and poetic
+imagination. Not only was geography more studied; the Crusades gave a
+great impulse to the writing of history, and produced, besides
+innumerable other works, the greatest historical work of the middle
+ages--the _Historia transmarina_ of William of Tyre. Mathematics
+received an impulse, largely, it is true, from the Arabs of Spain, but
+also from the East; Leonardo Fibonacci, the first Christian algebraist,
+had travelled in Syria and Egypt. The study of Oriental languages began
+in connexion with the Christian missions of the East; Raymond Lull, the
+indefatigable missionary, induced the council of Vienne to decide on the
+creation of six schools of Oriental languages in Europe (1311). But the
+new field of poetic literature afforded by the Crusades is still more
+striking than this development of science. New poems in abundance dealt
+with the history of the Crusades, either in a faithful narrative, like
+that of the _Chanson_ of Ambroise, which narrates the Third Crusade, or
+in a free and poetical spirit, such as breathes in the _Chanson
+d'Antioche_. Nor was this all. The Crusades afforded new details which
+might be inserted into old matters, and a new spirit which might be
+infused into old subjects; and a crusading complexion thus came to be
+put upon old tales like those of Arthur and Charlemagne. By the side of
+these greater things it may seem little, and yet, just because it is
+little, it is all the more significant that the Crusades should have
+familiarized Europe with new plants, new fruits, new manufactures, new
+colours, and new fashions in dress. Sugar and maize; lemons, apricots
+and melons; cotton, muslin and damask; lilac and purple (azure and gules
+are words derived from the Arabic); the use of powder and of glass
+mirrors, and also of the rosary itself--all these things came to Europe
+from the East and as a result of the Crusades. To this day there are
+many Arabic words in the vocabulary of the languages of western Europe
+which are a standing witness of the Crusades--words relating to trade
+and seafaring, like tariff and corvette, or words for musical
+instruments, like lute or the Elizabethan word "naker."
+
+
+GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF JERUSALEM
+
+        Godfrey,             Baldwin I.,          Baldwin II.,
+  advocatus 1099-1100.   brother of Godfrey,   nephew of Godfrey
+                           king 1100-1118.       and Baldwin I.,
+                                               and king 1118-1131.
+                                                       |
+                                  +--------------------+--+
+                                  |                       |
+             Fulk of Anjou, = Melisinda                Alice = Bohemund II.
+            king 1131-1143. |                                    of Antioch
+                            |                                    (q.v.)
+                            |
+               +------------+---------------------------------------+
+               |                                                    |
+         Baldwin III.,                                         Amalric I.,
+         king 1143-1162.                                    king 1162-1174.
+                                                                    |
+         +-----------+----------------------------------------------+
+         |           |                                              |
+    Baldwin IV.,  Sibylla = (1) William of   (2) Guy de Lusignan,   |
+  king 1174-1183.               Montferrat;      king 1186-1192.    |
+                                    |                               |
+                               Baldwin V.,                          |
+                             king 1183-1186.                        |
+                                                                    |
+      +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+      |
+  Isabella = (1) Humfred    (2) Conrad of   (3) Henry of   (4) Amalric II.,
+                 of Turon.    Montferrat,     Champagne,      brother of Guy
+                             acknowledged   king 1192-1197.   de Lusignan,
+                             king in 1192.         |          king 1197-1205
+                                   |               |          (also king of
+                  +----------------+               |          Cyprus).
+                  |                                |                  |
+                Mary,      = John of Brienne,      |                  |
+             queen under   |  king 1210-1225.      |                  |
+              a regency    |                       |                  |
+              from 1205-   |                       |                  |
+                1210.      |                       |                  |
+         +-----------------+                       |                  |
+         |                                         |                  |
+      Isabella = Frederick II.,                    |                  |
+               |   emperor of the West             |                  |
+               |   and king of Jerusalem           |                  |
+               |   1225-1250.                      |                  |
+               |                                   |                  |
+        Conrad IV., king                           |                  |
+          of Germany and                           |                  |
+          of Jerusalem 1250-1255.                  |                  |
+               |                                   |                  |
+         Conradin, king                            |                  |
+            1254-1268.                             |                  |
+                                                   |                  |
+     +---------------------------------------------+                  |
+     |                              +---------------------------------+
+     |                              |
+   Alice = Hugh I. of Cyprus,   Melisinda = Bohemund IV.
+         | son of Amalric II.             |
+         | by his first wife.      Mary of Antioch,
+         |                         who died 1277,
+         |                         leaving her claims
+         |                         to Charles of Anjou
+         |                         (king of Sicily).
+         |
+      +--+------------------------------------------+
+      |                                             |
+   Henry I. of Cyprus = Plaisance of Antioch.   Isabella = John de Lusignan.
+                      |                                  |
+              Hugh II. of Cyprus.                        |
+                                              Hugh (III. of Cyprus and)
+                                                  I. of Jerusalem,
+                                                     1269-1284.
+                                                         |
+                              +--------------------------+---+
+                              |                              |
+                          John I.,              Henry (III. of Cyprus and)
+                       king of Cyprus,            II. of Jerusalem,
+                         1284-1285.               king from 1285 to the
+                                                  fall of the kingdom in
+                                                  1291.
+
+
+When all is said, the Crusades remain a wonderful and perpetually
+astonishing act in the great drama of human life. They touched the
+summits of daring and devotion, if they also sank into the deep abysms
+of shame. Motives of self-interest may have lurked in them--otherworldly
+motives of buying salvation for a little price, or worldly motives of
+achieving riches and acquiring lands. Yet it would be treason to the
+majesty of man's incessant struggle towards an ideal good, if one were
+to deny that in and through the Crusades men strove for righteousness'
+sake to extend the kingdom of God upon earth. Therefore the tears and
+the blood that were shed were not unavailing; the heroism and the
+chivalry were not wasted. Humanity is the richer for the memory of those
+millions of men, who followed the pillar of cloud and fire in the sure
+and certain hope of an eternal reward. The ages were not dark in which
+Christianity could gather itself together in a common cause, and carry
+the flag of its faith to the grave of its Redeemer; nor can we but give
+thanks for their memory, even if for us religion is of the spirit, and
+Jerusalem in the heart of every man who believes in Christ.
+
+  LITERATURE.--In dealing with the literature of the Crusades, it is
+  perhaps better, though ideally less scientific, to begin with
+  chronicles and narratives rather than with documents. One of the
+  results of the Crusades, as has just been suggested above, was a great
+  increase in the writing of history. Crusaders themselves kept diaries
+  or _itineraria_; while home-keeping ecclesiastics in the West--monks
+  like Robert of Reims, abbots like Guibert of Nogent, archbishops like
+  Balderich of Dol--found a fertile subject for their pens in the
+  history of the Crusades. The history of a series of actions like the
+  Crusades must primarily be based on these accounts, and more
+  particularly on the former: narratives must precede documents where
+  one is dealing, not with the continuous life of an organized kingdom,
+  but with a number of enterprises--especially when those enterprises
+  have been, as in this case, excellently narrated by contemporary
+  writers.
+
+  I. _Chronicles and Narratives of the Crusades_--(1) Collections. The
+  authorities for the Crusades have been collected in Bongars, _Gesta
+  Dei per Francos_ (Hanover, 1611) (incomplete); Michaud, _Bibliothčque
+  des croisades_ (Paris, 1829) (containing translations of select
+  passages in the authorities); the _Recueil des historiens des
+  croisades_, published by the Académie des Inscriptions (Paris, 1841
+  onwards) (the best general collection, containing many of the Latin,
+  Greek, Arabic and Armenian authorities, and also the text of the
+  assizes; but sometimes poorly edited and still incomplete); and the
+  publications of the Société de l'Orient Latin (founded in 1875),
+  especially the _Archives_, of which two volumes were published in 1881
+  and 1884, and the volumes of the _Revue_, published yearly from 1893
+  to 1902, and containing not only new texts, but articles and reviews
+  of books which are of great service. (2) Particular authorities. The
+  Crusades--a movement which engaged all Europe and brought the East
+  into contact with the West--must necessarily be studied not only in
+  the Latin authorities of Europe and of Palestine, but also in
+  Byzantine, Armenian and Arabic writers. There are thus some four or
+  five different points of view to be considered.
+
+  The _First Crusade_, far more than any other, became the theme of a
+  multitude of writings, whose different degrees of value it is
+  all-important to distinguish. Until about 1840 the authority followed
+  for its history was naturally the great work of William of Tyre. For
+  the First Crusade William had followed Albert of Aix; and he had
+  consequently depicted Peter the Hermit as the prime mover in the
+  Crusade. But about 1840 Ranke suggested, and von Sybel in his
+  _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzüges_ proved, that Albert of Aix was
+  _not_ a good authority, and that consequently William of Tyre must be
+  set aside for the history of the First Crusade, and other and more
+  contemporary authorities used. In writing his account of the First
+  Crusade, von Sybel accordingly based himself on the three contemporary
+  Western authorities--the _Gesta Francorum_, Raymond of Agiles, and
+  Fulcher. His view of the value of Albert of Aix, and his account of
+  the First Crusade, have been generally followed (Kugler alone having
+  attempted, to some extent, to rehabilitate Albert of Aix); and thus
+  von Sybel's work may be said to mark a revolution in the history of
+  the First Crusade, when its legendary features were stripped away, and
+  its real progress was first properly discovered.
+
+  Taking the Western authorities for the First Crusade separately, one
+  may divide them, in the light of von Sybel's work, into four
+  kinds--the accounts of eye-witnesses; later compilations based on
+  these accounts; semi-legendary and legendary narratives; and lastly,
+  in a class by itself, the "History" of William of Tyre, who is rather
+  a scientific historian than a chronicler.
+
+  (a) The three chief eye-witnesses are the anonymous author of the
+  _Gesta Francorum_, Raymund of Agiles, and Fulcher. The anonymous
+  author of the _Gesta_ (see Hagenmeyer's edition, Heidelberg, 1890) was
+  a Norman of South Italy, who followed Bohemund, and accordingly
+  depicts the progress of the First Crusade from a Norman point of view.
+  He was a layman, marching and fighting in the ranks; and thus he is
+  additionally valuable as representing the opinion of the ordinary
+  crusader. Finally he was an eye-witness throughout, and absolutely
+  contemporary, in the sense that he wrote his account of each great
+  event practically at the time of the event. He is the primary
+  authority for the First Crusade. Raymund of Agiles, a Provençal clerk
+  and a follower of Raymund of Toulouse, writes his _Historia Francorum
+  qui ceperunt Jerusalem_ from the Provençal point of view. He gives an
+  ecclesiastic's account of the First Crusade, and is specially full on
+  the spiritualistic phenomena which accompanied and followed the
+  finding of the Holy Lance. His book might almost be called the
+  "Visions of Peter Bartholomew and others," and it is written in the
+  plain matter-of-fact manner of Defoe's narratives. He too was an
+  eye-witness throughout, and thoroughly honest; and his account ranks
+  second to the _Gesta_. Fulcher of Chartres originally followed Robert
+  of Normandy, but in October 1097 he joined Baldwin of Lorraine in his
+  expedition to Edessa, and afterwards followed his fortunes. His
+  _Historia Hierosolymitana_, which extends to 1127, and embraces not
+  only the history of the First Crusade, but also that of the foundation
+  of the kingdom of Jerusalem, is written on the whole from a
+  Lotharingian point of view, and is thus a natural complement to the
+  accounts of the Anonymus and Raymund. His account of the First Crusade
+  itself is poor (he was absent at Edessa during its course), but
+  otherwise he is an excellent authority. A kindly old pedant, Fulcher
+  interlards his history with much discourse on geography, zoology and
+  sacred history. Besides these three chief eye-witnesses we may also
+  mention the _Annales Genuenses_ by the Genoese consul Caffarus,[64]
+  and the _Annales Pisani_ of Bernardus Marago, useful as giving the
+  mercantile and Italian side of the Crusade; the _Hierosolymita_ of
+  Ekkehard, the German abbot of Aura, who first came to Jerusalem about
+  1101 (partly based on the _Gesta_, but also of independent value: see
+  Hagenmeyer's edition, Tübingen, 1877); and Raoul of Caen's _Gesta
+  Tancredi_, composed on the basis of information supplied by Tancred
+  himself. The last two works, if not actually the works of
+  eye-witnesses, are at any rate first-hand, and belong to the category
+  of primary writers rather than to that of later compilations. Finally,
+  to contemporary writers we may add contemporary letters, especially
+  those written by Stephen of Blois and Anselm of Ribemont, and the
+  three letters sent to the West by the crusading princes during the
+  First Crusade (see Hagenmeyer, _Epistulae et Chartae_, &c., Innsbruck,
+  1901).[65]
+
+  (b) The later compilations are chiefly based on the _Gesta_, whose
+  uncouth style many writers set themselves to mend. In the first place,
+  there is the _Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere_ of Tudebod, which
+  according to Besly, writing in 1641, is the original from which the
+  _Gesta_ was a mere plagiarism--an absolute inversion of the truth, as
+  von Sybel first proved two centuries later. Secondly, besides the
+  plagiarist Tudebod, there are the artistic _rédacteurs_ of the
+  _Gesta_, who confess their indebtedness, but plead the bad style of
+  their original--Guibert of Nogent, Balderich of Dol, Robert of Reims
+  (all c. 1120-1130), and Fulco, the author of a Virgilian poem on the
+  Crusades, continued by Gilo (_ob. c._ 1142). Of these, the monk Robert
+  was more popular in the middle ages than either the pompous abbot
+  Guibert or the quiet garden-loving archbishop of Dol.
+
+  (c) The growth of a legend, or perhaps better, a saga of the First
+  Crusade began, according to von Sybel, even during the Crusade itself.
+  The basis of this growth is partly the story-telling instinct innate
+  in all men, which loves to heighten an effect, sharpen a point or
+  increase a contrast--the instinct which breathes in Icelandic sagas
+  like that of _Burnt Njal_; partly the instinct of idolization, if it
+  may be so called, which leads to the perversion into impossible
+  greatness of an approved character, and has created, in this instance,
+  the legendary figures of Peter the Hermit and Godfrey of Bouillon
+  (qq.v.); partly the religious impulse, which counted nothing wonderful
+  in a holy war, and imported miraculous elements even into the sober
+  pages of the _Gesta_. These instincts and impulses would be at work
+  already among the soldiers during the Crusade, producing a saga all
+  the more readily, as there were poets in the camp; for we know that a
+  certain Richard, who joined the First Crusade, sang its exploits in
+  verse, while still more famous is the princely troubadour, William of
+  Aquitaine, who joined the Crusade of 1100. If we are to follow von
+  Sybel rather than Kugler, this saga of the First Crusade found one of
+  its earliest expressions (c. 1120) in the prose work of Albert of Aix
+  (_Historia Hierosolymitana_)--genuine saga in its inconsistencies,
+  its errors of chronology and topography, its poetical colour, and its
+  living descriptions of battles. Kugler, however, regards Albert as a
+  copyist, somewhat in the manner of Tudebod, of an unknown writer of
+  value, who belonged to the Lotharingian ranks during the Crusade, and
+  settled in the kingdom of Jerusalem afterwards (see Kugler, _Albert
+  von Aachen_, Stuttgart, 1885).[66] In the _Chanson des chétifs_ and
+  the _Chanson d'Antioche_ the legend of the Crusades more certainly
+  finds its expression. The former, composed at Antioch about 1130,
+  contained an idolization of the Hermit: the latter is a poem written
+  about 1180 by Graindor of Douai, who used as his basis the verses of
+  the crusader Richard (see the edition of P. Paris, 1848). It shows the
+  growth of the legend that Graindor regards the vision of the Hermit as
+  responsible for the Crusade, and makes the Crusade led by him precede,
+  and indeed occasion by its failure, the meeting at Clermont (which is
+  dated in May instead of November). Into the legendary overgrowth of
+  the First Crusade we cannot here enter any further[67]; but it is
+  perhaps worth while to mention that the French legend of the Third
+  Crusade equally perverted the truth, making Richard I. return home in
+  disgrace, while Philip Augustus stays, captures Damascus and mortally
+  wounds Saladin (cf. G. Paris, _L'Estoire de la guerre sainte_, Paris,
+  1897; Introduction).
+
+  (d) William of Tyre is the scientific historian and rationalizer,
+  weaving into a harmonious account, which was followed by historians
+  for centuries, the sober accounts of eye-witnesses and the picturesque
+  details of the saga--with somewhat of a bias towards the latter in
+  regard to the First Crusade. He was a native of Palestine, born about
+  1130, and educated in the West. On his return he was happy in winning
+  the good opinion of Amalric I.; he was made first canon and then
+  archdeacon of Tyre, and tutor of the future Baldwin IV. (1170); while
+  on Baldwin's accession he became chancellor of the kingdom and
+  archbishop of Tyre (1174-1175). He was a man often employed on
+  missions and negotiations, and as chancellor he had in his care the
+  archives of the kingdom. His temper was naturally that of a trimmer;
+  and he had thus many qualifications for the writing of well-informed
+  and unbiassed history. He knew Greek and Arabic; and he was well
+  acquainted with the affairs of Constantinople, to which he went at
+  least twice on political business, and with the history of the
+  Mahommedan powers, on which he had written a work (now lost) at the
+  command of Amalric. It was Amalric also who set him to write the
+  history of the Crusades which we still possess (in twenty-two books,
+  with a fragment of a twenty-third)--the _Historia rerum in partibus
+  transmarinis gestarum_. He wrote the book at different times between
+  1170 and 1183, when it abruptly ends, and its author as abruptly
+  disappears from sight. The book falls into two parts, the first (books
+  i.-xv.) derivative, the second (books xvi.-xxiii.) original. In the
+  second part he had his own knowledge of events and the information of
+  his contemporaries as his source: in the first he used the same
+  authorities which we still possess--the _Gesta_, Fulcher, and Albert
+  of Aix--in somewhat of an eclectic spirit, choosing now here, now
+  there, according as he could best weave a pleasant narrative, but not
+  according to any real critical principle. His book thus begins to be a
+  real authority only from the date of the Second Crusade onwards; but
+  the perfection of his form (for he is one of the greatest stylists of
+  the middle ages) and the prestige of his position conspired to make
+  his book the one authority for the whole history of the first century
+  of the Crusades. Nor was he (apart from his reception of legendary
+  elements into his narrative) unworthy of the honour in which he was
+  held; for he is really a great historian, in the form of his matter
+  and in his conception of his subject--diligent, impartial,
+  well-informed and interesting, if somewhat rhetorical in style and
+  vague in chronology.
+
+  [During the middle ages his work was current in a French translation,
+  known as the _Chronique d'outre-mer_, or the _Livre_ or _Roman
+  d'Éracles_ (so called from the reference at the beginning to the
+  emperor Heraclius). This translation also contained a continuation by
+  various hands down to 1277; while besides the continuation embedded in
+  the _Livre d'Éracles_, there are separate continuations, of the nature
+  of independent works, by Ernoul and Bernard the Treasurer. These
+  latter cover the period from 1183 to 1228; and of the two Ernoul's
+  account seems primary, while that of Bernard is in large part a mere
+  copy of Ernoul. But the whole subject of the continuators of William
+  of Tyre is dubious.]
+
+  To the Western authorities for the First Crusade must be added the
+  Eastern--Byzantine, Arabic and Armenian. Of these the Byzantine
+  authority, the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena, is most important, partly
+  from the position of the authoress, partly from the many points of
+  contact between the Byzantine empire and the crusaders. Anna's
+  narrative both furnishes a useful corrective of the prejudiced
+  Western accounts of Alexius, and serves to bring Bohemund forward into
+  his proper prominence. The Armenian view of the First Crusade and of
+  Baldwin's principality of Edessa is presented in the _Armenian
+  Chronicle_ of Matthew of Edessa. There is little in Arabic bearing on
+  the First Crusade: the Arabic authorities only begin to be of value
+  with the rise of the atabegs of Mosul (c. 1127). But Kemal-ud-din's
+  _History of Aleppo_ (composed in the 13th century) contains some
+  details on the history of the First Crusade; and the _Vie d'Ousama_
+  (the autobiography of a sheik at Caesarea in northern Syria, edited
+  and paraphrased by Derenbourg in the _Publications de l'École des
+  langues orientales vivantes_) presents the point of view of an Arab
+  whose life covered the first century of the Crusades (1095-1188).
+
+  For the _Second Crusade_ the primary authority in the West is the work
+  of Odo de Deuil, _De profectione Ludovici VII regis Francorum in
+  Orientem_. Odo was a monk attached by Suger to Louis VII. during the
+  Second Crusade; and he wrote home to Suger during the Crusade seven
+  short letters, afterwards pieced together in a single work. The _Gesta
+  Friderici Primi_ of Otto of Freising (who joined in the Second
+  Crusade) gives some details from the German point of view (i. c. 44
+  sqq.). The former is supplemented by the letters of Louis VII. to
+  Suger; the latter by the letters of Conrad III. to Wibald, abbot of
+  Stablo and Corvey. The Byzantine point of view is presented in the
+  [Greek: 'Epitomę] of Cinnamus, the private secretary of Manuel, who
+  continued the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena in a work describing the
+  reigns of John and Manuel. It is from the Second Crusade that William
+  of Tyre, representing the attitude of the Franks of Jerusalem, begins
+  to be a primary authority; while on the Mahommedan side a considerable
+  authority emerges in Ibn Athir. His history of the Atabegs was written
+  about 1200, and it presents in a light favourable to Zengi and
+  Nureddin, but unfavourable to Saladin (who thrust Nureddin's
+  descendants aside), the history of the great Mahommedan power which
+  finally crushed the kingdom of Jerusalem.[68]
+
+  Side by side with Beha-ud-din's life of Saladin, Ibn Athir's work is
+  the most considerable historical record written by the Arabs.
+  Generally speaking the Arabic writings are late in point of date, and
+  cold and jejune in style; while it must also be remembered that they
+  are set religious works written to defend Islam. On the other hand
+  they are generally written by men of affairs--governors, secretaries
+  or ambassadors; and a fatalistic temper leads their authors to a
+  certain impartial recording of everything, good or evil, which seems
+  of moment.
+
+  The _Third Crusade_ was narrated in the West from very different
+  points of view by Anglo-Norman, French and German authorities. The
+  primary Anglo-Norman authority is the _Carmen Ambrosii_, or, as it is
+  called by M. Gaston Paris, _L'Estoire de la guerre sainte_. This is an
+  octosyllabic poem in French verse, written by Ambroise, a Norman
+  _trouvčre_ who followed Richard I. to the Holy Land. The poem first
+  came to be known by scholars about 1873, and has been edited by M.
+  Gaston Paris (Paris, 1897). The _Itinerarium Peregrinorum_, a work in
+  ornate Latin prose, is (except for the first book) a translation of
+  the _Carmen_ masquerading under the guise of an independent work.
+  There seems no doubt that it is a piece of plagiary, and that its
+  writer, Richard, "canon of the Holy Trinity" in London, stands to the
+  _Carmen_ as Tudebod to the _Gesta_, or Albert of Aix to his supposed
+  original. The Third Crusade is also described from the English point
+  of view by all contemporary writers of history in England, e.g. Ralph
+  of Coggeshall, who used information gained from crusaders, and William
+  of Newburgh, who had access to a work by Richard I.'s chaplain Anselm,
+  which is now lost.[69] The French side is presented in Rigord's _Gesta
+  Philippi Augusti_ and in the _Gesta_ (an abridgment and continuation
+  of Rigord) and the _Philippeis_ of William the Breton. The two French
+  writers represent Richard as a faithless vassal: in the German
+  writers--Tagino, dean of Passau, who wrote a _Descriptio_ of
+  Barbarossa's Crusade (1189-1190); and Ansbert, an Austrian clerk, who
+  wrote _De expeditione Friderici Imperatoris_ (1187-1196)--Richard
+  appears rather as a monster of pride and arrogance. From the Arabic
+  point of view the life of Richard's rival, Saladin, is described by
+  Beha-ud-din, a high official under Saladin, who writes a panegyric on
+  his master, somewhat confused in chronology and partial in its
+  sympathies, but nevertheless of great value. The various continuations
+  of William of Tyre above mentioned represent the opinion of the native
+  Franks (which is hostile to Richard I.); while in Nicetas, who wrote a
+  history of the Eastern empire from 1118 to 1206, we have a Byzantine
+  authority who, as Professor Bury remarks, "differs from Anna and
+  Cinnamus in his tone towards the crusaders, to whom he is surprisingly
+  fair."
+
+  For the _Fourth Crusade_ the primary authority is Villehardouin's _La
+  Conquęte de Constantinople_, an official apology for the diversion of
+  the Crusade written by one of its leaders, and concealing the arcana
+  under an appearance of frank naďveté. His work is usefully
+  supplemented by the narrative (_La Prise de Constantinople_) of
+  Robert de Clary, a knight from Picardy, who presents the non-official
+  view of the Crusade, as it appeared to an ordinary soldier. The
+  [Greek: Chronikon tôn en Rhomania] (composed in Greek verse some time
+  after 1300, apparently by an author of mixed Frankish and Greek
+  parentage, and translated into French at an early date under the title
+  "The Book of the Conquest of Constantinople and the Empire of
+  Rumania") narrates in a prologue the events of the Fourth (as indeed
+  also of the First) Crusade. The _Chronicle of the Morea_ (as this work
+  is generally called) is written from the Frankish point of view, in
+  spite of its Greek verse; and the Byzantine point of view must be
+  sought in Nicetas.[70]
+
+  The history of the later Crusades, from the Fifth to the Eighth,
+  enters into the continuations of William of Tyre above mentioned;
+  while the _Historia orientalis_ of Jacques de Vitry, who had taken
+  part in the Fifth Crusade, and died in 1240, embraces the history of
+  events till 1218 (the third book being a later addition). The _Secreta
+  fidelium Crucis_ of Marino Sanudo, a history of the Crusades written
+  by a Venetian noble between 1306 and 1321, is also of value,
+  particularly for the Crusade of Frederick II. The minor authorities
+  for the Fifth Crusade have been collected by Röhricht, in the
+  publications of the Société de l'Orient Latin for 1879 and 1882; the
+  ten valuable letters of Oliver, bishop of Paderborn, and the _Historia
+  Damiettina_, based on these letters, have also been edited by Röhricht
+  in the _Westdeutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kunst_ (1891). The
+  Sixth Crusade, that of Frederick II., is described in the chronicle of
+  Richard of San Germano, a notary of the emperor, and in other Western
+  authorities, e.g. Roger of Wendover. For the Crusades of St Louis the
+  chief authorities are Joinville's life of his master (whom he
+  accompanied to Egypt on the Seventh Crusade), and de Nangis' _Gesta
+  Ludovici regis_. Several works were written on the capture of Acre in
+  1291, especially the _Excidium urbis Acconensis_, a treatise which
+  emerges to throw light, after many years of darkness, on the last
+  hours of the kingdom. The Oriental point of view for the 13th century
+  appears in Jelaleddin's history of the Ayyubite sultans of Egypt,
+  written towards the end of the 13th century; in Maqrizi's history of
+  Egypt, written in the middle of the 15th century; and in the
+  compendium of the history of the human race by Abulfeda (+1332); while
+  the omniscient Abulfaragius (whom Rey calls the Eastern St Thomas)
+  wrote, in the latter half of the 13th century, a chronicle of
+  universal history in Syriac, which he also issued, in an Arabic
+  recension, as a _Compendious History of the Dynasties_.
+
+  II. The documents bearing on the history of the Crusades and the Latin
+  kingdom of Jerusalem are various. Under the head of charters come the
+  _Regesta regni Hierosolymitani_, published by Röhricht, Innsbruck,
+  1893 (with an Additamentum in 1904); the _Cartulaire générale des
+  Hospitaliers_, by Delaville Leroulx (Paris, 1894 onwards); and the
+  _Cartulaire de l'église du St Sépulcre_, by de Rozičre (Paris, 1849).
+  Under the head of laws come the assizes of the Kingdom, edited by
+  Beugnot in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_; and the assizes
+  of Antioch, printed at Venice in 1876. G. Schlumberger has written on
+  the coins and seals of the Latin East in various publications; while
+  Rey has written an _Étude sur les monuments de l'architecture
+  militaire_ (Paris, 1871). The genealogy of the Levant is given in _Le
+  Livre des lignages d'outre-mer_ (published along with the assizes).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHIES.--The best modern account of the original authorities
+  for the Crusades is that of A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de
+  France_, vols. ii. and iii. W. Wattenbach's _Deutschlands
+  Geschichtsquellen_ gives an account of Albert of Aix (vol. ii., ed.
+  1894, pp. 170-180) and of Ekkehard of Aura (ibid. pp. 189-198). Von
+  Sybel's _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzüges_ contains a full study of
+  the authorities for the First Crusade; while the prefaces to
+  Hagenmeyer's editions of the _Gesta_ and of Ekkehard are also
+  valuable. Gaston Dodu, in the work mentioned below, begins by a brief
+  account of the original authorities, which is chiefly of value so far
+  as it deals with William of Tyre and the history of the assizes; and
+  H. Prutz has also a short account of some of the historians of the
+  Crusades (_Kulturgeschichte_, pp. 453-469). Finally reference may be
+  made to the works of Kugler and Klimke above mentioned, and to J. F.
+  Michaud's _Bibliographie des croisades_ (Paris, 1822).
+
+  _Modern Writers._--The various works of R. Röhricht present the
+  soundest, if not the brightest, account of the Crusades. There is a
+  _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs_ (Innsbruck, 1901), a _Geschichte des
+  Königreichs Jerusalem_ (ibid. 1898) and a _Geschichte der Kreuzzüge in
+  Umris_ (ibid. 1898). For the First Crusade von Sybel's work and
+  Chalandon's _Alexis I^er Comnčne_ may also be mentioned; for the
+  Fourth A. Luchaire's volume on _Innocent III: La Question d'Orient_;
+  while for the whole of the Crusades Norden's _Papstum und Byzanz_ is
+  of value. B. Kugler's _Geschichte der Kreuzzüge_ (in Oncken's series)
+  still remains a suggestive and valuable work; and L. Bréhier's
+  _L'Église et l'orient au moyen âge_ (Paris, 1907) contains not only an
+  up-to-date account of the Crusades, but also a full and useful
+  bibliography, which should be consulted for fuller information. On
+  points of chronology, and on the relations between the crusaders and
+  their Mahommedan neighbours, W. B. Stevenson's _The Crusaders in the
+  East_ (Cambridge, 1907) is very valuable. On the constitutional and
+  social history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem Dodu's _Histoire des
+  institutions du royaume latin de Jérusalem_ is very useful; E. G.
+  Rey's _Les Colonies franques en Syrie_ contains many interesting
+  details; and Prutz's _Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzüge_ contains both an
+  account of the Latin East and an attempt to sketch the effects of the
+  Crusades on the progress of civilization. The works of Gmelin and J.
+  Delaville-Leroulx on the Templars and Hospitallers respectively are
+  worth consulting; while for Eastern affairs the English reader may be
+  referred to G. Lestrange's _Palestine under the Moslem_, and to
+  Stanley Lane-Poole's _Life of Saladin_ and his _Mahommedan Dynasties_
+  (the latter a valuable work of reference).     (E. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Fulcher of Chartres, 1, i. For what follows, with regard to the
+    Church's conversion of _guerra_ into the Holy War, cf. especially the
+    passage--"Procedant contra infideles ad pugnam jam incipi dignam ...
+    qui abusive _privatum certamen_ contra fideles consuescebant
+    distendere quondam."
+
+  [2] Tradition credits a pope still earlier than Gregory VII. with the
+    idea of a crusade. Silvester II. is said to have preached a general
+    expedition for the recovery of Jerusalem; and the same preaching is
+    attributed to Sergius IV. in 1011. But the supposed letter of
+    Silvester is a later forgery; and in 1000 the way of the Christian to
+    Jerusalem was still free and open.
+
+  [3] The comte de Riant impugned the authenticity of Alexius' letter
+    to the count of Flanders. It is very probable that the versions of
+    this letter which we possess, and which are to be found only in later
+    writings like Guibert de Nogent, are apocryphal; Alexius can hardly
+    have held out the bait of the beauty of Greek women, or have written
+    that he preferred to fall under the yoke of the Latins rather than
+    that of the Turks. But it is also probable that these apocryphal
+    versions are based on a genuine original.
+
+  [4] Ekkehard, _Chronica_, p. 213.
+
+  [5] The _Chanson de Roland_, which cannot be posterior to the First
+    Crusade--for the poem never alludes to it--already contains the idea
+    of the Holy War against Islam. The idea of the crusade had thus
+    already ripened in French poetry, before Urban preached his sermon.
+
+  [6] Book i. c. iii. (in Muratori, _S.R.I._, v. 550).
+
+  [7] Ekkehard, _Chronica_, 214.
+
+  [8] Later legend ascribed the origin of the First Crusade to the
+    preaching of Peter the Hermit. The legend has been followed by modern
+    historians; but in point of fact Peter is a figure of secondary
+    importance.(See PETER THE HERMIT.)
+
+  [9] Godfrey's army numbered some 30,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry
+    (Röhricht, _Erst. Kreuzz._ 61): Urban II. reckons Bohemund's knights
+    as 7000 in number (_ibid._ 71, n. 7).
+
+  [10] The Genoese had been invited by Urban II. in September 1096 "to
+    go with their gallies to Eastern parts in order to set free the path
+    to the Lord's Sepulchre."
+
+  [11] Thus already on the First Crusade the path of negotiation is
+    attempted simultaneously with the Holy War. On the Third Crusade, and
+    above all on the Sixth, this path was still more seriously attempted.
+    It is interesting, too, to notice the part which the laity already
+    plays in directing the course of the Crusade. From the first the
+    Crusade, however clerical in its conception, was largely secular in
+    its conduct; and thus, somewhat paradoxically, a religious enterprise
+    aided the growth of the secular motive, and contributed to the escape
+    of the laity from that tendency towards a papal theocracy, which was
+    evident in the pontificate of Gregory VII.
+
+  [12] Before he left, Raymund had played in Jerusalem the same part of
+    dog in the manger which he had also played at Antioch, and had given
+    Godfrey considerable trouble. See the articles, GODFREY OF BOUILLON
+    and RAYMUND OF TOULOUSE.
+
+  [13] For an account of the kings of Jerusalem see the articles on the
+    five BALDWINS, on the two AMALRICS, on FULK and JOHN OF BRIENNE and
+    on the LUSIGNAN (family).
+
+  [14] The genuineness of the letter (on which, by the way, depends the
+    story of Godfrey's agreement with Dagobert) has been impeached by
+    Prutz and Kugler, and doubted by Röhricht. It is accepted by von
+    Sybel and Hagenmeyer.
+
+  [15] Yet the north always continued to be more populous than the
+    south; and the Latins maintained themselves in Antioch and Tripoli a
+    century after the loss of Jerusalem. The land was richer in the
+    north: it was protected by its connexion with Cyprus and Armenia: it
+    was more remote from Egypt--the basis of Mahommedan power from the
+    reign of Saladin onwards.
+
+  [16] Pisa naturally connected itself with Antioch, because Antioch
+    was hostile to Constantinople, and Pisa cherished the same hostility,
+    since Alexius I. had in 1080 given preferential treatment to Venice,
+    the enemy of Pisa.
+
+  [17] This is the year in which the kingdom may be regarded as
+    definitely founded. The period of conquest practically ends at this
+    date, though isolated gains were afterwards made. The year 1110 is
+    additionally important by reason of the accession of Maudud al Mosul,
+    which marks the beginning of a Moslem reaction.
+
+  [18] Ilghazi died in 1122. His successor was Balak, who ruled from
+    1122 to 1124, and succeeded in capturing in 1123 Baldwin II. of
+    Jerusalem. The union of Mardin and Aleppo under the sway of these two
+    amirs, connecting as it did Mesopotamia with Syria, marks an
+    important stage in the revival of Mahommedan power (Stevenson,
+    _Crusades in the East_, p. 109).
+
+  [19] Maudud (the brother of the sultan Mahommed) may be regarded as
+    the first to begin the _jihad_, or counter-crusade, and his attack
+    expedition of 1113, which carried him so far into the heart of
+    Palestine, may be considered as the first act of the _jihad_
+    (Stevenson, op. cit. pp. 87, 96).
+
+  [20] Aleppo had passed from the rule of Timurtash (son of Ilghazi and
+    successor of Balak) into the possession of Aksunkur, 1125.
+
+  [21] Stevenson, however, believes that Zengi was _not_ animated by
+    the idea of recovering Jerusalem. He thinks that his principal aim
+    was simply the formation of a compact Mahommedan state, which was,
+    indeed, in the issue destined to be the instrument of the _jihad_,
+    but was not so intended by Zengi (op. cit. pp. 123-124).
+
+  [22] There are certain connexions and analogies between the kingdom
+    of Sicily and that of Jerusalem during the twelfth century. In either
+    case there is an importation of Western feudalism into a country
+    originally possessed of Byzantine institutions, but affected by an
+    Arabic occupation. The subject deserves investigation.
+
+  [23] The holders of fiefs (_sodeers_) both held fiefs of land and
+    received pay; the paid force of _soudoyers_ only received pay. An
+    instance of the latter is furnished by John of Margat, a vassal of
+    the seignory of Arsuf. He has 200 bezants along with a quantity of
+    wheat, barley, lentils and oil; and in return he must march with four
+    horses (Rey, _Les Colonies franques en Syrie_, p. 24).
+
+  [24] For the history of the orders see the articles on the TEMPLARS;
+    ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; KNIGHTS, and the TEUTONIC ORDER.
+    The Templars were founded about the year 1118 by a Burgundian knight,
+    Hugh de Paganis; the Hospitallers sprang from a foundation in
+    Jerusalem erected by merchants of Amalfi before the First Crusade,
+    and were reorganized under Gerard le Puy, master until 1120. The
+    Teutonic knights date from the Third Crusade.
+
+  [25] As was noticed above, there were apparently separate assizes for
+    the three principalities, in addition to the assizes of the kingdom.
+    The assizes of Antioch have been discovered and published. The
+    assizes of the kingdom itself are twofold--the assizes of the high
+    court and the assizes of the court of burgesses. (1) The assizes of
+    the high court are preserved for us in works by legists--John of
+    Ibelin, Philip of Novara and Geoffrey of Tort--composed in the 13th
+    century. We possess, in other words, _law-books_ (like Bracton's
+    treatise _De legibus_), but not _laws_--and law-books made after the
+    loss of the kingdom to which the laws belonged. There are two vexed
+    questions with regard to these law-books. (a) The first concerns the
+    origin and character of the laws which the law-books profess to
+    expound. According to the story of the legists who wrote these
+    books--e.g. John of Ibelin--the laws of the kingdom were laid down by
+    Godfrey, who is thus regarded as the great [Greek: nomothetęs] of the
+    kingdom. These laws (progressively modified, it is admitted) were
+    kept in Jerusalem, under the name of "Letters of the Sepulchre,"
+    until 1187. In that year they were lost; and the legists tell us that
+    they are attempting to reconstruct _par oir dire_ the gist of the
+    lost archetype. The story of the legists is now generally rejected.
+    Godfrey never legislated: the customs of the kingdom gradually grew,
+    and were gradually defined, especially under kings like Baldwin III.
+    and Amalric I. If there was thus only a customary and unwritten law
+    (and William of Tyre definitely speaks of a _jus consuetudinarium_
+    under Baldwin III., _quo regnum regebatur_), then the "Letters of the
+    Sepulchre" are a myth--or rather, if they ever existed, they existed
+    not as a code of written law, but, perhaps, as a register of fiefs,
+    like the Sicilian _Defetarii_. Thus the story of the legists shrinks
+    down to the regular myth of the primitive legislator, used to give an
+    air of respectability to law-books, which really record an unwritten
+    custom. The fact is that until the 13th century the Franks lived
+    _consuetudinibus antiquis et jure non scripto_. They preferred an
+    unwritten law, as Prutz suggests, partly because it suited the
+    barristers (who often belonged to the baronage, for the Frankish
+    nobles were "great pleaders in court and out of court"), and partly
+    because the high court was left unbound so long as there was no
+    written code. In the 13th century it became necessary for the legists
+    to codify, as it were, the unwritten law, because the upheavals of
+    the times necessitated the fixing of some rules in writing, and
+    especially because it was necessary to oppose a definite custom of
+    the kingdom to Frederick II., who sought, as king of Jerusalem, to
+    take advantage of the want of a written law, to substitute his own
+    conceptions of law in the teeth of the high court. (b) The second
+    difficulty concerns the text of the law-books themselves. The text of
+    Ibelin became a _textus receptus_--but it also became overlaid by
+    glosses, for it was used as authoritative in the kingdom of Cyprus
+    after the loss of the kingdom of Jerusalem, and it needed expounding.
+    Recensions and revisions were twice made, in 1368 and 1531; but how
+    far the true Ibelin was recovered, and what additions or alterations
+    were made at these two dates, we cannot tell. We can only say that we
+    have the text of Ibelin which was used in Cyprus in the later middle
+    ages. At the same time, if our text is thus late, it must be
+    remembered that its content gives us the earliest and purest
+    exposition of French feudalism, and describes for us the organization
+    of a kingdom, where all rights and duties were connected with the
+    fief, and the monarch was only a suzerain of feudatories. (2) The
+    assizes of the court of burgesses became the basis of a treatise at
+    an earlier date than the assizes of the high court. The date of the
+    redaction (which was probably made by some learned burgess) may well
+    have been the reign of Baldwin III., as Kugler suggests: he was the
+    first native king, and a king learned in the law; but Beugnot would
+    refer the assizes to the years immediately preceding Saladin's
+    capture of Jerusalem. These assizes do not, of course, appear in
+    Ibelin, who was only concerned with the feudal law of the high court.
+    They were used, like the assizes of the high court, in Cyprus; and,
+    like the other assizes, they were made the subject of investigation
+    in 1531, with the object of discovering a good text. The law which is
+    expounded in these assizes is a mixture of Frankish law with the
+    Graeco-Roman law of the Eastern empire which prevailed among the
+    native population of Syria.
+
+    In regard to both assizes, it is most important to bear in mind that
+    we possess not laws, but law-books or custumals--records made by
+    lawyers for their fellows of what they conceived to be the law, and
+    supported by legal arguments and citations of cases. But, as Prutz
+    remarks, Philip of Novara _lehrt nicht die Wissenschaft des Rechts,
+    sondern die des Unrechts_: he does not explain the law so much as the
+    ways of getting round it.
+
+  [26] For instance, the abbey of Mount Sion had large possessions, not
+    only in the Holy Land (at Ascalon, Jaffa, Acre, Tyre, Caesarea and
+    Tarsus), but also in Sicily, Calabria, Lombardy, Spain and France (at
+    Orleans, Bourges and Poitiers).
+
+  [27] One must remember that these reinforcements would often consist
+    of desperate characters. It was one of the misfortunes of Palestine
+    that it served as a Botany Bay, to which the criminals of the West
+    were transported for penance. The natives, already prone to the
+    immorality which must infect a mixed population living under a hot
+    sun, the immorality which still infects a place like Aden, were not
+    improved by the addition of convicts.
+
+  [28] The manorial system in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was a
+    continuation of the village system as it had existed under the Arabs.
+    In each village (_casale)_ the _rustici_ were grouped in families
+    (_foci_): the tenants paid from ź to 1\3 of the crop, besides a
+    poll-tax and labour-dues. The villages were mostly inhabited by
+    Syrians: it was rarely that Franks settled down as tillers of the
+    soil. Prutz regards the manorial system as oppressive. Absentee
+    landlords, he thinks, rack-rented the soil (p. 167), while the
+    "inhuman severity" of their treatment of villeins led to a
+    progressive decay of agriculture, destroyed the economic basis of the
+    Latin kingdom, and led the natives to welcome the invasion of Saladin
+    (pp. 327-331).
+
+    The French writers Rey and Dodu are more kind to the Franks; and the
+    testimony of contemporary Arabic writers, who seem favourably
+    impressed by the treatment of their subjects by the Franks, bears out
+    their view, while the tone of the assizes is admittedly favourable to
+    the Syrians. One must not forget that there was a brisk native
+    manufacture of carpets, pottery, ironwork, gold-work and soap; or
+    that the Syrians of the towns had a definite legal position.
+
+  [29] After 1143 one may therefore speak of the period of the
+    Epigoni--the native Franks, ready to view the Moslems as joint
+    occupants of Syria, and to imitate the dress and habits of their
+    neighbours.
+
+  [30] Doubt has been cast on the view that a troubled conscience drove
+    Louis to take the cross; and his action has been ascribed to simple
+    religious zeal (cf. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, iii. 12).
+
+  [31] We speak of First, Second and Third Crusades, but, more exactly,
+    the Crusades were one continuous process. Scarcely a year passed in
+    which new bands did not come to the Holy Land. We have already
+    noticed the great if disastrous Crusade of 1100-1101, and the
+    Venetian Crusade of 1123-1124; and we may also refer to the Crusade
+    of Henry the Lion in 1172, and to that of Edward I. in 1271-1272--all
+    famous Crusades, which are not reckoned in the usual numbering.
+    Crusades appear to have been dignified by numbers when they followed
+    some crushing disaster--the loss of Edessa in 1144, or the fall of
+    Jerusalem in 1187--and were led by kings and emperors; or when, like
+    the Fourth and Fifth Crusades, they achieved some conspicuous success
+    or failure. But it is important to bear in mind the continuity of the
+    Crusades--the constant flow of new forces eastward and back again
+    westward; for this alone explains why the Crusades formed a great
+    epoch in civilization, familiarizing, as they did, the West with the
+    East.
+
+  [32] This body of crusaders ultimately reached the Holy Land, where
+    it joined Conrad (who had lost his own original forces), and helped
+    in the fruitless siege of Damascus. The services which it rendered to
+    Portugal were repeated by later crusaders. Crusaders from the Low
+    Countries, England and the Scandinavian north took the coast route
+    round western Europe; and it was natural that, landing for provisions
+    and water, they should be asked, and should consent, to lend their
+    aid to the natives against the Moors. Such aid is recorded to have
+    been given on the Third and the Fifth Crusades.
+
+  [33] Manuel was an ambitious sovereign, apparently aiming at a
+    world-monarchy, such as was afterwards attempted from the other side
+    by Henry VI. As Henry VI. had designs on Constantinople and the
+    Eastern empire, so Manuel cherished the ambition of acquiring Italy
+    and the Western empire, and he negotiated with Alexander III. to that
+    end in 1167 and 1169: cf. the life of Alexander III. in Muratori, _S.
+    R. I._ iii. 460.
+
+  [34] The prize was won by Raynald of Chatillon (q.v.).
+
+  [35] Nureddin, unlike his father, was definitely animated by a
+    religious motive: he fought first and foremost against the Latins
+    (and not, like his father, against Moslem states), and he did so as a
+    matter of religious duty.
+
+  [36] Henry II., as an Angevin, was the natural heir of the kingdom of
+    Jerusalem on the extinction of the line descended from Fulk of Anjou.
+    This explains the part played by Richard I. in deciding the question
+    of the succession during the Third Crusade.
+
+  [37] The taxation levied in the West was also attempted in the East,
+    and in 1183 a universal tax was levied in the kingdom of Jerusalem,
+    at the rate of 1% on movables and 2% on rents and revenues. Cf. Dr A.
+    Cartellieri, _Philipp II. August_, ii. pp. 3-18 and p. 85.
+
+  [38] Stevenson argues (op. cit. p. 240) that this truce was already
+    practically dissolved before Raynald struck, and that Raynald's
+    "action may reasonably be viewed as the practical outcome of the
+    feeling of a party."
+
+  [39] The "economic" motive for taking the cross was strengthened by
+    the papal regulations in favour of debtors who joined the Crusade.
+    Thousands must have joined the Third Crusade in order to escape
+    paying either their taxes or the interest on their debts; and the
+    atmosphere of the gold-digger's camp (or of the cave of Adullam) must
+    have begun more than ever to characterize the crusading armies.
+
+  [40] The Crusades in their course established a number of new states
+    or kingdoms. The First Crusade established the kingdom of Jerusalem
+    (1100); the Third, the kingdom of Cyprus (1195); the Fourth, the
+    Latin empire of Constantinople (1204); while the long Crusade of the
+    Teutonic knights on the coast of the Baltic led to the rise of a new
+    state east of the Vistula. The kingdom of Lesser Armenia, established
+    in 1195, may also be regarded as a result of the Crusades. The
+    history of the kingdom of Jerusalem is part of the history of the
+    Crusades: the history of the other kingdoms or states touches the
+    history of the Crusades less vitally. But the history of Cyprus is
+    particularly important--and for two reasons. In the first place,
+    Cyprus was a natural and excellent basis of operations; it sent
+    provisions to the crusaders in 1191, and again at the siege of
+    Damietta in 1219, while its advantages as a strategic basis were
+    proved by the exploits of Peter of Cyprus in the 14th century. In the
+    second place, as the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem fell, its
+    institutions and assizes were transplanted bodily to Cyprus, where
+    they survived until the island was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.
+    But the monarchy was stronger in Cyprus than in Jerusalem: the fiefs
+    were distributed by the monarch, and were smaller in extent; while
+    the feudatories had neither the collective powers of the haute cour
+    of Jerusalem, nor the individual privileges (such as jurisdiction
+    over the bourgeoisie), which had been enjoyed by the feudatories of
+    the old kingdom. Till 1489 the kingdom of Cyprus survived as an
+    independent monarchy, and its capital, Famagusta, was an important
+    centre of trade after the loss of the coast-towns in the kingdom of
+    Jerusalem. In 1489 it was acquired by Venice, which claimed the
+    island on the death of the last king, having adopted his widow (a
+    Venetian lady named Catarina Cornaro) as a daughter of the republic.
+    On the history of Cyprus, see Stubbs, _Lectures on Medieval and
+    Modern History_, 156-208. The history of the kingdom of Armenia is
+    closely connected with that of Cyprus. The Armenians in the
+    south-east of Asia Minor borrowed feudal institutions from the Franks
+    and the feudal vocabulary itself. The kingdom was involved in a
+    struggle with Antioch in the early part of the 13th century. Later,
+    it allied itself with the Mongols and fought against the Mamelukes,
+    to whom, however, it finally succumbed in 1375.
+
+  [41] The kingdom of Jerusalem is thus from 1192 to its final fall a
+    strip of coast, to which it is the object of kings and crusaders to
+    annex Jerusalem and a line of communication connecting it with the
+    coast. This was practically the aim of Richard I.'s negotiations; and
+    this was what Frederick II. for a time secured.
+
+  [42] M. Luchaire, in the volume of his biography of Innocent III.
+    called _La Question d'Orient_, shows how, in spite of the pope, the
+    Fourth Crusade was in its very beginnings a lay enterprise. The
+    crusading barons of France chose their own leader, and determined
+    their own route, without consulting Innocent.
+
+  [43] As a matter of fact, there is some doubt whether Alexius arrived
+    in Germany before the spring of 1202. But there seems to be little
+    doubt of Philip's complicity in the diversion of the Fourth Crusade
+    to Constantinople (cf. M. Luchaire, _La Question d'Orient_, pp.
+    84-86).
+
+  [44] It is true that in 1208 Venice received commercial concessions
+    from the court of Cairo. But this _ex post facto_ argument is the
+    sole proof of this view; and it is quite insufficient to prove the
+    accusation. Venice is _not_ the primary agent in the deflection of
+    the Fourth Crusade.
+
+  [45] Already under Innocent III. the benefits of the Crusade were
+    promised to those who went to the assistance of the Latin empire of
+    the East.
+
+  [46] In 1208 Innocent excommunicated Raymund VI. of Toulouse on
+    account of the murder of a papal legate who was attempting to
+    suppress Manichaeism, and offered all Catholics the right to occupy
+    and guard his territories. Thus was begun the First Crusade against
+    heresy. Raymund at once submitted to the pope, but the Crusade
+    continued none the less, because, as Luchaire says, "the baronage of
+    the north and centre of France had finished their preparations," and
+    were resolved to annex the rich lands of the south. In this way
+    land-hunger exploited the Albigensian, as political and commercial
+    motives had helped to exploit the Fourth Crusade; and in the former,
+    as in the latter, Innocent had reluctantly to consent to the results
+    of the secular motives which had infected a spiritual enterprise. The
+    Albigensian Crusades, however, belong to French history; and it can
+    only be noted here that their ultimate result was the absorption of
+    the fertile lands, and the extinction of the peculiar civilization,
+    of southern France by the northern monarchy. (See the article
+    ALBIGENSES.)
+
+  [47] A canon of the third Lateran council (1179) forbade traffic with
+    the Saracens in munitions of war; and this canon had been renewed by
+    Innocent in the beginning of his pontificate.
+
+  [48] He had promised the pope, at his coronation in 1220, to begin
+    his Crusade in August 1221. But he declared himself exhausted by the
+    expenses of his coronation; and Honorius III. consented to defer his
+    Crusade until March 1222. The letter of the pope informing Pelagius
+    of this delay is dated the 20th of June: it would probably reach his
+    hands _after_ his departure from Damietta; and thus the Cardinal gave
+    the signal for the march, when, as he thought, the emperor's coming
+    was imminent.
+
+  [49] Joinville, ch. x.
+
+  [50] John of Brienne had only ruled in right of his wife Mary. On her
+    death (1212) John might be regarded as only ruling "by the courtesy
+    of the kingdom" until her daughter Isabella was married, when the
+    husband would succeed. That, at any rate, was the view Frederick II.
+    took.
+
+  [51] Amalric I. of Cyprus had done homage to Henry VI., from whom he
+    had received the title of king (1195).
+
+  [52] It may be argued that the Crusade against a revolted Christian
+    like Frederick II. was not misplaced, and that the pope had a true
+    sense of religious values when he attacked Frederick. The answer is
+    partly that men like St Louis _did_ think that the Crusade was
+    misplaced, and partly that Frederick was really attacked _not_ as a
+    revolted Christian, but as the would-be unifier of Italy, the enemy
+    of the states of the church.
+
+  [53] The following table of the Ayyubite rulers serves to illustrate
+    the text:--
+
+           Shadhy.
+              |
+         +----+----+
+         |         |
+      Shirguh.   Ayyub (both generals in the army of the Atabegs of Mosul).
+                   |
+         +---------+---------------+
+         |                         |
+      Saladin               Malik-al-Adil I.
+      + 1193                    + 1218.
+                                   |
+              +----------------+---+--------------+---------------------+
+              |                |                  |                     |
+      Malik-al-Kamil,   Malik-al-Muazzam,  Malik-al-Ashraf,   Malik-al-Salih Isma'il
+      Sultan of Egypt  Sultan of Damascus    ruler of Khelat,   sultan of Damascus,
+           + 1238.          + 1227.          and after 1227     1237-1244. From
+              |                |             of Damascus,       him Damascus passed
+              |                |             + 1237.            to Malik-al-Salih
+              |          Malik-al-Nasir                         Ayyub of Egypt at
+              |            of Kerak                             the battle of Gaza.
+              |
+              +--+--------------------+
+                 |                    |
+         Malik-al-Adil II.   Malik-al-Salih Najm
+            deposed 1240.      al-din Ayyub, sultan
+                               of Egypt, and after
+                               1244 of Damascus,
+                               + 1249.
+                                      |
+                          +-----------+
+                          |
+             Turanshah, deposed 1250, and
+            succeeded by the Mameluke Aibek.
+
+  [54] Though Europe indulged in dreams of Mongol aid, the eventual
+    results of the extension of the Mongol Empire were prejudicial to the
+    Latin East. The sultans of Egypt were stirred to fresh activity by
+    the attacks of the Mongols; and as Syria became the battleground of
+    the two, the Latin principalities of Syria were fated to fall as the
+    prize of victory to one or other of the combatants.
+
+  [55] Of the four Latin principalities of the East, Edessa was the
+    first to fall, being extinguished between 1144 and 1150. Antioch fell
+    in 1268; Tripoli in 1289; and the kingdom itself may be said to end
+    with the capture of Acre, 1291.
+
+  [56] Michael Palaeologus had actually appealed to Louis IX. against
+    Charles of Anjou, who in 1270 had actively begun preparations for the
+    attack on Constantinople.
+
+  [57] The dream of a Crusade to Jerusalem survived de Mézičres; a
+    society which read "romaunts" of the Crusades, could not but dream
+    the dream. Henry V., whose father had fought with the Teutonic
+    knights on the Baltic, dreamed of a voyage to Jerusalem.
+
+  [58] The union of 1274, conceded by the Palaeologi at the council of
+    Lyons in order to defeat the plans of Charles of Anjou, had only been
+    temporary.
+
+  [59] Bréhier, _L'Église el l'Orient_, p. 347.
+
+  [60] _Cambridge Modern History_, i. 11. It is perhaps worth remarking
+    that something of the old crusading spirit seems still to linger in
+    the movement of Russia towards Constantinople.
+
+  [61] While from this point of view the Crusades appear as a failure,
+    it must not be forgotten that elsewhere than in the East Crusades did
+    attain some success. A Crusade won for Christianity the coast of the
+    eastern Baltic (see TEUTONIC ORDER); and the centuries of the Spanish
+    Crusade ended in the conquest of the whole of Spain for Christianity.
+
+  [62] Authors like Heeren (_Versuch einer Entwickelung der Folgen der
+    Kreuzzüge_) and Michaud (in the last volume of his _Histoire des
+    croisades_) fall into the error of assigning all things to the
+    Crusades. Even Prutz, in his _Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzüge_,
+    over-estimates the influence of the Crusades as a chapter in the
+    history of civilization. He depreciates unduly the Western
+    civilization of the early middle ages, and exalts the civilization of
+    the Arabs; and starting from these two premises, he concludes that
+    modern civilization is the offspring of the Crusades, which first
+    brought East and West together.
+
+  [63] It is difficult to decide how far Arabic models influenced
+    ecclesiastical architecture in the West as a result of the Crusades.
+    Greater freedom of moulding and the use of trefoil and cinquefoil may
+    be, but need not be, explained in this way. The pointed arch owes
+    nothing to the Arabs; it is already used in England in early Norman
+    work. Generally, one may say that Western architecture is independent
+    of the East.
+
+  [64] His somewhat legendary treatise, _De liberatione civitatum
+    Orientis_, was only composed about 1155.
+
+  [65] There is also an _Inventaire critique_ of these letters by the
+    comte de Riant (Paris, 1880).
+
+  [66] Von Sybel's view must be modified by that of Kugler, to which a
+    scholar like Hagenmeyer has to some extent given his adhesion (cf.
+    his edition of the _Gesta_, pp. 62-68). Hagenmeyer inclines to
+    believe in an original author, distinct from Albert the copyist; and
+    he thinks that this original author (whether or no he was present
+    during the Crusade) used the _Gesta_ and also Fulcher, though he had
+    probably also "_eigene Notizen und Aufzeichnungen_."
+
+  [67] See Pigonneau, _Le Cycle de la croisade_, &c. (Paris, 1877); and
+    Hagenmeyer, _Peter der Eremite_ (Leipzig, 1879).
+
+  [68] On the bibliography of the Second Crusade see Kugler, _Studien
+    zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzüges_ (Stuttgart, 1866).
+
+  [69] Of these writers see Archer's _Crusade of Richard I._, Appendix
+    (in Nutt's series of Histories from Contemporary Writers).
+
+  [70] The bibliography of the Fourth Crusade is discussed in Klimke,
+    _Die Quellen zur Geschichte des vierten Kreuzzüges_ (Breslau, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB (1795-1865), Swedish historian, early became
+famous both as a political and a historical writer. His first important
+work was a _History of the Early Years of the Life of King Gustavus IV.
+Adolphus_, which was followed by a series of monographs and by some
+politico-historical novels, of which _The House of Holstein-Gottorp in
+Sweden_ is considered the best. He obtained a great influence over King
+Charles XIV. (Bernadotte), who during the years 1830-1833 gave him his
+fullest confidence, and sanctioned the official character of
+Crusenstolpe's newspaper _Fäderneslandet_. In the last-mentioned year,
+however, the historian suddenly became the king's bitterest enemy, and
+used his acrid pen on all occasions in attacking him. In 1838 he was
+condemned, for one of these angry utterances, to be imprisoned three
+years in the castle of Waxholm. He continued his literary labours until
+his death in 1865. Few Swedish writers have wielded so pure and so
+incisive a style as Crusenstolpe, but his historical work is vitiated by
+political and personal bias.
+
+
+
+
+CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1715-1775), German philosopher and
+theologian, was born on the 10th of January 1715 at Lenau near Merseburg
+in Saxony. He was educated at Leipzig, and became professor of theology
+there in 1750, and principal of the university in 1773. He died on the
+18th of October 1775. Crusius first came into notice as an opponent of
+the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff from the standpoint of religious
+orthodoxy. He attacked it mainly on the score of the moral evils that
+must flow from any system of determinism, and exerted himself in
+particular to vindicate the freedom of the will. The most important
+works of this period of his life are _Entwurf der nothwendigen
+Vernunftwahrheiten_ (1745), and _Weg zur Gewissheit und Zuverlässigkeit
+der menschlichen Erkenntniss_ (1747). Though diffusely written, and
+neither brilliant nor profound, Crusius' philosophical books had a great
+but short-lived popularity. His criticism of Wolff, which is generally
+based on sound sense, had much influence upon Kant at the time when his
+system was forming; and his ethical doctrines are mentioned with respect
+in the _Kritik of Practical Reason_. Crusius's later life was devoted to
+theology. In this capacity his sincere piety and amiable character
+gained him great influence, and he led the party in the university which
+became known as the "Crusianer" as opposed to the "Ernestianer," the
+followers of J. A. Ernesti. The two professors adopted opposite methods
+of exegesis. Ernesti wished to subject the Scripture to the same laws of
+exposition as are applied to other ancient books; Crusius held firmly to
+orthodox ecclesiastical tradition. Crusius's chief theological works are
+_Hypomnemata ad theologiam propheticam_ (1764-1778), and _Kurzer Entwurf
+der Moraltheologie_ (1772-1773). He sets his face against innovation in
+such matters as the accepted authorship of canonical writings, verbal
+inspiration, and the treatment of persons and events in the Old
+Testament as types of the New. His views, unscholarly and uncritical as
+they seem to us now, have had influence on later evangelical students of
+the Old Testament, such as E. W. Hengstenberg and F. Delitzsch.
+
+  There is a full notice of Crusius in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopädie_. Consult also J. E. Erdmann's _History of Philosophy_;
+  A. Marquardt, _Kant und Crusius_; and art. in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (1898).     (H. St.)
+
+
+
+
+CRUSTACEA, a very large division of the animal kingdom, comprising the
+familiar crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps and prawns, the sandhoppers
+and woodlice, the strangely modified barnacles and the minute
+water-fleas. Besides these the group also includes a multitude of
+related forms which, from their aquatic habits and generally
+inconspicuous size, and from the fact that they are commonly neither
+edible nor noxious, are little known except to naturalists and are
+undistinguished by any popular names. Collectively, they are ranked as
+one of the classes forming the sub-phylum ARTHROPODA, and their
+distinguishing characters are discussed under that heading. It will be
+sufficient here to define them as Arthropoda for the most part of
+aquatic habits, having typically two pairs of antenniform appendages in
+front of the mouth and at least three pairs of post-oral limbs acting as
+jaws.
+
+As a matter of fact, however, the range of structural variation within
+the group is so wide, and the modifications due to parasitism and other
+causes are so profound, that it is almost impossible to frame a
+definition which shall be applicable to all the members of the class. In
+certain parasites, for instance, the adults have lost every trace not
+only of Crustacean but even of Arthropodous structure, and the only clue
+to their zoological position is that afforded by the study of their
+development. In point of size also the Crustacea vary within very wide
+limits. Certain water-fleas (Cladocera) fall short of one-hundredth of
+an inch in total length; the giant Japanese crab (_Macrocheira_) can
+span over 10 ft. between its outstretched claws.
+
+The habits of the Crustacea are no less diversified than their
+structure. Most of them inhabit the sea, but representatives of all the
+chief groups are found in fresh water (though the Cirripedia have hardly
+gained a footing there), and this is the chief home of the primitive
+Phyllopoda. A terrestrial habitat is less common, but the
+widely-distributed land Isopoda or woodlice and the land-crabs of
+tropical regions have solved the problem of adaptation to a subaërial
+life.
+
+Swimming is perhaps the commonest mode of locomotion, but numerous forms
+have taken to creeping or walking, and the robber-crab (_Birgus latro_)
+of the Indo-Pacific islands even climbs palm-trees. None has the power
+of flight, though certain pelagic Copepoda are said to leap from the
+surface of the sea like flying-fish. Apart from the numerous parasitic
+forms, the only Crustacea which have adopted a strictly sedentary habit
+of life are the Cirripedia, and here, as elsewhere, profound
+modifications of structure have resulted, leading ultimately to a
+partial assumption of the radial type of symmetry which is so often
+associated with a sedentary life.
+
+Many, perhaps the majority, of the Crustacea are omnivorous or
+carrion-feeders, but many are actively predatory in their habits, and
+are provided with more or less complex and efficient instruments for
+capturing their prey, and there are also many plant-eaters. Besides the
+sedentary Cirripedia, numbers of the smaller forms, especially among the
+Entomostraca, subsist on floating particles of organic matter swept
+within reach of the jaws by the movements of the other limbs.
+
+Symbiotic association with other animals, in varying degrees of
+interdependence, is frequent. Sometimes the one partner affords the
+other merely a convenient means of transport, as in the case of the
+barnacles which grow on, or of the gulf-weed crab which clings to, the
+carapace of marine turtles. From this we may pass through various grades
+of "commensalism," like that of the hermit-crab with its protective
+anemones, to the cases of actual parasitism. The parasitic habit is most
+common among the Copepoda and Isopoda, where it leads to complex
+modifications of structure and life-history. Perhaps the most complete
+degeneration is found in the Rhizocephala, which are parasitic on other
+Crustacea. In these the adult consists of a simple saccular body
+containing the reproductive organs and attached by root-like filaments
+which ramify throughout the body of the host and serve for the
+absorption of nourishment (fig. 1).
+
+Many of the larger species of Crustacea are used as food by man, the
+most valuable being the lobster, which is caught in large quantities on
+both sides of the North Atlantic. Perhaps the most important of all
+Crustacea, however, with respect to the part which they play in the
+economy of nature, are the minute pelagic Copepoda, of which
+incalculable myriads form an important constituent of the "plankton" in
+all the seas of the globe. It is on the plankton that a great part of
+the higher animal life of the sea ultimately depends for food. The
+Copepoda live upon the diatoms and other important microscopic vegetable
+life at the surface of the sea, and in their turn serve as food for
+fishes and other larger forms and thus, indirectly, for man himself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+
+  A, Group of _Peltogaster socialis_ on the abdomen of a small
+    hermit-crab; in one of them the fasciculately ramified roots, r, in
+    the liver of the crab are shown (Fritz Müller).
+  B, Young of _Sacculina purpurea_ with its roots. (Fritz Müller.)]
+
+_Historical Sketch._--In common with most branches of natural history,
+the science of Carcinology may be traced back to its beginnings in the
+writings of Aristotle. It received additions of varying importance at
+the hands of medieval and later naturalists, and first began to assume
+systematic form under the influence of Linnaeus. The application of the
+morphological method to the Crustacea may perhaps be dated from the work
+of J. C. Fabricius towards the end of the 18th century.
+
+In the first quarter of the 19th century important advances in
+classification were made by P. A. Latreille, W. E. Leach and others, and
+J. Vaughan Thompson demonstrated the existence of metamorphosis in the
+development of the higher Crustacea. A new epoch may be said to begin
+with H. Milne-Edwards' classical _Histoire naturelle des crustacés_
+(1834-1840). It is noteworthy that even at this late date the Cirripedia
+(Thyrostraca) were still excluded from the Crustacea, though Darwin's
+Monograph (1851-1854) was soon to make them known with a wealth of
+anatomical and systematic detail such as was available, at that time,
+for few other groups of Crustacea. About the same period three authors
+call for special mention, W. de Haan, J. D. Dana and H. Kröyer. The new
+impulse given to biological research by the publication of the _Origin
+of Species_ bore fruit in Fritz Müller's _Für Darwin_, in which an
+attempt was made to reconstruct the phylogenetic history of the class.
+The same line of work was followed in the long series of important
+memoirs from the pen of K. F. W. Claus, and noteworthy contributions
+were made, among many others, by A. Dohrn, Ray Lankester and Huxley. In
+more recent years the long and constantly increasing list of writers on
+Crustacea contains no name more honoured than that of the veteran G. O.
+Sars of Christiania.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Abdominal Somite of a Lobster, separated and
+viewed from in front. t, tergum; s, sternum; pl, pleuron.]
+
+
+  _Morphology._
+
+  _External Structure: Body._--As in all Arthropoda the body consists of
+  a series of segments or somites which may be free or more or less
+  coalesced together. In its simplest form the exoskeleton of a typical
+  somite is a ring of chitin defined from the rings in front and behind
+  by areas of thinner integument forming moveable joints, and having a
+  pair of appendages articulated to its ventral surface on either side
+  of the middle line. Frequently, however, this exoskeletal somite may
+  be differentiated into various regions. A dorsal and a ventral plate
+  are often distinguished, known respectively as the tergum and the
+  sternum, and the tergum may overhang the insertion of the limb on each
+  side as a free plate called the pleuron. The name epimeron is
+  sometimes applied to what is here called the pleuron, but the word has
+  been used in widely different senses and it seems better to abandon
+  it. The typical form of a somite is well seen, for example, in the
+  segments which make up the abdomen or "tail" of a lobster or crayfish
+  (fig. 2). The posterior terminal segment of the body, on which the
+  opening of the anus is situated, never bears appendages. The nature of
+  this segment, which is known as the "anal segment" or telson (fig. 3,
+  T), has been much discussed, some authorities holding that it is a
+  true somite, homologous with those which precede it. Others have
+  regarded it as representing the fusion of a number of somites, and
+  others again as a "median appendage" or as a pair of appendages fused.
+  Its morphological nature, however, is clearly shown by its
+  development. In the larval development of the more primitive
+  Crustacea, the number of somites, at first small, increases by the
+  successive appearance of new somites between the last-formed somite
+  and the terminal region which bears the anus. The "growing point" of
+  the trunk is, in fact, situated in front of this region, and, when the
+  full number of somites has been reached, the unsegmented part
+  remaining forms the telson of the adult.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Separated Somites and Appendages of the
+  Common Lobster (_Homarus gammarus_).
+
+    C, carapace covering the cephalothorax.
+    Ab, abdominal somites.
+    T, telson, having the uropods or appendages of the last abdominal
+      somite spread out on either side of it, forming the "tail-fan."
+    l, labrum, or upper lip.
+    m, metastoma, or lower lip.
+    1, eyes.
+    2, antennule (the arrow points to the opening of the so-called
+      auditory organ).
+    3, antenna.
+    4, mandible.
+    5, maxillula (or first maxilla).
+    6, maxilla (second maxilla).
+    7-9, first, second and third maxillipeds.
+    ex, exopodite.
+    ep, epipodite.
+    g, gill.
+    10, sixth thoracic limb (second walking-leg) of female.
+    11, last thoracic limb of male. In 10 and 11 the arrows indicate the
+      genital apertures.
+    13, sterna of the thoracic somites, from within.
+    14, third abdominal somite, with appendages or "swimmerets."]
+
+  In no Crustacean, however, do all the somites of the body remain
+  distinct. Coalescence, or suppression of segmentation ("lipomerism"),
+  may involve more or less extensive regions. This is especially the
+  case in the anterior part of the body, where, in correlation with the
+  "adaptational shifting of the oral aperture" (see ARTHROPODA), a
+  varying number of somites unite to form the "cephalon" or head. Apart
+  from the possible existence of an ocular somite corresponding to the
+  eyes (the morphological nature of which is discussed below), the
+  smallest number of head-somites so united in any Crustacean is five.
+  Even where a large number of the somites have fused, there is
+  generally a marked change in the character of the appendages after the
+  fifth pair, and since the integumental fold which forms the carapace
+  seems to originate from this point, it is usual to take the fifth
+  somite as the morphological limit of the cephalon throughout the
+  class. It is quite probable, however, that in the primitive ancestors
+  of existing Crustacea a still smaller number of somites formed the
+  head. The three pairs of appendages present in the "nauplius" larva
+  show certain peculiarities of structure and development which seem to
+  place them in a different category from the other limbs, and there is
+  some ground for regarding the three corresponding somites as
+  constituting a "primary cephalon." For practical purposes, however, it
+  is convenient to include the two following somites also as cephalic.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of an Amphipod. (After Spence Bate and
+  Westwood.)
+
+    C, cephalon.
+    Th, thorax. (Only seven of the eight thoracic somites are visible,
+      the first being fused with the cephalon.)
+    Ab, abdomen.
+
+    The numbers appended to the somites do not correspond to the
+    enumeration adopted in the text. 21 is the telson.]
+
+  A remarkable feature found only in the Stomatopoda is the reappearance
+  of segmentation in the anterior part of the cephalic region. Whether
+  the movably articulated segments which bear the eye-stalks and the
+  antennules in this aberrant group correspond to the primitive head
+  somites or not, their distinctness is certainly a secondarily acquired
+  character, for it is not found in the larvae, nor in any of the more
+  primitive groups of Malacostraca.
+
+  The body proper is usually divisible into two regions to which the
+  names _thorax_ and _abdomen_ are applied. Throughout the whole of the
+  Malacostraca the thorax consists of eight and the abdomen of six
+  somites (fig. 4), and the two regions are sharply distinguished by the
+  character of their appendages. In the various groups of the
+  Entomostraca, on the other hand, the terms thorax and abdomen, though
+  conveniently employed for purposes of systematic description, do not
+  imply any homology with the regions so named in the Malacostraca.
+  Sometimes they are applied, as in the Copepoda, to the limb-bearing
+  and limbless regions of the trunk, while in other cases, as in the
+  Phyllopoda, they denote, respectively, the regions in front of and
+  behind the genital apertures.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Phyllopoda and Phyllocarida.
+
+    1, _Ceratiocaris papilio_, U. Silurian, Lanark.
+    2, _Nebalia bipes_(one side of carapace removed).
+    3, _Lepidurus Angassi_: a, dorsal aspect; b, ventral aspect of head
+      showing the labrum and mouth-parts.
+    4, larva of _Apus cancriformis_.
+    5, _Branchipus stagnalis_: a, adult female; b, first larval stage
+      (Nauplius); c, second larval stage.
+    6, Nauplius of _Artemia salina_.]
+
+  A character which recurs in the most diverse groups of the Crustacea,
+  and which is probably to be regarded as a primitive attribute of the
+  class, is the possession of a carapace or shell, arising as a dorsal
+  fold of the integument from the posterior margin of the head-region.
+  In its most primitive form, as seen in the _Apodidae_ (fig. 5, 3) and
+  in _Nebalia_ (fig. 5, 2), this shell-fold remains free from the trunk,
+  which it envelops more or less completely. It may assume the form of a
+  bivalve shell entirely enclosing the body and limbs, as in many
+  Phyllopoda (fig. 6) and in the Ostracoda. In the Cirripedia it forms
+  a fleshy "mantle" strengthened by shelly plates or valves which may
+  assume a very complex structure. In many cases, however, the
+  shell-fold coalesces with some of the succeeding somites. In the
+  Decapoda (fig. 3), this coalescence affects only the dorsal region of
+  the thoracic somites, and the lateral portions of the carapace
+  overhang on each side, enclosing a pair of chambers within which lie
+  the gills. The arrangement is similar in Schizopoda and Stomatopoda
+  (fig. 7), except that the coalescence does not usually involve the
+  posterior thoracic somites, several of which remain free, though they
+  may be overlapped by the carapace.
+
+  [Illustration: From Morse's _Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 6.--_Estheria_, sp.; D from Dubuque, Iowa; (e) the eye. L from
+  Lynn, Massachusetts (nat. size). S presents a highly magnified section
+  of one of the valves to show the successive moults. B an enlarged
+  portion of the edge of the shell along the back, showing the overlap
+  of each growth.]
+
+  In the Isopoda and Amphipoda, where, as a rule, all the thoracic
+  somites except the first are distinct (fig. 4), there seems at first
+  sight to be no shell-fold. A comparison with the related Tanaidacea
+  (fig. 8) and Cumacea (or Sympoda), however, leads to the conclusion
+  that the coalescence of the first thoracic somite with the cephalon
+  really involves a vestigial shell-fold, and, indeed, traces of this
+  are said to be observed in the embryonic development of some Isopoda.
+  It seems likely that a similar explanation is to be applied to the
+  coalescence of one or two trunk-somites with the head in the Copepoda,
+  and, if this be so, the only Crustacea remaining in which no trace of
+  a shell-fold is found in the adult are the Anostracous Phyllopoda such
+  as Branchipus (fig. 5, 5).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Squilla mantis_ (Stomatopoda), showing the
+  last four thoracic (leg-bearing) somites free from the carapace.]
+
+  _General Morphology of Appendages._--Amid the great variety of forms
+  assumed by the appendages of the Crustacea, it is possible to trace,
+  more or less plainly, the modifications of a fundamental type
+  consisting of a peduncle, the protopodite, bearing two branches, the
+  endopodite and exopodite. This simple biramous form is shown in the
+  swimming-feet of the Copepoda and Branchiura, the "cirri" of the
+  Cirripedia, and the abdominal appendages of the Malacostraca (fig. 3,
+  14). It is also found in the earliest and most primitive form of
+  larva, known as the _Nauplius_. As a rule the protopodite is composed
+  of two segments, though one may be reduced or suppressed and
+  occasionally three may be present. In many cases, one of the branches,
+  generally the endopodite, is more strongly developed than the other.
+  Thus, in the thoracic limbs of the Malacostraca, the endopodite
+  generally forms a walking-leg while the exopodite becomes a
+  swimming-branch or may disappear altogether. Very often the basal
+  segment of the protopodite bears, on the outer side, a lamellar
+  appendage (more rarely, two), the epipodite, which may function as a
+  gill. In the appendages near the mouth one or both of the protopodal
+  segments may bear inwardly-turned processes, assisting in mastication
+  and known as gnathobases. The frequent occurrence of epipodites and
+  gnathobases tends to show that the primitive type of appendage was
+  more complex than the simple biramous limb, and some authorities have
+  regarded the leaf-like appendages of the Phyllopoda as nearer the
+  original form from which the various modifications found in other
+  groups have been derived. In a Phyllopod such as _Apus_ the limbs of
+  the trunk consist of a flattened, unsegmented or obscurely segmented
+  axis or corm having a series of lobes or processes known as endites
+  and exites on its inner and outer margins respectively. In all the
+  Phyllopoda the number of endites is six, and the proximal one is more
+  or less distinctly specialized as a gnathobase, working against its
+  fellow of the opposite side in seizing food and transferring it to the
+  mouth. The Phyllopoda are the only Crustacea in which distinct and
+  functional gnathobasic processes are found on appendages far removed
+  from the mouth. The two distal endites are regarded as corresponding
+  to the endopodite and exopodite of the higher Crustacea, the axis or
+  corm of the Phyllopod limb representing the protopodite. The number of
+  exites is less constant, but, in _Apus_, two are present, the proximal
+  branchial in function and the distal forming a stiffer plate which
+  probably aids in swimming. It is not altogether easy to recognize the
+  homologies of the endites and exites even within the order Phyllopoda,
+  and the identification of the two distal endites as corresponding to
+  the endopodite and exopodite of higher Crustacea is not free from
+  difficulty. It is highly probable, however, that the biramous limb is
+  a simplification of a more complex primitive type, to which the
+  Phyllopod limb is a more or less close approximation.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Tanais dubius_ (?) Kr. [female], showing the
+  orifice of entrance (x) into the cavity overarched by the carapace in
+  which an appendage of the maxilliped (f) plays. On four feet (i, k, l,
+  m) are the rudiments of the lamellae which subsequently form the
+  brood-cavity. (Fritz Müller.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, _Balanus_ (young), side view with cirri
+  protruded. B, Upper surface of same; valves closed. C, Highly
+  magnified view of one of the cirri. (Morse.)]
+
+  The modifications which this original type undergoes are usually more
+  or less plainly correlated with the functions which the appendages
+  have to discharge. Thus, when acting as swimming organs, the
+  appendages, or their rami, are more or less flattened, or oar-like,
+  and often have the margins fringed with long plumose hairs. When used
+  for walking, one of the rami, usually the inner, is stout and
+  cylindrical, terminating in a claw, and having the segments united by
+  definite hinge-joints. The jaws have the gnathobasic endites developed
+  at the expense of the rest of the limb, the endopodite and exopodite
+  persisting only as sensory "palps" or disappearing altogether. When
+  specialized as bearers of sensory (olfactory or tactile) organs, the
+  rami are generally elongated, many-jointed and flagelliform. This
+  modification is usually only found in the antennules and antennae, but
+  it may exceptionally be found in the appendages of the trunk, as, for
+  instance, in the thoracic legs of some Decapods (e.g.
+  _Mastigocheirus_). Very often one or other of the appendages may be
+  modified for prehension, the seizing of prey or the holding of a mate.
+  In this case, the claw-like terminal segment may be simply flexed
+  against the preceding in the same way as the blade of a penknife shuts
+  up against the handle. The penultimate segment is often broadened, so
+  that the terminal claw shuts against a transverse edge (fig. 4), or,
+  finally, the penultimate segment may be produced into a thumb-like
+  process opposed to the movable terminal segment or finger, forming a
+  perfect chela or forceps, as, for instance, in the large claws of a
+  crab or lobster. This chelate condition may be assumed by almost any
+  of the appendages, and sometimes it appears in different appendages in
+  closely related forms, so that no very great phylogenetic importance
+  can in most cases be attached to it. A peculiar modification is found
+  in the trunk-limbs of the Cirripedia (fig. 9), in which both rami are
+  multiarticulate and filiform and fringed with long bristles. When
+  protruded from the opening of the shell these "cirri" are spread out
+  to form a casting-net for the capture of minute floating prey.
+
+  Gills or branchiae may be developed by parts of an appendage becoming
+  thin-walled and vascular and either expanded into a thin lamella or
+  ramified. Some of the special modifications of branchiae are referred
+  to below.
+
+  _Special Morphology of Appendages._--In many Crustacea the eyes are
+  borne on stalks which are movably articulated with the head and which
+  may be divided into two or three segments. The view is commonly held
+  that these eye-stalks are really limbs, homologous with the other
+  appendages. In spite of much discussion, however, it cannot be said
+  that this point has been finally settled. The evidence of embryology
+  is decidedly against the view that the eye-stalks are limbs. They are
+  absent in the earliest and most primitive larval forms (nauplius),
+  and appear only late in the course of development, after many of the
+  trunk-limbs are fully formed. In the development of the Phyllopod
+  _Branchipus_, the eyes are at first sessile, and the lateral lobes of
+  the head on which they are set grow out and become movably
+  articulated, forming the peduncles. The most important evidence in
+  favour of their appendicular nature is afforded by the phenomena of
+  regeneration. When the eye-stalk is removed from a living lobster or
+  prawn, it is found that under certain conditions a many-jointed
+  appendage like the flagellum of an antennule or antenna may grow in
+  its place. It is open to question, however, how far the evidence from
+  such "heteromorphic regeneration" can be regarded as conclusive on the
+  points of homology. The fact that in certain rare cases among insects
+  a leg may apparently be replaced by a wing tends to show that under
+  exceptional conditions similar forms may be assumed by non-homologous
+  parts.
+
+  The antennules (or first antennae) are almost universally regarded as
+  true appendages, though they differ from all the other appendages in
+  the fact that they are always innervated from the "brain" (or preoral
+  ganglia), and that they are uniramous in the nauplius larva and in all
+  the Entomostracan orders. As regards their innervation an apparent
+  exception is found in the case of _Apus_, where the nerves to the
+  antennules arise, behind the brain, from the oesophageal commissures,
+  but this is, no doubt, a secondary condition, and the nerve-fibres
+  have been traced forwards to centres within the brain. In the
+  Malacostraca, the antennules are often biramous, but there is
+  considerable doubt as to whether the two branches represent the
+  endopodite and exopodite of the other limbs, and three branches are
+  found in the Stomatopoda and in some Caridea. In the great majority of
+  Crustacea the antennules are purely sensory in function and carry
+  numerous "olfactory" hairs. They may, however, be natatory as in many
+  Ostracoda and Copepoda, or prehensile, as in some Copepoda. The most
+  peculiar modification, perhaps, is that found in the Cirripedia
+  (Thyrostraca), in the larvae of which the antennules develop into
+  organs of attachment, bearing the openings of the cement-glands, and
+  becoming, in the adult, involved in the attachment of the animal to
+  its support.
+
+  The antennae (second antennae) are of special interest on account of
+  the clear evidence that, although preoral in position in all adult
+  Crustacea, they were originally postoral appendages. In the nauplius
+  larva they lie rather at the sides than in front of the mouth, and
+  their basal portion carries a hook-like masticatory process which
+  assists the similar processes of the mandibles in seizing food. In the
+  primitive Phyllopoda, and less distinctly in some other orders, the
+  nerves supplying the antennae arise, not from the brain, but from the
+  circum-oesophageal commissures, and even in those cases where the
+  nerves and the ganglia in which they are rooted have been moved
+  forwards to the brain, the transverse commissure of the ganglia can
+  still be traced, running behind the oesophagus.
+
+  The functions of the antennae are more varied than is the case with
+  the antennules. In many Entomostraca (Phyllopoda, Cladocera,
+  Ostracoda, Copepoda) they are important, and sometimes the only,
+  organs of locomotion. In some male Phyllopoda they form complex
+  "claspers" for holding the female. They are frequently organs of
+  attachment in parasitic Copepoda, and they may be completely pediform
+  in the Ostracoda. In the Malacostraca they are chiefly sensory, the
+  endopodite forming a long flagellum, while the exopodite may form a
+  lamellar "scale," probably useful as a balancer in swimming, or may
+  disappear altogether. A very curious function sometimes discharged by
+  the antennules or antennae of Decapods is that of forming a
+  respiratory siphon in sand-burrowing species.
+
+  The mandibles, like the antennae, have, in the nauplius, the form of
+  biramous swimming limbs, with a masticatory process originating from
+  the proximal part of the protopodite. This form is retained, with
+  little alteration in some adult Copepoda, where the biramous "palp"
+  still aids in locomotion. A somewhat similar structure is found also
+  in some Ostracoda. In most cases, however, the palp loses its
+  exopodite and it often disappears altogether, while the coxal segment
+  forms the body of the mandible, with a masticatory edge variously
+  armed with teeth and spines. In a few Ostracoda, by a rare exception,
+  the masticatory process is reduced or suppressed, and the palp alone
+  remains, forming a pediform appendage used in locomotion as well as in
+  the prehension of food. In parasitic blood-sucking forms the mandibles
+  often have the shape of piercing stylets, and are enclosed in a
+  tubular proboscis formed by the union of the upper lip (labrum) with
+  the lower lip (hypostome or paragnatha).
+
+  The maxillulae and maxillae (or, as they are often termed, first and
+  second maxillae) are nearly always flattened leaf-like appendages,
+  having gnathobasic lobes or endites borne by the segments of the
+  protopodite. The endopodite, when present, is unsegmented or composed
+  of few segments and forms the "palp," and outwardly-directed lobes
+  representing the exopodite and epipodites may also be present. These
+  limbs undergo great modification in the different groups. The
+  maxillulae are sometimes closely connected with the "paragnatha" or
+  lobes of the lower lip, when these are present, and it has been
+  suggested that the paragnatha are really the basal endites which have
+  become partly separated from the rest of the appendage.
+
+  The limbs of the post-cephalic series show little differentiation
+  among themselves in many Entomostraca. In the Phyllopoda they are for
+  the most part all alike, though one or two of the anterior pairs may
+  be specialized as sensory (_Apus_) or grasping (_Estheriidae_) organs.
+  In the Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) the six pairs of biramous cirriform
+  limbs differ only slightly from each other, and in many Copepoda this
+  is also the case. In other Entomostraca considerable differentiation
+  may take place, but the series is never divided into definite
+  "tagmata" or groups of similarly modified appendages. It is highly
+  characteristic of the Malacostraca, however, that the trunk-limbs are
+  divided into two sharply defined tagmata corresponding to the thoracic
+  and abdominal regions respectively, the limit between the two being
+  marked by the position of the male genital openings. The thoracic
+  limbs have the endopodites converted, as a rule, into more or less
+  efficient walking-legs, and the exopodites are often lost, while the
+  abdominal limbs more generally preserve the biramous form and are, in
+  the more primitive types, natatory. These tagmata may again be
+  subdivided into groups preserving a more or less marked individuality.
+  For example, in the Amphipoda (fig. 4) the abdominal appendages are
+  constantly divided into an anterior group of three natatory
+  "swimmerets" and a posterior group of three limbs used chiefly in
+  jumping or in burrowing. In nearly all Malacostraca the last pair of
+  abdominal appendages (uropods) differ from the others, and in the more
+  primitive groups they form, with the telson, a lamellar "tail-fan"
+  (fig. 3, T), used in springing backwards through the water. In the
+  thoracic series it is usual for one or more of the anterior pairs to
+  be pressed into the service of the mouth, forming "foot-jaws" or
+  maxillipeds. In the Decapoda three pairs are thus modified, and in the
+  Tanaidacea, Isopoda and Amphipoda only one. In the Schizopoda and
+  Cumacea the line of division is less sharp, and the varying number of
+  so-called maxillipeds recognized by different authors gives rise to
+  some confusion of terminology in systematic literature.
+
+  _Gills._--In many of the smaller Entomostraca (Copepoda and most
+  Ostracoda) no special gills are present, and respiration is carried on
+  by the general surface of the body and limbs. When present, the
+  branchiae are generally differentiations of parts of the appendages,
+  most often the epipodites, as in the Phyllopoda. In the Cirripedia,
+  however, they are vascular processes from the inner surface of the
+  mantle or shell-fold, and in some Ostracoda they are outgrowths from
+  the sides of the body. In the primitive Malacostraca the gills were
+  probably, as in the Phyllopoda and in _Nebalia_, the modified
+  epipodites of the thoracic limbs, and this is the condition found in
+  some Schizopoda. In the Cumacea and Tanaidacea only the first thoracic
+  limb has a branchial epipodite. In the Amphipoda, the gills though
+  arising from the inner side of the bases of the thoracic legs are
+  probably also epipodial in nature. In the Isopoda the respiratory
+  function has been taken over by the abdominal appendages, both rami or
+  only the inner becoming thin or flattened. In the Decapoda the
+  branchial system is more complex. The gills are inserted at the base
+  of the thoracic limbs, and lie within a pair of branchial chambers
+  covered by the carapace. Three series are distinguished,
+  _podobranchiae_, attached to the proximal segments of the appendages,
+  _pleurobranchiae_, springing from the body-wall, and an intermediate
+  series, _arthrobranchiae_, inserted on the articular membrane of the
+  joint between the limb and the body. The podobranchiae are clearly
+  epipodites, or, more correctly, parts of the epipodites, and it is
+  probable that the arthro- and pleurobranchiae are also epipodial in
+  origin and have migrated from the proximal segment of the limbs on to
+  the adjacent body-wall.
+
+  Adaptations for aërial respiration are found in some of the
+  land-crabs, where the lining membrane of the gill-chamber is beset
+  with vascular papillae and acts as a lung. In some of the terrestrial
+  Isopoda or woodlice (Oniscoidea) the abdominal appendages have
+  ramified tubular invaginations of the integument, filled with air and
+  resembling the tracheae of insects.
+
+  _Internal Structure: Alimentary System._--In almost all Crustacea the
+  food-canal runs straight through the body, except at its anterior end,
+  where it curves downwards to the ventrally-placed mouth. In a few
+  cases its course is slightly sinuous or twisted, but the only cases in
+  which it is actually coiled upon itself are found in the Cladocera of
+  the family _Lynceidae_ (_Alonidae_) and in a single
+  recently-discovered genus of Cumacea (Sympoda). As in all Arthropoda,
+  it is composed of three divisions, a fore-gut or stomodaeum,
+  ectodermal in origin and lined by an inturning of the chitinous
+  cuticle, a mid-gut formed by endoderm and without a cuticular lining,
+  and a hind-gut or proctodaeum, which, like the fore-gut, is ectodermal
+  and is lined by cuticle. The relative proportions of these three
+  divisions vary considerably, and the extreme abbreviation of the
+  mid-gut found in the common crayfish (_Astacus_) is by no means
+  typical of the class. Even in the closely-related lobster (_Homarus_)
+  the mid-gut may be 2 or 3 in. long.
+
+  In a few Entomostraca (some Phyllopoda and Ostracoda) the chitinous
+  lining of the fore-gut develops spines and hairs which help to
+  triturate and strain the food, and among the Ostracods there is
+  occasionally (_Bairdia_) a more elaborate armature of toothed plates
+  moved by muscles. It is among the Malacostraca, however, and
+  especially in the Decapoda, that the "gastric mill" reaches its
+  greatest perfection. In most Decapods the "stomach" or dilated portion
+  of the fore-gut is divided into two chambers, a large anterior
+  "cardiac" and a smaller posterior "pyloric." In the narrow opening
+  between these, three teeth (fig. 10) are set, one dorsally and one on
+  each side. These teeth are connected with a framework of movably
+  articulated ossicles developed as thickened and calcified portions of
+  the lining cuticle of the stomach and moved by special muscles in such
+  a way as to bring the three teeth together in the middle line. The
+  walls of the pyloric chamber bear a series of pads and ridges beset
+  with hairs and so disposed as to form a straining apparatus.
+
+  The mid-gut is essentially the digestive and absorptive region of the
+  alimentary canal, and its surface is, in most cases, increased by
+  pouch-like or tubular outgrowths which not only serve as glands for
+  the secretion of the digestive juices, but may also become filled by
+  the more fluid portion of the partially digested food and facilitate
+  its absorption. These outgrowths vary much in their arrangement in the
+  different groups. Most commonly there is a pair of lateral caeca,
+  which may be more or less ramified and may form a massive
+  "hepato-pancreas" or "liver."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Gastric Teeth of Crab and Lobster.
+
+    1a, Stomach of common crab, _Cancer pagurus_, laid open, showing b,
+      b, b, some of the calcareous plates inserted in its muscular coat;
+      g, g, the lateral teeth, which when in use are brought in contact
+      with the sides of the median tooth m; c, c, the muscular coat.
+    1b´ and 1b´´, The gastric teeth enlarged to show their grinding
+      surfaces.
+    2, Gastric teeth of common lobster, _Homarus vulgaris_.
+    3a and 3b, Two crustacean teeth (of _Dithyrocaris_) from the
+      Carboniferous series of Renfrewshire (these, however, may be the
+      toothed edges of the mandibles).]
+
+  The whole length of the alimentary canal is provided, as a rule, with
+  muscular fibres, both circular and longitudinal, running in its walls,
+  and, in addition, there may be muscle-bands running between the gut
+  and the body-wall. In the region of the oesophagus these muscles are
+  more strongly developed to perform the movements of deglutition, and,
+  where a gastric mill is present, both intrinsic and extrinsic muscles
+  co-operate in producing the movements of its various parts. The
+  hind-gut is also provided with sphincter and dilator muscles, and
+  these may produce rhythmic expansion and contraction, causing an
+  inflow and outflow of water through the anus, which has been supposed
+  to aid in respiration.
+
+  In the parasitic Rhizocephala and in a few Copepoda (_Monstrillidae_)
+  the alimentary canal is absent or vestigial throughout life.
+
+  _Circulatory System._--As in the other Arthropoda, the circulatory
+  system in Crustacea is largely lacunar, the blood flowing in spaces or
+  channels without definite walls. These spaces make up the apparent
+  body-cavity, the true body-cavity or coelom having been, for the most
+  part, obliterated by the great expansion of the blood-containing
+  spaces. The heart is of the usual Arthropodous type, lying in a more
+  or less well-defined pericardial blood-sinus, with which it
+  communicates by valvular openings or ostia. In the details of the
+  system, however, great differences exist within the limits of the
+  class. There is every reason to believe that, in the primitive
+  Arthropoda, the heart was tubular in form, extending the whole length
+  of the body, and having a pair of ostia in each somite. This
+  arrangement is retained in some of the Phyllopoda, but even in that
+  group a progressive abbreviation of the heart, with a diminution in
+  the number of the ostia, can be traced, leading to the condition found
+  in the closely related Cladocera, where the heart is a subglobular
+  sac, with only a single pair of ostia. In the Malacostraca, an
+  elongated heart with numerous segmentally arranged ostia is found only
+  in the aberrant group of Stomatopoda and in the transitional
+  Phyllocarida. In the other Malacostraca the heart is generally
+  abbreviated, and even where, as in the Amphipoda, it is elongated and
+  tubular, the ostia are restricted in number, three pairs only being
+  usually present. In many Entomostraca the heart is absent, and it is
+  impossible to speak of a "circulation" in the proper sense of the
+  term, the blood being merely driven hither and thither by the
+  movements of the body and limbs and of the alimentary canal.
+
+  A very remarkable condition of the blood-system, unique, as far as is
+  yet known among the Arthropoda, is found in a few genera of parasitic
+  Copepoda (_Lernanthropus_, _Mytilicola_). In these there is a closed
+  system of vessels, not communicating with the body-cavity, and
+  containing a coloured fluid. There is no heart. The morphological
+  nature of this system is unknown.
+
+  _Excretory System._--The most important excretory or renal organs of
+  the Crustacea are two pairs of glands lying at the base of the
+  antennae and of the second maxillae respectively. The two are probably
+  never functional together in the same animal, though one may replace
+  the other in the course of development. Thus, in the Phyllopoda, the
+  antennal gland develops early and is functional during a great part of
+  the larval life, but it ultimately atrophies, and in the adult (as in
+  most Entomostraca) the maxillary gland is the functional excretory
+  organ. In the Decapoda, where the antennal gland alone is
+  well-developed in the adult, the maxillary gland sometimes precedes it
+  in the larva. The structure of both glands is essentially the same.
+  There is a more or less convoluted tube with glandular walls connected
+  internally with a closed "end-sac" and opening to the exterior by
+  means of a thin-walled duct. Development shows that the glandular tube
+  is mesoblastic in origin and is of the nature of a coelomoduct, while
+  the end-sac is to be regarded as a vestigial portion of the coelom. In
+  the Branchiopoda the maxillary gland is lodged in the thickness of the
+  shell-fold (when this is present), and, from this circumstance, it
+  often receives the somewhat misleading name of "shell-gland." In the
+  Decapoda the antennal gland is largely developed and is known as the
+  "green gland." The external duct of this gland is often dilated into a
+  bladder, and may sometimes send out diverticula, forming a complex
+  system of sinuses ramifying through the body. The green gland and the
+  structures associated with it in Decapods were at one time regarded as
+  constituting an auditory apparatus.
+
+  In addition to these two pairs of glands, which are in all probability
+  the survivors of a series of segmentally arranged coelomoducts present
+  in the primitive Arthropoda, other excretory organs have been
+  described in various Crustacea. Although the excretory function of
+  these has been demonstrated by physiological methods, however, their
+  morphological relations are not clear. In some cases they consist of
+  masses of mesodermal cells, within which the excretory products appear
+  to be stored up instead of being expelled from the body.
+
+  _Nervous System._--The central nervous system is constructed on the
+  same general plan as in the other Arthropoda, consisting of a
+  supra-oesophageal ganglionic mass or brain, united by
+  circum-oesophageal connectives with a double ventral chain of
+  segmentally arranged ganglia. In the primitive Phyllopoda the ventral
+  chain retains the ladder-like arrangement found in some Annelids and
+  lower worms, the two halves being widely separated and the pairs of
+  ganglia connected together across the middle line by double transverse
+  commissures. In the higher groups the two halves of the chain are more
+  or less closely approximated and coalesced, and, in addition, a
+  concentration of the ganglia in a longitudinal direction takes place,
+  leading ultimately, in many cases, to the formation of an unsegmented
+  ganglionic mass representing the whole of the ventral chain. This is
+  seen, for example, in the Brachyura among the Decapoda. The brain, or
+  supra-oesophageal ganglion, shows various degrees of complexity. In
+  the Phyllopoda it consists mainly of two pairs of ganglionic centres,
+  giving origin respectively to the optic and antennular nerves. The
+  centres for the antennal nerves form ganglionic swellings on the
+  oesophageal connectives. In the higher forms, as already mentioned,
+  the antennal ganglia have become shifted forwards and coalesced with
+  the brain. In the higher Decapoda, numerous additional centres are
+  developed in the brain and its structure becomes extremely complex.
+
+  _Eyes._--The eyes of Crustacea are of two kinds, the unpaired, median
+  or "nauplius" eye, and the paired compound eyes. The former is
+  generally present in the earliest larval stages (nauplius), and in
+  some Entomostraca (e.g. Copepoda) it forms the sole organ of vision in
+  the adult. In the Malacostraca it is absent in the adult, or persists
+  only in a vestigial condition, as in some Decapoda and Schizopoda. It
+  is typically tripartite, consisting of three cup-shaped masses of
+  pigment, the cavity of each cup being filled with columnar retinal
+  cells. At their inner ends (towards the pigment) these cells contain
+  rod-like structures, while their outer ends are connected with the
+  nerve-fibres. In some cases three separate nerves arise from the front
+  of the brain, one going to each of the three divisions of the eye. In
+  the Copepoda the median eye may undergo considerable elaboration, and
+  refracting lenses and other accessory structures may be developed in
+  connexion with it.
+
+  The compound eyes are very similar in the details of their structure
+  (see ARTHROPODA) to those of insects (Hexapoda). They consist of a
+  varying number of ommatidia or visual elements, covered by a
+  transparent region of the external cuticle forming the cornea. In most
+  cases this cornea is divided into lenticular facets corresponding to
+  the underlying ommatidia.
+
+  As has been already stated, the compound eyes are often set on movable
+  peduncles. It is probable that this is the primitive condition from
+  which the sessile eyes of other forms have been derived. In the
+  Malacostraca the sessile eyed groups are certainly less primitive than
+  some of those with stalked eyes, and among the Entomostraca also there
+  is some evidence pointing in the same direction.
+
+  Although typically paired, the compound eyes may occasionally coalesce
+  in the middle line into a single organ. This is the case in the
+  Cladocera, the Cumacea and a few Amphipoda.
+
+  Mention should also be made of the partial or complete atrophy of the
+  eyes in many Crustacea which live in darkness, either in the deep sea
+  or in subterranean habitats. In these cases the peduncles may persist
+  and may even be modified into spinous organs of defence.
+
+  _Other Sense-Organs._--As in Arthropoda, the hairs or setae on the
+  surface of the body are important organs of sense and are variously
+  modified for special sensory functions. Many, perhaps all, of them
+  are tactile. They are movably articulated at the base where they are
+  inserted in pits formed by a thinning away of the cuticle, and each is
+  supplied by a nerve-fibril. When feathered or provided with secondary
+  barbs the setae will respond to movements or vibrations in the
+  surrounding water, and have been supposed to have an auditory
+  function. In certain divisions of the Malacostraca more specialized
+  organs are found which have been regarded as auditory. In the majority
+  of the Decapoda there is a saccular invagination of the integument in
+  the basal segment of the antennular peduncle having on its inner
+  surface "auditory" setae of the type just described. The sac is open
+  to the exterior in most of the Macrura, but completely closed in the
+  Brachyura. In the former case it contains numerous grains of sand
+  which are introduced by the animal itself after each moult and which
+  are supposed to act as otoliths. Where the sac is completely closed it
+  generally contains no solid particles, but in a few Macrura a single
+  otolith secreted by the walls of the sac is present. In the _Mysidae_
+  among the Schizopoda a pair of similar otocysts are found in the
+  endopodites of the last pair of appendages (uropods). These contain
+  each a single concretionary otolith.
+
+  Recent observations, however, make it very doubtful whether aquatic
+  Crustacea can hear at all, in the proper sense of the term, and it has
+  been shown that one function, at least, of the so-called otocysts is
+  connected with the equilibration of the body. They are more properly
+  termed statocysts.
+
+  Another modification of sensory setae is supposed to be associated
+  with the sense of smell. In nearly all Crustacea the antennules and
+  often also the antennae bear groups of hair-like filaments in which
+  the chitinous cuticle is extremely delicate and which do not taper to
+  a point but end bluntly. These are known as olfactory filaments or
+  aesthetascs. They are very often more strongly developed in the male
+  sex, and are supposed to guide the males in pursuit of the females.
+
+  _Glands._--In addition to the digestive and excretory glands already
+  mentioned, various glandular structures occur in the different groups
+  of Crustacea. The most important of these belong to the category of
+  dermal glands, and may be scattered over the surface of the body and
+  limbs, or grouped at certain points for the discharge of special
+  functions. Such glands occurring on the upper and lower lips or on the
+  walls of the oesophagus have been regarded as salivary. In some
+  Amphipoda the secretion of glands on the body and limbs is used in the
+  construction of tubular cases in which the animals live. In some
+  freshwater Copepoda the secretion of the dermal glands forms a
+  gelatinous envelope, by means of which the animals are able to survive
+  desiccation. In certain Copepoda and Ostracoda glands of the same type
+  produce a phosphorescent substance, and others, in certain Amphipoda
+  and Branchiura, are believed to have a poisonous function. Possibly
+  related to the same group of structures are the greatly-developed
+  cement-glands of the Cirripedia, which serve to attach the animals to
+  their support.
+
+  _Phosphorescent Organs._--Many Crustacea belonging to very different
+  groups (Ostracoda, Copepoda, Schizopoda, Decapoda) possess the power
+  of emitting light. In the Ostracoda and Copepoda the phosphorescence,
+  as already mentioned, is due to glands which produce a luminous
+  secretion, and this is the case also in certain members of the
+  Schizopoda and Decapoda. In other cases in the last two groups,
+  however, the light-producing organs found on the body and limbs have a
+  complex and remarkable structure, and were formerly described as
+  accessory eyes. Each consists of a globular capsule pierced at one or
+  two points for the entrance of nerves which end in a central
+  cup-shaped "striated body." This body appears to be the source of
+  light, and has behind it a reflector formed of concentric lamellae,
+  while, in front, in some cases, there is a refracting lens. The whole
+  organ can be rotated by special muscles. Organs of this type are best
+  known in the _Euphausiidae_ among the Schizopoda, but a modified form
+  is found in some of the lower Decapods.
+
+  _Reproductive System._--In the great majority of Crustacea the sexes
+  are separate. Apart from certain doubtful and possibly abnormal
+  instances among Phyllopoda and Amphipoda, the only exceptions are the
+  sessile Cirripedia and some parasitic Isopoda (_Cymothoidae_), where
+  hermaphroditism is the rule. Parthenogenesis is prevalent in the
+  Branchiopoda and Ostracoda, often in more or less definite seasonal
+  alternation with sexual reproduction. Where the sexes are distinct, a
+  more or less marked dimorphism often exists. The male is very often
+  provided with clasping organs for seizing the female. These may be
+  formed by the modification of almost any of the appendages, often the
+  antennules or antennae or some of the thoracic limbs, or even the
+  mandibular palps (some Ostracoda). In addition, some of the appendages
+  in the neighbourhood of the genital apertures may be modified for the
+  purpose of transferring the genital products to the female, as, for
+  instance, the first and second abdominal limbs in the Decapoda. In the
+  higher Decapoda the male is generally larger than the female and has
+  stronger chelae. On the other hand, in other groups the male is often
+  smaller than the female. In the parasitic Copepoda and Isopoda the
+  disparity in size is carried to an extreme degree, and the minute male
+  is attached, like a parasite, to the enormously larger female.
+
+  The Cirripedia present some examples of sexual relationships which are
+  only paralleled, in the animal kingdom, among the parasitic
+  Myzostomida. While the great majority are simple hermaphrodites,
+  capable of cross and self fertilization, it was discovered by Darwin
+  that, in certain species, minute degraded males exist, attached within
+  the mantle-cavity of the ordinary individuals. Since these dwarf males
+  pair, not with females, but with hermaphrodites, Darwin termed them
+  "complemental" males. In other species the large individuals have
+  become purely female by atrophy of the male organs, and are entirely
+  dependent on the dwarf males for fertilization. In spite of the
+  opinion of some distinguished zoologists to the contrary, it seems
+  most probable that the separation of the sexes is in this case a
+  secondary condition, derived from hermaphroditism through the
+  intermediate stage represented by the species having complemental
+  males.
+
+  The gonads, as in other Arthropoda, are hollow saccular organs, the
+  cavity communicating with the efferent ducts. They are primitively
+  paired, but often coalesce with each other more or less completely.
+  The ducts are present only as a single pair, except in one genus of
+  parasitic Isopoda (_Hemioniscus_), where two pairs of oviducts are
+  found. Various accessory structures may be connected with the efferent
+  ducts in both sexes. The oviducts may have diverticula serving as
+  receptacles for the spermatozoa (in cases where internal impregnation
+  takes place), and may be provided with glands secreting envelopes or
+  shells around the eggs. The male ducts often have glandular walls,
+  secreting capsules or spermatophores within which the spermatozoa are
+  packed for transference to the female. The terminal part of the male
+  ducts may be protrusible and act as an intromittent organ, or this
+  function may be discharged by some of the appendages, as, for
+  instance, in the Brachyura.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Side view of Crab, the abdomen extended and
+  carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs. (After Morse.)]
+
+  The position of the genital apertures varies very greatly in the
+  different groups of the class. They are farthest forward in the case
+  of the female organs of the Cirripedia, where the openings are on the
+  first thoracic (fourth postoral) somite. The most posterior position
+  is occupied by the genital apertures of certain Phyllopoda
+  (_Polyartemia_), which lie behind the nineteenth trunk-somite. It is
+  characteristic of the Malacostraca that the position of the genital
+  apertures is constantly different in the two sexes, the female
+  openings being on the sixth, and those of the male on the eighth
+  thoracic somite.
+
+  Very few Crustacea are viviparous in the sense that the eggs are
+  retained within the body until hatching takes place (some Phyllopoda),
+  but, on the other hand, the great majority carry the eggs in some way
+  or other after their extrusion. In some Phyllopoda (_Apus_) egg-sacs
+  are formed by modification of certain of the thoracic feet. The eggs
+  are retained between the valves of the shell in some Phyllopoda and in
+  the Cladocera and Ostracoda, and they lie in the mantle cavity in the
+  Cirripedia. In the Copepoda they are agglutinated together into masses
+  attached to the body of the female. Among the Malacostraca some
+  Schizopoda, the Cumacea, Tanaidacea, Isopoda and Amphipoda (sometimes
+  grouped all together as Peracarida) have a marsupium or brood-pouch
+  formed by overlapping plates attached to the bases of some of the
+  thoracic legs. In most of the Decapoda the eggs are carried by the
+  female, attached to the abdominal appendages (fig. 11). A few cases
+  are known in which the developing embryos are nourished by a special
+  secretion while in the brood-chamber of the mother (Cladocera,
+  terrestrial Isopoda).
+
+
+  _Embryology._
+
+  The majority of the Crustacea are hatched from the egg in a form
+  differing more or less from that of the adult, and pass through a
+  series of free-swimming larval stages. There are many cases, however,
+  in which the metamorphosis is suppressed, and the newly-hatched young
+  resemble the parent in general structure. The relative size of the
+  eggs and the amount of nutritive yolk which they contain are generally
+  much greater in those forms which have a direct development.
+
+  The details of the early embryonic stages vary considerably within the
+  limits of the class. They are of interest, however, rather from the
+  point of view of general embryology than from that of the special
+  student of the Crustacea, and cannot be fully dealt with here.
+
+  Segmentation is usually of the superficial or centrolecithal type. The
+  hypoblast is formed either by a definite invagination or by the
+  immigration of isolated cells, known as vitellophags, which wander
+  through the yolk and later become associated into a definite
+  mesenteron, or by some combination of these two methods. The
+  blastopore generally occupies a position corresponding to the
+  posterior end of the body. The mesoblast of the cephalic (naupliar)
+  region probably arises in connexion with the lips of the blastopore
+  and consists of loosely-connected cells or mesenchyme. In the region
+  of the trunk, in many cases, paired mesoblastic bands are formed,
+  growing in length by the division of teloblastic cells at the
+  posterior end, and becoming segmented into somites. The existence of
+  true coelom-sacs is somewhat doubtful. The rudiments of the first
+  three pairs of appendages commonly appear simultaneously, and, even in
+  forms with embryonic development, they show differences in their mode
+  of appearance from the succeeding somites. Further, a definite
+  cuticular membrane is frequently formed and shed at this stage, which
+  corresponds to the nauplius-stage of larval development.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Nauplius of a Prawn (_Penaeus_). (Fritz
+  Müller).]
+
+  The larval metamorphoses of the Crustacea have attracted much
+  attention, and have been the subject of much discussion in view of
+  their bearing on the phylogenetic history of the group. In those
+  Crustacea in which the series of larval stages is most complete, the
+  starting-point is the form already mentioned under the name of
+  _nauplius_. The typical nauplius (fig. 12) has an oval unsegmented
+  body and three pairs of limbs corresponding to the antennules,
+  antennae and mandibles of the adult. The antennules are uniramous, the
+  others biramous, and all three pairs are used in swimming. The
+  antennae have a spiniform or hooked masticatory process at the base,
+  and share with the mandibles, which have a similar process, the
+  function of seizing and masticating the food. The mouth is overhung by
+  a large labrum or upper lip, and the integument of the dorsal surface
+  of the body forms a more or less definite dorsal shield. The paired
+  eyes are, as yet, wanting, but the unpaired eye is large and
+  conspicuous. A pair of frontal papillae or filaments, probably
+  sensory, are commonly present.
+
+  A nauplius larva differing only in details from the typical form just
+  described is found in the majority of the Phyllopoda, Copepoda and
+  Cirripedia, and in a more modified form, in some Ostracoda. Among the
+  Malacostraca the nauplius is less commonly found, but it occurs in the
+  _Euphausiidae_ among the Schizopoda and in a few of the more primitive
+  Decapoda (_Penaeidea_) (fig. 12). In most of the Crustacea which hatch
+  at a later stage there is, as already mentioned, more or less clear
+  evidence of an embryonic nauplius stage. It seems certain, therefore,
+  that the possession of a nauplius larva must be regarded as a very
+  primitive character of the Crustacean stock.
+
+  As development proceeds, the body of the nauplius elongates, and
+  indications of segmentation begin to appear in its posterior part. At
+  successive moults the somites increase in number, new somites being
+  added behind those already differentiated, from a formative zone in
+  front of the telsonic region. Very commonly the posterior end of the
+  body becomes forked, two processes growing out at the sides of the
+  anus and often persisting in the adult as the "caudal furca." The
+  appendages posterior to the mandibles appear as buds on the ventral
+  surface of the somites, and in the most primitive cases they become
+  differentiated, like the somites which bear them, in regular order
+  from before backwards. The limb-buds early become bilobed and grow out
+  into typical biramous appendages which gradually assume the characters
+  found in the adult. With the elongation of the body, the dorsal shield
+  begins to project posteriorly as a shell-fold, which may increase in
+  size to envelop more or less of the body or may disappear altogether.
+  The rudiments of the paired eyes appear under the integument at the
+  sides of the head, but only become pedunculated at a comparatively
+  late stage.
+
+  The course of development here outlined, in which the nauplius
+  gradually passes into the adult form by the successive addition of
+  somites and appendages in regular order, agrees so well with the
+  process observed in the development of the typical Annelida that we
+  must regard it as being the most primitive method. It is most closely
+  followed by the Phyllopods such as _Apus_ or _Branchipus_, and by some
+  Copepoda.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Early Stages of _Balanus_. (After Spence
+  Bate.)
+
+    A, Nauplius. e, Eye.
+    B, _Cypris_-larva with a bivalve shell and just before becoming
+      attached (represented feet upwards for comparison with E, where it
+      is attached).
+    C, After becoming attached, side views.
+    D, Later stage, viewed from above.
+    E, Side view, later stage and with cirri extended.
+
+    The dots indicate the actual size.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in its second stage.
+  (Spence Bate.)
+
+    r, Rostral spine.
+    s, Dorsal spine.
+    m, Maxillipeds.
+    t, Buds of thoracic feet.
+    a, Abdomen.]
+
+  In most Crustacea, however, this primitive scheme is more or less
+  modified. The earlier stages may be suppressed or passed through
+  within the egg (or within the maternal brood-chamber), so that the
+  larva, on hatching, has reached a stage more advanced than the
+  nauplius. Further, the gradual appearance and differentiation of the
+  successive somites and appendages may be accelerated, so that
+  comparatively great advances take place at a single moult. In the
+  Cirripedia, for example, the latest nauplius stage (fig. 13, A) gives
+  rise directly to the so-called _Cypris_-larva (fig. 13, B), differing
+  widely from the nauplius in form, and possessing all the appendages of
+  the adult. Another very common modification of the primitive method of
+  development is found in the accelerated appearance of certain somites
+  or appendages, disturbing the regular order of development. This
+  modification is especially found in the Malacostraca. Even in those
+  which have most fully retained the primitive order of development, as
+  in the _Penaeidea_ and _Euphausiidae_, the last pair of abdominal
+  appendages make their appearance in advance of those immediately in
+  front of them. The same process, carried further, leads to the very
+  peculiar larva known as the _Zoea_, in the typical form of which,
+  found in the Brachyura (fig. 14), the posterior five or six thoracic
+  somites have their development greatly retarded, and are still
+  represented by a short unsegmented region of the body at a time when
+  the abdominal somites are fully formed and even carry appendages. The
+  _Zoea_ was formerly regarded as a recapitulation of an ancestral form,
+  but there can be no doubt that its peculiarities are the result of
+  secondary modification. It is most typically developed in the most
+  specialized Decapoda, the Brachyura, while the more primitive groups
+  of Malacostraca, the _Euphausiidae_, _Penaeidea_ and Stomatopoda,
+  retain the primitive order of appearance of the somites, and, for the
+  most part, of the limbs. At the same time, the tendency to a
+  retardation in the development of the posterior thoracic somites is
+  very general in Malacostracan larvae, and may perhaps be correlated
+  with the fact that in the primitive Phyllocarida the whole thoracic
+  region is very short and the limbs closely crowded together.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Nauplius of _Tetraclita porosa_ after the
+  first moult.
+
+  (Fritz Müller.)]
+
+  Besides the nauplius and the zoea there are many other types of
+  Crustacean larvae, distinguished by special names, though, as their
+  occurrence is restricted within the limits of the smaller systematic
+  groups, they are of less general interest. We need only mention the
+  _Mysis_-stage (better termed Schizopod-stage) found in many Macrura
+  (as, for example, the lobster), which differs from the adult in having
+  large natatory exopodites on the thoracic legs.
+
+  Most of the larval forms swim freely at the surface of the sea, and
+  many show special adaptations to this habit of life. As in many other
+  "pelagic" organisms, spines and processes from the surface of the body
+  are often developed, which are probably less important as defensive
+  organs than as aids to flotation. This is well seen in the nauplius of
+  many Cirripedia (fig. 15) and in nearly all zoeae. Perhaps the most
+  striking example is the zoea-like larva of the _Sergestidae_, known as
+  _Elaphocaris_, which has an extraordinary armature of ramified spines.
+  The same purpose is probably served by the extreme flattening of the
+  body in the membranous _Phyllosoma_-larva of the rock-lobsters and
+  their allies (Loricata).
+
+
+_Past History._
+
+Although fossil remains of Crustacea are abundant, from the most ancient
+fossiliferous rocks down to the most recent, their study has hitherto
+contributed little to a precise knowledge of the phylogenetic history of
+the class. This is partly due to the fact that many important forms must
+have escaped fossilization altogether owing to their small size and
+delicate structure, while very many of those actually preserved are
+known only from the carapace or shell, the limbs being absent or
+represented only by indecipherable fragments. Further, many important
+groups were already differentiated when the geological record began. The
+Phyllopoda, Ostracoda and Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) are represented in
+Cambrian or Silurian rocks by forms which seem to have resembled closely
+those now existing, so that palaeontology can have little light to throw
+on the mode of origin of these groups. With the Malacostraca the case is
+little better. There is considerable reason for believing that the
+_Ceratiocaridae_, which are found from the Cambrian onwards, were allied
+to the existing _Nebalia_, and may possibly include the forerunners of
+the true Malacostraca, but nothing is definitely known of their
+appendages. In Palaeozoic formations, from the Upper Devonian onwards,
+numbers of shrimp-like forms are found which have been referred to the
+Schizopoda and the Decapoda, but here again the scanty information which
+may be gleaned as to the structure of the limbs rarely permits of
+definite conclusions as to their affinities. The recent discovery in the
+Tasmanian "schizopod" _Anaspides_, of what is believed to be a living
+representative of the Carboniferous and Permian _Syncarida_, has,
+however, afforded a clue to the affinities of some of these
+problematical forms.
+
+True Decapods are first met with in Mesozoic rocks, the first to appear
+being the _Penaeidea_, a primitive group comprising the _Penaeidae_ and
+_Sergestidae_, which occur in the Jurassic and perhaps in the Trias.
+Some of the earliest are referred to the existing genus _Penaeus_. The
+Stenopidea, another primitive group, differing from the Penaeidea in the
+character of the gills, appear in the Trias and Jurassic. The Caridea or
+true prawns and shrimps appear later, in the Upper Jurassic, some of
+them presenting primitive characteristics in the retention of swimming
+exopodites on the walking-legs. The Eryonidea (fig. 16, 3), a group
+related to the Loricata but of a more generalized type, are specially
+interesting since the few existing deep-sea forms appear to be only
+surviving remnants of what was, in the Mesozoic period, a dominant
+group. The Mesozoic _Glyphaeidae_ have been supposed to stand in the
+direct line of descent of the modern rock-lobsters and their allies
+(Loricata). Some of the Loricata have persisted with little change from
+the Cretaceous period to the present day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.
+
+  1, _Dromilites Lamarckii_, Desm.; London Clay, Sheppey.
+  2, _Palaeocorystes Stokesii_, Gault; Folkestone.
+  3, _Eryon arctiformis_, Schl.; Lithographic stone, Solenhofen.
+  4, _Mecocheirus longimanus_, Schl.; Lithographic stone, Solenhofen.
+  5, _Cypridea tuberculata_, Sby.; (Ostracoda); Weald, Sussex.
+  6, _Loricula pulchella_, Sby (Cirripedia); L. Chalk, Sussex.]
+
+The Anomura are hardly known as fossils. The Brachyura, on the other
+hand, are well represented (fig 16, 1, 2). The earliest forms, from the
+Lower Oolite and later, belonging chiefly to the extinct family
+_Prosoponidae_, have been shown to have close relations with the most
+generalized of existing Brachyura, the deep-sea _Homolodromiidae_, and
+to link the Brachyura to the Homarine (lobster-like) Macrura.
+
+A few Isopoda are known from Secondary rocks, but their systematic
+position is doubtful and they throw no light on the evolution of the
+group. The Amphipoda are not definitely known to occur till Tertiary
+times. Stomatopoda of a very modern-looking type, and even their larvae,
+occur in Jurassic rocks.
+
+In the dearth of trustworthy evidence as to the actual forerunners of
+existing Crustacea, we are compelled to rely wholly on the data afforded
+by comparative anatomy and embryology in attempting to reconstruct the
+probable phylogeny of the class. It is unnecessary to insist on the
+purely speculative character of the conclusions to be reached in this
+way, so long as they cannot be checked by the results of palaeontology,
+but, when this is recognized, such speculation is not only legitimate
+but necessary as a basis on which to build a natural classification.
+
+The first attempts to reconstruct the genealogical history of the
+Crustacea started from the assumption that the "theory of
+recapitulation" could be applied to their larval history. The various
+larval forms, especially the nauplius and zoea, were supposed to
+reproduce, more or less closely, the actual structure of ancestral
+types. So far as the zoea was concerned, this assumption was soon shown
+to be erroneous, and the secondary nature of this type of larva is now
+generally admitted. As regards the nauplius, however, the constancy of
+its general character in the most widely diverse groups of Crustacea
+strongly suggests that it is a very ancient type, and the view has been
+advocated that the Crustacea must have arisen from an unsegmented
+nauplius-like ancestor.
+
+The objections to this view, however, are considerable. The resemblances
+between the Crustacea and the Annelid worms, in such characters as the
+structure of the nervous system and the mode of growth of the somites,
+can hardly be ignored. Several structures which must be attributed, to
+the common stock of the Crustacea, such as the paired eyes and the
+shell-fold, are not present in the nauplius. The opinion now most
+generally held is that the primitive Crustacean type is most nearly
+approached by certain Phyllopods such as _Apus_. The large number and
+the uniformity of the trunk somites and their appendages, and the
+structure of the nervous system and of the heart in _Apus_, are
+Annelidan characters which can hardly be without significance. It is
+probable also, as already mentioned, that the leaf-like appendages of
+the Phyllopoda are of a primitive type, and attempts have been made to
+refer their structure to that of the Annelid parapodium. In many
+respects, however, the Phyllopoda, and especially _Apus_, have diverged
+considerably from the primitive Crustacean type. All the cephalic
+appendages are much reduced, the mandibles have no palps, and the
+maxillulae are vestigial. In these respects some of the Copepoda have
+retained characters which we must regard as much more primitive. In
+those Copepods in which the palps of the mandibles as well as the
+antennae are biramous and natatory, the first three pairs of appendages
+retain throughout life, with little modification, the shape and function
+which they have in the nauplius stage, and must, in all likelihood, be
+regarded as approximating to those of the primitive Crustacea. In other
+respects, however, such as the absence of paired eyes and of a
+shell-fold, as well as in the characters of the post-oral limbs, the
+Copepoda are undoubtedly specialized.
+
+In order to reconstruct the hypothetical ancestral Crustacean,
+therefore, it is necessary to combine the characters of several of the
+existing groups. It may be supposed to have approximated, in general
+form, to _Apus_, with an elongated body composed of numerous similar
+somites and terminating in a caudal furca; with the post-oral appendages
+all similar and all bearing gnathobasic processes; and with a carapace
+originating as a shell-fold from the maxillary somite. The eyes were
+probably stalked, the antennae and mandibles biramous and natatory, and
+both armed with masticatory processes. It is likely that the trunk-limbs
+were also biramous, with additional endites and exites. Whether any of
+the obscure fossils generally referred to the Phyllopoda or Phyllocarida
+may have approximated to this hypothetical form it is impossible to say.
+It is to be noted, however, that the Trilobita, which, according to the
+classification here adopted, are dealt with under Arachnida, are not
+very far removed, except in such characters as the absence of a
+shell-fold and of eye-stalks, from the primitive Crustacean here
+sketched.
+
+On this view, the nauplius, while no longer regarded as reproducing an
+ancestral type, does not altogether lose its phylogenetic significance.
+It is an ancestral _larval_ form, corresponding perhaps to the stages
+immediately succeeding the trochophore in the development of Annelids,
+but with some of the later-acquired Crustacean characters superposed
+upon it. While little importance is to be given to such characters as
+the unsegmented body, the small number of limbs and the absence of a
+shell-fold and of paired eyes, it has, on the other hand, preserved
+archaic features in the form of the limbs and the masticatory function
+of the antenna.
+
+The probable course of evolution of the different groups of Crustacea
+from this hypothetical ancestral form can only be touched on here. The
+Phyllopoda must have branched off very early and from them to the
+Cladocera the way is clear. The Ostracoda might have been derived from
+the same stock were it not that they retain the mandibular palp which
+all the Phyllopods have lost. The Copepoda must have separated
+themselves very early, though perhaps some of their characters may be
+persistently larval rather than phylogenetically primitive. The
+Cirripedia are so specialized both as larvae and as adults that it is
+hard to say in what direction their origin is to be sought.
+
+For the Malacostraca, it is generally admitted that the Leptostraca
+(_Nebalia_, &c.) provide a connecting-link with the base of the
+Phyllopod stem. Nearest to them come the Schizopoda, a primitive group
+from which two lines of descent can be traced, the one leading from the
+Mysidacea (_Mysidae_ + _Lophogastridae_) to the Cumacea and the
+sessile-eyed groups Isopoda and Amphipoda, the other from the
+Euphausiacea (_Euphausiidae_) to the Decapoda.
+
+
+_Classification._
+
+The modern classification of Crustacea may be said to have been founded
+by P. A. Latreille, who, in the beginning of the 19th century, divided
+the class into Entomostraca and Malacostraca. The latter division,
+characterized by the possession of 19 somites and pairs of appendages
+(apart from the eyes), by the division of the appendages into two
+tagmata corresponding to cephalothorax and abdomen, and by the constancy
+in position of the generative apertures, differing in the two sexes, is
+unquestionably a natural group. The Entomostraca, however, are certainly
+a heterogeneous assemblage, defined only by negative characters, and the
+name is retained only for the sake of convenience, just as it is often
+useful to speak of a still more heterogeneous and unnatural assemblage
+of animals as Invertebrata. The barnacles and their allies, forming the
+group Cirripedia or Thyrostraca, sometimes treated as a separate
+sub-class, are distinguished by being sessile in the adult state, the
+larval antennules serving as organs of attachment, and the antennae
+being lost. An account of them will be found in the article THYROSTRACA.
+The remaining groups are dealt with under the headings ENTOMOSTRACA and
+MALACOSTRACA, the annectent group Leptostraca being included in the
+former.
+
+It may be useful to give here a synopsis of the classification adopted
+in this encyclopaedia, noting that, for convenience of treatment, it has
+been thought necessary to adopt a grouping not always expressive of the
+most recent views of affinity.
+
+  Class _Crustacea_.
+    Sub-class _Entomostraca_.
+        Order _Branchiopoda_.
+          Sub-orders _Phyllopoda_.
+                     _Cladocera_.
+                     _Branchiura_.
+        Orders _Ostracoda_.
+               _Copepoda_.
+    Sub-classses _Thyrostraca_ (_Cirripedia_).
+                 _Leptostraca_.
+                 _Malacostraca_.
+        Order _Decapoda_.
+          Sub-orders _Brachyura_.
+                     _Macrura_.
+        Orders _Schizopoda_ (including _Anaspides_).
+               _Stomatopoda_.
+               _Sympoda_ (Cumacea).
+               _Isopoda_ (including _Tanaidacea_).
+               _Amphipoda_.
+
+     (W. T. Ca.)
+
+
+
+
+CRUSTUMERIUM, an ancient town of Latium, on the edge of the Sabine
+territory, near the headwaters of the Allia, not far from the Tiber. It
+appears several times in the early history of Rome, but was conquered in
+500 B.C. according to Livy ii. 19, the _tribus Crustumina_ [or
+_Clustumina_] being formed in 471 B.C. Pliny mentions it among the lost
+cities of Latium, but the name clung to the district, the fertility of
+which remained famous. No remains of it exist, and its exact site is
+uncertain.
+
+  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 50.
+
+
+
+
+CRUVEILHIER, JEAN (1791-1874), French anatomist, was born at Limoges in
+1791, and was educated at the university of Paris, where in 1825 he
+became professor of anatomy. In 1836 he became the first occupant of the
+recently founded chair of pathological anatomy. He died at Jussac in
+1874. His chief works are _Anatomie descriptive_ (1834-1836); _Anatomie
+pathologique du corps humain_ (1829-1842), with many coloured plates;
+_Traité d'anatomie pathologique générale_ (1849-1864); _Anatomie du
+systčme nerveux de l'homme_ (1845); _Traité d'anatomie descriptive_
+(1851).
+
+
+
+
+CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA (1731-1799), Portuguese heroic-comic
+poet, was the son of a Lisbon carpenter who emigrated to Brazil shortly
+before the poet's birth, leaving his wife to support and educate her
+young family by the earnings of her needle. Diniz studied Latin and
+philosophy with the Oratorians, and in 1747 matriculated at Coimbra
+University, where he wrote his first versus about 1750. In 1753 he took
+his degree in law, and returning to the capital, devoted much of the
+next six years to literary work. In 1756 he became one of the founders
+and drew up the statues of the _Arcadia Lusitana_, a literary society
+whose aims were the instruction of its members, the cultivation of the
+art of poetry, and the restoration of good taste. The fault was not his
+if these ends were not attained, for, taking contemporary French authors
+as his models, he contributed much, both in prose and verse, to its
+proceedings, until he left in February 1760 to take up the position of
+_juiz de fora_ at Castello de Vide. On returning to Lisbon for a short
+visit, he found the _Arcadia_ a prey to the internal dissensions that
+caused its dissolution in 1774, but succeeded in composing them and in
+1764 he went to Elvas to act as auditor of one of the regiments
+stationed there. During a ten years' residence, his wide reading and
+witty conversation gained him the friendship of the governor of that
+fortress and the admiration of a circle comprising all that was
+cultivated in Elvas. As in most cathedral and garrison towns, the
+clerical and military elements dominated society, and here were mutually
+antagonistic, because of the enmity between their respective leaders,
+the bishop and the governor. Moreover, Elvas, being a remote provincial
+centre, abounded in curious and grotesque types. Diniz, who was a keen
+observer, noted these, and, treasuring them in his memory, reproduced
+them, with their vanities, intrigues and ignorance, in his masterpiece,
+_Hyssope_. In 1768 a quarrel arose between the bishop, a proud,
+pretentious prelate, and the dean, as to the right of the former to
+receive holy water from the latter at a private side door of the
+cathedral, instead of at the principal entrance. The matter being one of
+principle, neither party would yield what he considered his rights, and
+it led to a lawsuit, and divided the town into two sections, which
+eagerly debated the arguments on both sides and enjoyed the ridiculous
+incidents which accompanied the dispute. Ultimately the dean died, and
+was succeeded by his nephew, who appealed to the crown with success and
+the bishop lost his pretension. The _Hyssope_ arose out of and deals
+with this affair. It was dictated in seventeen days, in the years
+1770-1772, and, in its final redaction, consists of eight cantos of
+blank verse. The pressure of absolutism left open only one form of
+expression, satire, and in this poem Diniz produced an original work
+which ridicules the clergy and the prevailing Gallomania, and contains
+episodes full of humour. It has been compared with Boileau's _Lutrin_,
+because both are founded on a petty ecclesiastical quarrel, but here the
+resemblance ends, and the poem of Diniz is the superior in everything
+except matrification.
+
+Returning to Lisbon in 1774, Diniz endeavoured once more to resuscitate
+the _Arcadia_, but his long absence had withdrawn its chief support, its
+most talented members Garçăo (q.v.) and Quita were no more, and he only
+assisted at its demise. In April 1776 he was appointed _disembargador_
+of the court of Relaçăo in Rio de Janeiro and given the habit of Aviz.
+He lived in Brazil, devouting his leisure to a study of its natural
+history and mineralogy, until 1789, when he went back to Lisbon to take
+up the post of _disembargador_ of the Relaçăo of Oporto; in July 1790 he
+was promoted, and became _disembargador_ of the Casa da Supplicaçăo. In
+this year he was sent again to Brazil to assist in trying the leaders of
+the Republican conspiracy in Minas, in which Gonzaga (q.v.) and the
+other men of letters were involved, and in December 1792 he became
+chancellor of the Relaçăo in Rio. Six years later he was named
+councillor of the _Conselho Ultramarino_, but did not live to return
+home, dying in Rio on the 5th of October 1799.
+
+Diniz possessed a poetic temperament, but his love of imitating the
+classics, whose spirit he failed to understand, fettered his muse, and
+he seems never to have perceived that mythological comparisons and
+pastoral allegories were poor substitutes for the expression of natural
+feeling. The conventionalism of his art prejudiced its sincerity, and,
+inwardly cherishing the belief that poetry was unworthy of the dignity
+of a judge, he never gave his real talents a chance to display
+themselves. His Anacreontic odes, dithyrambs and idylls earned the
+admiration of contemporaries, but his Pindaric odes lack fire, his
+sonnets are weak, and his idylls have neither the truth nor the
+simplicity of Quita's work. As a rule Diniz's versification is weak and
+his verses lack harmony, though the diction is beyond cavil.
+
+  His poems were published in 6 vols. (Lisbon, 1807-1817). The best
+  edition of _Hyssope_, to which Diniz owes his lasting fame, is that of
+  J. R. Coelho (Lisbon, 1879), with an exhaustive introductory study on
+  his life and writings. A French prose version of the poem by
+  Boissonade has gone through two editions (Paris, 1828 and 1867), and
+  English translations of selections have been printed in the _Foreign
+  Quarterly Review_, and in the _Manchester Quarterly_ (April 1896).
+
+  See also Dr Theophilo Braga, _A. Arcadia Lusitana_ (Oporto, 1899).
+       (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+CRYOLITE, a mineral discovered in Greenland by the Danes in 1794, and
+found to be a compound of fluorine, sodium and aluminium. From its
+general appearance, and from the fact that it melts readily, even in a
+candle-flame, it was regarded by the Eskimos as a peculiar kind of ice;
+from this fact it acquired the name of cryolite (from Gr. [Greek:
+kryos], frost, and [Greek: lithos], stone). Cryolite occurs in
+colourless or snow-white cleavable masses, often tinted brown or red
+with iron oxide, and occasionally passing into a black variety. It is
+usually translucent, becoming nearly transparent on immersion in water.
+The mineral cleaves in three rectangular directions, and the crystals
+occasionally found in the crevices have a cubic habit, but it has been
+proved, after much discussion, that they belong to the anorthic system.
+The hardness is 2.5, and the specific gravity 3. Cryolite has the
+formula Na3AlF6, or 3NaFˇAlF3, corresponding to fluorine 54.4, sodium
+32.8, and aluminium 12.8%. It colours a flame yellow, through the
+presence of sodium, and when heated with sulphuric acid it evolves
+hydrofluoric acid.
+
+Cryolite occurs almost exclusively at Ivigtut (sometimes written
+Evigtok) on the Arksut Fjord in S.W. Greenland. There it forms a large
+deposit, in a granitic vein running through gneiss, and is accompanied
+by quartz, siderite, galena, blende, chalcopyrite, &c. It is also
+associated with a group of kindred minerals, some of which are evidently
+products of alteration of the cryolite, known as pachnolite,
+thomsenolite, ralstonite, gearksutite, arksutite, &c. Cryolite likewise
+occurs, though only to a limited extent, at Miyask, in the Ilmen
+Mountains; at Pike's Peak, Colorado, and in the Yellowstone Park.
+
+Cryolite is a mineral of much economic importance. It has been
+extensively used as a source of metallic aluminium, and as a flux in
+smelting the metal. It is largely employed in the manufacture of certain
+sodium salts, as suggested by Julius Thomsen, of Copenhagen, in 1849;
+and it has been used for the production of certain kinds of porcelain
+and glass, remarkable for its toughness, and for enamelled ware.
+
+Although cryolite is known as "ice-stone" (_Eisstein_), it is not to be
+confused with "ice-spar" (_Eisspath_), which is a vitreous kind of
+felspar termed "glassy felspar" or rhyacolite.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+CRYPT (Lat. _crypta_, from the Gr. [Greek: kryptein], to hide), a vault
+or subterranean chamber, especially under churches. In classical
+phraseology "crypta" was employed for any vaulted building, either
+partially or entirely below the level of the ground. It is used for a
+sewer (_crypta Suburae_, Juvenal, _Sat._ v. 106); for the "carceres," or
+vaulted stalls for the horses and chariots in a circus (Sidon. Apoll.
+_Carm._ xxiii. 319); for the close porticoes or arcades, more fully
+known as "cryptoporticus," attached by the Romans to their suburban
+villas for the sake of coolness, and to the theatres as places of
+exercise or rehearsal for the performers (Plin. _Epist._ ii. 15, v. 6,
+vii. 21; Sueton. _Calig._ 58; Sidon. Apoll, lib. ii. epist. 2); and for
+underground receptacles for agricultural produce (Vitruv. vi. 8, Varro,
+_De re rust._ i. 57). Tunnels, or galleries excavated in the living
+rock, were also called _cryptae_. Thus the tunnel to the north of
+Naples, through which the road passes to Puteoli, familiar to tourists
+as the "Grotto of Posilipo," was originally designated _crypta
+Neapolitana_ (Seneca, Epist. 57). In early Christian times _crypta_ was
+appropriately employed for the galleries of a catacomb, or for the
+catacomb itself. Jerome calls them by this name when describing his
+visits to them as a schoolboy, and the term is used by Prudentius (see
+CATACOMBS).
+
+A crypt, as a portion of a church, had its origin in the subterranean
+chapels known as "confessiones," erected around the tomb of a martyr, or
+the place of his martyrdom. This is the origin of the spacious crypts,
+some of which may be called subterranean churches, of the Roman churches
+of S. Prisca, S. Prassede, S. Martino ai Monti, S. Lorenzo fuori le
+Mura, and above all of St Peter's--the crypt being thus the germ of the
+church or basilica subsequently erected above the hallowed spot. When
+the martyr's tomb was sunk in the surface of the ground, and not placed
+in a catacomb chapel, the original memorial-shrine would be only
+partially below the surface, and consequently the part of the church
+erected over it, which was always that containing the altar, would be
+elevated some height above the ground, and be approached by flights of
+steps. This fashion of raising the chancel or altar end of a church on a
+crypt was widely imitated long after the reason for adopting it ceased,
+and even where it never existed. The crypt under the altar at the
+basilica of St Maria Maggiore in Rome is merely imitative, and the same
+may be said of many of the crypts of the early churches in England. The
+original Saxon cathedral of Canterbury had a crypt beneath the eastern
+apse, containing the so-called body of St Dunstan, and other relics,
+"fabricated," according to Eadmer, "in the likeness of the confessionary
+of St Peter at Rome" (see BASILICA). St Wilfrid constructed crypts still
+existing beneath the churches erected by him in the latter part of the
+7th century at Hexham and Ripon. These are peculiarly interesting from
+their similarity in form and arrangement to the catacomb chapels with
+which Wilfrid must have become familiar during his residence in Rome.
+The cathedral, begun by Ćthelwold and finished by Alphege at Winchester,
+at the end of the 10th century, had spacious crypts "supporting the holy
+altar and the venerable relics of the saints" (Wulstan, _Life of St
+Ćthelwold_), and they appear to have been common in the earlier churches
+in England. The arrangement was adopted by the Norman builders of the
+11th and 12th centuries, and though far from universal is found in many
+of the cathedrals of that date. The object of the construction of these
+crypts was twofold,--to give the altar sufficient elevation to enable
+those below to witness the sacred mysteries, and to provide a place of
+burial for those holy men whose relics were the church's most precious
+possession. But the crypt was "a foreign fashion," derived, as has been
+said, from Rome, "which failed to take root in England, and indeed
+elsewhere barely outlasted the Romanesque period" (_Essays on
+Cathedrals_, ed. Howson, p. 331).
+
+Of the crypts beneath English Norman cathedrals, that under the choir of
+Canterbury (q.v.) is by far the largest and most elaborate in its
+arrangements. It is, in fact, a subterranean church of vast size and
+considerable altitude. The whole crypt was dedicated to the Virgin Mary,
+and contained two chapels especially dedicated to her,--the central one
+beneath the high altar, enclosed with rich Gothic screen-work, and one
+under the south transept. This latter chapel was appropriated by Queen
+Elizabeth to the use of the French Huguenot refugees who had settled at
+Canterbury in the time of Edward VI. There were also in this crypt a
+large number of altars and chapels of other saints, some of whose
+hallowed bodies were buried here. At the extreme east end, beneath the
+Trinity chapel, the body of St Thomas (Becket) was buried the day after
+his martyrdom, and lay there till his translation, July 7, 1220.
+
+The cathedrals of Winchester, Worcester and Gloucester have crypts of
+slightly earlier date (they may all be placed between 1080 and 1100),
+but of similar character, though less elaborate. They all contain
+piscinas and other evidences of the existence of altars in considerable
+numbers. They are all apsidal. The most picturesque is that of
+Worcester, the work of Bishop Wulfstan (1084), which is remarkable for
+the multiplicity of small pillars supporting its radiating vaults.
+Instead of having the air of a sepulchral vault like those of Winchester
+and Gloucester, this crypt is, in Professor Willis's words, "a complex
+and beautiful temple." Archbishop Roger's crypt at York, belonging to
+the next century (1154-1181), was filled up with earth when the present
+choir was built at the end of the 14th century, and its existence
+forgotten till its disinterment after the fire of 1829. The choir and
+presbytery at Rochester are supported by an extensive crypt, of which
+the western portion is Gundulf's work (1076-1107), but the eastern part,
+which displays slender cylindrical and octagonal shafts, with light
+vaulting springing from them, is of the same period as the
+superstructure, the first years of the 13th century. This crypt, and
+that beneath the Early English Lady chapel at Hereford, are the latest
+English existing cathedral crypts. That at Hereford was rendered
+necessary by the fall of the ground, and is an exceptional case. Later
+than any of these crypts was that of St Paul's, London. This was a
+really large and magnificent church of Decorated date, with a vaulted
+roof of rich and intricate character resting on a forest of clustered
+columns. Part of it served as the parish church of St Faith. A still
+more exquisite work of the Decorated period is the crypt of St Stephen's
+chapel at Westminster, than which it is difficult to conceive anything
+more perfect in design or more elaborate in ornamentation. Having
+happily escaped the conflagration of the Houses of Parliament in
+1834--before which it was degraded to the purpose of the speaker's state
+dining-room--it has been restored to its former sumptuousness of
+decoration, and is now one of the most beautiful architectural gems in
+England.
+
+Of Scottish cathedrals the only one that possesses a crypt is the
+cathedral of Glasgow, rendered celebrated by Sir Walter Scott in his
+novel of _Rob Roy_ (ch. xx.). At the supposed date of the tale, and
+indeed till a comparatively recent period, this crypt was used as a
+place of worship by one of the three congregations among which the
+cathedral was partitioned, and was known as "the Laigh or Barony Kirk."
+It extends beneath the choir transepts and chapter-house; in consequence
+of the steep declivity on which the cathedral stands it is of unusual
+height and lightsomeness. It belongs to the 13th century, its style
+corresponding to Early English, and is simply constructional, the
+building being adapted to the locality. In architectural beauty it is
+quite unequalled by any crypt in the United Kingdom, and can hardly
+anywhere be surpassed. It is an unusually rich example of the style, the
+clustered piers and groining being exquisite in design and admirable in
+execution. The bosses of the roof and capitals of the piers are very
+elaborate, and the doors are much enriched with foliage. "There is a
+solidity in its architecture, a richness in its vaulting, and a variety
+of perspective in the spacing of its pillars, which make it one of the
+most perfect pieces of architecture in these kingdoms" (Fergusson).
+
+In the centre of the main alley stands the mutilated effigy of St Mungo,
+the patron saint of Glasgow, and at the south-east corner is a well
+called after the same saint.
+
+Crypts under parish churches are not very uncommon in England, but they
+are usually small and not characterized by any architectural beauty. A
+few of the earlier crypts, however, deserve notice. One of the earliest
+and most remarkable is that of the church of Lastingham near Pickering
+in Yorkshire, on the site of the monastery founded in 648 by Cedd,
+bishop of the East Saxons. The existing crypt, though exceedingly rude
+in structure, is of considerably later date than Bishop Cedd, forming
+part of the church erected by Abbot Stephen of Whitby in 1080, when he
+had been driven inland by the incursions of the northern pirates. This
+crypt is remarkable from its extending under the nave as well as the
+chancel of the upper church, the plan of which it accurately reproduces,
+with the exception of the westernmost bay. It forms a nave with side
+aisles of three bays, and an apsidal chancel, lighted by narrow deeply
+splayed slits. The roof of quadripartite vaulting is supported by four
+very dwarf thick cylindrical columns, the capitals of which and of the
+responds are clumsy imitations of classical work with rude volutes.
+Still more curious is the crypt beneath the chancel of the church of
+Repton in Derbyshire. This also consists of a centre and side aisles,
+divided by three arches on either side. The architectural character,
+however, is very different from that at Lastingham, and is in some
+respects almost unique, the piers being slender, and some of them of a
+singular spiral form, with a bead running in the sunken part of the
+spiral. Another very extensive and curious Norman crypt is that beneath
+the chancel of St Peter's-in-the-East at Oxford. This is five bays in
+length, the quadripartite vaulting being supported by eight low,
+somewhat slender, cylindrical columns with capitals bearing grotesque
+animal and human subjects. Its dimensions are 36 by 20 ft. and 10 ft. in
+height. This crypt has been commonly attributed to Grymboldt in the 9th
+century; but it is really not very early Norman. Under the church of St
+Mary-le-Bow in London there is an interesting Norman crypt not very
+dissimilar in character to that last described. Of a later date is the
+remarkably fine Early English crypt groined in stone, beneath the
+chancel of Hythe in Kent, containing a remarkable collection of skulls
+and bones, the history of which is quite uncertain. There is also a
+Decorated crypt beneath the chancel at Wimborne minster, and one of the
+same date beneath the southern chancel aisle at Grantham.
+
+Among the more remarkable French crypts may be mentioned those of the
+cathedrals of Auxerre, said to date from the original foundation in
+1085; of Bayeux, attributed to Odo, bishop of that see, uterine brother
+of William the Conqueror, where twelve columns with rude capitals
+support a vaulted roof; of Chartres, running under the choir and its
+aisles, frequently assigned to Bishop Fulbert in 1029, but more probably
+coeval with the superstructure; and of Bourges, where the crypt is in
+the Pointed style, extending beneath the choir. The church of the Holy
+Trinity attached to Queen Matilda's foundation--the "Abbaye aux Dames"
+at Caen--has a Norman crypt where the thirty-four pillars are as closely
+set as those at Worcester. The church of St Eutropius at Saintes has
+also a crypt of the 11th century, of very large dimensions, which
+deserves special notice; the capitals of the columns exhibit very
+curious carvings. Earlier than any already mentioned is that of St
+Gervase of Rouen, considered by E. A. Freeman "the oldest ecclesiastical
+work to be seen north of the Alps." It is apsidal, and in its walls are
+layers of Roman brick. It is said to contain the remains of two of the
+earliest apostles of Gaul--St Mello and St Avitian. There are numerous
+crypts in Germany. One at Göttingen may be mentioned, where cylindrical
+shafts with capitals of singular design support "vaulting of great
+elegance and lightness" (Fergusson), the curves being those of a
+horseshoe arch. The crypts of the cathedrals or churches at Halberstadt,
+Hildesheim and Naumburg also deserve to be noticed; that of Lübeck may
+be rather called a lower choir. It is 20 ft. high and vaulted.
+
+The Italian crypts, when found, as a rule reproduce the "confessio" of
+the primitive churches. That beneath the chancel of S. Michele at Pavia
+is an excellent typical example, probably dating from the 10th century.
+It is apsidal and vaulted, and is seven bays in length. That at S. Zeno
+at Verona (c. 1138) is still more remarkable; its vaulted roof is
+upborne by forty columns, with curiously carved capitals. It is
+approached from the west by a double flight of steps and contains many
+ancient monuments. S. Miniato at Florence, begun in 1013, has a very
+spacious crypt at the east end, forming virtually a second choir. It is
+seven bays in length and vaulted. The most remarkable crypt in Italy,
+however, is perhaps that of St Mark's, Venice. The plan of this is
+almost a Greek cross. Four rows of nine columns each run from end to
+end, and two rows of three each occupy the arms of the cross, supporting
+low stunted arches on which rests the pavement of the church above. This
+also constitutes a lower church, containing a _chorus cantorum_ formed
+by a low stone screen, not unlike that of S. Clemente at Rome (see
+BASILICA), enclosing a massive stone altar with four low columns. This
+crypt is reasonably supposed to belong to the church founded by the doge
+P. Orseolo in 977. There are also crypts deserving notice at the
+cathedrals of Brescia, Fiesole and Modena, and the churches of S.
+Ambrogio and S. Eustorgio at Milan. The former was unfortunately
+modernized by St Charles Borromeo. The crypt at Assisi is really a
+second church at a lower level, and being built on the steep side of a
+hill is well lighted. The whole fabric is a beautiful specimen of
+Italian Gothic, and both the lower and upper churches are covered with
+rich frescoes.
+
+Domestic crypts are of frequent occurrence. Medieval houses had as a
+rule their chief rooms raised above the level of the ground upon vaulted
+substructures, which were used as cellars and storerooms. These were
+sometimes partially underground, sometimes entirely above it. The
+underground vaults often remain when all the superstructure has been
+swept away, and from their Gothic character are frequently mistaken for
+ecclesiastical buildings. The older English towns are full of crypts of
+this character, now used as cellars. They occur in Oxford and Rochester,
+are very abundant in the older parts of Bristol, and, according to J. H.
+Parker, "nearly the whole city of Chester is built upon a series of them
+with the Rows or passages made on the top of the vaults" (_Domestic
+Architecture_, iii. 91). The crypt of Gerard's Hall in London, destroyed
+in the construction of New Cannon Street, figured by Parker (_Dom.
+Arch._ ii. 185), was a beautiful example of the lower storey of the
+residence of a wealthy merchant of the time of Edward I. It was divided
+down the middle by a row of four slender cylindrical columns supporting
+a very graceful vault. The finest example of a secular crypt now
+remaining in England is that beneath the Guildhall of London. The date
+of this is early in the 15th century--1411. It is a large and lofty
+apartment, divided into four alleys by two rows of clustered shafts
+supporting a rich lierne vault with ribs of considerable intricacy.
+There is a fine vaulted crypt of the same date and of similar character
+beneath St Mary's Hall, the Guildhall of the city of Coventry. (E. V.)
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTEIA (Gr. [Greek: kryptein], to hide), a kind of secret police in
+ancient Sparta, founded, according to Aristotle, by Lycurgus; there is,
+however, no real evidence as to the date of its origin. The institution
+was under the supervision of the ephors, who, on entering office,
+annually proclaimed war against the helots (serf-class) and thus
+absolved from the guilt of murder any Spartan who should slay a helot.
+It was instituted primarily as a precaution against the ever-present
+danger of a helot revolt, and secondarily perhaps as a training for
+young Spartans, who were sent out by the ephors to keep watch on the
+helots and assassinate any who might appear dangerous. Plato (_Laws_, i.
+p. 633) emphasizes the former aspect, but there can be little doubt
+that, at all events after the revolt of 464 (see Cimon), its more
+sinister purpose was predominant, as we may gather from the secret
+massacre of 2000 helots who, on the invitation of the ephors, claimed to
+have rendered distinguished service (Thuc. iv. 80).
+
+  See HELOTS; EPHOR; also A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Gk. Const.
+  Hist._ (London, 1896); G. Gilbert, _Gk. Const. Antiq._ (Eng. trans.,
+  London, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTOBRANCHUS, a genus of thoroughly aquatic, but lung-breathing tailed
+Batrachia, of the family _Amphiumidae_, characterized by a heavy,
+flattened build, a very porous tubercular skin, with a frilled fold
+along each side, short stout limbs with four very short fingers and five
+very short toes, and minute eyes without lids. The vertebrae are
+biconcave, and although the gills are lost in the adult, ossified
+gill-arches, two to four in number, persist. A strong series of vomerine
+teeth extends across the palate. Three species of this genus are known.
+One is the well-known fossil of Oeningen first described as _Homo
+diluvii testis_ and shown by Cuvier to be nearly related to the gigantic
+salamander of Japan, _Cryptobranchus maximus_, which has since been
+found to inhabit China also; the third is the hellbender, mud-puppy or
+water-dog of North America, _C. alleghaniensis_, also known under the
+name of _Menopoma_. Both the fossil _C. scheuchzeri_ and _C. maximus_
+grow to a length of over 5 ft. and are by far the largest Urodeles
+known, whilst _C. alleghaniensis_ reaches the respectable length of 18
+in.
+
+The eggs are laid in rosary-like strings. They have been found, in
+Japan, deposited in deep holes in the water, where they form large
+clumps (70 to 80 eggs) round which the female coils herself. The
+gigantic salamander has also bred in the Amsterdam zoological gardens,
+the eggs numbering upwards of 500; the male, it is stated, took charge
+of the eggs, and for the ten weeks which elapsed before the release of
+the last larva, he kept close to them, at times crawling among the
+coiled mass of egg-strings or lifting them up, evidently for the purpose
+of aeration. The larva on leaving the egg is about an inch long,
+provided with three branched external gills on each side, and showing
+mere rudiments of the four limbs.
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTOGRAPHY (from Gr. [Greek: kryptos], hidden, and [Greek: graphein],
+to write), or writing in cipher, called also steganography (from Gr.
+[Greek: steganę], a covering), the art of writing in such a way as to be
+incomprehensible except to those who possess the key to the system
+employed. The unravelling of the writing is called deciphering.
+Cryptography having become a distinct art, Bacon (Lord Verulam) classed
+it (under the name _ciphers_) as a part of grammar. Secret modes of
+communication have been in use from the earliest times. The
+Lacedemonians had a method called the _scytale_, from the staff ([Greek:
+skytalę]) employed in constructing and deciphering the message. When the
+Spartan ephors wished to forward their orders to their commanders
+abroad, they wound slantwise a narrow strip of parchment upon the
+[Greek: skytalę] so that the edges met close together, and the message
+was then added in such a way that the centre of the line of writing was
+on the edges of the parchment. When unwound the scroll consisted of
+broken letters; and in that condition it was despatched to its
+destination, the general to whose hands it came deciphering it by means
+of a [Greek: skytalę] exactly corresponding to that used by the ephors.
+Polybius has enumerated other methods of cryptography.
+
+The art was in use also amongst the Romans. Upon the revival of letters
+methods of secret correspondence were introduced into private business,
+diplomacy, plots, &c.; and as the study of this art has always presented
+attractions to the ingenious, a curious body of literature has been the
+result.
+
+John Trithemius (d. 1516), the abbot of Spanheim, was the first
+important writer on cryptography. His _Polygraphia_, published in 1518,
+has passed through many editions, and has supplied the basis upon which
+subsequent writers have worked. It was begun at the desire of the duke
+of Bavaria; but Trithemius did not at first intend to publish it, on the
+ground that it would be injurious to public interests. A
+_Steganographia_ published at Lyons (? 1551) and later at Frankfort
+(1606), is also attributed to him. The next treatises of importance were
+those of Giovanni Battista della Porta, the Neapolitan mathematician,
+who wrote _De furtivis litterarum notis_, 1563; and of Blaise de
+Vigenere, whose _Traité des chiffres_ appeared in Paris, 1587. Bacon
+proposed an ingenious system of cryptography on the plan of what is
+called the double cipher; but while thus lending to the art the
+influence of his great name, he gave an intimation as to the general
+opinion formed of it and as to the classes of men who used it. For when
+prosecuting the earl of Somerset in the matter of the poisoning of
+Overbury, he urged it as an aggravation of the crime that the earl and
+Overbury "had cyphers and jargons for the king and queen and all the
+great men,--things seldom used but either by princes and their
+ambassadors and ministers, or by such as work or practise against or, at
+least, upon princes."
+
+Other eminent Englishmen were afterwards connected with the art. John
+Wilkins, subsequently bishop of Chester, published in 1641 an anonymous
+treatise entitled _Mercury, or The Secret and Swift Messenger_,--a small
+but comprehensive work on the subject, and a timely gift to the
+diplomatists and leaders of the Civil War. The deciphering of many of
+the royalist papers of that period, such as the letters that fell into
+the hands of the parliament at the battle of Naseby, has by Henry Stubbe
+been charged on the celebrated mathematician Dr John Wallis (_Athen.
+Oxon._ iii. 1072), whose connexion with the subject of cipher-writing is
+referred to by himself in the Oxford edition of his mathematical works,
+1689, p. 659; as also by John Davys. Dr Wallis elsewhere states that
+this art, formerly scarcely known to any but the secretaries of princes,
+&c., had grown very common and familiar during the civil commotions, "so
+that now there is scarce a person of quality but is more or less
+acquainted with it, and doth, as there is occasion, make use of it."
+Subsequent writers on the subject are John Falconer (_Cryptomenysis
+patefacta_), 1685; John Davys (_An Essay on the Art of Decyphering: in
+which is inserted a Discourse of Dr Wallis_), 1737; Philip Thicknesse
+(_A Treatise on the Art of Decyphering and of Writing in Cypher_), 1772;
+William Blair (the writer of the comprehensive article "Cipher" in
+Rees's _Cyclopaedia_), 1819; and G. von Marten (Cours _diplomatique_),
+1801 (a fourth edition of which appeared in 1851). Perhaps the best
+modern work on this subject is the _Kryptographik_ of J. L. Klüber
+(Tübingen, 1809), who was drawn into the investigation by inclination
+and official circumstances. In this work the different methods of
+cryptography are classified. Amongst others of lesser merit who have
+treated of this art may be named Gustavus Selenus (i.e. Augustus, duke
+of Brunswick), 1624; Cospi, translated by Niceron in 1641; the marquis
+of Worchester, 1659; Kircher, 1663; Schott, 1665; Ludwig Heinrich
+Hiller, 1682; Comiers; 1690; Baring, 1737; Conrad, 1739, &c. See also a
+paper on _Elizabethan Cipher-books_ by A. J. Butler in the
+Bibliographical Society's _Transactions_, London, 1901.
+
+Schemes of cryptography are endless in their variety. Bacon lays down
+the following as the "virtues" to be looked for in them:--"that they be
+not laborious to write and read; that they be impossible to decipher;
+and, in some cases, that they be without suspicion." These principles
+are more or less disregarded by all the modes that have been advanced,
+including that of Bacon himself, which has been unduly extolled by his
+admirers as "one of the most ingenious methods of writing in cypher, and
+the most difficult to be decyphered, of any yet contrived" (Thicknesse,
+p. 13).
+
+The simplest and commonest of all the ciphers is that in which the
+writer selects in place of the proper letters certain other letters in
+regular advance. This method of transposition was used by Julius Caesar.
+He, "per quartam elementorum literam," wrote _d_ for _a_, _e_ for _b_,
+and so on. There are instances of this arrangement in the Jewish rabbis,
+and even in the sacred writers. An illustration of it occurs in Jeremiah
+(xxv. 26), where the prophet, to conceal the meaning of his prediction
+from all but the initiated, writes _Sheshak_ instead of Babel (Babylon),
+the place meant; i.e. in place of using the second and twelfth letters
+of the Hebrew alphabet (_b_, _b_, _l_) from the beginning, he wrote the
+second and twelfth (_sh_, _sh_, _k_) from the end. To this kind of
+cipher-writing Buxtorf gives the name Athbash (from _a_ the first letter
+of the Hebrew alphabet, and _th_ the last; _b_ the second from the
+beginning, and _h_ the second from the end). Another Jewish cabalism of
+like nature was called Albam; of which an example is in Isaiah vii. 6,
+where Tabeal is written for Remaliah. In its adaptation to English this
+method of transposition, of which there are many modifications, is
+comparatively easy to decipher. A rough key may be derived from an
+examination of the respective quantities of letters in a type-founder's
+bill, or a printer's "case." The decipherer's first business is to
+classify the letters of the secret message in the order of their
+frequency. The letter that occurs oftenest is _e_; and the next in order
+of frequency is _t_. The following groups come after these, separated
+from each other by degrees of decreasing recurrence:--_a_, _o_, _n_,
+_i_; _r_, _s_, _h_; _d_, _l_; _c_, _w_, _u_, _m_; _f_, _y_, _g_, _p_,
+_b_; _v_, _k_; _x_, _q_, _j_, _z_. All the single letters must be _a_,
+_I_ or _O_. Letters occurring together are _ee_, _oo_, _ff_, _ll_, _ss_,
+&c. The commonest words of two letters are (roughly arranged in the
+order of their frequency) _of_, _to_, _in_, _it_, _is_, _be_, _he_,
+_by_, _or_, _as_, _at_, _an_, _so_, &c. The commonest words of three
+letters are _the_ and _and_ (in great excess), _for_, _are_, _but_,
+_all_, _not_, &c.; and of four letters--_that_, _with_, _from_, _have_,
+_this_, _they_, &c. Familiarity with the composition of the language
+will suggest numerous other points that are of value to the decipherer.
+He may obtain other hints from Poe's tale called _The Gold Bug_. As to
+messages in the continental languages constructed upon this system of
+transposition, rules for deciphering may be derived from Breithaupt's
+_Ars decifratoria_ (1737), and other treatises.
+
+Bacon remarks that though ciphers were commonly in letters and alphabets
+yet they might be in words. Upon this basis codes have been constructed,
+classified words taken from dictionaries being made to represent
+complete ideas. In recent years such codes have been adapted by
+merchants and others to communications by telegraph, and have served the
+purpose not only of keeping business affairs private, but also of
+reducing the excessive cost of telegraphic messages to distant markets.
+Obviously this class of ciphers presents greater difficulties to the
+skill of the decipherer.
+
+Figures and other characters have been also used as letters; and with
+them ranges of numerals have been combined as the representatives of
+syllables, parts of words, words themselves, and complete phrases. Under
+this head must be placed the despatches of Giovanni Michael, the
+Venetian ambassador to England in the reign of Queen Mary, documents
+which have only of late years been deciphered. Many of the private
+letters and papers from the pen of Charles I. and his queen, who were
+adepts in the use of ciphers, are of the same description. One of that
+monarch's letters, a document of considerable interest, consisting
+entirely of numerals purposely complicated, was in 1858 deciphered by
+Professor Wheatstone, the inventor of the ingenious crypto-machine, and
+printed by the Philobiblon Society. Other letters of the like character
+have been published in the _First Report of the Royal Commission on
+Historical Manuscripts_ (1870). In the second and subsequent reports of
+the same commission several keys to ciphers have been catalogued, which
+seem to refer themselves to the methods of cryptography under notice. In
+this connexion also should be mentioned the "characters," which the
+diarist Pepys drew up when clerk to Sir George Downing and secretary to
+the earl of Sandwich and to the admiralty, and which are frequently
+mentioned in his journal. Pepys describes one of them as "a great large
+character," over which he spent much time, but which was at length
+finished, 25th April 1660; "it being," says he, "very handsomely done
+and a very good one in itself, but that not truly alphabetical."
+
+Shorthand marks and other arbitrary characters have also been largely
+imported into cryptographic systems to represent both letters and words,
+but more commonly the latter. This plan is said to have been first put
+into use by the old Roman poet Ennius. It formed the basis of the method
+of Cicero's freedman, Tiro, who seems to have systematized the labours
+of his predecessors. A large quantity of these characters have been
+engraved in Gruter's _Inscriptiones_. The correspondence of Charlemagne
+was in part made up of marks of this nature. In Rees's _Cyclopaedia_
+specimens were engraved of the cipher used by Cardinal Wolsey at the
+court of Vienna in 1524, of that used by Sir Thomas Smith at Paris in
+1563, and of that of Sir Edward Stafford in 1586; in all of which
+arbitrary marks are introduced. The first English system of
+shorthand--Bright's _Characterie_, 1588--almost belongs to the same
+category of ciphers. A favourite system of Charles I., used by him
+during the year 1646, was one made up of an alphabet of twenty-four
+letters, which were represented by four simple strokes varied in length,
+slope and position. This alphabet is engraved in Clive's _Linear System
+of Shorthand_ (1830), having been found amongst the royal manuscripts in
+the British Museum. An interest attaches to this cipher from the fact
+that it was employed in the well-known letter addressed by the king to
+the earl of Glamorgan, in which the former made concessions to the Roman
+Catholics of Ireland.
+
+Complications have been introduced into ciphers by the employment of
+"dummy" letters,--"nulls and insignificants," as Bacon terms them. Other
+devices have been introduced to perplex the decipherer, such as spelling
+words backwards, making false divisions between words, &c. The greatest
+security against the decipherer has been found in the use of elaborate
+tables of letters, arranged in the form of the multiplication table, the
+message being constructed by the aid of preconcerted key-words. Details
+of the working of these ciphers may be found in the treatises named in
+this article. The deciphering of them is one of the most difficult of
+tasks. A method of this kind is explained in the Latin and English lives
+of Dr John Barwick, whose correspondence with Hyde, afterwards earl of
+Clarendon, was carried on in cryptography. In a letter dated 20th
+February 1659/60, Hyde, alluding to the skill of his political opponents
+in deciphering, says that "nobody needs to fear them, if they write
+carefully in good cyphers." In his next he allays his correspondent's
+apprehensiveness as to the deciphering of their letters.
+
+  "I confess to you, as I am sure no copy could be gotten of any of my
+  cyphers from hence, so I did not think it probable that they could be
+  got on your side the water. But I was as confident, till you tell me
+  you believe it, that the devil himself cannot decypher a letter that
+  is well written, or find that 100 stands for Sir H. Vane. I have heard
+  of many of the pretenders to that skill, and have spoken with some of
+  them, but have found them all to be mountebanks; nor did I ever hear
+  that more of the King's letters that were found at Naseby, than those
+  which they found decyphered, or found the cyphers in which they were
+  writ, were decyphered. And I very well remember that in the volume
+  they published there was much left in cypher which could not be
+  understood, and which I believe they would have explained if it had
+  been in their power."
+
+An excellent modification of the key-word principle was constructed by
+Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort.
+
+Ciphers have been constructed on the principle of altering the places of
+the letters without changing their powers. The message is first written
+Chinese-wise, upward and downward, and the letters are then combined in
+given rows from left to right. In the celebrated cipher used by the earl
+of Argyll when plotting against James II., he altered the positions of
+the words. Sentences of an indifferent nature were constructed, but the
+real meaning of the message was to be gathered from words, placed at
+certain intervals. This method, which is connected with the name of
+Cardan, is sometimes called the trellis or cardboard cipher.
+
+The wheel-cipher, which is an Italian invention, the string-cipher, the
+circle-cipher and many others are fully explained, with the necessary
+diagrams, in the authorities named above--more particularly by Klüber in
+his _Kryptographik_.     (J. E. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTOMERIA, or JAPANESE CEDAR, a genus of conifers, containing a single
+species, _C. japonica_, native of China and Japan, which was introduced
+into Great Britain by the Royal Horticultural Society in 1844. It is
+described as one of the finest trees in Japan, reaching a height of 100
+or more feet, usually divested of branches along the lower part of the
+trunk and crowned with a conical head. The narrow, pointed leaves are
+spirally arranged and persist for four or five years; the cones are
+small, globose and borne at the ends of the branchlets, the scales are
+thickened at the extremity and divided into sharply pointed lobes, three
+to five seeds are borne on each scale. _Cryptomeria_ is extensively used
+in Japan for reafforesting denuded lands, as it is a valuable timber
+tree; it is also planted to form avenues along the public roads. In
+Veitch's _Manual of Coniferae_ (ed. 2, 1900, p. 265) reference is made
+to "an avenue of Cryptomerias 7 m. in extent near Lake Hakone" in which
+"the trees are more than 100 ft. high, with perfectly straight trunks
+crowned with conical heads of foliage." Professor C. S. Sargent, in his
+_Forest Flora of Japan_, says, "Japan owes much of the beauty of its
+groves and gardens to the _Cryptomeria_. Nowhere is there a more solemn
+and impressive group of trees than that which surrounds the temples and
+tombs at Nikko where they rise to a height of 100 to 125 ft.; it is a
+stately tree with no rival except in the sequoias of California." Many
+curious varieties have been obtained by Japanese horticulturists,
+including some dwarf shrubby forms not exceeding a few feet in height.
+When grown in Great Britain _Cryptomeria_ requires a deep, well-drained
+soil with plenty of moisture, and protection from cold winds.
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTO-PORTICUS (Gr. [Greek: kryptos], concealed, and Lat. _porticus_),
+an architectural term for a concealed or covered passage, generally
+underground, though lighted and ventilated from the open air. One of the
+best-known examples is the crypto-porticus under the palaces of the
+Caesars in Rome. In Hadrian's villa in Rome they formed the principal
+private intercommunication between the several buildings.
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTAL-GAZING, or SCRYING, the term commonly applied to the induction
+of visual hallucinations by concentrating the gaze on any clear deep,
+such as a crystal or a ball of polished rock crystal. Some persons do
+not even find a clear deep necessary, and are content to gaze at the
+palm of the hand, for example, when hallucinatory pictures, as they
+declare, emerge. Among objects used are a pool of ink in the hand
+(Egypt), the liver of an animal (tribes of the North-West Indian
+frontier), a hole filled with water (Polynesia), quartz crystals (the
+Apaches and the Euahlayi tribe of New South Wales), a smooth slab of
+polished black stone (the Huille-che of South America), water in a
+vessel (Zulus and Siberians), a crystal (the Incas), a mirror (classical
+Greece and the middle ages), the finger-nail, a sword-blade, a
+ring-stone, a glass of sherry, in fact almost anything. Much depends on
+what the "seer" is accustomed to use, and some persons who can "scry" in
+a glass ball or a glass water-bottle cannot "scry" in ink.
+
+The practice of inducing pictorial hallucinations by such methods as
+these has been traced among the natives of North and South America,
+Asia, Australia, Africa, among the Maoris, who sometimes use a drop of
+blood, and in Polynesia, and is thus practically of world-wide
+diffusion. This fact was not observed (that is, the collections of
+examples were not made) till recently, when experiments in private
+non-spiritualist circles drew attention to crystal-gazing, a practice
+always popular among peasants, and known historically to have survived
+through classical and medieval times, and, as in the famous case of Dr
+Dee, after the Reformation.
+
+The early church condemned _specularii_ (mirror-gazers), and Aubrey and
+the _Memoirs_ of Saint-Simon contain "scrying" anecdotes of the 17th and
+18th centuries, while Sir Walter Scott's story, _My Aunt Margaret's
+Mirror_, is based on a tradition of about 1750 in a noble Scottish
+family. The practice, in all times and countries, was used for purposes
+of divination. The gazer detected unknown criminals, or described remote
+events, or even professed to foretell things future. Sometimes the
+supposed magician or medicine man himself did the scrying; occasionally
+he enabled his client to see for himself; often a child was selected as
+the scryer. The process was usually explained as the result of the
+action of a spirit, angel or devil, and many unessential formulae,
+invocations, "calls," written charms with cabbalistic signs, and
+fumigations, were employed. These things may have had some effect by way
+of suggestion; the scryer may have been brought by them into an
+appropriate frame of mind; but, as a whole, they are tedious and
+superfluous.
+
+A person can either induce the pictorial hallucinations (he may discover
+his capacity by accident, like George Sand, as she tells in her
+_Memoirs_--and other cases are known), or he cannot induce them, though
+he stare till his eyes water. It is almost universally found, in cases
+of successful experiment, that the glass ball, for example, takes a
+milky or misty aspect, that it then grows black, reflections
+disappearing, and that then the pictures emerge. Some people arrive at
+seeing the glass ball milky or misty, and can go no further. Others see
+pictures of persons or landscapes, only in black and white, and
+motionless. Others see in the glass coloured figures of men, women and
+animals in motion; while in rarer cases the ball disappears from view,
+and the scryer finds himself apparently looking at an actual scene. In a
+few attested cases two persons have shared the same vision. In
+experiments with magnifying glasses, and through spars, the ordinary
+effects of magnifying and of alteration of view are sometimes produced;
+sometimes they are not. The evidence, of course, is necessarily only
+that of the scryers themselves, but repeated experiments by persons of
+probity, and unfamiliar with the topic, combined with the world-wide
+existence of the practice, prove that hallucinatory pictures are really
+induced.
+
+It has not been found possible to determine, before experiment, whether
+any given man or woman will prove capable of the hallucinatory
+experiences. Many subjects with strong powers of "visualization," or
+seeing things "in the mind's eye," cannot scry; others are successful in
+various degrees. We might expect persons who have experienced
+spontaneous visual hallucinations, of the kind vulgarly styled "ghosts"
+or "wraiths," to succeed in inducing pictures in a glass ball. As a
+matter of fact such persons sometimes can and sometimes cannot see
+pictures in the way of crystal-gazing; while many who can see in the
+crystal have had no spontaneous hallucinations. It is useless to make
+experiments with hysterical and visionary people, "whose word no man
+relies on"; they may have the hallucinatory experiences, but they would
+say that they had in any case.
+
+The nearest analogy to crystal visions, as described, is the common
+experience of "hypnagogic illusions" (cf. Alfred Maury. _Les Ręves et le
+sommeil_). With closed eyes, between sleeping and waking, many people
+see faces, landscapes and other things flash upon their view, pictures
+often brilliant, but of very brief duration and rapid mutation.
+Sometimes the subject opens his eyes to get rid of an unpleasant vision
+of this kind. People who cannot scry may have these hypnagogic
+illusions, and, so far, may partly understand the experience of the
+scryer who is wide awake. But the visions of the scryer often endure for
+a considerable time. He or she may put the glass down and converse, and
+may find the picture still there when the ball is taken up again. New
+figures may join the figure first seen, as when one enters a room. In
+these respects, and in the awakeness of the scryer, crystal pictures
+differ from hypnagogic illusions. In other ways the experiences
+coincide, the pictures are either fanciful, like illustrations of some
+unread history or romance, or are revivals of remembered places and
+faces.
+
+Occasionally, in hypnagogic illusions, the observer can see the picture
+develop rapidly out of a blot of light or colour, beheld by the closed
+eyes. One or two scryers think that they, too, can trace the picture as
+it develops on the suggestion of some passage of light, colour or shadow
+in the glass or crystal. But, as a rule, the scryer cannot detect any
+process of development from such _points de mire_; though this may be
+the actual process.
+
+On the whole there seems little doubt that successful crystal-gazing is
+the exertion of a not uncommon though far from universal faculty, like
+those of "chromatic audition"--the vivid association of certain sounds
+with certain colours--and the mental seeing of figures arranged in
+coloured diagrams (Galton, _Inquiry into Human Faculty_, pp. 114-154).
+The experience of hypnagogic illusions also seems far more rare than
+ordinary dreaming in sleep. Unfortunately, while these phenomena have
+been carefully studied by officially scientific characters, in England
+orthodox _savants_ have disdained to observe crystal-gazing, while in
+France psychologists have too commonly experimented with subjects
+professionally hysterical and quite untrustworthy. Our remarks are
+therefore based mainly on considerable personal study of "scrying" among
+normal British subjects of both sexes, to whom the topic was previously
+unknown.
+
+The superstitious associations of crystal-gazing, as of hypnotism,
+appear to bar the way to official scientific investigation, and the
+fluctuating proficiency of the seers, who cannot command success, or
+determine the causes and conditions of success and failure, tends in the
+same direction. The existence, too, of paid professionals who lead
+astray silly women, encourages the natural scientific contempt for the
+study of the faculty.
+
+The seeing of the pictures, as far as we have spoken of it, appears to
+be a thing unusual, but in no way abnormal, any more than dreams or
+hypnagogic illusions are abnormal. Crystal pictures, however, are
+commonly dismissed as mere results of "imagination," a theory which, of
+course, is of no real assistance to psychology. Persons of recognized
+"imaginativeness," such as novelists and artists, do not seem more or
+less capable of the hallucinatory experiences than their sober
+neighbours; while persons not otherwise recognizably "imaginative" (we
+could quote a singularly accurate historian) are capable of the
+experiences. It is unfortunate, as it awakens prejudice, but in the
+present writer's opinion it is true, that crystal-gazing sometimes is
+rewarded with results which may be styled "supra-normal." In addition to
+the presentation of revived memories, and of "objectivation of ideas or
+images consciously or unconsciously in the mind of the percipient,"
+there occur "visions, possibly telepathic or clairvoyant, implying
+acquirement of knowledge by supra-normal means."[1]
+
+A number of examples occurring during experiments made by the present
+writer and by his acquaintances in 1897 were carefully recorded and
+attested by the signatures of all concerned The cases, or rather a
+selection of the cases, are printed in A. Lang's book, _The Making of
+Religion_ (2nd ed., London, 1902, pp. 87-104). Others are chronicled in
+A. Lang's Introduction to Mr N. W. Thomas's work, _Crystal Gazing_
+(1905). The experiments took this form: any person might ask the scryer
+(a lady who had never previously heard of crystal-gazing) "to see what
+he was thinking of." The scryer, who was a stranger in a place which she
+had not visited before, gave, in a long series of cases, a description
+of the person or place on which the inquirer's thoughts were fixed. The
+descriptions, though three or four entire failures occurred, were of
+remarkable accuracy as a rule, and contained facts and incidents unknown
+to the inquirers, but confirmed as accurate. In fact, some Oriental
+scenes and descriptions of incidents were corroborated by a letter from
+India which arrived just after the experiment; and the same thing
+happened when the events described were occurring in places less remote.
+On one occasion a curious set of incidents were described, which
+happened to be vividly present to the mind of a sceptical stranger who
+chanced to be in the room during the experiment; events unknown to the
+inquirer in this instance. As an example of the minuteness of
+description, an inquirer, thinking of a brother in India, an officer in
+the army, whose hair had suffered in an encounter with a tiger, had
+described to her an officer in undress uniform, with bald scars through
+the hair on his temples, such as he really bore. The number and
+proportion of successes was too high to admit of explanation by chance
+coincidence, but success was not invariable. On one occasion the scryer
+could see nothing, "the crystal preserved its natural diaphaneity," as
+Dr Dee says; and there were failures with two or three inquirers. On the
+other hand no record was kept in several cases of success.
+
+Whoever can believe that the successes were numerous and that
+descriptions were given correctly--not only of facts present to the
+minds of inquirers, and of other persons present who were not
+consciously taking a share in the experiments, but also of facts
+necessarily unknown to all concerned--must of course be most impressed
+by the latter kind of success. If the process commonly styled
+"telepathy" exists (see TELEPATHY), that may account for the scryer's
+power of seeing facts which are in the mind of the inquirer. But when
+the scryers see details of various sorts, which are unknown to the
+inquirer, but are verified on inquiry, then telepathy perhaps fails to
+provide an explanation. We seem to be confronted with actual
+clairvoyance (q.v.), or _vue ŕ distance_. It would be vain to form
+hypotheses as to the conditions or faculties which make _vue ŕ distance_
+possible. This way lie metaphysics, with Hegel's theory of the Sensitive
+Soul, or Myers' theory of the Subliminal Self. "The intuitive soul,"
+says Hegel, "oversteps the conditions of time and space; it beholds
+things remote, things long past, and things to come."[2]
+
+What we need, if any progress is to be made in knowledge of the subject,
+is not a metaphysical hypothesis, but a large, carefully tested, and
+well-recorded collection of examples, made by _savants_ of recognized
+standing. At present we are where we were in electrical science, when
+Newton produced curious sparks while rubbing glass with paper. By way of
+facts, we have only a large body of unattested anecdotes of supra-normal
+successes in crystal-gazing, in many lands and ages; and the scanty
+records of modern amateur investigators, like the present writer. Even
+from these, if the honesty of all concerned be granted (and even clever
+dishonesty could not have produced many of the results), it would appear
+that we are investigating a strange and important human faculty. The
+writer is acquainted with no experiments in which it was attempted to
+discern the future (except in trivial cases as to events on the turf,
+when chance coincidence might explain the successes), and only with two
+or three cases in which there was an attempt to help historical science
+and discern the past by aid of psychical methods. The results were
+interesting and difficult to explain, but the experiments were few.
+Ordinary scryers of fancy pictures are common enough, but scryers
+capable of apparently supra-normal successes are apparently rare.
+Perhaps something depends on the inquirer as well as the scryer.
+
+The method of scrying, as generally practised, is simple. It is usual to
+place a glass ball on a dark ground, to sit with the back to the light,
+to focus the gaze on the ball (disregarding reflections, if these cannot
+be excluded), and to await results. Perhaps from five to ten minutes is
+a long enough time for the experiment. The scryer may let his
+consciousness play freely, but should not be disturbed by lookers-on. As
+a rule, if a person has the faculty he "sees" at the first attempt; if
+he fails in the first three or four efforts he need not persevere.
+Solitude is advisable at first, but few people can find time amounting
+to ten minutes for solitary studies of this sort, so busy and so
+gregarious is mankind. The writer has no experience of trance, sleep or
+auto-hypnotization produced in such experiments; scryers have always
+seemed to retain their full normal consciousness. As regards scepticism
+concerning the faculty we may quote what Mr Galton says about the
+faculty of visualization: "Scientific men as a class have feeble power
+of visual reproduction.... They had a mental deficiency of which they
+were unconscious, and, naturally enough, supposed that those who
+affirmed _they_ were possessed of it were romancing."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A useful essay is that of "Miss X" (Miss Goodrich Freer)
+  in the _Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, v. The
+  history of crystal-gazing is here traced, and many examples of the
+  author's own experiments are recorded. A. Lang's _The Making of
+  Religion_, ch. v., contains anthropological examples and a series of
+  experiments. In N. W. Thomas's _Crystal Gazing_ the history and
+  anthropology of the subject are investigated, with modern instances.
+  For Egypt, see Lane's _Modern Egyptians_, and the _Journal_ of Sir
+  Walter Scott, xi. 419-421, with _Quarterly Review_, No. 117, pp.
+  196-208. These Egyptian experiments of 1830 were vitiated by their
+  method, the scryer being asked to see and describe a given person,
+  named. He ought not, of course, to be told more than that he is to
+  descry the inquirer's thoughts, and there ought never to be physical
+  contact, as in holding hands, between the inquirer and the scryer
+  during the experiment. There is a chapter on crystal-gazing in _Les
+  Névroses et les idées fixes_ of Dr Janet (1898). His statements are
+  sometimes demonstrably inaccurate (see _Making of Religion_, Appendix
+  C). A curious passage on the subject, by Ibn Khaldun, an Arabian
+  medieval _savant_, is quoted by Mr Thomas from the printed Extracts of
+  MSS. in the Bibliothčque Nationale. There is also a chapter on
+  crystal-gazing in Myers' _Human Personality_.     (A. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, v. 486.
+
+  [2] "Philosophie der Geistes," Hegel's _Werke_, vii. 179, 406, 408
+    (Berlin, 1845). Cf. Wallace's translation (Oxford, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLITE. In media which, on account of their viscosity, offer
+considerable resistance to those molecular movements which are necessary
+for the building and growth of crystals, rudimentary or imperfect forms
+of crystallization very frequently occur. Such media are the volcanic
+rocks when they are rapidly cooled, producing various kinds of
+pitchstone, obsidian, &c. When examined under the microscope these rocks
+consist largely of a perfectly amorphous or glassy base, through which
+are scattered great numbers of very minute crystals (microliths), and
+other bodies, termed crystallites, which seem to be stages in the
+formation of crystals. Crystallites may also be produced by allowing a
+solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide mixed with Canada balsam to
+evaporate slowly, and their development may be watched on a microscopic
+slide. Small globules appear (globulites), spherical and non-crystalline
+(so far as can be ascertained). They may coalesce or may arrange
+themselves into rows like strings of beads--margarites--(Gr. [Greek:
+margaritęs], a pearl) or into groups with a somewhat radiate
+arrangement--globospherites. Occasionally they take elongated
+shapes--longulites and baculites (Lat. _baculus_, a staff). The largest
+may become crystalline, changing suddenly into polyhedral bodies with
+evident double refraction and the optical properties belonging to
+crystals. Others become long and thread-like--trichites (Gr. [Greek:
+thrix, trichos], hair)--and these are often curved, and a group of them
+may be implanted on the surface of a small crystal. All these forms are
+found in vitreous igneous rocks. H. P. J. Vogelsang, who was the first
+to direct much attention to them, believes that the globulites are
+preliminary stages in the formation of crystals.
+
+Microliths, as distinguished from crystallites, have crystalline
+properties, and evidently belong to definite minerals or salts. When
+sufficiently large they are often recognizable, but usually they are so
+small, so opaque, or so densely crowded together that this is
+impossible. In igneous rocks they are usually felspar, augite,
+enstatite, and iron oxides, and are found in abundance only where there
+is much uncrystallized glassy base; in contact-altered sediments, slags,
+&c., microlithic forms of garnet, spinel, sillimanite, cordierite,
+various lime silicates, and many other substances have been observed.
+Their form varies greatly, e.g. thin fibres (sillimanite, augite), short
+prisms or rods (felspar, enstatite, cordierite), or equidimensional
+grains (augite, spinel, magnetite). Occasionally they are perfectly
+shaped though minute crystals; more frequently they appear rounded
+(magnetite, &c.), or have brush-like terminations (augite, felspar,
+&c.). The larger microliths may contain enclosures of glass, and it is
+very common to find that the prisms have hollow, funnel-shaped ends,
+which are filled with vitreous material. These microliths, under the
+influence of crystalline forces, may rank themselves side by side to
+make up skeleton crystals and networks, or feathery and arborescent
+forms, which obey more or less closely the laws of crystallization of
+the substance to which they belong. They bear a very close resemblance
+to the arborescent frost flowers seen on window panes in winter, and to
+the stellate snow crystals. In magnetite the growths follow three axes
+at right angles to one another; in augite this is nearly, though not
+exactly, the case; in hornblende an angle of 57° may frequently be
+observed, corresponding to the prism angle of the fully-developed
+crystal. The interstices of the network may be partly filled up by a
+later growth. In other cases the crystalline arrangement of the
+microliths is less perfect, and branching, arborescent or feathery
+groupings are produced (e.g. felspar, augite, hornblende). Spherulites
+may be regarded as radiate aggregates of such microliths (mostly felspar
+mixed with quartz or tridymite). If larger porphyritic crystals occur in
+the rock, the microliths of the vitreous base frequently grow outwards
+from their faces; in some cases a definite parallelism exists between
+the two, but more frequently the early crystal has served merely as a
+centre, or nucleus, from which the microliths and spherulites have
+spread in all directions.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLIZATION, the art of obtaining a substance in the form of
+crystals; it is an important process in chemistry since it permits the
+purification of a substance, or the separation of the constituents of a
+mixture. Generally a substance is more soluble in a solvent at a high
+temperature than at a low, and consequently, if a boiling concentrated
+solution be allowed to cool, the substance will separate in virtue of
+the diminished solubility, and the slower the cooling the larger and
+more perfect will be the crystals formed. If, as sometimes appears, such
+a solution refuses to crystallize, the expedient of inoculating the
+solution with a minute crystal of the same substance, or with a similar
+substance, may be adopted; shaking the solution, or the addition of a
+drop of another solvent, may also occasion the desired result.
+"Fractional crystallization" consists in repeatedly crystallizing a salt
+so as to separate the substances of different solubilities. Examples are
+especially presented in the study of the rare-earths. Other conditions
+under which crystals are formed are given in the article
+CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (from the Gr. [Greek: krystallos], ice, and [Greek:
+graphein], to write), the science of the forms, properties and structure
+of crystals. Homogeneous solid matter, the physical and chemical
+properties of which are the same about every point, may be either
+amorphous or crystalline. In amorphous matter all the properties are the
+same in every direction in the mass; but in crystalline matter certain
+of the physical properties vary with the direction. The essential
+properties of crystalline matter are of two kinds, viz. the general
+properties, such as density, specific heat, melting-point and chemical
+composition, which do not vary with the direction; and the directional
+properties, such as cohesion and elasticity, various optical, thermal
+and electrical properties, as well as external form. By reason of the
+homogeneity of crystalline matter the directional properties are the
+same in all parallel directions in the mass, and there may be a certain
+symmetrical repetition of the directions along which the properties are
+the same.
+
+When the crystallization of matter takes place under conditions free
+from outside influences the peculiarities of internal structure are
+expressed in the external form of the mass, and there results a solid
+body bounded by plane surfaces intersecting in straight edges, the
+directions of which bear an intimate relation to the internal structure.
+Such a polyhedron ([Greek: polys], many, [Greek: hedra], base or face)
+is known as a crystal. An example of this is sugar-candy, of which a
+single isolated crystal may have grown freely in a solution of sugar.
+Matter presenting well-defined and regular crystal forms, either as a
+single crystal or as a group of individual crystals, is said to be
+crystallized. If, on the other hand, crystallization has taken place
+about several centres in a confined space, the development of plane
+surfaces may be prevented, and a crystalline aggregate of differently
+orientated crystal-individuals results. Examples of this are afforded by
+loaf sugar and statuary marble.
+
+After a brief historical sketch, the more salient principles of the
+subject will be discussed under the following sections:--
+
+  I. CRYSTALLINE FORM.
+          (a) Symmetry of Crystals.
+          (b) Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms.
+          (c) Law of Rational Indices.
+          (d) Zones.
+          (e) Projection and Drawing of Crystals.
+          (f) Crystal Systems and Classes.
+                  1. Cubic System.
+                  2. Tetragonal System.
+                  3. Orthorhombic System.
+                  4. Monoclinic System.
+                  5. Anorthic System.
+                  6. Hexagonal System
+          (g) Regular Grouping of Crystals (Twinning, &c.).
+          (h) Irregularities of Growth of Crystals: Characters of Faces.
+          (i) Theories of Crystal Structure.
+
+  II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS.
+          (a) Elasticity and Cohesion (Cleavage, Etching, &c.).
+          (b) Optical Properties (Interference figures, Pleochroism,
+                &c.).
+          (c) Thermal Properties.
+          (d) Magnetic and Electrical Properties.
+
+  III. RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE FORM AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
+
+Most chemical elements and compounds are capable of assuming the
+crystalline condition. Crystallization may take place when solid matter
+separates from solution (e.g. sugar, salt, alum), from a fused mass
+(e.g. sulphur, bismuth, felspar), or from a vapour (e.g. iodine,
+camphor, haematite; in the last case by the interaction of ferric
+chloride and steam). Crystalline growth may also take place in solid
+amorphous matter, for example, in the devitrification of glass, and the
+slow change in metals when subjected to alternating stresses. Beautiful
+crystals of many substances may be obtained in the laboratory by one or
+other of these methods, but the most perfectly developed and largest
+crystals are those of mineral substances found in nature, where
+crystallization has continued during long periods of time. For this
+reason the physical science of crystallography has developed side by
+side with that of mineralogy. Really, however, there is just the same
+connexion between crystallography and chemistry as between
+crystallography and mineralogy, but only in recent years has the
+importance of determining the crystallographic properties of
+artificially prepared compounds been recognized.
+
+_History._--The word "crystal" is from the Gr. [Greek: krystallos],
+meaning clear ice (Lat. _crystallum_), a name which was also applied to
+the clear transparent quartz ("rock-crystal") from the Alps, under the
+belief that it had been formed from water by intense cold. It was not
+until about the 17th century that the word was extended to other bodies,
+either those found in nature or obtained by the evaporation of a saline
+solution, which resembled rock-crystal in being bounded by plane
+surfaces, and often also in their clearness and transparency.
+
+The first important step in the study of crystals was made by Nicolaus
+Steno, the famous Danish physician, afterwards bishop of Titiopolis, who
+in his treatise _De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento_
+(Florence, 1669; English translation, 1671) gave the results of his
+observations on crystals of quartz. He found that although the faces of
+different crystals vary considerably in shape and relative size, yet the
+angles between similar pairs of faces are always the same. He further
+pointed out that the crystals must have grown in a liquid by the
+addition of layers of material upon the faces of a nucleus, this nucleus
+having the form of a regular six-sided prism terminated at each end by a
+six-sided pyramid. The thickness of the layers, though the same over
+each face, was not necessarily the same on different faces, but depended
+on the position of the faces with respect to the surrounding liquid;
+hence the faces of the crystal, though variable in shape and size,
+remained parallel to those of the nucleus, and the angles between them
+constant. Robert Hooke in his _Micrographia_ (London, 1665) had
+previously noticed the regularity of the minute quartz crystals found
+lining the cavities of flints, and had suggested that they were built up
+of spheroids. About the same time the double refraction and perfect
+rhomboidal cleavage of crystals of calcite or Iceland-spar were studied
+by Erasmus Bartholinus (_Experimenta crystalli Islandici
+disdiaclastici_, Copenhagen, 1669) and Christiaan Huygens (_Traité de la
+lumičre_, Leiden, 1690); the latter supposed, as did Hooke, that the
+crystals were built up of spheroids. In 1695 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
+observed under the microscope that different forms of crystals grow from
+the solutions of different salts. Andreas Libavius had indeed much
+earlier, in 1597, pointed out that the salts present in mineral waters
+could be ascertained by an examination of the shapes of the crystals
+left on evaporation of the water; and Domenico Guglielmini (_Riflessioni
+filosofiche dedotte dalle figure de' sali_, Padova, 1706) asserted that
+the crystals of each salt had a shape of their own with the plane angles
+of the faces always the same.
+
+The earliest treatise on crystallography is the _Prodromus
+Crystallographiae_ of M. A. Cappeller, published at Lucerne in 1723.
+Crystals were mentioned in works on mineralogy and chemistry; for
+instance, C. Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_ (1735) described some
+forty common forms of crystals amongst minerals. It was not, however,
+until the end of the 18th century that any real advances were made, and
+the French crystallographers Romé de l'Isle and the abbé Haüy are
+rightly considered as the founders of the science. J. B. L. de Romé de
+l'Isle (_Essai de cristallographie_, Paris, 1772; _Cristallographie, ou
+description des formes propres ŕ tous les corps du rčgne minéral_,
+Paris, 1783) made the important discovery that the various shapes of
+crystals of the same natural or artificial substance are all intimately
+related to each other; and further, by measuring the angles between the
+faces of crystals with the goniometer (q.v.), he established the
+fundamental principle that these angles are always the same for the same
+kind of substance and are characteristic of it. Replacing by single
+planes or groups of planes all the similar edges or solid angles of a
+figure called the "primitive form" he derived other related forms. Six
+kinds of primitive forms were distinguished, namely, the cube, the
+regular octahedron, the regular tetrahedron, a rhombohedron, an
+octahedron with a rhombic base, and a double six-sided pyramid. Only in
+the last three can there be any variation in the angles: for example,
+the primitive octahedron of alum, nitre and sugar were determined by
+Romé de l'Isle to have angles of 110°, 120° and 100° respectively. René
+Just Haüy in his _Essai d'une théorie sur la structure des crystaux_
+(Paris, 1784; see also his Treatises on Mineralogy and Crystallography,
+1801, 1822) supported and extended these views, but took for his
+primitive forms the figures obtained by splitting crystals in their
+directions of easy fracture of "cleavage," which are aways the same in
+the same kind of substance. Thus he found that all crystals of calcite,
+whatever their external form (see, for example, figs. 1-6 in the article
+CALCITE), could be reduced by cleavage to a rhombohedron with
+interfacial angles of 75°. Further, by stacking together a number of
+small rhombohedra of uniform size he was able, as had been previously
+done by J. G. Gahn in 1773, to reconstruct the various forms of calcite
+crystals. Fig. 1 shows a scalenohedron ([Greek: skalęnos], uneven) built
+up in this manner of rhombohedra; and fig. 2 a regular octahedron built
+up of cubic elements, such as are given by the cleavage of galena and
+rock-salt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Scalenohedron built up of Rhombohedra.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Octahedron built up of Cubes.]
+
+The external surfaces of such a structure, with their step-like
+arrangement, correspond to the plane faces of the crystal, and the
+bricks may be considered so small as not to be separately visible. By
+making the steps one, two or three bricks in width and one, two or three
+bricks in height the various secondary faces on the crystal are related
+to the primitive form or "cleavage nucleus" by a law of whole numbers,
+and the angles between them can be arrived at by mathematical
+calculation. By measuring with the goniometer the inclinations of the
+secondary faces to those of the primitive form Haüy found that the
+secondary forms are always related to the primitive form on crystals of
+numerous substances in the manner indicated, and that the width and the
+height of a step are always in a simple ratio, rarely exceeding that of
+1 : 6. This laid the foundation of the important "law of rational
+indices" of the faces of crystals.
+
+The German crystallographer C. S. Weiss (_De indagando formarum
+crystallinarum charactere geometrico principali dissertatio_, Leipzig,
+1809; _Übersichtliche Darstellung der verschiedenen natürlichen
+Abtheilungen der Krystallisations-Systeme_, Denkschrift der Berliner
+Akad. der Wissensch., 1814-1815) attacked the problem of crystalline
+form from a purely geometrical point of view, without reference to
+primitive forms or any theory of structure. The faces of crystals were
+considered by their intercepts on co-ordinate axes, which were drawn
+joining the opposite corners of certain forms; and in this way the
+various primitive forms of Haüy were grouped into four classes,
+corresponding to the four systems described below under the names cubic,
+tetragonal, hexagonal and orthorhombic. The same result was arrived at
+independently by F. Mohs, who further, in 1822, asserted the existence
+of two additional systems with oblique axes. These two systems (the
+monoclinic and anorthic) were, however, considered by Weiss to be only
+hemihedral or tetartohedral modifications of the orthorhombic system,
+and they were not definitely established until 1835, when the optical
+characters of the crystals were found to be distinct. A system of
+notation to express the relation of each face of a crystal to the
+co-ordinate axes of reference was devised by Weiss, and other notations
+were proposed by F. Mohs, A. Lévy (1825), C. F. Naumann (1826), and W.
+H. Miller (_Treatise on Crystallography_, Cambridge, 1839). For
+simplicity and utility in calculation the Millerian notation, which was
+first suggested by W. Whewell in 1825, surpasses all others and is now
+generally adopted, though those of Lévy and Naumann are still in use.
+
+Although the peculiar optical properties of Iceland-spar had been much
+studied ever since 1669, it was not until much later that any connexion
+was traced between the optical characters of crystals and their external
+form. In 1818 Sir David Brewster found that crystals could be divided
+optically into three classes, viz. isotropic, uniaxial and biaxial, and
+that these classes corresponded with Weiss's four systems (crystals
+belonging to the cubic system being isotropic, those of the tetragonal
+and hexagonal being uniaxial, and the orthorhombic being biaxial).
+Optically biaxial crystals were afterwards shown by J. F. W. Herschel
+and F. E. Neumann in 1822 and 1835 to be of three kinds, corresponding
+with the orthorhombic, monoclinic and anorthic systems. It was,
+however, noticed by Brewster himself that there are many apparent
+exceptions, and the "optical anomalies" of crystals have been the
+subject of much study. The intimate relations existing between various
+other physical properties of crystals and their external form have
+subsequently been gradually traced.
+
+The symmetry of crystals, though recognized by Romé de l'Isle and Haüy,
+in that they replaced all similar edges and corners of their primitive
+forms by similar secondary planes, was not made use of in defining the
+six systems of crystallization, which depended solely on the lengths and
+inclinations of the axes of reference. It was, however, necessary to
+recognize that in each system there are certain forms which are only
+partially symmetrical, and these were described as hemihedral and
+tetartohedral forms (i.e. [Greek: hęmi-], half-faced, and [Greek:
+tetartos], quarter-faced forms).
+
+As a consequence of Haüy's law of rational intercepts, or, as it is more
+often called, the law of rational indices, it was proved by J. F. C.
+Hessel in 1830 that thirty-two types of symmetry are possible in
+crystals. Hessel's work remained overlooked for sixty years, but the
+same important result was independently arrived at by the same method by
+A. Gadolin in 1867. At the present day, crystals are considered as
+belonging to one or other of thirty-two classes, corresponding with
+these thirty-two types of symmetry, and are grouped in six systems. More
+recently, theories of crystal structure have attracted attention, and
+have been studied as purely geometrical problems of the homogeneous
+partitioning of space.
+
+  The historical development of the subject is treated more fully in the
+  article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY in the 9th edition of this work. Reference may
+  also be made to C. M. Marx, _Geschichte der Crystallkunde_ (Karlsruhe
+  and Baden, 1825); W. Whewell, _History of the Inductive Sciences_,
+  vol. iii. (3rd ed., London, 1857); F. von Kobell, _Geschichte der
+  Mineralogie von 1650-1860_ (München, 1864); L. Fletcher, _An
+  Introduction to the Study of Minerals_ (British Museum Guide-Book); L.
+  Fletcher, _Recent Progress in Mineralogy and Crystallography_
+  [1832-1894] (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1894).
+
+
+I. CRYSTALLINE FORM
+
+The fundamental laws governing the form of crystals are:--
+
+1. Law of the Constancy of Angle.
+
+2. Law of Symmetry.
+
+3. Law of Rational Intercepts or Indices.
+
+According to the first law, the angles between corresponding faces of
+all crystals of the same chemical substance are always the same and are
+characteristic of the substance.
+
+  (a) _Symmetry of Crystals._
+
+Crystals may, or may not, be symmetrical with respect to a point, a line
+or axis, and a plane; these "elements of symmetry" are spoken of as a
+centre of symmetry, an axis of symmetry, and a plane of symmetry
+respectively.
+
+_Centre of Symmetry._--Crystals which are centro-symmetrical have their
+faces arranged in parallel pairs; and the two parallel faces, situated
+on opposite sides of the centre (O in fig. 3) are alike in surface
+characters, such as lustre, striations, and figures of corrosion. An
+octahedron (fig. 3) is bounded by four pairs of parallel faces. Crystals
+belonging to many of the hemihedral and tetartohedral classes of the six
+systems of crystallization are devoid of a centre of symmetry.
+
+_Axes of Symmetry._--Consider the vertical axis joining the opposite
+corners a3 and a´3 of an octahedron (fig. 3) and passing through its
+centre O: by rotating the crystal about this axis through a right angle
+(90°) it reaches a position such that the orientation of its faces is
+the same as before the rotation; the face a´1a´2a´3, for example, coming
+into the position of a1a´2a3. During a complete rotation of 360° (= 90°
+× 4), the crystal occupies four such interchangeable positions. Such an
+axis of symmetry is known as a tetrad axis of symmetry. Other tetrad
+axes of the octahedron are a2a´2 and a1a1.
+
+An axis of symmetry of another kind is that which passing through the
+centre O is normal to a face of the octahedron. By rotating the crystal
+about such an axis Op (fig. 3) through an angle of 120° those faces
+which are not perpendicular to the axis occupy interchangeable
+positions; for example, the face a1a3a2 comes into the position of
+a´2a1a´3, and a´2a1a´3 to a3a´2a´1. During a complete rotation of 360°
+(= 120° × 3) the crystal occupies similar positions three times. This is
+a triad axis of symmetry; and there being four pairs of parallel faces
+on an octahedron, there are four triad axes (only one of which is drawn
+in the figure).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.
+
+Axes and Planes of Symmetry of an Octahedron.]
+
+An axis passing through the centre O and the middle points d of two
+opposite edges of the octahedron (fig. 4), i.e. parallel to the edges of
+the octahedron, is a dyad axis of symmetry. About this axis there may be
+rotation of 180°, and only twice in a complete revolution of 360° (=
+180° × 2) is the crystal brought into interchangeable positions. There
+being six pairs of parallel edges on an octahedron, there are
+consequently six dyad axes of symmetry.
+
+A regular octahedron thus possesses thirteen axes of symmetry (of three
+kinds), and there are the same number in the cube. Fig. 5 shows the
+three tetrad (or tetragonal) axes (aa), four triad (or trigonal) axes
+(pp), and six dyad (diad or diagonal) axes (dd).
+
+Although not represented in the cubic system, there is still another
+kind of axis of symmetry possible in crystals. This is the hexad axis or
+hexagonal axis, for which the angle of rotation is 60°, or one-sixth of
+360°. There can be only one hexad axis of symmetry in any crystal (see
+figs. 77-80).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Axes of Symmetry of a Cube.]
+
+_Planes of Symmetry._--A regular octahedron can be divided into two
+equal and similar halves by a plane passing through the corners
+a1a3a´1a´3 and the centre O (fig. 3). One-half is the mirror reflection
+of the other in this plane, which is called a plane of symmetry.
+Corresponding planes on either side of a plane of symmetry are inclined
+to it at equal angles. The octahedron can also be divided by similar
+planes of symmetry passing through the corners a1a2a´1a´2 and
+a2a3a´2a´3. These three similar planes of symmetry are called the cubic
+planes of symmetry, since they are parallel to the faces of the cube
+(compare figs. 6-8, showing combinations of the octahedron and the
+cube).
+
+A regular octahedron can also be divided symmetrically into two equal
+and similar portions by a plane passing through the corners a3 and a´3,
+the middle points d of the edges a1a´2 and a´1a2, and the centre O (fig.
+4). This is called a dodecahedral plane of symmetry, being parallel to
+the face of the rhombic dodecahedron which truncates the edge a1a2
+(compare fig. 14, showing a combination of the octahedron and rhombic
+dodecahedron). Another similar plane of symmetry is that passing through
+the corners a3a´3 and the middle points of the edges a1a2 and a´1a´2,
+and altogether there are six dodecahedral planes of symmetry, two
+through each of the corners a1, a2, a3 of the octahedron.
+
+A regular octahedron and a cube are thus each symmetrical with respect
+to the following elements of symmetry: a centre of symmetry, thirteen
+axes of symmetry (of three kinds), and nine planes of symmetry (of two
+kinds). This degree of symmetry, which is the type corresponding to one
+of the classes of the cubic system, is the highest possible in crystals.
+As will be pointed out below, it is possible, however, for both the
+octahedron and the cube to be associated with fewer elements of symmetry
+than those just enumerated.
+
+  (b) _Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms._
+
+A single face a1a2a3 (figs. 3 and 4) may be repeated by certain of the
+elements of symmetry to give the whole eight faces of the octahedron.
+Thus, by rotation about the vertical tetrad axis a3a´3 the four upper
+faces are obtained; and by rotation of these about one or other of the
+horizontal tetrad axes the eight faces are derived. Or again, the same
+repetition of the faces may be arrived at by reflection across the three
+cubic planes of symmetry. (By reflection across the six dodecahedral
+planes of symmetry a tetrahedron only would result, but if this is
+associated with a centre of symmetry we obtain the octahedron.) Such a
+set of similar faces, obtained by symmetrical repetition, constitutes a
+"simple form." An octahedron thus consists of eight similar faces, and a
+cube is bounded by six faces all of which have the same surface
+characters, and parallel to each of which all the properties of the
+crystal are identical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Cube in combination with Octahedron.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Cubo-octahedron.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Octahedron in combination with Cube.]
+
+Examples of simple forms amongst crystallized substances are octahedra
+of alum and spinel and cubes of salt and fluorspar. More usually,
+however, two or more forms are present on a crystal, and we then have a
+combination of forms, or simply a "combination." Figs. 6, 7 and 8
+represent combinations of the octahedron and the cube; in the first the
+faces of the cube predominate, and in the third those of the octahedron;
+fig. 7 with the two forms equally developed is called a cubo-octahedron.
+Each of these combined forms has all the elements of symmetry proper to
+the simple forms.
+
+The simple forms, though referable to the same type of symmetry and axes
+of reference, are quite independent, and cannot be derived one from the
+other by symmetrical repetition, but, after the manner of Romé de
+l'Isle, they may be derived by replacing edges or corners by a face
+equally inclined to the faces forming the edges or corners; this is
+known as "truncation" (Lat. _truncare_, to cut off). Thus in fig. 6 the
+corners of the cube are symmetrically replaced or truncated by the faces
+of the octahedron, and in fig. 8 those of the octahedron are truncated
+by the cube.
+
+  (c) _Law of Rational Intercepts._
+
+For axes of reference, OX, OY, OZ (fig. 9), take any three edges formed
+by the intersection of three faces of a crystal. These axes are called
+the crystallographic axes, and the planes in which they lie the axial
+planes. A fourth face on the crystal intersecting these three axes in
+the points A, B, C is taken as the parametral plane, and the lengths OA
+: OB : OC are the parameters of the crystal. Any other face on the
+crystal may be referred to these axes and parameters by the ratio of
+the intercepts
+
+  OA   OB   OC
+  -- : -- : --.
+  h    k    l
+
+Thus for a face parallel to the plane A Be the intercepts are in the
+ratio OA : OB : Oe, or
+
+  OA   OB   OC
+  -- : -- : --
+  1    1    2
+
+and for a plane fgC´ they are Of : Og : OC´ or
+
+  OA   OB   OC´
+  -- : -- : ---.
+  2    3     1
+
+Now the important relation existing between the faces of a crystal is
+that the denominators h, k and l are always rational whole numbers,
+rarely exceeding 6, and usually 0, 1, 2 or 3. Written in the form (hkl),
+h referring to the axis OX, k to OY, and l to OZ, they are spoken of as
+the indices (Millerian indices) of the face. Thus of a face parallel to
+the plane ABC the indices are (111), of A Be they are (112), and of fgC´
+(231´). The indices are thus inversely proportional to the intercepts,
+and the law of rational intercepts is often spoken of as the "law of
+rational indices."
+
+The angular position of a face is thus completely fixed by its indices;
+and knowing the angles between the axial planes and the parametral plane
+all the angles of a crystal can be calculated when the indices of the
+faces are known.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Crystallographic axes of reference.]
+
+Although any set of edges formed by the intersection of three planes may
+be chosen for the crystallographic axes, it is in practice usual to
+select certain edges related to the symmetry of the crystal, and usually
+coincident with axes of symmetry; for then the indices will be simpler
+and all faces of the same simple form will have a similar set of
+indices. The angles between the axes and the ratio of the lengths of the
+parameters OA: OB: OC (usually given as a: b: c) are spoken of as the
+"elements" of a crystal, and are constant for and characteristic of all
+crystals of the same substance.
+
+The six systems of crystal forms, to be enumerated below, are defined by
+the relative inclinations of the crystallographic axes and the lengths
+of the parameters. In the cubic system, for example, the three
+crystallographic axes are taken parallel to the three tetrad axes of
+symmetry, i.e. parallel to the edges of the cube (fig. 5) or joining the
+opposite corners of the octahedron (fig. 3), and they are therefore all
+at right angles; the parametral plane (111) is a face of the octahedron,
+and the parameters are all of equal length. The indices of the eight
+faces of the octahedron will then be (111), (1´11), (11´1), (1´1´1),
+(111´), (1´11´), (11´1´), (1´1´1´). The symbol {111} indicates all the
+faces belonging to this simple form. The indices of the six faces of the
+cube are (100), (010), (001), (1´00), (01´0), (001´); here each face is
+parallel to two axes, i.e. intercepts them at infinity, so that the
+corresponding indices are zero.
+
+  (d) _Zones._
+
+An important consequence of the law of rational intercepts is the
+arrangement of the faces of a crystal in zones. All faces, whether they
+belong to one or more simple forms, which intersect in parallel edges
+are said to lie in the same zone. A line drawn through the centre O of
+the crystal parallel to these edges is called a zone-axis, and a plane
+perpendicular to this axis is called a zone-plane. On a cube, for
+example, there are three zones each containing four faces, the zone-axes
+being coincident with the three tetrad axes of symmetry. In the crystal
+of zircon (fig. 88) the eight prism-faces a, m, &c. constitute a zone,
+denoted by [a, m, a´, &c.], with the vertical tetrad axis of symmetry
+as zone-axis. Again the faces [a, x, p, e´, p´, x´´´, a´´] lie in
+another zone, as may be seen by the parallel edges of intersection of
+the faces in figs. 87 and 88; three other similar zones may be traced on
+the same crystal.
+
+The direction of the line of intersection (i.e. zone-axis) of any two
+planes (hkl) and (h1k1l1) is given by the zone-indices [uvw], where u =
+kl1 - lk1, v = lh1 - hl1, and w = hk1 - kh1, these being obtained from
+the face-indices by cross multiplication as follows:--
+
+   h   k   l   h   k   l
+         ×   ×   ×
+   h1  k1  l1  h1  k1  l1.
+
+Any other face (h2k2l2) lying in this zone must satisfy the equation
+
+  h2u + k2v + l2w = 0.
+
+This important relation connecting the indices of a face lying in a zone
+with the zone-indices is known as Weiss's zone-law, having been first
+enunciated by C. S. Weiss. It may be pointed out that the indices of a
+face may be arrived at by adding together the indices of faces on either
+side of it and in the same zone; thus, (311) in fig. 12 lies at the
+intersections of the three zones [210, 101], [201, 110] and [211, 100],
+and is obtained by adding together each set of indices.
+
+  (e) _Projection and Drawing of Crystals._
+
+The shapes and relative sizes of the faces of a crystal being as a rule
+accidental, depending only on the distance of the faces from the centre
+of the crystal and not on their angular relations, it is often more
+convenient to consider only the directions of the normals to the faces.
+For this purpose projections are drawn, with the aid of which the zonal
+relations of a crystal are more readily studied and calculations are
+simplified.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Stereographic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.]
+
+The kind of projection most extensively used is the "stereographic
+projection." The crystal is considered to be placed inside a sphere from
+the centre of which normals are drawn to all the faces of the crystal.
+The points at which these normals intersect the surface of the sphere
+are called the poles of the faces, and by these poles the positions of
+the faces are fixed. The poles of all faces in the same zone on the
+crystal will lie on a great circle of the sphere, which are therefore
+called zone-circles. The calculation of the angles between the normals
+of faces and between zone-circles is then performed by the ordinary
+methods of spherical trigonometry. The stereographic projection,
+however, represents the poles and zone-circles on a plane surface and
+not on a spherical surface. This is achieved by drawing lines joining
+all the poles of the faces with the north or south pole of the sphere
+and finding their points of intersection with the plane of the
+equatorial great circle, or primitive circle, of the sphere, the
+projection being represented on this plane. In fig. 10 is shown the
+stereographic projection, or stereogram, of a cubic crystal; aš, a˛,
+&c. are the poles of the faces of the cube. oš, o˛, &c. those of the
+octahedron, and dš, d˛, &c. those of the rhombic dodecahedron. The
+straight lines and circular arcs are the projections on the equatorial
+plane of the great circles in which the nine planes of symmetry
+intersect the sphere. A drawing of a crystal showing a combination of
+the cube, octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron is shown in fig. 11, in
+which the faces are lettered the same as the corresponding poles in the
+projection. From the zone-circles in the projection and the parallel
+edges in the drawing the zonal relations of the faces are readily seen:
+thus [ašošd^5], [ašdša^5], [a^5ošd˛], &c. are zones. A stereographic
+projection of a rhombohedral crystal is given in fig. 72.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Clinographic Drawing of a Cubic Crystal.]
+
+Another kind of projection in common use is the "gnomonic projection"
+(fig. 12). Here the plane of projection is tangent to the sphere, and
+normals to all the faces are drawn from the centre of the sphere to
+intersect the plane of projection. In this case all zones are
+represented by straight lines. Fig. 12 is the gnomonic projection of a
+cubic crystal, the plane of projection being tangent to the sphere at
+the pole of an octahedral face (111), which is therefore in the centre
+of the projection. The indices of the several poles are given in the
+figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Gnomonic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.]
+
+In drawing crystals the simple plans and elevations of descriptive
+geometry (e.g. the plans in the lower part of figs. 87 and 88) have
+sometimes the advantage of showing the symmetry of a crystal, but they
+give no idea of solidity. For instance, a cube would be represented
+merely by a square, and an octahedron by a square with lines joining the
+opposite corners. True perspective drawings are never used in the
+representation of crystals, since for showing the zonal relations it is
+important to preserve the parallelism of the edges. If, however, the
+eye, or point of vision, is regarded as being at an infinite distance
+from the object all the rays will be parallel, and edges which are
+parallel on the crystal will be represented by parallel lines in the
+drawing. The plane of the drawing, in which the parallel rays joining
+the corners of the crystals and the eye intersect, may be either
+perpendicular or oblique to the rays; in the former case we have an
+"orthographic" ([Greek: orthos], straight; [Greek: graphein], to draw)
+drawing, and in the latter a "clinographic" ([Greek: klinein], to
+incline) drawing. Clinographic drawings are most frequently used for
+representing crystals. In representing, for example, a cubic crystal
+(fig. 11) a cube face a^5 is first placed parallel to the plane on which
+the crystal is to be projected and with one set of edges vertical; the
+crystal is then turned through a small angle about a vertical axis until
+a second cube face a˛ comes into view, and the eye is then raised so
+that a third cube face aš may be seen.
+
+  (f) _Crystal Systems and Classes._
+
+According to the mutual inclinations of the crystallographic axes of
+reference and the lengths intercepted on them by the parametral plane,
+all crystals fall into one or other of six groups or systems, in each of
+which there are several classes depending on the degree of symmetry. In
+the brief description which follows of these six systems and thirty-two
+classes of crystals we shall proceed from those in which the symmetry is
+most complex to those in which it is simplest.
+
+
+  1. CUBIC SYSTEM
+
+  (Isometric; Regular; Octahedral; Tesseral).
+
+  In this system the three crystallographic axes of reference are all at
+  right angles to each other and are equal in length. They are parallel
+  to the edges of the cube, and in the different classes coincide either
+  with tetrad or dyad axes of symmetry. Five classes are included in
+  this system, in all of which there are, besides other elements of
+  symmetry, four triad axes.
+
+  In crystals of this system the angle between any two faces P and Q
+  with the indices (hkl) and (pqr) is given by the equation
+
+                       hp + kq + lr
+    COS PQ = ----------------------------------
+             [root] [(h˛ +k˛ +l˛) (p˛ +q˛ +r˛)].
+
+  The angles between faces with the same indices are thus the same in
+  all substances which crystallize in the cubic system: in other systems
+  the angles vary with the substance and are characteristic of it.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral ([Greek: holos], whole); Hexakis-octahedral).
+
+  Crystals of this class possess the full number of elements of symmetry
+  already mentioned above for the octahedron and the cube, viz. three
+  cubic planes of symmetry, six dodecahedral planes, three tetrad axes
+  of symmetry, four triad axes, six dyad axes, and a centre of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Rhombic Dodecahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Combination of Rhombic Dodecahedron and
+  Octahedron.]
+
+  There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz.:--
+
+  Cube (fig. 5). This is bounded by six square faces parallel to the
+  cubic planes of symmetry; it is known also as the hexahedron. The
+  angles between the faces are 90°, and the indices of the form are
+  {100}. Salt, fluorspar and galena crystallize in simple cubes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Triakis-octahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Combination of Triakis-octahedron and Cube.]
+
+  Octahedron (fig. 3). Bounded by eight equilateral triangular faces
+  perpendicular to the triad axes of symmetry. The angles between the
+  faces are 70° 32´ and 109° 28´, and the indices are {111}. Spinel,
+  magnetite and gold crystallize in simple octahedra. Combinations of
+  the cube and octahedron are shown in figs. 6-8.
+
+  Rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 13). Bounded by twelve rhomb-shaped faces
+  parallel to the six dodecahedral planes of symmetry. The angles
+  between the normals to adjacent faces are 60°, and between other
+  pairs of faces 90°; the indices are {110}. Garnet frequently
+  crystallizes in this form. Fig. 14 shows the rhombic dodecahedron in
+  combination with the octahedron.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Icositetrahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Combination of Icositetrahedron and Cube.]
+
+  In these three simple forms of the cubic system (which are shown in
+  combination in fig. 11) the angles between the faces and the indices
+  are fixed and are the same in all crystals; in the four remaining
+  simple forms they are variable.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Combination of Icositetrahedron and
+  Octahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Combination of Icositetrahedron {211} and
+  Rhombic Dodecahedron.]
+
+  Triakis-octahedron (three-faced octahedron) (fig. 15). This solid is
+  bounded by twenty-four isosceles triangles, and may be considered as
+  an octahedron with a low triangular pyramid on each of its faces. As
+  the inclinations of the faces may vary there is a series of these
+  forms with the indices {221}, {331}, {332}, &c. or in general {hhk}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Tetrakis-hexahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Tetrakis-hexahedron.]
+
+  Icositetrahedron (fig. 17). Bounded by twenty-four trapezoidal faces,
+  and hence sometimes called a "trapezohedron." The indices are {211},
+  {311}, {322}, &c., or in general {hkk}. Analcite, leucite and garnet
+  often crystallize in the simple form {211}. Combinations are shown in
+  figs. 18-20. The plane A Be in fig. 9 is one face (112) of an
+  icositetrahedron; the indices of the remaining faces in this octant
+  being (211) and (121).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Combination of Tetrakis-hexahedron and Cube.]
+
+  Tetrakis-hexahedron (four-faced cube) (figs. 21 and 22). Like the
+  triakis-octahedron this solid is also bounded by twenty-four isosceles
+  triangles, but here grouped in fours over the cubic faces. The two
+  figures show how, with different inclinations of the faces, the form
+  may vary, approximating in fig. 21 to the cube and in fig. 22 to the
+  rhombic dodecahedron. The angles over the edges lettered A are
+  different from the angles over the edges lettered C. Each face is
+  parallel to one of the crystallographic axes and intercepts the two
+  others in different lengths; the indices are therefore {210}, {310},
+  {320}, &c., in general {hko}. Fluorspar sometimes crystallizes in the
+  simple form {310}; more usually, however, in combination with the cube
+  (fig. 23).
+
+  Hexakis-octahedron (fig. 24). Here each face of the octahedron is
+  replaced by six scalene triangles, so that altogether there are
+  forty-eight faces. This is the greatest number of faces possible for
+  any simple form in crystals. The faces are all oblique to the planes
+  and axes of symmetry, and they intercept the three crystallographic
+  axes in different lengths, hence the indices are all unequal, being in
+  general {hkl}, or in particular cases {321}, {421}, {432}, &c. Such a
+  form is known as the "general form" of the class. The interfacial
+  angles over the three edges of each triangle are all different. These
+  forms usually exist only in combination with other cubic forms (for
+  example, fig. 25), but {421} has been observed as a simple form on
+  fluorspar.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Hexakis-octahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Combination of Hexakis-octahedron and Cube.]
+
+  Several examples of substances which crystallize in this class have
+  been mentioned above under the different forms; many others might be
+  cited--for instance, the metals iron, copper, silver, gold, platinum,
+  lead, mercury, and the non-metallic elements silicon and phosphorus.
+
+    TETRAHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Tetrahedral-hemihedral; Hexakis-tetrahedral).
+
+  In this class there is no centre of symmetry nor cubic planes of
+  symmetry; the three tetrad axes become dyad axes of symmetry, and the
+  four triad axes are polar, i.e. they are associated with different
+  faces at their two ends. The other elements of symmetry (six
+  dodecahedral planes and six dyad axes) are the same as in the last
+  class.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Tetrahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Deltoid Dodecahedron.]
+
+  Of the seven simple forms, the cube, rhombic dodecahedron and
+  tetrakis-hexahedron are geometrically the same as before, though on
+  actual crystals the faces will have different surface characters. For
+  instance, the cube faces will be striated parallel to only one of the
+  diagonals (fig. 90), and etched figures on this face will be
+  symmetrical with respect to two lines, instead of four as in the last
+  class. The remaining simple forms have, however, only half the number
+  of faces as the corresponding form in the last class, and are spoken
+  of as "hemihedral with inclined faces."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Triakis-tetrahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Hexakis-tetrahedron.]
+
+  Tetrahedron (fig. 26). This is bounded by four equilateral triangles
+  and is identical with the regular tetrahedron of geometry. The angles
+  between the normals to the faces are 109° 28´. It may be derived from
+  the octahedron by suppressing the alternate faces.
+
+  Deltoid[1] dodecahedron (fig. 27). This is the hemihedral form of the
+  triakis-octahedron; it has the indices {hhk} and is bounded by twelve
+  trapezoidal faces.
+
+  Triakis-tetrahedron (fig. 28). The hemihedral form {hkk} of the
+  icositetrahedron; it is bounded by twelve isosceles triangles arranged
+  in threes over the tetrahedron faces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Combination of two Tetrahedra.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Combination of Tetrahedron and Cube.]
+
+  Hexakis-tetrahedron (fig. 29). The hemihedral form {hkl} of the
+  hexakis-octahedron; it is bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles and
+  is the general form of the class.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Combination of Tetrahedron, Cube and Rhombic
+  Dodecahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Combination of Tetrahedron and Rhombic
+  Dodecahedron.]
+
+  Corresponding to each of these hemihedral forms there is another
+  geometrically similar form, differing, however, not only in
+  orientation, but also in actual crystals in the characters of the
+  faces. Thus from the octahedron there may be derived two tetrahedra
+  with the indices {111} and {1´11}, which may be distinguished as
+  positive and negative respectively. Fig. 30 shows a combination of
+  these two tetrahedra, and represents a crystal of blende, in which the
+  four larger faces are dull and striated, whilst the four smaller are
+  bright and smooth. Figs. 31-33 illustrate other tetrahedral
+  combinations.
+
+  Tetrahedrite, blende, diamond, boracite and pharmacosiderite are
+  substances which crystallize in this class.
+
+    PYRITOHEDRAL[2] CLASS
+
+    (Parallel-faced hemihedral; Dyakis-dodecahedral).
+
+  Crystals of this class possess three cubic planes of symmetry but no
+  dodecahedral planes. There are only three dyad axes of symmetry, which
+  coincide with the crystallographic axes; in addition there are three
+  triad axes and a centre of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34. Pentagonal Dodecahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35. Dyakis-dodecahedron.]
+
+  Here the cube, octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, triakis-octahedron
+  and icositetrahedron are geometrically the same as in the first class.
+  The characters of the faces will, however, be different; thus the cube
+  faces will be striated parallel to one edge only (fig. 89), and
+  triangular markings on the octahedron faces will be placed obliquely
+  to the edges. The remaining simple forms are "hemihedral with parallel
+  faces," and from the corresponding holohedral forms two hemihedral
+  forms, a positive and a negative, may be derived.
+
+  Pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 34). This is bounded by twelve
+  pentagonal faces, but these are not regular pentagons, and the angles
+  over the three sets of different edges are different. The regular
+  dodecahedron of geometry, contained by twelve regular pentagons, is
+  not a possible form in crystals. The indices are {hko}: as a simple
+  form {210} is of very common occurrence in pyrites.
+
+  Dyakis-dodecahedron (fig. 35). This is the hemihedral form of the
+  hexakis-octahedron and has the indices {hkl}; it is bounded by
+  twenty-four faces. As a simple form {321} is met with in pyrites.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron and
+  Cube.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron and
+  Octahedron.]
+
+  Combinations (figs. 36-39) of these forms with the cube and the
+  octahedron are common in pyrites. Fig. 37 resembles in general
+  appearance the regular icosahedron of geometry, but only eight of the
+  faces are equilateral triangles. Cobaltite, smaltite and other
+  sulphides and sulpharsenides of the pyrites group of minerals
+  crystallize in these forms. The alums also belong to this class; from
+  an aqueous solution they crystallize as simple octahedra, sometimes
+  with subordinate faces of the cube and rhombic dodecahedron, but from
+  an acid solution as octahedra combined with the pentagonal
+  dodecahedron {210}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron, Cube
+  and Octahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron e
+  {210}, Dyakis-dodecahedron f {321}, and Octahedron d {111}.]
+
+    PLAGIHEDRAL[3] CLASS
+
+    (Plagihedral-hemihedral; Pentagonal icositetrahedral; Gyroidal[4]).
+
+  In this class there are the full number of axes of symmetry (three
+  tetrad, four triad and six dyad), but no planes of symmetry and no
+  centre of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Pentagonal Icositetrahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Tetrahedral Pentagonal Dodecahedron.]
+
+  Pentagonal icositetrahedron (fig. 40). This is the only simple form in
+  this class which differs geometrically from those of the holosymmetric
+  class. By suppressing either one or other set of alternate faces of
+  the hexakis-octahedron two pentagonal icositetrahedra {hkl} and {khl}
+  are derived. These are each bounded by twenty-four irregular
+  pentagons, and although similar to each other they are respectively
+  right- and left-handed, one being the mirror image of the other; such
+  similar but nonsuperposable forms are said to be enantiomorphous
+  ([Greek: enantios], opposite, and [Greek: morphę], form), and crystals
+  showing such forms sometimes rotate the plane of polarization of
+  plane-polarized light. Faces of a pentagonal icositetrahedron with
+  high indices have been very rarely observed on crystals of cuprite,
+  potassium chloride and ammonium chloride, but none of these are
+  circular polarizing.
+
+    TETARTOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedral).
+
+  Here, in addition to four polar triad axes, the only other elements of
+  symmetry are three dyad axes, which coincide with the crystallographic
+  axes. Six of the simple forms, the cube, tetrahedron, rhombic
+  dodecahedron, deltoid dodecahedron, triakis-tetrahedron and pentagonal
+  dodecahedron, are geometrically the same in this class as in either
+  the tetrahedral or pyritohedral classes. The general form is the
+  Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 41). This is bounded by
+  twelve irregular pentagons, and is a tetartohedral or quarter-faced
+  form of the hexakis-octahedron. Four such forms may be derived, the
+  indices of which are {hkl}, {khl}, {h´kl} and {k´hl}; the first pair
+  are enantiomorphous with respect to one another, and so are the last
+  pair. Barium nitrate, lead nitrate, sodium chlorate and sodium bromate
+  crystallize in this class, as also do the minerals ullmannite (NiSbS)
+  and langbeinite (K2Mg2(SO4)3).
+
+
+  2. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
+
+    (Pyramidal; Quadratic; Dimetric).
+
+  In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right
+  angles, but while two are equal in length and interchangeable the
+  third is of a different length. The unequal axis is spoken of as the
+  principal axis or morphological axis of the crystal, and it is always
+  placed in a vertical position; in five of the seven classes of this
+  system it coincides with the single tetrad axis of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.
+
+  Tetragonal Bipyramids.]
+
+  The parameters are a : a : c, where a refers to the two equal
+  horizontal axes, and c to the vertical axis; c may be either shorter
+  (as in fig. 42) or longer (fig. 43) than a. The ratio a : c is spoken
+  of as the axial ratio of a crystal, and it is dependent on the angles
+  between the faces. In all crystals of the same substance this ratio is
+  constant, and is characteristic of the substance; for other substances
+  crystallizing in the tetragonal system it will be different. For
+  example, in cassiterite it is given as a : c = 1 : 0.67232 or simply
+  as c = 0.67232, a being unity; and in anatase as c = 1.7771.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Ditetragonal bipyramidal).
+
+  Crystals of this class are symmetrical with respect to five planes,
+  which are of three kinds; one is perpendicular to the principal axis,
+  and the other four intersect in it; of the latter, two are
+  perpendicular to the equal crystallographic axes, while the two others
+  bisect the angles between them. There are five axes of symmetry, one
+  tetrad and two pairs of dyad, each perpendicular to a plane of
+  symmetry. Finally, there is a centre of symmetry.
+
+  There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz.:--
+
+  Tetragonal bipyramid of the first order (figs. 42 and 43). This is
+  bounded by eight equal isosceles triangles. Equal lengths are
+  intercepted on the two horizontal axes, and the indices are {111},
+  {221}, {112}, &c., or in general {hhl}. The parametral plane with the
+  intercepts a : a : c is a face of the bipyramid {111}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.
+
+  Tetragonal Bipyramids of the first and second orders.]
+
+  Tetragonal bipyramid of the second order. This is also bounded by
+  eight equal isosceles triangles, but differs from the last form in its
+  position, four of the faces being parallel to each of the horizontal
+  axes; the indices are therefore {101}, {201}, {102}, &c., or {hol}.
+
+  Fig. 44 shows the relation between the tetragonal bipyramids of the
+  first and second orders when the indices are {111} and {101}
+  respectively: ABB is the face (111), and ACC is (101). A combination
+  of these two forms is shown in fig. 45.
+
+  Ditetragonal bipyramid (fig. 46). This is the general form; it is
+  bounded by sixteen scalene triangles, and all the indices are unequal,
+  being {321}, &c., or {hkl}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Ditetragonal Bipyramid.]
+
+  Tetragonal prism of the first order. The four faces intersect the
+  horizontal axes in equal lengths and are parallel to the principal
+  axis; the indices are therefore {110}. This form does not enclose
+  space, and is therefore called an "open form" to distinguish it from a
+  "closed form" like the tetragonal bipyramids and all the forms of the
+  cubic system. An open form can exist only in combination with other
+  forms; thus fig. 47 is a combination of the tetragonal prism {110}
+  with the basal pinacoid {001}. If the faces (110) and (001) are of
+  equal size such a figure will be geometrically a cube, since all the
+  angles are right angles; the variety of apophyllite known as tesselite
+  crystallizes in this form.
+
+  Tetragonal prism of the second order. This has the same number of
+  faces as the last prism, but differs in position; each face being
+  parallel to the vertical axis and one of the horizontal axes; the
+  indices are {100}.
+
+  Ditetragonal prism. This consists of eight faces all parallel to the
+  principal axis and intercepting the horizontal axes in different
+  lengths; the indices are {210}, {320}, &c., or {hko}.
+
+  Basal pinacoid (from [Greek: pinax], a tablet). This consists of a
+  single pair of parallel faces perpendicular to the principal axis. It
+  is therefore an open form and can exist only in combination (fig. 47).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47. Combination of Tetragonal Prism and Basal
+  Pinacoid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49.
+
+  Combinations of Tetragonal Prisms and Pyramids.]
+
+  Combinations of holohedral tetragonal forms are shown in figs. 47-49;
+  fig. 48 is a combination of a bipyramid of the first order with one of
+  the second order and the prism of the first order; fig. 49 a
+  combination of a bipyramid of the first order with a ditetragonal
+  bipyramid and the prism of the second order. Compare also figs. 87 and
+  88.
+
+  Examples of substances which crystallize in this class are
+  cassiterite, rutile, anatase, zircon, thorite, vesuvianite,
+  apophyllite, phosgenite, also boron, tin, mercuric iodide.
+
+    SCALENOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Bisphenoidal-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are only three dyad axes and two planes of symmetry, the
+  former coinciding with the crystallographic axes and the latter
+  bisecting the angles between the horizontal pair. The dyad axis of
+  symmetry, which in this class coincides with the principal axis of the
+  crystal, has certain of the characters of a tetrad axis, and is
+  sometimes called a tetrad axis of "alternating symmetry"; a face on
+  the upper half of the crystal if rotated through 90° about this axis
+  and reflected across the equatorial plane falls into the position of a
+  face on the lower half of the crystal. This kind of symmetry, with
+  simultaneous rotation about an axis and reflection across a plane, is
+  also called "composite symmetry."
+
+  In this class all except two of the simple forms are geometrically the
+  same as in the holosymmetric class.
+
+  Bisphenoid ([Greek: sphęn], a wedge) (fig. 50). This is a double
+  wedge-shaped solid bounded by four equal isosceles triangles; it has
+  the indices {111}, {211}, {112}, &c., or in general {hhl}. By
+  suppressing either one or other set of alternate faces of the
+  tetragonal bipyramid of the first order (fig. 42) two bisphenoids are
+  derived, in the same way that two tetrahedra are derived from the
+  regular octahedron.
+
+  Tetragonal scalenohedron or ditetragonal bisphenoid (fig. 51). This is
+  bounded by eight scalene triangles and has the indices {hkl}. It may
+  be considered as the hemihedral form of the ditetragonal bipyramid.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Tetragonal Bisphenoids.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Tetragonal Scalenohedron.]
+
+  The crystal of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) represented in fig. 52 is a
+  combination of two bisphenoids (P and P´), two bipyramids of the
+  second order (b and c), and the basal pinacoid (a). Stannite
+  (Cu2FeSnS4), acid potassium phosphate (H2KPO4), mercuric cyanide, and
+  urea (CO(NH2)2) also crystallize in this class.
+
+    BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Parallel-faced hemihedral).
+
+  The elements of symmetry are a tetrad axis with a plane perpendicular
+  to it, and a centre of symmetry. The simple forms are the same here as
+  in the holosymmetric class, except the prism {hko}, which has only
+  four faces, and the bipyramid {hkl}, which has eight faces and is
+  distinguished as a "tetragonal pyramid of the third order."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--Crystal of Chalcopyrite.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--Crystal of Fergusonite.]
+
+  Fig. 53 shows a combination of a tetragonal prism of the first order
+  with a tetragonal bipyramid of the third order and the basal pinacoid,
+  and represents a crystal of fergusonite. Scheelite (q.v.), scapolite
+  (q.v.), and erythrite (C4H10O4) also crystallize in this class.
+
+    PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).
+
+  Here the only element of symmetry is the tetrad axis. The pyramids of
+  the first {hhl}, second {hol} and third {hkl} orders have each only
+  four faces at one or other end of the crystal, and are hemimorphic.
+  All the simple forms are thus open forms.
+
+  Examples are wulfenite (PbMoO4) and barium antimonyl dextro-tartrate
+  (Ba(SbO)2(C4H4O6)ˇH2O).
+
+    DITETRAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are two pairs of vertical planes of symmetry intersecting
+  in the tetrad axis. The pyramids {hhl} and {hol} and the bipyramid
+  {hkl} are all hemimorphic.
+
+  Examples are iodosuccimide (C4H4O2NI), silver fluoride (AgFˇH2O), and
+  penta-erythrite (C5H12O4). No examples are known amongst minerals.
+
+    TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Trapezohedral-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are the full number of axes of symmetry, but no planes or
+  centre of symmetry. The general form {hkl} is bounded by eight
+  trapezoidal faces and is the tetragonal trapezohedron.
+
+  Examples are nickel sulphate (NiSO4ˇ6H2O), guanidine carbonate
+  ((CH5N3)2H2CO3), strychnine sulphate ((C21H22N2O2)2ˇH2SO4ˇ6H2O).
+
+    BISPHENOIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Bisphenoidal-tetartohedral).
+
+  Here there is only a single dyad axis of symmetry, which coincides
+  with the principal axis. All the forms, except the prisms and basal
+  pinacoid, are sphenoids. Crystals possessing this type of symmetry
+  have not yet been observed.
+
+
+  3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM
+
+    (Rhombic; Prismatic; Trimetric).
+
+  In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right
+  angles, but they are of different lengths and not interchangeable. The
+  parameters, or axial ratios, are a: b: c, these referring to the axes
+  OX, OY and OZ respectively. The choice of a vertical axis, OZ = c, is
+  arbitrary, and it is customary to place the longer of the two
+  horizontal axes from left to right (OY = b) and take it as unity: this
+  is called the "macro-axis" or "macro-diagonal" (from [Greek: makros],
+  long), whilst the shorter horizontal axis (OX = a) is called the
+  "brachy-axis" or "brachy-diagonal" (from [Greek: brachus], short). The
+  axial ratios are constant for crystals of any one substance and are
+  characteristic of it; for example, in barytes (BaSO4), a: b: c =
+  0.8152 : 1 : 1.3136; in anglesite (PbSO4), a: b: c = 0.7852: 1 :
+  1.2894; in cerussite (PbCO3), a : b : c = 0.6100 : 1 : 0.7230.
+
+  There are three symmetry-classes in this system:--
+
+    HOLOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Bipyramidal).
+
+  Here there are three dissimilar dyad axes of symmetry, each coinciding
+  with a crystallographic axis; perpendicular to them are three
+  dissimilar planes of symmetry; there is also a centre of symmetry.
+  There are seven kinds of simple forms:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.
+
+  Orthorhombic Bipyramids.]
+
+  Bipyramid (figs. 54 and 55). This is the general form and is bounded
+  by eight scalene triangles; the indices are {111}, {211}, {221},
+  {112}, {321}, {123}, &c., or in general {hkl}. The crystallographic
+  axes join opposite corners of these pyramids and in the fundamental
+  bipyramid {111} the parametral plane has the intercepts a: b: c. This
+  is the only closed form in this class; the others are open forms and
+  can exist only in combination. Sulphur often crystallizes in simple
+  bipyramids.
+
+  Prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the vertical axis and
+  intercepting the horizontal axes in the lengths a and b or in any
+  multiples of these; the indices are therefore {110}, {210}, {120} or
+  {hko}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Macro-prism and Brachy-pinacoid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--Brachy-prism and Macro-pinacoid.]
+
+  Macro-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the macro-axis,
+  and has the indices {101}, {201} ... or {hol}.
+
+  Brachy-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the brachy-axis,
+  and has the indices {011}, {021} ... {okl}. The macro- and
+  brachy-prisms are often called "domes."
+
+  Basal pinacoid, consisting of a pair of parallel faces perpendicular
+  to the vertical axis; the indices are {001}. The macro-pinacoid {100}
+  and the brachy-pinacoid {010} each consist of a pair of parallel faces
+  respectively parallel to the macro- and the brachy-axis.
+
+  Figs. 56-58 show combinations of these six open forms, and fig. 59 a
+  combination of the macro-pinacoid (a), brachy-pinacoid (b), a prism
+  (m), a macro-prism (d), a brachy-prism (k), and a bipyramid (u).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--Prism and Basal Pinacoid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--Crystal of Hypersthene.
+
+  Holohedral Orthorhombic Combinations.]
+
+  Examples of substances crystallizing in this class are extremely
+  numerous; amongst minerals are sulphur, stibnite, cerussite,
+  chrysoberyl, topaz, olivine, nitre, barytes, columbite and many
+  others; and amongst artificial products iodine, potassium
+  permanganate, potassium sulphate, benzene, barium formate, &c.
+
+    PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic).
+
+  Here there is only one dyad axis in which two planes of symmetry
+  intersect. The crystals are usually so placed that the dyad axis
+  coincides with the vertical crystallographic axis, and the planes of
+  symmetry are also vertical.
+
+  The pyramid {hkl} has only four faces at one end or other of the
+  crystal. The macro-prism and the brachy-prism of the last class are
+  here represented by the macro-dome and brachy-dome respectively, so
+  called because of the resemblance of the pair of equally sloped faces
+  to the roof of a house. The form {001} is a single plane at the top of
+  the crystal, and is called a "pedion"; the parallel pedion {001´}, if
+  present at the lower end of the crystal, constitutes a different form.
+  The prisms {hko} and the macro- and brachy-pinacoids are geometrically
+  the same in this class as in the last. Crystals of this class are
+  therefore differently developed at the two ends and are said to be
+  "hemimorphic."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--Crystal of Hemimorphite.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--Orthorhombic Bisphenoid.]
+
+  Fig. 60 shows a crystal of the mineral hemimorphite (H2Zn2SiO5) which
+  is a combination of the brachy-pinacoid {010} and a prism, with the
+  pedion (001), two brachy-domes and two macro-domes at the upper end,
+  and a pyramid at the lower end. Examples of other substances belonging
+  to this class are struvite (NH4MgPO4ˇ6H2O), bertrandite (H2Be4Si2O9),
+  resorcin, and picric acid.
+
+    BISPHENOIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are three dyad axes, but no planes of symmetry and no
+  centre of symmetry. The general form {hkl} is a bisphenoid (fig. 61)
+  bounded by four scalene triangles. The other simple forms are
+  geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class.
+
+  Examples: epsomite (Epsom salts, MgSO4ˇ7H2O), goslarite (ZnSO4ˇ7H2O),
+  silver nitrate, sodium potassium dextro-tartrate (seignette salt,
+  NaKC4H4O6ˇ4H2O), potassium antimonyl dextro-tartrate (tartar-emetic,
+  K(SbO)C4H4O6), and asparagine (C4H8N2O8ˇH2O).
+
+
+  4. MONOCLINIC[5] SYSTEM
+
+    (Oblique; Monosymmetric).
+
+  In this system two of the angles between the crystallographic axes are
+  right angles, but the third angle is oblique, and the axes are of
+  unequal lengths. The axis which is perpendicular to the other two is
+  taken as OY = b (fig. 62) and is called the ortho-axis or
+  ortho-diagonal. The choice of the other two axes is arbitrary; the
+  vertical axis (OZ = c) is usually taken parallel to the edges of a
+  prominently developed prismatic zone, and the clino-axis or
+  clino-diagonal (OX = a) parallel to the zone-axis of some other
+  prominent zone on the crystal. The acute angle between the axes OX and
+  OZ is usually denoted as ß, and it is necessary to know its magnitude,
+  in addition to the axial ratios a : b : c, before the crystal is
+  completely determined. As in other systems, except the cubic, these
+  elements, a : b : c and ß, are characteristic of the substance. Thus
+  for gypsum a : b : c = 0.6899 : 1 : 0.4124; ß = 80° 42´; for
+  orthoclase a : b : c = 0.6585 : 1 : 0.5554; ß = 63° 57´; and for
+  cane-sugar a : b : c = 1.2595 : 1 : 0.8782; ß = 76° 30´.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Prismatic).
+
+  Here there is a single plane of symmetry perpendicular to which is a
+  dyad axis; there is also a centre of symmetry. The dyad axis coincides
+  with the ortho-axis OY, and the vertical axis OZ and the clino-axis OX
+  lie in the plane of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--Monoclinic Axes and Hemi-pyramid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--Crystal of Augite.]
+
+  All the forms are open, being either pinacoids or prisms; the former
+  consisting of a pair of parallel faces, and the latter of four faces
+  intersecting in parallel edges and with a rhombic cross-section. The
+  pair of faces parallel to the plane of symmetry is distinguished as
+  the "clino-pinacoid" and has the indices {010}. The other pinacoids
+  are all perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (and parallel to the
+  ortho-axis); the one parallel to the vertical axis is called the
+  "ortho-pinacoid" {100}, whilst that parallel to the clino-axis is the
+  "basal pinacoid" {001}; pinacoids not parallel to the arbitrarily
+  chosen clino- and vertical axes may have the indices {101}, {201},
+  {102} ... {hol} or {1´01}, {2´01}, {1´02} ... {h´ol}, according to
+  whether they lie in the obtuse or the acute axial angle. Of the
+  prisms, those with edges (zone-axis) parallel to the clino-axis, and
+  having indices {011}, {021}, {012} ... {okl}, are called
+  "clino-prisms"; those with edges parallel to the vertical axis, and
+  with the indices {110}, {210}, {120} ... {hko}, are called simply
+  "prisms." Prisms with edges parallel to neither of the axes OX and OY
+  have the indices {111}, {221}, {211}, {321} ... {hkl} or {1´11} ...
+  {h´kl}, and are usually called "hemi-pyramids" (fig. 62); they are
+  distinguished as negative or positive according to whether they lie in
+  the obtuse or the acute axial angle ß.
+
+  Fig. 63 represents a crystal of augite bounded by the clino-pinacoid
+  (l), the ortho-pinacoid (r), a prism (M), and a hemi-pyramid (s).
+
+  The substances which crystallize in this class are extremely numerous:
+  amongst minerals are gypsum, orthoclase, the amphiboles, pyroxenes and
+  micas, epidote, monazite, realgar, borax, mirabilite (Na2SO4.10 H2O),
+  melanterite (FeSO4.7H2O) and many others; amongst artificial products
+  are monoclinic sulphur, barium chloride (BaCl2.2H2O), potassium
+  chlorate, potassium ferrocyanide (K4Fe(CN)6.3H2O), oxalic acid
+  (C2O4H2.2H2O), sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2.3H2O) and naphthalene.
+
+    HEMIMORPHIC CLASS
+
+    (Sphenoidal).
+
+  In this class the only element of symmetry is a single dyad axis,
+  which is polar in character, being dissimilar at the two ends.
+
+  The form {010} perpendicular to the axis of symmetry consists of a
+  single plane or pedion; the parallel face is dissimilar in character
+  and belongs to the pedion {01´0}. The pinacoids {100}, {001}, {hol}
+  and {h´ol} parallel to the axis of symmetry are geometrically the
+  same in this class as in the holosymmetric class. The remaining forms
+  consist each of only two planes on the same side of the axial plane
+  XOZ and equally inclined to the dyad axis (e.g. in fig. 62 the two
+  planes XYZ and X´YZ´); such a wedge-shaped form is sometimes called a
+  sphenoid.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--Enantiomorphous Crystals of Tartaric Acid.]
+
+  Fig. 64 shows two crystals of tartaric acid, a a right-handed crystal
+  of dextro-tartaric acid, and b a left-handed crystal of laevo-tartaric
+  acid. The two crystals are enantiomorphous, i.e. although they have
+  the same interfacial angles they are not superposable, one being the
+  mirror image of the other. Other examples are potassium
+  dextro-tartrate, cane-sugar, milk-sugar, quercite, lithium sulphate
+  (Li2SO4.H2O); amongst minerals the only example is the hydrocarbon
+  fichtelite (C5H8).
+
+    CLINOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemihedral; Domatic).
+
+  Crystals of this class are symmetrical only with respect to a single
+  plane. The only form which is here geometrically the same as in the
+  holosymmetric class is the clino-pinacoid {010}. The forms
+  perpendicular to the plane of symmetry are all pedions, consisting of
+  single planes with the indices {100}, {1´00}, {001}, {001´}, {hol},
+  &c. The remaining forms, {hko}, {okl} and {hkl}, are domes or
+  "gonioids" ([Greek: gonia], an angle, and [Greek: eidos], form),
+  consisting of two planes equally inclined to the plane of symmetry.
+
+  Examples are potassium tetrathionate (K2S4O6), hydrogen trisodium
+  hypophosphate (HNa3P2O6.9H2O); and amongst minerals, clinohedrite
+  (H2ZnCaSiO4) and scolectite.
+
+
+  5. ANORTHIC SYSTEM
+
+    (Triclinic).
+
+  In the anorthic (from [Greek: an], privative, and [Greek: orthos],
+  right) or triclinic system none of the three crystallographic axes are
+  at right angles, and they are all of unequal lengths. In addition to
+  the parameters a : b : c, it is necessary to know the angles, [alpha],
+  ß, and [gamma], between the axes. In anorthite, for example, these
+  elements are a : b : c = 0.6347 : 1 : 0.5501; [alpha] = 93° 13´, ß =
+  115° 55´, [gamma] = 91° 12´.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Pinacoidal).
+
+  Here there is only a centre of symmetry. All the forms are pinacoids,
+  each consisting of only two parallel faces. The indices of the three
+  pinacoids parallel to the axial planes are {100}, {010} and {001};
+  those of pinacoids parallel to only one axis are {hko}, {hol} and
+  {okl}; and the general form is {hkl}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Crystal of Axinite.]
+
+  Several minerals crystallize in this class; for example, the
+  plagioclastic felspars, microcline, axinite (fig. 65), cyanite,
+  amblygonite, chalcanthite (CuSO4ˇ5H2O), sassolite (H3BO3); among
+  artificial substances are potassium bichromate, racemic acid
+  (C4H6O6ˇ2H2O), dibrom-para-nitrophenol, &c.
+
+    ASYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Hemihedral, Pediad).
+
+  Crystals of this class are devoid of any elements of symmetry. All the
+  forms are pedions, each consisting of a single plane; they are thus
+  hemihedral with respect to crystals of the last class. Although there
+  is a total absence of symmetry, yet the faces are arranged in zones on
+  the crystals.
+
+  Examples are calcium thiosulphate (CaS2O3ˇ6H2O) and hydrogen strontium
+  dextro-tartrate ((C4H4O6H)2Srˇ5H2O); there is no example amongst
+  minerals.
+
+
+  6. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
+
+  Crystals of this system are characterized by the presence of a single
+  axis of either triad or hexad symmetry, which is spoken of as the
+  "principal" or "morphological" axis. Those with a triad axis are
+  grouped together in the rhombohedral or trigonal division, and those
+  with a hexad axis in the hexagonal division. By some authors these two
+  divisions are treated as separate systems; or again the rhombohedral
+  forms may be considered as hemihedral developments of the hexagonal.
+  On the other hand, hexagonal forms may be considered as a combination
+  of two rhombohedral forms.
+
+  Owing to the peculiarities of symmetry associated with a single triad
+  or hexad axis, the crystallographic axes of reference are different in
+  this system from those used in the five other systems of crystals. Two
+  methods of axial representation are in common use; rhombohedral axes
+  being usually used for crystals of the rhombohedral division, and
+  hexagonal axes for those of the hexagonal division; though sometimes
+  either one or the other set is employed in both divisions.
+
+  Rhomobohedral axes are taken parallel to the three sets of edges of a
+  rhombohedron (fig. 66). They are inclined to one another at equal
+  oblique angles, and they are all equally inclined to the principal
+  axis; further, they are all of equal length and are interchangeable.
+  With such a set of axes there can be no statement of an axial ratio,
+  but the angle between the axes (or some other angle which may be
+  calculated from this) may be given as a constant of the substance.
+  Thus in calcite the rhombohedral angle (the angle between two faces of
+  the fundamental rhombohedron) is 74° 55´, or the angle between the
+  normal to a face of this rhombohedron and the principal axis is 44°
+  36˝´.
+
+  Hexagonal axes are four in number, viz. a vertical axis coinciding
+  with the principal axis of the crystal, and three horizontal axes
+  inclined to one another at 60° in a plane perpendicular to the
+  principal axis. The three horizontal axes, which are taken either
+  parallel or perpendicular to the faces of a hexagonal prism (fig. 71)
+  or the edge of a hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), are equal in length
+  (a) but the vertical axis is of a different length (c). The indices of
+  planes referred to such a set of axes are four in number; they are
+  written as {hikl}, the first three (h + i + k = 0) referring to the
+  horizontal axes and the last to the vertical axis. The ratio a : c of
+  the parameters, or the axial ratio, is characteristic of all the
+  crystals of the same substance. Thus for beryl (including emerald) a :
+  c = 1 : 0.4989 (often written c = 0.4989); for zinc c = 1.3564.
+
+
+  _Rhombohedral Division._
+
+  In the rhomobohedral or trigonal division of the hexagonal system
+  there are seven symmetry-classes, all of which possess a single triad
+  axis of symmetry.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Ditrigonal scalenohedral).
+
+  In this class, which presents the commonest type of symmetry of the
+  hexagonal system, the triad axis is associated with three similar
+  planes of symmetry inclined to one another at 60° and intersecting in
+  the triad axis; there are also three similar dyad axes, each
+  perpendicular to a plane of symmetry, and a centre of symmetry. The
+  seven simple forms are:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.
+
+  Direct and Inverse Rhombohedra.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--Scalenohedron.]
+
+  Rhombohedron (figs. 66 and 67), consisting of six rhomb-shaped faces
+  with the edges all of equal lengths: the faces are perpendicular to
+  the planes of symmetry. There are two sets of rhombohedra,
+  distinguished respectively as direct and inverse; those of one set
+  (fig. 66) are brought into the orientation of the other set (fig. 67)
+  by a rotation of 60° or 180° about the principal axis. For the
+  fundamental rhombohedron, parallel to the edges of which are the
+  crystallographic axes of reference, the indices are {100}. Other
+  rhombohedra may have the indices {211}, {41´1´}, {110}, {221´},
+  {111´}, &c., or in general {hkk}. (Compare fig. 72; for figures of
+  other rhombohedra see CALCITE.)
+
+  Scalenohedron (fig. 68), bounded by twelve scalene triangles, and with
+  the general indices {hkl}. The zig-zag lateral edges coincide with the
+  similar edges of a rhombohedron, as shown in fig. 69; if the indices
+  of the inscribed rhombohedron be {100}, the indices of the
+  scalenohedron represented in the figure are {201´}. The scalenohedron
+  {201´} is a characteristic form of calcite, which for this reason is
+  sometimes called "dog-tooth-spar." The angles over the three edges of
+  a face of a scalenohedron are all different; the angles over three
+  alternate polar edges are more obtuse than over the other three polar
+  edges. Like the two sets of rhombohedra, there are also direct and
+  inverse scalenohedra, which may be similar in form and angles, but
+  different in orientation and indices.
+
+  Hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), bounded by twelve isosceles triangles
+  each of which are equally inclined to two planes of symmetry. The
+  indices are {210}, {412´}, &c., or in general (_hkl_), where h - 2k +
+  l = 0.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--Scalenohedron with inscribed Rhombohedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--Hexagonal Bipyramid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--Hexagonal Prism and Basal Pinacoid.]
+
+  Hexagonal prism of the first order (21´1´), consisting of six faces
+  parallel to the principal axis and perpendicular to the planes of
+  symmetry; the angles between (the normals to) the faces are 60°.
+
+  Hexagonal prism of the second order (101´), consisting of six faces
+  parallel to the principal axis and parallel to the planes of symmetry.
+  The faces of this prism are inclined to 30° to those of the last
+  prism.
+
+  Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the
+  principal axis and inclined to the planes of symmetry. There are two
+  sets of angles between the faces. The indices are {32´1´}, {53´2´} ...
+  {hk´l}, where h + k + l = 0.
+
+  Basal pinacoid {111}, consisting of a pair of parallel faces
+  perpendicular to the principal axis.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--Stereographic Projection of a Holosymmetric
+  Rhombohedral Crystal.]
+
+  Fig. 71 shows a combination of a hexagonal prism (m) with the basal
+  pinacoid (c). For figures of other combinations see CALCITE and
+  CORUNDUM. The relation between rhombohedral forms and their indices
+  are best studied with the aid of a stereographic projection (fig. 72);
+  in this figure the thicker lines are the projections of the three
+  planes of symmetry, and on these lie the poles of the rhombohedra (six
+  of which are indicated).
+
+  Numerous substances, both natural and artificial, crystallize in this
+  class; for example, calcite, chalybite, calamine, corundum (ruby and
+  sapphire), haematite, chabazite; the elements arsenic, antimony,
+  bismuth, selenium, tellurium and perhaps graphite; also ice, sodium
+  nitrate, thymol, &c.
+
+    DITRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are three similar planes of symmetry intersecting in the
+  triad axis; there are no dyad axes and no centre of symmetry. The
+  triad axis is uniterminal and polar, and the crystals are differently
+  developed at the two ends; crystals of this class are therefore
+  pyro-electric. The forms are all open forms:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--Crystal of Tourmaline.]
+
+  Trigonal pyramid {hkk}, consisting of the three faces which correspond
+  to the three upper or the three lower faces of a rhombohedron of the
+  holosymmetric class.
+
+  Ditrigonal pyramid {hkl}, of six faces, corresponding to the six upper
+  or lower faces of the scalenohedron.
+
+  Hexagonal pyramid (hkl) where (h - 2k + l = 0), of six faces,
+  corresponding to the six upper or lower faces of the hexagonal
+  bipyramid.
+
+  Trigonal prism {21´1´} or {2´11}, two forms each consisting of three
+  faces parallel to principal axis and perpendicular to the planes of
+  symmetry.
+
+  Hexagonal prism {101´}, which is geometrically the same as in the last
+  class.
+
+  Ditrigonal prism {hk´l´} (where h + k + l = 0), of six faces parallel
+  to the principal axis, and with two sets of angles between them.
+
+  Basal pedion (111) or (1´1´1´), each consisting of a single plane
+  perpendicular to the principal axis.
+
+  Fig. 73 represents a crystal of tourmaline with the trigonal prism
+  (21´1´), hexagonal prism (101´), and a trigonal pyramid at each end.
+  Other substances crystallizing in this class are pyrargyrite,
+  proustite, iodyrite (AgI), greenockite, zincite, spangolite, sodium
+  lithium sulphate, tolylphenylketone.
+
+    TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Trapezohedral-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are three similar dyad axes inclined to one another at 60°
+  and perpendicular to the triad axis. There are no planes or centre of
+  symmetry. The dyad axes are uniterminal, and are pyro-electric axes.
+  Crystals of most substances of this class rotate the plane of
+  polarization of a beam of light.
+
+  FIG. 74.--Trigonal Trapezohedron.
+
+  FIG. 75.--Trigonal Bipyramid.
+
+  In this class the rhombohedra {hkk}, the hexagonal prism {21´1´}, and
+  the basal pinacoid {111} are geometrically the same as in the
+  holosymmetric class; the trigonal prism {101´} and the ditrigonal
+  prisms are as in the ditrigonal pyramidal class. The remaining simple
+  forms are:--
+
+  Trigonal trapezohedron (fig. 74), bounded by six trapezoidal faces.
+  There are two complementary and enantiomorphous trapezohedra, {hkl}
+  and {hlk}, derivable from the scalenohedron.
+
+  Trigonal bipyramid (fig. 75), bounded by six isosceles triangles; the
+  indices are {hkl}, where h - 2k + l = 0, as in the hexagonal
+  bipyramid.
+
+  The only minerals crystallizing in this class are quartz (q.v.) and
+  cinnabar, both of which rotate the plane of a beam of polarized light
+  transmitted along the triad axis. Other examples are dithionates of
+  lead (PbS2O6.4H2O), calcium and strontium, and of potassium (K2S2O6),
+  benzil, matico-stearoptene.
+
+    RHOMBOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Parallel-faced hemihedral).
+
+  The only elements of symmetry are the triad axis and a centre of
+  symmetry. The general form {hkl} is a rhombohedron, and is a
+  hemihedral form, with parallel faces, of the scalenohedron. The form
+  {hkl}, where h - 2k + l = 0, is also a rhombohedron, being the
+  hemihedral form of the hexagonal bipyramid. The dihexagonal prism
+  {hk´l´} of the holosymmetric class becomes here a hexagonal prism. The
+  rhombohedra (hkk), hexagonal prisms {21´1´} and {101´}, and the basal
+  pinacoid {111} are geometrically the same in this class as in the
+  holosymmetric class.
+
+  Fig. 76 represents a crystal of dioptase with the fundamental
+  rhombohedron r {100} and the hexagonal prism of the second order m
+  {101´} combined with the rhombohedron s {031´}.
+
+  Examples of minerals which crystallize in this class are phenacite,
+  dioptase, willemite, dolomite, ilmenite and pyrophanite: amongst
+  artificial substances is ammonium periodate ((NH4)4I2O9ˇ3H2O).
+
+    TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).
+
+  Here there is only the triad axis of symmetry, which is uniterminal.
+  The general form {hkl} is a trigonal pyramid consisting of three faces
+  at one end of the crystal. All other forms, in which the faces are
+  neither parallel nor perpendicular to the triad axis, are trigonal
+  pyramids. All the prisms are trigonal prisms; and perpendicular to
+  these are two pedions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--Crystal of Dioptase.]
+
+  The only substance known to crystallize in this class is sodium
+  periodate (NaIO4ˇ3H2O), the crystals of which are circularly
+  polarizing.
+
+    TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+  Here there is a plane of symmetry perpendicular to the triad axis. The
+  trigonal pyramids of the last class are here trigonal bipyramids (fig.
+  75); the prisms are all trigonal prisms, and parallel to the plane of
+  symmetry is the basal pinacoid. No example is known for this class.
+
+    DITRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+  Here there are three similar planes of symmetry intersecting in the
+  triad axis, and perpendicular to them is a fourth plane of symmetry;
+  at the intersection of the three vertical planes with the horizontal
+  plane are three similar dyad axes; there is no centre of symmetry.
+
+  The general form is bounded by twelve scalene triangles and is a
+  ditrigonal bipyramid. Like the general form of the last class, this
+  has two sets of indices {hkl, p´q´r´}, (hkl) for faces above the
+  equatorial plane of symmetry and (p´q´r´) for faces below: with
+  hexagonal axes there would be only one set of indices. The hexagonal
+  bipyramids, the hexagonal prism {101´} and the basal pinacoid {111}
+  are geometrically the same in this class as in the holosymmetric
+  class. The trigonal prism {21´1´} and ditrigonal prisms {hkl} are the
+  same as in the ditrigonal pyramidal class.
+
+  The only representative of this type of symmetry is the mineral
+  benitoite (q.v.).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--Dihexagonal Bipyramid.]
+
+
+  _Hexagonal Division._
+
+  In crystals of this division of the hexagonal system the principal
+  axis is a hexad axis of symmetry. Hexagonal axes of reference are
+  used: if rhombohedral axes be used many of the simple forms will have
+  two sets of indices.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Dihexagonal bipyramidal).
+
+  Intersecting in the hexad axis are six planes of symmetry of two
+  kinds, and perpendicular to them is an equatorial plane of symmetry.
+  Perpendicular to the hexad axis are six dyad axes of two kinds and
+  each perpendicular to a vertical plane of symmetry. The seven simple
+  forms are:--
+
+  Dihexagonal bipyramid, bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles (fig.
+  77; v in fig. 80). The indices are {213´1}, &c., or in general {hikl}.
+  This form may be considered as a combination of two scalenohedra, a
+  direct and an inverse.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78. FIG. 79. FIG. 80.
+
+  Combinations of Hexagonal forms.]
+
+  Hexagonal bipyramid of the first order, bounded by twelve isosceles
+  triangles (fig. 70; p and u in fig. 80); indices {101´1}, {202´1} ...
+  (hoh´l). The hexagonal bipyramid so common in quartz is geometrically
+  similar to this form, but it really is a combination of two
+  rhombohedra, a direct and an inverse, the faces of which differ in
+  surface characters and often also in size.
+
+  Hexagonal bipyramid of the second order, bounded by twelve faces (s in
+  figs. 79 and 80); indices {112´1}, {112´2} ... {h.h.2´h´.l}.
+
+  Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the hexad
+  axis and inclined to the vertical planes of symmetry; indices {hiko}.
+
+  Hexagonal prism of the first order {1010}, consisting of six faces
+  parallel to the hexad axis and perpendicular to one set of three
+  vertical planes of symmetry (m in figs. 71, 78-80).
+
+  Hexagonal prism of the second order {112´0}, consisting of six faces
+  also parallel to the hexad axis, but perpendicular to the other set of
+  three vertical planes of symmetry (a in fig. 78).
+
+  Basal pinacoid {0001}, consisting of a pair of parallel planes
+  perpendicular to the hexad axis (c in figs. 71, 78-80).
+
+  Beryl (emerald), connellite, zinc, magnesium and beryllium crystallize
+  in this class.
+
+    BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Parallel-faced hemihedral).
+
+  Here there is a plane of symmetry perpendicular to the hexad axis;
+  there is also a centre of symmetry. All the closed forms are hexagonal
+  bipyramids; the open forms are hexagonal prisms or the basal pinacoid.
+  The general form {hikl} is hemihedral with parallel faces with respect
+  to the general form of the holosymmetric class.
+
+  Apatite (q.v.), pyromorphite, mimetite and vanadinite possess this
+  degree of symmetry.
+
+    DIHEXAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-hemihedral).
+
+  Six planes of symmetry of two kinds intersect in the hexad axis. The
+  hexad axis is uniterminal and all the forms are open forms. The
+  general form {hikl} consists of twelve faces at one end of the
+  crystal, and is a dihexagonal pyramid. The hexagonal pyramids {hoh´l}
+  and (h.h.2´h´.l) each consist of six faces at one end of the crystal.
+  The prisms are geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class.
+  Perpendicular to the hexad axis are the pedions (0001) and (0001´).
+
+  Iodyrite (AgI), greenockite (CdS), wurtzite (ZnS) and zincite (ZnO)
+  are often placed in this class, but they more probably belong to the
+  hemimorphic-hemihedral class of the rhombohedral division of this
+  system.
+
+    TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Trapezohedral-hemihedral).
+
+  Six dyad axes of two kinds are perpendicular to the hexad axis. The
+  general form {hikl} is the hexagonal trapezohedron bounded by twelve
+  trapezoidal faces. The other simple forms are geometrically the same
+  as in the holosymmetric class. Barium-anti-monyldextro-tartrate +
+  potassium nitrate (Ba(SbO)2(C4H4O6)2ˇKNO3) and the corresponding lead
+  salt crystallize in this class.
+
+    HEXAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).
+
+  No other element is here associated with the hexad axis, which is
+  uniterminal. The pyramids all consist of six faces at one end of the
+  crystal, and prisms are all hexagonal prisms; perpendicular to the
+  hexad axis are the pedions.
+
+  Lithium potassium sulphate, strontium-antimonyl dextro-tartrate, and
+  lead-antimonyl dextro-tartrate are examples of this type of symmetry.
+  The mineral nepheline is placed in this class because of the absence
+  of symmetry in the etched figures on the prism faces (fig. 92).
+
+  (g) _Regular Grouping of Crystals._
+
+Crystals of the same kind when occurring together may sometimes be
+grouped in parallel position and so give rise to special structures, of
+which the dendritic (from [Greek: dendrou], a tree) or branch-like
+aggregations of native copper or of magnetite and the fibrous structures
+of many minerals furnish examples. Sometimes, owing to changes in the
+surrounding conditions, the crystal may continue its growth with a
+different external form or colour, e.g. sceptre-quartz.
+
+Regular intergrowths of crystals of totally different substances such as
+staurolite with cyanite, rutile with haematite, blende with
+chalcopyrite, calcite with sodium nitrate, are not uncommon. In these
+cases certain planes and edges of the two crystals are parallel. (See O.
+Mügge, "Die regelmässigen Verwachsungen von Mineralien verschiedener
+Art," _Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie_, 1903, vol. xvi. pp. 335-475).
+
+But by far the most important kind of regular conjunction of crystals is
+that known as "twinning." Here two crystals or individuals of the same
+kind have grown together in a certain symmetrical manner, such that one
+portion of the twin may be brought into the position of the other by
+reflection across a plane or by rotation about an axis. The plane of
+reflection is called the twin-plane, and is parallel to one of the
+faces, or to a possible face, of the crystal: the axis of rotation,
+called the twin-axis, is parallel to one of the edges or perpendicular
+to a face of the crystal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Twinned Crystal of Gypsum.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Simple Crystal of Gypsum.]
+
+In the twinned crystal of gypsum represented in fig. 81 the two portions
+are symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel to the ortho-pinacoid
+(100), i.e. a vertical plane perpendicular to the face b. Or we may
+consider the simple crystal (fig. 82) to be cut in half by this plane
+and one portion to be rotated through 180° about the normal to the same
+plane. Such a crystal (fig. 81) is therefore described as being twinned
+on the plane (100).
+
+An octahedron (fig. 83) twinned on an octahedral face (111) has the two
+portions symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel to this face (the
+large triangular face in the figure); and either portion may be brought
+into the position of the other by a rotation through 180° about the
+triad axis of symmetry which is perpendicular to this face. This kind of
+twinning is especially frequent in crystals of spinel, and is
+consequently often referred to as the "spinel twin-law."
+
+In these two examples the surface of the union, or composition-plane, of
+the two portions is a regular surface coinciding with the twin-plane;
+such twins are called "juxtaposition-twins." In other juxtaposed twins
+the plane of composition is, however, not necessarily the twin-plane.
+Another type of twin is the "interpenetration twin," an example of which
+is shown in fig. 84. Here one cube may be brought into the position of
+the other by a rotation of 180° about a triad axis, or by reflection
+across the octahedral plane which is perpendicular to this axis; the
+twin-plane is therefore (111).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Spinel-twin.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Interpenetrating Twinned Cubes.]
+
+Since in many cases twinned crystals may be explained by the rotation of
+one portion through two right angles, R. J. Haüy introduced the term
+"hemitrope" (from the Gr. [Greek: hęmi]-, half, and [Greek: tropos], a
+turn); the word "macle" had been earlier used by Romé d'Isle. There are,
+however, some rare types of twins which cannot be explained by rotation
+about an axis, but only by reflection across a plane; these are known as
+"symmetric twins," a good example of which is furnished by one of the
+twin-laws of chalcopyrite.
+
+Twinned crystals may often be recognized by the presence of re-entrant
+angles between the faces of the two portions, as may be seen from the
+above figures. In some twinned crystals (e.g. quartz) there are,
+however, no re-entrant angles. On the other hand, two crystals
+accidentally grown together without any symmetrical relation between
+them will usually show some re-entrant angles, but this must not be
+taken to indicate the presence of twinning.
+
+Twinning may be several times repeated on the same plane or on other
+similar planes of the crystal, giving rise to triplets, quartets and
+other complex groupings. When often repeated on the same plane, the
+twinning is said to be "polysynthetic," and gives rise to a laminated
+structure in the crystal. Sometimes such a crystal (e.g. of corundum or
+pyroxene) may be readily broken in this direction, which is thus a
+"plane of parting," often closely resembling a true cleavage in
+character. In calcite and some other substances this lamellar twinning
+may be produced artificially by pressure (see below, Sect. II. (a),
+_Glide-plane_).
+
+Another curious result of twinning is the production of forms which
+apparently display a higher degree of symmetry than that actually
+possessed by the substance. Twins of this kind are known as
+"mimetic-twins or pseudo-symmetric twins." Two hemihedral or hemimorphic
+crystals (e.g. of diamond or of hemimorphite) are often united in
+twinned position to produce a group with apparently the same degree of
+symmetry as the holosymmetric class of the same system. Or again, a
+substance crystallizing in, say, the orthorhombic system (e.g.
+aragonite) may, by twinning, give rise to pseudo-hexagonal forms: and
+pseudo-cubic forms often result by the complex twinning of crystals
+(e.g. stannite, phillipsite, &c.) belonging to other systems. Many of
+the so-called "optical anomalies" of crystals may be explained by this
+pseudo-symmetric twinning.
+
+  (h) _Irregularities of Growth of Crystals; Character of Faces._
+
+Only rarely do actual crystals present the symmetrical appearance shown
+in the figures given above, in which similar faces are all represented
+as of equal size. It frequently happens that the crystal is so placed
+with respect to the liquid in which it grows that there will be a more
+rapid deposition of material on one part than on another; for instance,
+if the crystal be attached to some other solid it cannot grow in that
+direction. Only when a crystal is freely suspended in the mother-liquid
+and material for growth is supplied at the same rate on all sides does
+an equably developed form result.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.
+
+Misshappen Octahedra.]
+
+Two misshapen or distorted octahedra are represented in figs. 85 and 86;
+the former is elongated in the direction of one of the edges of the
+octahedron, and the latter is flattened parallel to one pair of faces.
+It will be noticed in these figures that the edges in which the faces
+intersect have the same directions as before, though here there are
+additional edges not present in fig. 3. The angles (70° 32´ or 109° 28´)
+between the faces also remain the same; and the faces have the same
+inclinations to the axes and planes of symmetry as in the equably
+developed form. Although from a geometrical point of view these figures
+are no longer symmetrical with respect to the axes and planes of
+symmetry, yet crystallographically they are just as symmetrical as the
+ideally developed form, and, however much their irregularity of
+development, they still are regular (cubic) octahedra of
+crystallography. A remarkable case of irregular development is presented
+by the mineral cuprite, which is often found as well-developed
+octahedra; but in the variety known as chalcotrichite it occurs as a
+matted aggregate of delicate hairs, each of which is an individual
+crystal enormously elongated in the direction of an edge or diagonal of
+the cube.
+
+The symmetry of actual crystals is sometimes so obscured by
+irregularities of growth that it can only be determined by measurement
+of the angles. An extreme case, where several of the planes have not
+been developed at all, is illustrated in fig. 87, which shows the actual
+shape of a crystal of zircon from Ceylon; the ideally developed form
+(fig. 88) is placed at the side for comparison, and the parallelism of
+the edges between corresponding faces will be noticed. This crystal is a
+combination of five simple forms, viz. two tetragonal prisms (a and m,)
+two tetragonal bipyramids (e and p), and one ditetragonal bipyramid (x,
+with 16 faces).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Actual Crystal.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Ideal Development.
+
+Crystal of Zircon (clinographic drawings and plans).]
+
+The actual form, or "habit," of crystals may vary widely in different
+crystals of the same substance, these differences depending largely on
+the conditions under which the growth has taken place. The material may
+have crystallized from a fused mass or from a solution; and in the
+latter case the solvent may be of different kinds and contain other
+substances in solution, or the temperature may vary. Calcite (q.v.)
+affords a good example of a substance crystallizing in widely different
+habits, but all crystals are referable to the same type of symmetry and
+may be reduced to the same fundamental form.
+
+When crystals are aggregated together, and so interfere with each
+other's growth, special structures and external shapes often result,
+which are sometimes characteristic of certain substances, especially
+amongst minerals.
+
+Incipient crystals, the development of which has been arrested owing to
+unfavourable conditions of growth, are known as crystallites (q.v.).
+They are met with in imperfectly crystallized substances and in glassy
+rocks (obsidian and pitchstone), or may be obtained artificially from a
+solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide rendered viscous by the
+addition of Canada-balsam. To the various forms H. Vogelsang gave, in
+1875, the names "globulites," "margarites" (from [Greek: margaritęs], a
+pearl), "longulites," &c. At a more advanced stage of growth these
+bodies react on polarized light, thus possessing the internal structure
+of true crystals; they are then called "microlites." These have the form
+of minute rods, needles or hairs, and are aggregated into feathery and
+spherulitic forms or skeletal crystals. They are common constituents of
+microcrystalline igneous rocks, and often occur as inclusions in larger
+crystals of other substances.
+
+Inclusions of foreign matter, accidentally caught up during growth, are
+frequently present in crystals. Inclusions of other minerals are
+specially frequent and conspicuous in crystals of quartz, and crystals
+of calcite may contain as much as 60% of included sand. Cavities, either
+with rounded boundaries or with the same shape ("negative crystals") as
+the surrounding crystal, are often to be seen; they may be empty or
+enclose a liquid with a movable bubble of gas.
+
+The faces of crystals are rarely perfectly plane and smooth, but are
+usually striated, studded with small angular elevations, pitted or
+cavernous, and sometimes curved or twisted. These irregularities,
+however, conform with the symmetry of the crystal, and much may be
+learnt by their study. The parallel grooves or furrows, called "striae,"
+are the result of oscillatory combination between adjacent faces, narrow
+strips of first one face and then another being alternately developed.
+Sometimes the striae on crystal-faces are due to repeated lamellar
+twinning, as in the plagioclase felspars. The directions of the
+striations are very characteristic features of many crystals: e.g. the
+faces of the hexagonal prism of quartz are always striated horizontally,
+whilst in beryl they are striated vertically. Cubes of pyrites (fig. 89)
+are striated parallel to one edge, the striae on adjacent faces being at
+right angles, and due to oscillatory combination of the cube and the
+pentagonal dodecahedron (compare fig. 36); whilst cubes of blende (fig.
+90) are striated parallel to one diagonal of each face, i.e. parallel to
+the tetrahedron faces (compare fig. 31). These striated cubes thus
+possess different degrees of symmetry and belong to different
+symmetry-classes. Oscillatory combination of faces gives rise also to
+curved surfaces. Crystals with twisted surfaces (see DOLOMITE) are,
+however, built up of smaller crystals arranged in nearly parallel
+position. Sometimes a face is entirely replaced by small faces of other
+forms, giving rise to a drusy surface; an example of this is shown by
+some octahedral crystals of fluorspar (fig. 2) which are built up of
+minute cubes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Striated Cube of Pyrites.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Striated Cube of Blende.]
+
+The faces of crystals are sometimes partly or completely replaced by
+smooth bright surfaces inclined at only a few minutes of arc from the
+true position of the face; such surfaces are called "vicinal faces," and
+their indices can be expressed only by very high numbers. In apparently
+perfectly developed crystals of alum the octahedral face, with the
+simple indices (111), is usually replaced by faces of very low
+triakis-octahedra, with indices such as (251ˇ251ˇ250); the angles
+measured on such crystals will therefore deviate slightly from the true
+octahedral angle. Vicinal faces of this character are formed during the
+growth of crystals, and have been studied by H. A. Miers (_Phil.
+Trans._, 1903, Ser. A. vol. 202). Other faces with high indices, viz.
+"prerosion faces" and the minute faces forming the sides of etched
+figures (see below), as well as rounded edges and other surface
+irregularities, may, however, result from the corrosion of a crystal
+subsequent to its growth. The pitted and cavernous faces of artificially
+grown crystals of sodium chloride and of bismuth are, on the other hand,
+a result of rapid growth, more material being supplied at the edges and
+corners of the crystal than at the centres of the faces.
+
+  (i) _Theories of Crystal Structure._
+
+The ultimate aim of crystallographic research is to determine the
+internal structure of crystals from both physical and chemical data. The
+problem is essentially twofold: in the first place it is necessary to
+formulate a theory as to the disposition of the molecules, which
+conforms with the observed types of symmetry--this is really a
+mathematical problem; in the second place, it is necessary to determine
+the orientation of the atoms (or groups of atoms) composing the
+molecules with regard to the crystal axes--this involves a knowledge of
+the atomic structure of the molecule. As appendages to the second part
+of our problem, there have to be considered: (1) the possibility of the
+existence of the same substance in two or more distinct crystalline
+forms--polymorphism, and (2) the relations between the chemical
+structure of compounds which affect nearly identical or related crystal
+habits--isomorphism and morphotropy. Here we shall discuss the modern
+theory of crystal structure; the relations between chemical composition
+and crystallographical form are discussed in Part III. of this article;
+reference should also be made to the article CHEMISTRY: _Physical_.
+
+
+  Haüy.
+
+The earliest theory of crystal structure of any moment is that of Haüy,
+in which, as explained above, he conceived a crystal as composed of
+elements bounded by the cleavage planes of the crystal, the elements
+being arranged contiguously and along parallel lines. There is, however,
+no reason to suppose that matter is continuous throughout a crystalline
+body; in fact, it has been shown that space does separate the molecules,
+and we may therefore replace the contiguous elements of Haüy by
+particles equidistantly distributed along parallel lines; by this
+artifice we retain the reticulated or net-like structure, but avoid the
+continuity of matter which characterizes Haüy's theory; the permanence
+of crystal form being due to equilibrium between the intermolecular (and
+interatomic) forces. The crystal is thus conjectured as a
+"space-lattice," composed of three sets of parallel planes which enclose
+parallelopipeda, at the corners of which are placed the constituent
+molecules (or groups of molecules) of the crystal.
+
+
+  Frankenheim; Bravais.
+
+The geometrical theory of crystal structure (i.e. the determination of
+the varieties of crystal symmetry) is thus reduced to the mathematical
+problem: "in how many ways can space be partitioned?" M. L. Frankenheim,
+in 1835, determined this number as fifteen, but A. Bravais, in 1850,
+proved the identity of two of Frankenheim's forms, and showed how the
+remaining fourteen coalesced by pairs, so that really these forms only
+corresponded to seven distinct systems and fourteen classes of crystal
+symmetry. These systems, however, only represented holohedral forms,
+leaving the hemihedral and tetartohedral classes to be explained.
+Bravais attempted an explanation by attributing differences in the
+symmetry of the crystal elements, or, what comes to the same thing, he
+assumed the crystals to exhibit polar differences along any member of
+the lattice; for instance, assume the particles to be (say) pear-shaped,
+then the sharp ends point in one direction, the blunt ends in the
+opposite direction.
+
+
+  Sohncke.
+
+A different view was adopted by L. Sohncke in 1879, who, by developing
+certain considerations published by Camille Jordan in 1869 on the
+possible types of regular repetition in space of identical parts, showed
+that the lattice-structure of Bravais was unnecessary, it being
+sufficient that each molecule of an indefinitely extended crystal,
+represented by its "point" (or centre of gravity), was identically
+situated with respect to the molecules surrounding it. The problem then
+resolves itself into the determination of the number of "point-systems"
+possible; Sohncke derived sixty-five such arrangements, which may also
+be obtained from the fourteen space-lattices of Bravais, by
+interpenetrating any one space-lattice with one or more identical
+lattices, with the condition that the resulting structure should conform
+with the homogeneity characteristic of crystals. But the sixty-five
+arrangements derived by Sohncke, of which Bravais' lattices are
+particular cases, did not complete the solution, for certain of the
+known types of crystal symmetry still remained unrepresented. These
+missing forms are characterized as being enantiomorphs consequently,
+with the introduction of this principle of repetition over a plane, i.e.
+mirror images. E. S. Fedorov (1890), A. Schoenflies (1891), and W.
+Barlow (1894), independently and by different methods, showed how
+Sohncke's theory of regular point-systems explained the whole thirty-two
+classes of crystal symmetry, 230 distinct types of crystal structure
+falling into these classes.
+
+By considering the atoms instead of the centres of gravity of the
+molecules, Sohncke (_Zeits. Kryst. Min._, 1888, 14, p. 431) has
+generalized his theory, and propounded the structure of a crystal in the
+following terms: "A crystal consists of a finite number of
+interpenetrating regular point-systems, which all possess like and
+like-directed coincidence movements. Each separate point-system is
+occupied by similar material particles, but these may be different for
+the different interpenetrating partial systems which form the complex
+system." Or we may quote the words of P. von Groth (_British Assoc.
+Rep._, 1904): "A crystal--considered as indefinitely extended--consists
+of n interpenetrating regular point-systems, each of which is formed of
+similar atoms; each of these point-systems is built up from a number of
+interpenetrating space-lattices, each of the latter being formed from
+similar atoms occupying parallel positions. All the space-lattices of
+the combined system are geometrically identical, or are characterized by
+the same elementary parallelopipedon."
+
+  A complete résumé, with references to the literature, will be found in
+  "Report on the Development of the Geometrical Theories of Crystal
+  Structure, 1666-1901" (_British Assoc. Rep._, 1901).
+
+
+II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS.
+
+Many of the physical properties of crystals vary with the direction in
+the material, but are the same in certain directions; these directions
+obeying the same laws of symmetry as do the faces on the exterior of the
+crystal. The symmetry of the internal structure of crystals is thus the
+same as the symmetry of their external form.
+
+  (a) _Elasticity and Cohesion._
+
+The elastic constants of crystals are determined by similar methods to
+those employed with amorphous substances, only the bars and plates
+experimented upon must be cut from the crystal with known orientations.
+The "elasticity surface" expressing the coefficients in various
+directions within the crystal has a configuration symmetrical with
+respect to the same planes and axes of symmetry as the crystal itself.
+In calcite, for instance, the figure has roughly the shape of a rounded
+rhombohedron with depressed faces and is symmetrical about three
+vertical planes. In the case of homogeneous elastic deformation,
+produced by pressure on all sides, the effect on the crystal is the same
+as that due to changes of temperature; and the surfaces expressing the
+compression coefficients in different directions have the same higher
+degree of symmetry, being either a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid. When
+strained beyond the limits of elasticity, crystalline matter may suffer
+permanent deformation in one or other of two ways, or may be broken
+along cleavage surfaces or with an irregular fracture. In the case of
+plastic deformation, e.g. in a crystal of ice, the crystalline particles
+are displaced but without any change in their orientation. Crystals of
+some substances (e.g. para-azoxyanisol) have such a high degree of
+plasticity that they are deformed even by their surface tension, and the
+crystals take the form of drops of doubly refracting liquid which are
+known as "liquid crystals." (See O. Lehmann, _Flüssige Kristalle_,
+Leipzig, 1904; F. R. Schenck, _Kristallinische Flüssigkeiten und
+flüssige Krystalle_, Leipzig, 1905.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Glide-plane of Calcite.]
+
+In the second, and more usual kind of permanent deformation without
+fracture, the particles glide along certain planes into a new (twinned)
+position of equilibrium. If a knife blade be pressed into the edge of a
+cleavage rhombohedron of calcite (at b, fig. 91) the portion abcde of
+the crystal will take up the position a´b´cde. The obtuse solid angle at
+a becomes acute (a´), whilst the acute angle at b becomes obtuse (b´);
+and the new surface a'ce is as bright and smooth as before. This result
+has been effected by the particles in successive layers gliding or
+rotating over each other, without separation, along planes parallel to
+cde. This plane, which truncates the edge of the rhombohedron and has
+the indices (110), is called a "glide-plane." The new portion is in
+twinned position with respect to the rest of the crystal, being a
+reflection of it across the plane cde, which is therefore a plane of
+twinning. This secondary twinning is often to be observed as a repeated
+lamination in the grains of calcite composing a crystalline limestone,
+or marble, which has been subjected to earth movements. Planes of
+gliding have been observed in many minerals (pyroxene, corundum, &c.)
+and their crystals may often be readily broken along these directions,
+which are thus "planes of parting" or "pseudo-cleavage." The
+characteristic transverse striae, invariably present on the cleavage
+surfaces of stibnite and cyanite are due to secondary twinning along
+glide-planes, and have resulted from the bending of the crystals.
+
+One of the most important characters of crystals is that of "cleavage";
+there being certain plane directions across which the cohesion is a
+minimum, and along which the crystal may be readily split or cleaved.
+These directions are always parallel to a possible face on the crystal
+and usually one prominently developed and with simple indices, it being
+a face in which the crystal molecules are most closely packed. The
+directions of cleavage are symmetrically repeated according to the
+degree of symmetry possessed by the crystal. Thus in the cubic system,
+crystals of salt and galena cleave in three directions parallel to the
+faces of the cube {100}, diamond and fluorspar cleave in four directions
+parallel to the octahedral faces {111}, and blende in six directions
+parallel to the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron {110}. In crystals of
+other systems there will be only a single direction of cleavage if this
+is parallel to the faces of a pinacoid; e.g. the basal pinacoid in
+tetragonal (as in apophyllite) and hexagonal crystals; or parallel (as
+in gypsum) or perpendicular (as in mica and cane-sugar) to the plane of
+symmetry in monoclinic crystals. Calcite cleaves in three directions
+parallel to the faces of the primitive rhombohedron. Barytes, which
+crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, has two sets of cleavages, viz.
+a single cleavage parallel to the basal pinacoid {001} and also two
+directions parallel to the faces of the prism {110}. In all of the
+examples just quoted the cleavage is described as perfect, since
+cleavage flakes with very smooth and bright surfaces may be readily
+detached from the crystals. Different substances, however, vary widely
+in their character of cleavage; in some it can only be described as good
+or distinct, whilst in others, e.g. quartz and alum, there is little or
+no tendency to split along certain directions and the surfaces of
+fracture are very uneven. Cleavage is therefore a character of
+considerable determinative value, especially for the purpose of
+distinguishing different minerals.
+
+Another result of the presence in crystals of directions of minimum
+cohesion are the "percussion figures," which are produced on a
+crystal-face when this is struck with a sharp point. A percussion figure
+consists of linear cracks radiating from the point of impact, which in
+their number and orientation agree with the symmetry of the face. Thus
+on a cube face of a crystal of salt the rays of the percussion figure
+are parallel to the diagonals of the face, whilst on an octahedral face
+a three-rayed star is developed. By pressing a blunt point into a
+crystal face a somewhat similar figure, known as a "pressure figure," is
+produced. Percussion and pressure figures are readily developed in
+cleavage sheets of mica (q.v.).
+
+Closely allied to cohesion is the character of "hardness," which is
+often defined, and measured by, the resistance which a crystal face
+offers to scratching. That hardness is a character depending largely on
+crystalline structure is well illustrated by the two crystalline
+modifications of carbon: graphite is one of the softest of minerals,
+whilst diamond is the hardest of all. The hardness of crystals of
+different substances thus varies widely, and with minerals it is a
+character of considerable determinative value; for this purpose a scale
+of hardness is employed (see MINERALOGY). Various attempts have been
+made with the view of obtaining accurate determinations of degrees of
+hardness, but with varying results; an instrument used for this purpose
+is called a sclerometer (from [Greek: sklęros], hard). It may, however,
+be readily demonstrated that the degree of hardness on a crystal face
+varies with the direction, and that a curve expressing these relations
+possesses the same geometrical symmetry as the face itself. The mineral
+cyanite is remarkable in having widely different degrees of hardness on
+different faces of its crystals and in different directions on the same
+face.
+
+Another result of the differences of cohesion in different directions is
+that crystals are corroded, or acted upon by chemical solvents, at
+different rates in different directions. This is strikingly shown when a
+sphere cut from a crystal, say of calcite or quartz, is immersed in
+acid; after some time the resulting form is bounded by surfaces
+approximating to crystal faces, and has the same symmetry as that of the
+crystal from which the sphere was cut. When a crystal bounded by faces
+is immersed in a solvent the edges and corners become rounded and
+"prerosion faces" developed in their place; the faces become marked all
+over with minute pits or shallow depressions, and as these are extended
+by further solution they give place to small elevations on the corroded
+face. The sides of the pits and elevations are bounded by small faces
+which have the character of vicinal faces. These markings are known as
+"etched figures" or "corrosion figures," and they are extremely
+important aids in determining the symmetry of crystals. Etched figures
+are sometimes beautifully developed on the faces of natural crystals,
+e.g. of diamond, and they may be readily produced artificially with
+suitable solvents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Nepheline.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Calcite.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Beryl.
+
+Etched Figures on Hexagonal Prisms.]
+
+As an example, the etched figures on the faces of a hexagonal prism and
+the basal plane are illustrated in figs. 92-94 for three of the several
+symmetry-classes of the hexagonal system. The classes chosen are those
+in which nepheline, calcite and beryl (emerald) crystallize, and these
+minerals often have the simple form of crystal represented in the
+figures. In nepheline (fig. 92) the only element of symmetry is a hexad
+axis; the etched figures on the prism are therefore unsymmetrical,
+though similar on all the faces; the hexagonal markings on the basal
+plane have none of their edges parallel to the edges of the face;
+further the crystals being hemimorphic, the etched figures on the basal
+planes at the two ends will be different in character. The facial
+development of crystals of nepheline give no indication of this type of
+symmetry, and the mineral has been referred to this class solely on the
+evidence afforded by the etched figures. In calcite there is a triad
+axis of symmetry parallel to the prism edges, three dyad axes each
+perpendicular to a pair of prism edges and three planes of symmetry
+perpendicular to the prism faces; the etched figures shown in fig. 93
+will be seen to conform to all these elements of symmetry. There being
+in calcite also a centre of symmetry, the equilateral triangles on the
+basal plane at the lower end of the crystal will be the same in form as
+those at the top, but they will occupy a reversed position. In beryl,
+which crystallizes in the holosymmetric class of the hexagonal system,
+the etched figures (fig. 94) display the fullest possible degree of
+symmetry; those on the prism faces are all similar and are each
+symmetrical with respect to two lines, and the hexagonal markings on the
+basal planes at both ends of the crystal are symmetrically placed with
+respect to six lines. A detailed account of the etched figures of
+crystals is given by H. Baumhauer, _Die Resultate der Ätzmethode in der
+krystallographischen Forschung_ (Leipzig, 1894).
+
+  (b) _Optical Properties._
+
+The complex optical characters of crystals are not only of considerable
+interest theoretically, but are of the greatest practical importance. In
+the absence of external crystalline form, as with a faceted gem-stone,
+or with the minerals constituting a rock (thin, transparent sections of
+which are examined in the polarizing microscope), the mineral species
+may often be readily identified by the determination of some of the
+optical characters.
+
+According to their action on transmitted plane-polarized light (see
+POLARIZATION OF LIGHT) all crystals may be referred to one or other of
+the five groups enumerated below. These groups correspond with the six
+systems of crystallization (in the second group two systems being
+included together). The several symmetry-classes of each system are
+optically the same, except in the rare cases of substances which are
+circularly polarizing.
+
+(1) Optically isotropic crystals--corresponding with the cubic system.
+
+(2) Optically uniaxial crystals--corresponding with the tetragonal and
+hexagonal systems.
+
+(3) Optically biaxial crystals in which the three principal optical
+directions coincide with the three crystallographic axes--corresponding
+with the orthorhombic system.
+
+(4) Optically biaxial crystals in which only one of the three principal
+optical directions coincides with a crystallographic axis--corresponding
+with the monoclinic system.
+
+(5) Optically biaxial crystals in which there is no fixed and definite
+relation between the optical and crystallographic
+directions--corresponding with the anorthic system.
+
+_Optically Isotropic Crystals._--These belong to the cubic system, and
+like all other optically isotropic (from [Greek: isos], like, and
+[Greek: tropos], character) bodies have only one index of refraction for
+light of each colour. They have no action on polarized light (except in
+crystals which are circularly polarizing); and when examined in the
+polariscope or polarizing microscope they remain dark between crossed
+nicols, and cannot therefore be distinguished optically from amorphous
+substances, such as glass and opal.
+
+_Optically Uniaxial Crystals._--These belong to the tetragonal and
+hexagonal (including rhombohedral) systems, and between crystals of
+these systems there is no optical distinction. Such crystals are
+anisotropic or doubly refracting (see REFRACTION: _Double_); but for
+light travelling through them in a certain, single direction they are
+singly refracting. This direction, which is called the optic axis, is
+the same for light of all colours and at all temperatures; it coincides
+in direction with the principal crystallographic axis, which in
+tetragonal crystals is a tetrad (or dyad) axis of symmetry, and in the
+hexagonal system a triad or hexad axis.
+
+For light of each colour there are two indices of refraction; namely,
+the ordinary index ([omega]) corresponding with the ordinary ray, which
+vibrates perpendicular to the optic axis; and the extraordinary index
+([epsilon]) corresponding with the extraordinary ray, which vibrates
+parallel to the optic axis. If the ordinary index of refraction be
+greater than the extraordinary index, the crystal is said to be
+optically negative, whilst if less the crystal is optically positive.
+The difference between the two indices is a measure of the strength of
+the double refraction or birefringence. Thus in calcite, for sodium (D)
+light, [omega] = 1.6585 and [epsilon] = 1.4863; hence this substance is
+optically negative with a relatively high double refraction of [omega] -
+[epsilon] = 0.1722. In quartz [omega] = 1.5442, [epsilon] = 1.5533 and
+[epsilon] - [omega] = 0.0091; this mineral is therefore optically
+positive with low double refraction. The indices of refraction vary, not
+only for light of different colours, but also slightly with the
+temperature.
+
+The optical characters of uniaxial crystals are symmetrical not only
+with respect to the full number of planes and axes of symmetry of
+tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, but also with respect to all vertical
+planes, i.e. all planes containing the optic axis. A surface expressing
+the optical relations of such crystals is thus an ellipsoid of
+revolution about the optic axis. (In cubic crystals the corresponding
+surface is a sphere.) In the "optical indicatrix" (L. Fletcher, _The
+Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission of Light in Crystals_, London,
+1892), the length of the principal axis, or axis of rotation, is
+proportional to the index of refraction, (i.e. inversely proportional to
+the velocity) of the extraordinary rays, which vibrate along this axis
+and are transmitted in directions perpendicular thereto; the equatorial
+diameters are proportional to the index of refraction of the ordinary
+rays, which vibrate perpendicular to the optic axis. For positive
+uniaxial crystals the indicatrix is thus a prolate spheroid
+(egg-shaped), and for negative crystals an oblate spheroid
+(orange-shaped).
+
+In "Fresnel's ellipsoid" the axis of rotation is proportional to the
+velocity of the extraordinary ray, and the equatorial diameters
+proportional to the velocity of the ordinary ray; it is therefore an
+oblate spheroid for positive crystals, and a prolate spheroid for
+negative crystals. The "ray-surface," or "wave-surface," which
+represents the distances traversed by the rays during a given interval
+of time in various directions from a point of origin within the crystal,
+consists in uniaxial crystals of two sheets; namely, a sphere,
+corresponding to the ordinary rays, and an ellipsoid of revolution,
+corresponding to the extraordinary rays. The difference in form of the
+ray-surface for positive and negative crystals is shown in figs. 95 and
+96.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Section of the Ray-Surface of a Positive
+Uniaxial Crystal.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Section of the Ray-Surface of a Negative
+Uniaxial Crystal.]
+
+When a uniaxial crystal is examined in a polariscope or polarizing
+microscope between crossed nicols (i.e. with the principal planes of the
+polarizer or analyser at right angles, and so producing a dark field of
+view) its behaviour differs according to the direction in which the
+light travels through the crystal, to the position of the crystal with
+respect to the principal planes of the nicols, and further, whether
+convergent or parallel polarized light be employed. A tetragonal or
+hexagonal crystal viewed, in parallel light, through the basal plane,
+i.e. along the principal axis, will remain dark as it is rotated between
+crossed nicols, and will thus not differ in its behaviour from a cubic
+crystal or other isotropic body. If, however, the crystal be viewed in
+any other direction, for example, through a prism face, it will, except
+in certain positions, have an action on the polarized light. A
+plane-polarized ray entering the crystal will be resolved into two
+polarized rays with the directions of vibration parallel to the
+vibration-directions in the crystal. These two rays on leaving the
+crystal will be combined again in the analyser, and a portion of the
+light transmitted through the instrument; the crystal will then show up
+brightly against the dark field. Further, owing to interference of these
+two rays in the analyser, the light will be brilliantly coloured,
+especially if the crystal be thin, or if a thin section of a crystal be
+examined. The particular colour seen will depend on the strength of the
+double refraction, the orientation of the crystal or section, and upon
+its thickness. If now, the crystal be rotated with the stage of the
+microscope, the nicols remaining fixed in position, the light
+transmitted through the instrument will vary in intensity, and in
+certain positions will be cut out altogether. The latter happens when
+the vibration-directions of the crystal are parallel to the
+vibration-directions of the nicols (these being indicated by cross-wires
+in the microscope). The crystal, now being dark, is said to be in
+position of extinction; and as it is turned through a complete rotation
+of 360° it will extinguish four times. If a prism face be viewed
+through, it will be seen that, when the crystal is in a position of
+extinction, the cross-wires of the microscope are parallel to the edges
+of the prism: the crystal is then said to give "straight extinction."
+
+In convergent light, between crossed nicols, a very different phenomenon
+is to be observed when a uniaxial crystal, or section of such a crystal,
+is placed with its optic axis coincident with the axis of the
+microscope. The rays of light, being convergent, do not travel in the
+direction of the optic axis and are therefore doubly refracted in the
+crystal; in the analyser the vibrations will be reduced to the same
+plane and there will be interference of the two sets of rays. The result
+is an "interference figure" (fig. 97), which consists of a number of
+brilliantly coloured concentric rings, each showing the colours of the
+spectrum of white light; intersecting the rings is a black cross, the
+arms of which are parallel to the principal planes of the nicols. If
+monochromatic light be used instead of white light, the rings will be
+alternately light and dark. The number and distance apart of the rings
+depend on the strength of the double refraction and on the thickness of
+the crystal. By observing the effect produced on such a uniaxial
+interference figure when a "quarter undulation (or wave-length)
+mica-plate" is superposed on the crystal, it may be at once decided
+whether the crystal is optically positive or negative. Such a simple
+test may, for example, be applied for distinguishing certain faceted
+gem-stones: thus zircon and phenacite are optically positive, whilst
+corundum (ruby and sapphire) and beryl (emerald) are optically negative.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Interference Figure of a Uniaxial Crystal.]
+
+_Optically Biaxial Crystals._--In these crystals there are three
+principal indices of refraction, denoted by [alpha], ß and [gamma]; of
+these [gamma] is the greatest and [alpha] the least ([gamma] > ß >
+[alpha]). The three principal vibration-directions, corresponding to
+these indices, are at right angles to each other, and are the directions
+of the three rectangular axes of the optical indicatrix. The indicatrix
+(fig. 98) is an ellipsoid with the lengths of its axes proportional to
+the refractive indices; OC = [gamma], OB = ß, OA = [alpha], where OC >
+OB > OA. The figure is symmetrical with respect to the principal planes
+OAB, OAC, OBC.
+
+In Fresnel's ellipsoid the three rectangular axes are proportional to
+1/[alpha], 1/ß, and 1/[gamma], and are usually denoted by a, b and c
+respectively, where a > b > c: these have often been called "axes of
+optical elasticity," a term now generally discarded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Optical Indicatrix of a Biaxial Crystal.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Ray-Surface of a Biaxial Crystal.]
+
+The ray-surface (represented in fig. 99 by its sections in the three
+principal planes) is derived from the indicatrix in the following
+manner. A ray of light entering the crystal and travelling in the
+direction OA is resolved into polarized rays vibrating parallel to OB
+and OC, and therefore propagated with the velocities 1/ß and 1/[gamma]
+respectively: distances Ob and Oc (fig. 99) proportional to these
+velocities are marked off in the direction OA. Similarly, rays
+travelling along OC have the velocities 1/[alpha] and 1/ß, and those
+along OB the velocities 1/[alpha] and 1/[gamma]. In the two directions
+Op1 and Op2 (fig. 98), perpendicular to the two circular sections P1P1
+and P2P2 of the indicatrix, the two rays will be transmitted with the
+same velocity 1/ß. These two directions are called the optic axes
+("primary optic axis"), though they have not all the properties which
+are associated with the optic axis of a uniaxial crystal. They have very
+nearly the same direction as the lines Os1 and Os2 in fig. 99, which are
+distinguished as the "secondary optic axes." In most crystals the
+primary and secondary optic axes are inclined to each other at not more
+than a few minutes, so that for practical purposes there is no
+distinction between them.
+
+The angle between Op1 and Op2 is called the "optic axial angle"; and the
+plane OAC in which they lie is called the "optic axial plane." The angles
+between the optic axes are bisected by the vibration-directions OA and
+OC; the one which bisects the acute angle being called the "acute
+bisectrix" or "first mean line," and the other the "obtuse bisectrix" or
+"second mean line." When the acute bisectrix coincides with the greatest
+axis OC of the indicatrix, i.e. the vibration-direction corresponding
+with the refractive index [gamma] (as in figs. 98 and 99), the crystal is
+described as being optically positive; and when the acute bisectrix
+coincides with OA, the vibration-direction for the index [alpha], the
+crystal is negative. The distinction between positive and negative
+biaxial crystals thus depends on the relative magnitude of the three
+principal indices of refraction; in positive crystals ß is nearer to
+[alpha] than to [gamma], whilst in negative crystals the reverse is the
+case. Thus in topaz, which is optically positive, the refractive indices
+for sodium light are [alpha] = 1.6120, ß = 1.6150, [gamma] = 1.6224; and
+for orthoclase which is optically negative, [alpha] = 1.5190, ß = 1.5237,
+[gamma] = 1.5260. The difference [gamma] - [alpha] represents the
+strength of the double refraction.
+
+Since the refractive indices vary both with the colour of the light and
+with the temperature, there will be for each colour and temperature
+slight differences in the form of both the indicatrix and the
+ray-surface: consequently there will be variations in the positions of
+the optic axes and in the size of the optic axial angle. This phenomenon
+is known as the "dispersion of the optic axes." When the axial angle is
+greater for red light than for blue the character of the dispersion is
+expressed by [rho] > [upsilon], and when less by [rho] < [upsilon]. In
+some crystals, e.g. brookite, the optic axes for red light and for blue
+light may be, at certain temperatures, in planes at right angles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.
+
+Interference Figures of a Biaxial Crystal.]
+
+The type of interference figure exhibited by a biaxial crystal in
+convergent polarized light between crossed nicols is represented in
+figs. 100 and 101. The crystal must be viewed along the acute bisectrix,
+and for this purpose it is often necessary to cut a plate from the
+crystal perpendicular to this direction: sometimes, however, as in mica
+and topaz, a cleavage flake will be perpendicular to the acute
+bisectrix. When seen in white light, there are around each optic axis a
+series of brilliantly coloured ovals, which at the centre join to form
+an 8-shaped loop, whilst further from the centre the curvature of the
+rings is approximately that of lemniscates. In the position shown in
+fig. 100 the vibration-directions in the crystal are parallel to those
+of the nicols, and the figure is intersected by two black bands or
+"brushes" forming a cross. When, however, the crystal is rotated with
+the stage of the microscope the cross breaks up into the two branches of
+a hyperbola, and when the vibration-directions of the crystal are
+inclined at 45° to those of the nicols the figure is that shown in fig.
+101. The points of emergence of the optic axes are at the middle of the
+hyperbolic brushes when the crystal is in the diagonal position: the
+size of the optic axial angle can therefore be directly measured with
+considerable accuracy.
+
+In orthorhombic crystals the three principal vibration-directions
+coincide with the three crystallographic axes, and have therefore fixed
+positions in the crystal, which are the same for light of all colours
+and at all temperatures. The optical orientation of an orthorhombic
+crystal is completely defined by stating to which crystallographic
+planes the optic axial plane and the acute bisectrix are respectively
+parallel and perpendicular. Examined in parallel light between crossed
+nicols, such a crystal extinguishes parallel to the crystallographic
+axes, which are often parallel to the edges of a face or section; there
+is thus usually "straight extinction." The interference figure seen in
+convergent polarized light is symmetrical about two lines at right
+angles.
+
+In monoclinic crystals only one vibration-direction has a fixed position
+within the crystal, being parallel to the ortho-axis (i.e. perpendicular
+to the plane of symmetry or the plane (010)). The other two
+vibration-directions lie in the plane (010), but they may vary in
+position for light of different colours and at different temperatures.
+In addition to dispersion of the optic axes there may thus, in crystals
+of this system, be also "dispersion of the bisectrices." The latter may
+be of one or other of three kinds, according to which of the three
+vibration-directions coincides with the ortho-axis of the crystal. When
+the acute bisectrix is fixed in position, the optic axial planes for
+different colours may be crossed, and the interference figure will then
+be symmetrical with respect to a point only ("crossed dispersion"). When
+the obtuse bisectrix is fixed, the axial planes may be inclined to one
+another, and the interference figure is symmetrical only about a line
+which is perpendicular to the axial planes ("horizontal dispersion").
+Finally, when the vibration-direction corresponding to the refractive
+index ß, or the "third mean line," has a fixed position, the optic axial
+plane lies in the plane (010), but the acute bisectrix may vary in
+position in this plane; the interference figure will then be symmetrical
+only about a line joining the optic axes ("inclined dispersion").
+Examples of substances exhibiting these three kinds of dispersion are
+borax, orthoclase and gypsum respectively. In orthoclase and gypsum,
+however, the optic axial angle gradually diminishes as the crystals are
+heated, and after passing through a uniaxial position they open out in a
+plane at right angles to the one they previously occupied; the character
+of the dispersion thus becomes reversed in the two examples quoted. When
+examined in parallel light between crossed nicols monoclinic crystals
+will give straight extinction only in faces and sections which are
+perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (or the plane (010)); in all
+other faces and sections the extinction-directions will be inclined to
+the edges of the crystal. The angles between these directions and edges
+are readily measured, and, being dependent on the optical orientation of
+the crystal, they are often characteristic constants of the substance
+(see, e.g., PLAGIOCLASE).
+
+In anorthic crystals there is no relation between the optical and
+crystallographic directions, and the exact determination of the optical
+orientation is often a matter of considerable difficulty. The character
+of the dispersion of the bisectrices and optic axes is still more
+complex than in monoclinic crystals, and the interference figures are
+devoid of symmetry.
+
+_Absorption of Light in Crystals: Pleochroism._--In crystals other than
+those of the cubic system, rays of light with different
+vibration-directions will, as a rule, be differently absorbed; and the
+polarized rays on emerging from the crystal may be of different
+intensities and (if the observation be made in white light and the
+crystal is coloured) differently coloured. Thus, in tourmaline the
+ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the principal axis, is
+almost completely absorbed, whilst the extraordinary ray is allowed to
+pass through the crystal. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the
+principal axis may therefore be used for producing a beam of polarized
+light, and two such plates placed in crossed position form the polarizer
+or analyser of "tourmaline tongs," with the aid of which the
+interference figures of crystals may be simply shown. Uniaxial
+(tetragonal and hexagonal) crystals when showing perceptible differences
+in colour for the ordinary and extraordinary rays are said to be
+"dichroic." In biaxial (orthorhombic, monoclinic and anorthic) crystals,
+rays vibrating along each of the three principal vibration-directions
+may be differently absorbed, and, in coloured crystals, differently
+coloured; such crystals are therefore said to be "trichroic" or in
+general "pleochroic" (from [Greek: pleôn], more, and [Greek: chroa],
+colour). The directions of maximum absorption in biaxial crystals have,
+however, no necessary relation with the axes of the indicatrix, unless
+these have fixed crystallographic directions, as in the orthorhombic
+system and the ortho-axis in the monoclinic. In epidote it has been
+shown that the two directions of maximum absorption which lie in the
+plane of symmetry are not even at right angles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Dichroscope.]
+
+The pleochroism of some crystals is so strong that when they are viewed
+through in different directions they exhibit marked differences in
+colour. Thus a crystal of the mineral iolite (called also dichroite
+because of its strong pleochroism) will be seen to be dark blue, pale
+blue or pale yellow according to which of three perpendicular directions
+it is viewed. The "face colours" seen directly in this way result,
+however, from the mixture of two "axial colours" belonging to rays
+vibrating in two directions. In order to see the axial colours
+separately the crystal must be examined with a dichroscope, or in a
+polarizing microscope from which the analyser has been removed. The
+dichroscope, or dichroiscope (fig. 102), consists of a cleavage
+rhombohedron of calcite (Iceland-spar) p, on the ends of which glass
+prisms w are cemented: the lens l is focused on a small square aperture
+o in the tube of the instrument. The eye of the observer placed at e
+will see two images of the square aperture, and if a pleochroic crystal
+be placed in front of this aperture the two images will be differently
+coloured. On rotating this crystal with respect to the instrument the
+maximum difference in the colours will be obtained when the
+vibration-directions in the crystal coincide with those in the calcite.
+Such a simple instrument is especially useful for the examination of
+faceted gem-stones, even when they are mounted in their settings. A
+single glance suffices to distinguish between a ruby and a
+"spinel-ruby," since the former is dichroic and the latter isotropic and
+therefore not dichroic.
+
+The characteristic absorption bands in the spectrum of white light which
+has been transmitted through certain crystals, particularly those of
+salts of the cerium metals, will, of course, be different according to
+the direction of vibration of the rays.
+
+_Circular Polarization in Crystals._--Like the solutions of certain
+optically active organic substances, such as sugar and tartaric acid,
+some optically isotropic and uniaxial crystals possess the property of
+rotating the plane of polarization of a beam of light. In uniaxial
+(tetragonal and hexagonal) crystals it is only for light transmitted in
+the direction of the optic axis that there is rotatory action, but in
+isotropic (cubic) crystals all directions are the same in this respect.
+Examples of circularly polarizing cubic crystals are sodium chlorate,
+sodium bromate, and sodium uranyl acetate; amongst tetragonal crystals
+are strychnine sulphate and guanidine carbonate; amongst rhombohedral
+are quartz (q.v.) and cinnabar (q.v.) (these being the only two mineral
+substances in which the phenomenon has been observed), dithionates of
+potassium, lead, calcium and strontium, and sodium periodate; and
+amongst hexagonal crystals is potassium lithium sulphate. Crystals of
+all these substances belong to one or other of the several
+symmetry-classes in which there are neither planes nor centre of
+symmetry, but only axes of symmetry. They crystallize in two
+complementary hemihedral forms, which are respectively right-handed and
+left-handed, i.e. enantiomorphous forms. Some other substances which
+crystallize in enantiomorphous forms are, however, only "optically
+active" when in solution (e.g. sugar and tartaric acid); and there are
+many other substances presenting this peculiarity of crystalline form
+which are not circularly polarizing either when crystallized or when in
+solution. Further, in the examples quoted above, the rotatory power is
+lost when the crystals are dissolved (except in the case of strychnine
+sulphate, which is only feebly active in solution). The rotatory power
+is thus due to different causes in the two cases, in the one depending
+on a spiral arrangement of the crystal particles, and in the other on
+the structure of the molecules themselves.
+
+The circular polarization of crystals may be imitated by a pile of mica
+plates, each plate being turned through a small angle on the one below,
+thus giving a spiral arrangement to the pile.
+
+_"Optical Anomalies" of Crystals._--When, in 1818, Sir David Brewster
+established the important relations existing between the optical
+properties of crystals and their external form, he at the same time
+noticed many apparent exceptions. For example, he observed that crystals
+of leucite and boracite, which are cubic in external form, are always
+doubly refracting and optically biaxial, but with a complex internal
+structure; and that cubic crystals of garnet and analcite sometimes
+exhibit the same phenomena. Also some tetragonal and hexagonal crystals,
+e.g. apophyllite, vesuvianite, beryl, &c., which should normally be
+optically uniaxial, sometimes consist of several biaxial portions
+arranged in sectors or in a quite irregular manner. Such exceptions to
+the general rule have given rise to much discussion. They have often
+been considered to be due to internal strains in the crystals, set up as
+a result of cooling or by earth pressures, since similar phenomena are
+observed in chilled and compressed glasses and in dried gelatine. In
+many cases, however, as shown by E. Mallard, in 1876, the higher degree
+of symmetry exhibited by the external form of the crystals is the result
+of mimetic twinning, as in the pseudo-cubic crystals of leucite (q.v.)
+and boracite (q.v.). In other instances, substances not usually regarded
+as cubic, e.g. the monoclinic phillipsite (q.v.), may by repeated
+twinning give rise to pseudo-cubic forms. In some cases it is probable
+that the substance originally crystallized in one modification at a
+higher temperature, and when the temperature fell it became transformed
+into a dimorphous modification, though still preserving the external
+form of the original crystal (see BORACITE). A summary of the literature
+is given by R. Brauns, _Die optischen Anomalien der Krystalle_ (Leipzig,
+1891).
+
+  (c) _Thermal Properties._
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Conductivity of Heat in Quartz.]
+
+The thermal properties of crystals present certain points in common with
+the optical properties. Heat rays are transmitted and doubly refracted
+like light rays; and surfaces expressing the conductivity and dilatation
+in different directions possess the same degree of symmetry and are
+related in the same way to the crystallographic axes as the ellipsoids
+expressing the optical relations. That crystals conduct heat at
+different rates in different directions is well illustrated by the
+following experiment. Two plates (fig. 103) cut from a crystal of
+quartz, one parallel to the principal axis and the other perpendicular
+to it, are coated with a thin layer of wax, and a hot wire is applied to
+a point on the surface. On the transverse section the wax will be melted
+in a circle, and on the longitudinal section (or on the natural prism
+faces) in an ellipse. The isothermal surface in a uniaxial crystal is
+therefore a spheroid; in cubic crystals it is a sphere; and in biaxial
+crystals an ellipsoid, the three axes of which coincide, in orthorhombic
+crystals, with the crystallographic axes.
+
+With change of temperature cubic crystals expand equally in all
+directions, and the angles between the faces are the same at all
+temperatures. In uniaxial crystals there are two principal coefficients
+of expansion; the one measured in the direction of the principal axis
+may be either greater or less than that measured in directions
+perpendicular to this axis. A sphere cut from a uniaxial crystal at one
+temperature will be a spheroid at another temperature. In biaxial
+crystals there are different coefficients of expansion along three
+rectangular axes, and a sphere at one temperature will be an ellipsoid
+at another. A result of this is that for all crystals, except those
+belonging to the cubic system, the angles between the faces will vary,
+though only slightly, with changes of temperature. E. Mitscherlich found
+that the rhombohedral angle of calcite decreases 8´ 37´´ as the crystal
+is raised in temperature from 0° to 100° C.
+
+As already mentioned, the optical properties of crystals vary
+considerably with the temperature. Such characters as specific heat and
+melting-point, which do not vary with the direction, are the same in
+crystals as in amorphous substances.
+
+  (d) _Magnetic and Electrical Properties._
+
+Crystals, like other bodies, are either paramagnetic or diamagnetic,
+i.e. they are either attracted or repelled by the pole of a magnet. In
+crystals other than those belonging to the cubic system, however, the
+relative strength of the induced magnetization is different in different
+directions within the mass. A sphere cut from a tetragonal or hexagonal
+(uniaxial) crystal will if freely suspended in a magnetic field (between
+the poles of a strong electro-magnet) take up a position such that the
+principal axis of the crystal is either parallel or perpendicular to the
+lines of force, or to a line joining the two poles of the magnet. Which
+of these two directions is taken by the axis depends on whether the
+crystal is paramagnetic or diamagnetic, and on whether the principal
+axis is the direction of maximum or minimum magnetization. The surface
+expressing the magnetic character in different directions is in uniaxial
+crystals a spheroid; in cubic crystals it is a sphere. In orthorhombic,
+monoclinic and anorthic crystals there are three principal axes of
+magnetic induction, and the surface is an ellipsoid, which is related to
+the symmetry of the crystal in the same way as the ellipsoids expressing
+the thermal and optical properties.
+
+Similarly, the dielectric constants of a non-conducting crystal may be
+expressed by a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid. A sphere cut from a
+crystal will when suspended in an electro-magnetic field set itself so
+that the axis of maximum induction is parallel to the lines of force.
+
+The electrical conductivity of crystals also varies with the direction,
+and bears the same relation to the symmetry as the thermal conductivity.
+In a rhombohedral crystal of haematite the electrical conductivity along
+the principal axis is only half as great as in directions perpendicular
+to this axis; whilst in a crystal of bismuth, which is also
+rhombohedral, the conductivities along and perpendicular to the axis are
+as 1.6 : 1.
+
+Conducting crystals are thermo-electric: when placed against another
+conducting substance and the contact heated there will be a flow of
+electricity from one body to the other if the circuit be closed. The
+thermo-electric force depends not only on the nature of the substance,
+but also on the direction within the crystal, and may in general be
+expressed by an ellipsoid. A remarkable case is, however, presented by
+minerals of the pyrites group: some crystals of pyrites are more
+strongly thermo-electrically positive than antimony, and others more
+negative than bismuth, so that the two when placed together give a
+stronger thermo-electric couple than do antimony and bismuth. In the
+thermo-electrically positive crystals of pyrites the faces of the
+pentagonal dodecahedron are striated parallel to the cubic edges, whilst
+in the rarer negative crystals the faces are striated perpendicular to
+these edges. Sometimes both sets of striae are present on the same face,
+and the corresponding areas are then thermo-electrically positive and
+negative.
+
+The most interesting relation between the symmetry of crystals and their
+electrical properties is that presented by the pyro-electrical phenomena
+of certain crystals. This is a phenomenon which may be readily observed,
+and one which often aids in the determination of the symmetry of
+crystals. It is exhibited by crystals in which there is no centre of
+symmetry, and the axes of symmetry are uniterminal or polar in
+character, being associated with different faces on the crystal at their
+two ends. When a non-conducting crystal possessing this hemimorphic type
+of symmetry is subjected to changes of temperature a charge of positive
+electricity will be developed on the faces in the region of one end of
+the uniterminal axis, whilst the faces at the opposite end will be
+negatively charged. With rising temperature the pole which becomes
+positively charged is called the "analogous pole," and that negatively
+charged the "antilogous pole": with falling temperature the charges are
+reversed. The phenomenon was first observed in crystals of tourmaline,
+the principal axis of which is a uniterminal triad axis of symmetry. In
+crystals of quartz there are three uniterminal dyad axes of symmetry
+perpendicular to the principal triad axis (which is here similar at its
+two ends): the dyad axes emerge at the edges of the hexagonal prism,
+alternate edges of which become positively and negatively charged on
+change of temperature. In boracite there are four uniterminal triad
+axes, and the faces of the two tetrahedra perpendicular to them will
+bear opposite charges. Other examples of pyro-electric crystals are the
+orthorhombic mineral hemimorphite (called also, for this reason,
+"electric calamine") and the monoclinic tartaric acid and cane-sugar,
+each of which possesses a uniterminal dyad axis of symmetry. In some
+exceptional cases, e.g. axinite, prehnite, &c., there is no apparent
+relation between the distribution of the pyro-electric charges and the
+symmetry of the crystals.
+
+The distribution of the electric charges may be made visible by the
+following simple method, which may be applied even with minute crystals
+observed under the microscope. A finely powdered mixture of red-lead and
+sulphur is dusted through a sieve over the cooling crystal. In passing
+through the sieve the particles of red-lead and sulphur become
+electrified by mutual friction, the former positively and the latter
+negatively. The red-lead is therefore attracted to the negatively
+charged parts of the crystal and the sulphur to those positively
+charged, and the distribution of the charges over the whole crystal
+becomes mapped out in the two colours red and yellow.
+
+Since, when a crystal changes in temperature, it also expands or
+contracts, a similar distribution of "piezo-electric" (from [Greek:
+piezein], to press) charges are developed when a crystal is subjected to
+changes of pressure in the direction of a uniterminal axis of symmetry.
+Thus increasing pressure along the principal axis of a tourmaline
+crystal produces the same electric charges as decreasing temperature.
+
+
+III. RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE FORM AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
+
+That the general and physical characters of a chemical substance are
+profoundly modified by crystalline structure is strikingly illustrated
+by the two crystalline modifications of the element carbon--namely,
+diamond and graphite. The former crystallizes in the cubic system,
+possesses four directions of perfect cleavage, is extremely hard and
+transparent, is a non-conductor of heat and electricity, and has a
+specific gravity of 3.5; whilst graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal
+system, cleaves in a single direction, is very soft and opaque, is a
+good conductor of heat and electricity, and has a specific gravity of
+2.2. Such substances, which are identical in chemical composition, but
+different in crystalline form and consequently in their physical
+properties, are said to be "dimorphous." Numerous examples of dimorphous
+substances are known; for instance, calcium carbonate occurs in nature
+either as calcite or as aragonite, the former being rhombohedral and the
+latter orthorhombic; mercuric iodide crystallizes from solution as red
+tetragonal crystals, and by sublimation as yellow orthorhombic crystals.
+Some substances crystallize in three different modifications, and these
+are said to be "trimorphous"; for example, titanium dioxide is met with
+as the minerals rutile, anatase and brookite (q.v.). In general, or in
+cases where more than three crystalline modifications are known (e.g. in
+sulphur no less than six have been described), the term "polymorphism"
+is applied.
+
+On the other hand, substances which are chemically quite distinct may
+exhibit similarity of crystalline form. For example, the minerals
+iodyrite (AgI), greenockite (CdS), and zincite (ZnO) are practically
+identical in crystalline form; calcite (CaCO3) and sodium nitrate
+(NaNO3); celestite (SrSO)4 and marcasite (FeS2); epidote and azurite;
+and many others, some of which are no doubt only accidental
+coincidences. Such substances are said to be "homoeomorphous" (Gr.
+[Greek: homoios], like, and [Greek: morphę], form).
+
+Similarity of crystalline form in substances which are chemically
+related is frequently met with and is a relation of much importance:
+such substances are described as being "isomorphous." Amongst minerals
+there are many examples of isomorphous groups, e.g. the rhombohedral
+carbonates, garnet (q.v.), plagioclase (q.v.); and amongst crystals of
+artificially prepared salts isomorphism is equally common, e.g. the
+sulphates and selenates of potassium, rubidium and caesium. The
+rhombohedral carbonates have the general formula R´´CO3, where R´´
+represents calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt or lead,
+and the different minerals (calcite, ankerite, magnesite, chalybite,
+rhodochrosite and calamine (q.v.)) of the group are not only similar in
+crystalline form, cleavage, optical and other characters, but the angles
+between corresponding faces do not differ by more than 1° or 2°.
+Further, equivalent amounts of the different chemical elements
+represented by R" are mutually replaceable, and two or more of these
+elements may be present together in the same crystal, which is then
+spoken of as a "mixed crystal" or isomorphous mixture.
+
+In another isomorphous series of carbonates with the same general
+formula R´´CO3, where R´´ represents calcium, strontium, barium, lead or
+zinc, the crystals are orthorhombic in form, and are thus dimorphous
+with those of the previous group (e.g. calcite and aragonite, the other
+members being only represented by isomorphous replacements). Such a
+relation is known as "isodimorphism." An even better example of this is
+presented by the arsenic and antimony trioxides, each of which occurs as
+two distinct minerals:--
+
+  As2O3, Arsenolite (cubic); Claudetite (monoclinic).
+  Sb2O3, Senarmontite (cubic); Valentinite (orthorhombic).
+
+Claudetite and valentinite though crystallizing in different systems
+have the same cleavages and very nearly the same angles, and are
+strictly isomorphous.
+
+Substances which form isodimorphous groups also frequently crystallize
+as double salts. For instance, amongst the carbonates quoted above are
+the minerals dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and barytocalcite (CaBa(CO3)2).
+Crystals of barytocalcite (q.v.) are monoclinic; and those of dolomite
+(q.v.), though closely related to calcite in angles and cleavage,
+possess a different degree of symmetry, and the specific gravity is not
+such as would result by a simple isomorphous mixture of the two
+carbonates. A similar case is presented by artificial crystals of silver
+nitrate and potassium nitrate. Somewhat analogous to double salts are
+the molecular compounds formed by the introduction of "water of
+crystallization," "alcohol of crystallization," &c. Thus sodium sulphate
+may crystallize alone or with either seven or ten molecules of water,
+giving rise to three crystallographically distinct substances.
+
+A relation of another kind is the alteration in crystalline form
+resulting from the replacement in the chemical molecule of one or more
+atoms by atoms or radicles of a different kind. This is known as a
+"morphotropic" relation (Gr. [Greek: morphę], form, [Greek: tropos],
+habit). Thus when some of the hydrogen atoms of benzene are replaced by
+(OH) and (NO2) groups the orthorhombic system of crystallization remains
+the same as before, and the crystallographic axis a is not much
+affected, but the axis c varies considerably:--
+
+                                  a   : b :   c
+  Benzene, C6H6                 0.891 : 1 : 0.799
+  Resorcin, C6H4(OH)2           0.910 : 1 : 0.540
+  Picric acid, C6H2(OH)(NO2)3   0.937 : 1 : 0.974
+
+A striking example of morphotropy is shown by the humite (q.v.) group of
+minerals: successive additions of the group Mg2SiO4 to the molecule
+produce successive increases in the length of the vertical
+crystallographic axis.
+
+In some instances the replacement of one atom by another produces little
+or no influence on the crystalline form; this happens in complex
+molecules of high molecular weight, the "mass effect" of which has a
+controlling influence on the isomorphism. An example of this is seen in
+the replacement of sodium or potassium by lead in the alunite (q.v.)
+group of minerals, or again in such a complex mineral as tourmaline,
+which, though varying widely in chemical composition, exhibits no
+variation in crystalline form.
+
+For the purpose of comparing the crystalline forms of isomorphous and
+morphotropic substances it is usual to quote the angles or the axial
+ratios of the crystal, as in the table of benzene derivatives quoted
+above. A more accurate comparison is, however, given by the "topic
+axes," which are calculated from the axial ratios and the molecular
+volume; they express the relative distances apart of the crystal
+molecules in the axial directions.
+
+The two isomerides of substances, such as tartaric acid, which in
+solution rotate the plane of polarized light either to the right or to
+the left, crystallize in related but enantiomorphous forms.
+
+  REFERENCES.--An introduction to crystallography is given in most
+  text-books of mineralogy, e.g. those of H. A. Miers and of E. S. Dana
+  (see MINERALOGY). The standard work treating of the subject generally
+  is that of P. Groth, _Physikalische Kristallographie_ (4th ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1905). A condensed summary is given by A. J. Moses, _The
+  Characters of Crystals_ (New York, 1899).
+
+  For geometrical crystallography, dealing exclusively with the external
+  form of crystals, reference may be made to N. Story-Maskelyne,
+  _Crystallography, a Treatise on the Morphology of Crystals_ (Oxford,
+  1895) and W. J. Lewis, _A Treatise on Crystallography_ (Cambridge,
+  1899). Theories of crystal structure are discussed by L. Sohncke,
+  _Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur_ (Leipzig, 1879); A.
+  Schoenflies, _Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur_ (Leipzig, 1891);
+  and H. Hilton, _Mathematical Crystallography and the Theory of Groups
+  of Movements_ (Oxford, 1903).
+
+  The physical properties of crystals are treated by T. Liebisch,
+  _Physikalische Krystallographie_ (Leipzig, 1891), and in a more
+  elementary form in his _Grundriss der physikalischen Krystallographie_
+  (Leipzig, 1896); E. Mallard, _Traité de cristallographie,
+  Cristallographie physique_ (Paris, 1884); C. Soret, _Éléments de
+  cristallographie physique_ (Geneva and Paris, 1893).
+
+  For an account of the relations between crystalline form and chemical
+  composition, see A. Arzruni, _Physikalische Chemie der Krystalle_
+  (Braunschweig, 1893); A. Fock, _An Introduction to Chemical
+  Crystallography_, translated by W. J. Pope (Oxford, 1895); P. Groth,
+  _An Introduction to Chemical Crystallography_, translated by H.
+  Marshall (London, 1906); A. E. H. Tutton, _Crystalline Structure and
+  Chemical Constitution_, 1910. Descriptive works giving the
+  crystallographic constants of different substances are C. F.
+  Rammelsberg, _Handbuch der krystallographisch-physikalischen Chemie_
+  (Leipzig, 1881-1882); P. Groth, _Chemische Krystallographie_ (Leipzig,
+  1906); and of minerals the treatises of J. D. Dana and C. Hintze.
+       (L. J. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] From the Greek letter [delta], [Delta]; in general, a
+    triangular-shaped object; also an alternative name for a trapezoid.
+
+  [2] Named after pyrites, which crystallizes in a typical form of this
+    class.
+
+  [3] From [Greek: plagios], placed sideways, referring to the absence
+    of planes and centre of symmetry.
+
+  [4] From [Greek: gyros], a ring or spiral, and [Greek: eidos], form.
+
+  [5] From [Greek: monos], single, and [Greek: klinein], to incline,
+    since one axis is inclined to the plane of the other two axes, which
+    are at right angles.
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTAL PALACE, THE, a well-known English resort, standing high up in
+grounds just outside the southern boundary of the county of London, in
+the neighbourhood of Sydenham. The building, chiefly of iron and glass,
+is flanked by two towers and is visible from far over the metropolis. It
+measures 1608 ft. in length by 384 ft. across the transepts, and was
+opened in its present site in 1854. The materials, however, were mainly
+those of the hall set up in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+The designer was Sir Joseph Paxton. In the palace there are various
+permanent exhibitions, while special exhibitions are held from time to
+time, also concerts, winter pantomimes and other entertainments. In the
+extensive grounds there is accommodation for all kinds of games: the
+final tie of the Association Football Cup and other important football
+matches are played here, and there are also displays of fireworks and
+other attractions.
+
+
+
+
+CSENGERY, ANTON (1822-1880), Hungarian publicist, and a historical
+writer of great influence on his time, was born at Nagyvárad on the 2nd
+of June 1822. He took, at an early date, a very active part in the
+literary and political movements immediately preceding the Hungarian
+Revolution of 1848. He and Baron Sigismund Kemény may be considered as
+the two founders of high-class Magyar journalism. After 1867 the
+greatest of modern Hungarian statesmen, Francis Deák, attached Csengery
+to his personal service, and many of the momentous state documents
+inspired or suggested by Deák were drawn up by Csengery. In that manner
+his influence, as represented by the text of many a statute regulating
+the relations between Austria and Hungary, is one of an abiding
+character. As a historical writer he excelled chiefly in brilliant and
+thoughtful essays on the leading political personalities of his time,
+such as Paul Nagy, Bertalan, Szemere and others. He also commenced a
+translation of Macaulay's _History_. He died at Budapest on the 13th of
+July 1880.
+
+
+
+
+CSIKY, GREGOR (1842-1891), Hungarian dramatist, was born on the 8th of
+December 1842 at Pankota, in the county of Arad. He studied Roman
+Catholic theology at Pest and Vienna, and was professor in the Priests'
+College at Temesvár from 1870 to 1878. In the latter year, however, he
+joined the Evangelical Church, and took up literature. Beginning with
+novels and works on ecclesiastical history, which met with some
+recognition, he ultimately devoted himself to writing for the stage.
+Here his success was immediate. In his _Az ellenállhatatlan_
+("L'Irrésistible"), which obtained a prize from the Hungarian Academy,
+he showed the distinctive features of his talent--directness, freshness,
+realistic vigour, and highly individual style. In rapid succession he
+enriched Magyar literature with realistic _genre_-pictures, such as _A
+Proletárok_ ("Proletariate"), _Buborckok_ ("Bubbles"), _Két szerelem_
+("Two Loves"), _A szégyenlös_ ("The Bashful"), _Athalia_, &c., in all of
+which he seized on one or another feature or type of modern life,
+dramatizing it with unusual intensity, qualified by chaste and
+well-balanced diction. Of the latter, his classical studies may, no
+doubt, be taken as the inspiration, and his translation of Sophocles and
+Plautus will long rank with the most successful of Magyar translations
+of the ancient classics. Among the best known of his novels are
+_Arnold_, _Az Atlasz család_ ("The Atlas Family"). He died at Budapest
+on the 19th of November 1891.
+
+
+
+
+CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ (1773-1805), Hungarian poet, was born at
+Debreczen in 1773. Having been educated in his native town, he was
+appointed while still very young to the professorship of poetry there;
+but soon after he was deprived of the post on account of the immorality
+of his conduct. The remaining twelve years of his short life were passed
+in almost constant wretchedness, and he died in his native town, and in
+his mother's house, when only thirty-one years of age. Csokonai was a
+genial and original poet with something of the lyrical fire of Petöfi,
+and wrote a mock-heroic poem called _Dorottya or the Triumph of the
+Ladies at the Carnival_, two or three comedies or farces, and a number
+of love-poems. Most of his works have been published, with a life, by
+Schedel (1844-1847).
+
+
+
+
+CSOMA DE KÖRÖS, ALEXANDER (c. 1790-1842), or, as the name is written in
+Hungarian, KÖRÖSI CSOMA SÁNDOR, Hungarian traveller and philologist,
+born about 1790 at Körös in Transylvania, belonged to a noble family
+which had sunk into poverty. He was educated at Nagy-Enyed and at
+Göttingen; and, in order to carry out the dream of his youth and
+discover the origin of his countrymen, he divided his attention between
+medicine and the Oriental languages. In 1820, having received from a
+friend the promise of an annuity of 100 florins (about Ł10) to support
+him during his travels, he set out for the East. He visited Egypt, and
+made his way to Tibet, where he spent four years in a Buddhist monastery
+studying the language and the Buddhist literature. To his intense
+disappointment he soon discovered that he could not thus obtain any
+assistance in his great object; but, having visited Bengal, his
+knowledge of Tibetan obtained him employment in the library of the
+Asiatic Society there, which possessed more than 1000 volumes in that
+language; and he was afterwards supported by the government while he
+published a Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar (both of which
+appeared at Calcutta in 1834). He also contributed several articles on
+the Tibetan language and literature to the _Journal of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal_, and he published an analysis of the _Kah-Gyur_, the
+most important of the Buddhist sacred books. Meanwhile his fame had
+reached his native country, and procured him a pension from the
+government, which, with characteristic devotion to learning, he devoted
+to the purchase of books for Indian libraries. He spent some time in
+Calcutta, studying Sanskrit and several other languages; but, early in
+1842, he commenced his second attempt to discover the origin of the
+Hungarians, but he died at Darjiling on the 11th of April 1842. An
+oration was delivered in his honour before the Hungarian Academy by
+Eötvös, the novelist.
+
+
+
+
+CTENOPHORA, in zoology, a class of jelly-fish which were briefly
+described by Professor T. H. Huxley in 1875 (see ACTINOZOA, _Ency.
+Brit._ 9th ed. vol. i.) as united with what we now term Anthozoa to
+form the group Actinozoa; but little was known of the intimate structure
+of those remarkable and beautiful forms till the appearance in 1880 of
+C. Chun's Monograph of the Ctenophora occurring in the Bay of Naples.
+They may be defined as Coelentera which exhibit both a radial and
+bilateral symmetry of organs; with a stomodaeum; with a mesenchyma which
+is partly gelatinous but partly cellular; with eight meridianal rows of
+vibratile paddles formed of long fused or matted cilia; lacking
+nematocysts (except in one genus). An example common on the British
+coasts is furnished by _Hormiphora_ (_Cydippe_). In outward form this is
+an egg-shaped ball of clear jelly, having a mouth at the pointed (oral)
+pole, and a sense-organ at the broader (aboral) pole. It possesses eight
+meridians (costae) of iridescent paddles in constant vibration, which
+run from near one pole towards the other; it has also two pendent
+feathery tentacles of considerable length, which can be retracted into
+pouches. The mouth leads into an ectodermal stomodaeum ("stomach"), and
+the latter into an endodermal funnel (infundibulum); these two are
+compressed in planes at right angles to one another, the sectional long
+axis of the stomodaeum lying in the so-called sagittal (stomodaeal or
+gastric) plane, that of the funnel in the transverse (tentacular or
+funnel) plane. From the funnel, canals are given off in three
+directions; (a) a pair of paragastric (stomachal, or stomodaeal) canals
+run orally, parallel to the stomodaeum, and end blindly near the mouth;
+(b) a pair of perradial canals run in the transverse plane towards the
+equator of the animal; each of these becomes divided into two short
+canals at the base of the tentacle sheath which they supply, but has
+previously given off a pair of short interradial canals, which again
+bifurcate into two adradial canals; all these branches lie in the
+equatorial plane of the animal, but the eight adradial canals then open
+into eight meridianal canals which run orally and aborally under the
+costae; (c) a pair of aboral vessels which run towards the sense-organ,
+each of which bifurcates; of the four vessels thus formed, two only open
+at the sides of the sense-organ, forming the so-called excretory
+apertures. These three sets of structures, with the funnel from which
+they rise, make up the endodermal coelenteron, or gastro-vascular
+system. The generative organs are endodermal by origin, borne at the
+sides of the meridianal canals as indicated by the signs [male]
+[female]. There exists a subepithelial plexus with nerve cells and
+fibres, similar to that of jelly-fishes. The sense-organ of the aboral
+pole is complex, and lies under a dome of fused cilia shaped like an
+inverted bell-jar; it consists of an otolith, formed of numerous
+calcareous spheroids, which is supported on four plates of fused cilia
+termed balancers, but is otherwise free. The ciliated ectoderm below the
+organ is markedly thickened, and perhaps functionally represents a
+nerve-ganglion: from it eight ciliated furrows radiate outwards, two
+passing under each balancer as through an archway, and diverge each to
+the head of a meridianal costa. These ciliated furrows stain deeply with
+osmic acid, and nervous impulses are certainly transmitted along them.
+Locomotion is effected by strokes of the paddles in an aboral direction,
+driving the animal mouth forwards through the water: each paddle or comb
+(Gr. [Greek: kteis]; hence Ctenophora) consists of a plate of fused or
+matted cilia set transversely to the costa. The myoepithelial cells
+(formerly termed neuro-muscular cells), characteristic of other
+Coelentera, are not to be found in this group. On the other hand there
+are well-marked muscle fibres in definite layers, derived from special
+mesoblastic cells in the embryo, which are embedded in a jelly; these in
+their origin and arrangement are quite comparable to the mesoderm of
+Triploblastica, and, although the muscle-cells of some jelly-fish
+exhibit a somewhat similar condition, nothing so highly specialized as
+the mesenchyme of Ctenophora occurs in any other Coelenterate. The
+nematocysts being nearly absent from their group, their chief function
+is carried out by adhesive lasso-cells.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Schematic drawing of a Cydippid from the side.
+(After Chun.)
+
+  A, Adradial canals.
+  F, Infundibulum.
+  I, Interradial canal.
+  M, Meridianal canal lying under a costa.
+  N, Ciliated furrow from sense pole to costa.
+  Pg, Paragastric canal.
+  SO, Sense-organ.
+  St, Stomodaeum.
+  Subs, Subsagittal costa.
+  Subt, Subtentacular costa.
+  T, Tentacle.
+  Ts, Boundaries of tentacle-sheath.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Schematic drawing of a Cydippid from the aboral
+pole. (After Chun.)
+
+  T (centrally), Tentacular canal, and (distally) tentacle.
+  [male], Position of testes.
+  [female], Position of ovaries; other letters in fig. 1. The stomodaeum
+    lies in the sagittal plane, the funnel and tentacles in the
+    transverse or tentacular plane.]
+
+The Ctenophora are classified as follows:--
+
+    Sub-class  i. Tentaculata, Order 1. CYDIPPIDEA, _Hormiphora_.
+                                 "   2. LOBATA,     _Deiopea_.
+                                 "   3. CESTOIDEA,  _Cestus_.
+        "     ii. Nuda,          "                  _Beroë_.
+
+  The Tentaculata, as the name implies, may be recognized by the
+  presence of tentacles of some sort. The CYDIPPIDEA are generally
+  spherical or ovoid, with two long retrusible pinnate tentacles: the
+  meridianal and paragastric canals end blindly. An example of these has
+  already been briefly described. The LOBATA are of the same general
+  type as the first Order, except for the presence of four circumoral
+  auricles (processes of the subtransverse costae) and of a pair of
+  sagittal outgrowths or lobes, on to which the subsagittal costae are
+  continued. Small accessory tentacles lie in grooves, but there is no
+  tentacular pouch; the meridianal vessels anastomose in the lobes. In
+  the CESTOIDEA the body is compressed in the transverse plane,
+  elongated in the sagittal plane, so as to become riband-like: the
+  subtransverse costae are greatly reduced, the subsagittal costae
+  extend along the aboral edge of the riband. The subsagittal canals lie
+  immediately below their costae aborally, but continuations of the
+  subtransverse canals round down the middle of the riband, and at its
+  end unite, not only with the subsagittal but also with the paragastric
+  canals which run along the oral edge of the riband. The tentacular
+  bases and pouches are present, but there is no main tentacle as in
+  Cydippidea; fine accessory tentacles lie in four grooves along the
+  oral edge. The sub-class Nuda have no tentacles of any kind; they are
+  conical or ovoid, with a capacious stomodaeum like the cavity of a
+  thimble. There is a coelenteric network formed by anastomoses of the
+  meridianal and paragastric canals all over the body.
+
+  The embryology of _Callianira_ has been worked out by E. Mechnikov.
+  Segmentation is complete and unequal, producing macromeres and
+  micromeres marked by differences in the size and in yolk-contents.
+  The micromeres give rise to the ectoderm; each of the sixteen
+  macromeres, after budding off a small mesoblast cell, passes on as
+  endoderm. A gastrula is established by a mixed process of embole and
+  epibole. The mesoblast cells travel to the aboral pole of the embryo,
+  and there form a cross-shaped mass, the arms of which lie in the
+  sagittal and transverse planes (perradii).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Schematic Drawing of Cestus. (After Chun.)
+
+  Subs, Subsagittal costae.
+  Subt, Much reduced subtentacular costae.
+  Subt, Branch of the subtentacular canal which runs along the centre of
+    the riband.
+  Pg, Continuation of the paragastric canal at right angles to its
+    original direction along the lower edge of the riband. At the
+    right-hand end the last two are seen to unite with the subsagittal
+    canal.]
+
+There can be but little question of the propriety of including
+Ctenophora among the Coelentera. The undivided coelenteron
+(gastro-vascular system) which constitutes the sole cavity of the body,
+the largely radial symmetry, the presence of endodermal generative
+organs on the coelenteric canals, the subepithelial nerve-plexus, the
+mesogloea-like matrix of the body--all these features indicate affinity
+to other Coelentera, but, as has been stated in the article under that
+title, the relation is by no means close. At what period the Ctenophora
+branched off from the line of descent, which culminated in the
+Hydromedusae and Scyphozoa of to-day, is not clear, but it is
+practically certain that they did so before the point of divergence of
+these two groups from one another. The peculiar sense-organ, the
+specialization of the cilia into paddles with the corresponding
+modifications of the coelenteron, the anatomy and position of the
+tentacles, and, above all, the character and mode of formation of the
+mesenchyme, separate them widely from other Coelentera.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Schematic Drawing of _Beröe_. (After Chun.)]
+
+The last-named character, however, combined with the discovery of two
+remarkable organisms, _Coeloplana_ and _Ctenoplana_, has suggested
+affinity to the flat-worms termed Turbellaria. _Ctenoplana_, the best
+known of these, has recently been redescribed by A. Willey (_Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxxix., 1896). It is flattened along the axis which
+unites sense-organ and mouth, so as to give it a dorsal (aboral) surface,
+and a ventral (oral) surface on which it frequently creeps. Its costae
+are very short, and retrusible; its two tentacles are pinnate and are
+also retrusible. Two crescentic rows of ciliated papillae lie in the
+transverse plane on each side of the sense-organ. The coelenteron
+exhibits six lobes, two of which Willey identifies with the stomodaeum of
+other Ctenophora; the other four give rise to a system of anastomosing
+canals such as are found in _Beroë_ and Polyclad Turbellaria. An aboral
+vessel embraces the sense-organ, but has no external opening.
+_Ctenoplana_ is obviously a Ctenophoran flattened and of a creeping
+habit. _Coeloplana_ is of similar form and habit, with two Ctenophoran
+tentacles: it has no costae, but is uniformly ciliated. These two forms
+at least indicate a possible stepping-stone from Ctenophora to
+Turbellaria, that is to say, from diploblastic to triploblastic Metazoa.
+By themselves they would present no very weighty argument for this line
+of descent from two-layered to three-layered forms, but the coincidences
+which occur in the development of Ctenophora and Turbellaria,--the
+methods of segmentation and gastrulation, of the separation of the
+mesoblast cells, and of mesenchyme formation,--together with the marked
+similarity of the adult mesenchyme in the two groups, have led many to
+accept this pedigree. In his Monograph on the Polyclad Turbellaria of the
+Bay of Naples, A. Lang regards a Turbellarian, so to say, as a
+Ctenophora, in which the sensory pole has rotated forwards in the
+sagittal plane through 90° as regards the original oral-aboral axis, a
+rotation which actually occurs in the development of _Thysanozoon_
+(Müller's larva); and he sees, in the eight lappets of the preoral
+ciliated ring of such a larva, the rudiments of the costal plates.
+According to his view, a simple early Turbellarian larva, such as that of
+_Stylochus_, most nearly represents for us to-day that ancestor from
+which Ctenophora and Turbellaria are alike derived. For details of this
+brilliant theory, the reader is referred to the original monograph.
+
+  LITERATURE.--G. C. Bourne, "The Ctenophora," in Ray Lankester's
+  _Treatise on Zoology_ (1900), where a bibliography is given; G.
+  Curreri, "Osservazioni sui ctenofori," _Boll. Soc. Zool. Ital._ (2),
+  i. pp. 190-193 et ii. pp. 58-76; A. Garbe, "Untersuchungen über die
+  Entstehung der Geschlechtsorgane bei den Ctenophoren.," _Zeitschr.
+  Wiss. Zool._ lxix. pp. 472-491; K. C. Schneider, _Lehrbuch der
+  vergleich. Histologie_ (1902).     (G. H. Fo.)
+
+
+
+
+CTESIAS, of Cnidus in Caria, Greek physician and historian, flourished
+in the 5th century B.C. In early life he was physician to Artaxerxes
+Mnemon, whom he accompanied (401) on his expedition against his brother
+Cyrus the Younger. Ctesias was the author of treatises on rivers, and on
+the Persian revenues, of an account of India (which is of value as
+recording the beliefs of the Persians about India), and of a history of
+Assyria and Persia in 23 books, called _Persica_, written in opposition
+to Herodotus in the Ionic dialect, and professedly founded on the
+Persian royal archives. The first six books treated of the history of
+Assyria and Babylon to the foundation of the Persian empire; the
+remaining seventeen went down to the year 398. Of the two histories we
+possess abridgments by Photius, and fragments are preserved in
+Athenaeus, Plutarch and especially Diodorus Siculus, whose second book
+is mainly from Ctesias. As to the worth of the _Persica_ there has been
+much controversy, both in ancient and modern times. Being based upon
+Persian authorities, it was naturally looked upon with suspicion by the
+Greeks and censured as untrustworthy.
+
+  For an estimate of Ctesias as a historian see G. Rawlinson's
+  _Herodotus_, i. 71-74; also the edition of the fragments of the
+  _Persica_ by J. Giimore (1888, with introduction and notes and list of
+  authorities).
+
+
+
+
+CTESIPHON, a large village on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite to
+Seleucia, of which it formed a suburb, about 25 m. below Bagdad. It is
+first mentioned in the year 220 by Polybius v. 45. 4. When the Parthian
+Arsacids had conquered the lands east of the Euphrates in 129 B.C., they
+established their winter residence in Ctesiphon. They dared not stay in
+Seleucia, as this city, the most populous town of western Asia, always
+maintained her Greek self-government and a strong feeling of
+independence, which made her incline to the west whenever a Roman army
+attacked the Parthians. The Arsacids also were afraid of destroying the
+wealth and commerce of Seleucia, if they entered it with their large
+retinue of barbarian officials and soldiers (Strabo xvi. 743, Plin. vi.
+122, cf. Joseph. _Ant._ xviii. 9, 2). From this time Ctesiphon increased
+in size, and many splendid buildings rose; it had the outward appearance
+of a large town, although it was by its constitution only a village.
+From A.D. 36-43 Seleucia was in rebellion against the Parthians till at
+last it was forced by King Vardanes to yield. It is very probable that
+Vardanes now tried to put Ctesiphon in its place; therefore he is called
+founder of Ctesiphon by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiii. 6. 23), where King
+Pacorus (78-110) is said to have increased its inhabitants and built its
+walls. Seleucia was destroyed by the Romans in A.D. 164. When Ardashir
+I. founded the Sassanian empire (226), and fixed his residence at
+Ctesiphon, he built up Seleucia again under the name of Veh-Ardashir.
+Later kings added other suburbs; Chosroes I. in 540 established the
+inhabitants of Antiochia in Syria, whom he had led into captivity, in a
+new city, "Chosrau-Antioch" (or "the Roman city") near his residence.
+Therefore the Arabs designate the whole complex of towns which lay
+together around Seleucia and Ctesiphon and formed the residence of the
+Sassanids by the name Madain, "the cities,"--their number is often given
+as seven. In the wars between the Roman and Persian empires, Ctesiphon
+was more than once besieged and plundered, thus by Odaenathus in 261,
+and by Canis in 283; Julian in 363 advanced to Ctesiphon, but was not
+able to take it (Ammianus xxiv. 7). After the battle of Kadisiya
+(Qadisiya) Ctesiphon and the neighbouring towns were taken and plundered
+by the Arabs in 637, who brought home an immense amount of booty (see
+CALIPHATE). From then, these towns decayed before the increasing
+prosperity of the new Arab capitals Basra and Bagdad. The site is marked
+only by the ruins of one gigantic building of brick-work, called Takhti
+Khesra, "throne of Khosrau" (i.e. Chosroes). It is a great vaulted hall
+ornamented with pilasters, the remainder of the palace and the most
+splendid example of Sassanian architecture (see ARCHITECTURE, vol. ii.
+p. 558, for further details and illustration).     (Ed. M.)
+
+
+
+
+CUBA (the aboriginal name), a republic, the largest and most populous of
+the West India Islands, included between the meridians of 74° 7´ and 84°
+57´ W. longitude and (roughly) the parallels of 19° 48´ and 23° 13´ N.
+latitude. It divides the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico into two
+passages of nearly equal width,--the Strait of Florida, about 110 m.
+wide between Capes Hicacos in Cuba and Arenas in Florida (Key West being
+a little over 100 m. from Havana); and the Yucatan Channel, about 130 m.
+wide between Capes San Antonio and Catoche. On the N.E., E. and S.E.,
+narrower channels separate it from the Bahamas, Haiti (50 m.) and
+Jamaica (85 m.). In 1908, by the opening of a railway along the Florida
+Keys, the time of passage by water between Cuba and the United States
+was reduced to a few hours.
+
+The island is long and narrow, somewhat in the form of an irregular
+crescent, convex toward the N. It has a decided pitch to the S. Its
+length from Cape Maisí to Cape San Antonio along a medial line is about
+730 m.; its breadth, which averages about 50 m., ranges from a maximum
+of 160 m. to a minimum of about 22 m. The total area is estimated at
+41,634 sq. m. without the surrounding keys and the Isle of Pines (area
+about 1180 sq. m.), and including these is approximately 44,164. The
+geography of the island is still very imperfectly known, and all figures
+are approximate only. The coast line, including larger bays, but
+excluding reefs, islets, keys and all minute sinuosities, is about 2500
+m. in length. The N. littoral is characterized by bluffs, which grow
+higher and higher toward the east, rising to 600 ft. at Cape Maisí. They
+are marked by distinct terraces. The southern coast near Cape Maisí is
+low and sandy. From Guantánamo to Santiago it rises in high escarpments,
+and W. of Santiago, where the Sierra Maestra runs close to the sea,
+there is a very high abrupt shore. To the W. of Manzanillo it sinks
+again, and throughout most of the remaining distance to Cape San Antonio
+is low, with a sandy or marshy littoral; at places sand hills fringe the
+shore; near Trinidad there are hills of considerable height; and the
+coast becomes high and rugged W. of Point Fisga, in the province of
+Pinar del Rio. On both the N. and the S. side of the island there are
+long chains of islets and reefs and coral keys (of which it is estimated
+there are 1300), which limit access to probably half of the coast, and
+on the N. render navigation difficult and dangerous. On the S. they are
+covered with mangroves. A large part of the southern littoral is subject
+to overflow, and much more of it is permanently marshy. The Zapata Swamp
+near Cienfuegos is 600 sq. m. in area; other large swamps are the
+Majaguillar, E. of Cárdenas, and the Ciénaga del Buey, S. of the Cauto
+river. The Isle of Pines in its northern part is hilly and wooded; in
+its southern part, very low, level and rather barren; a tidal swamp
+almost cuts the island in two. A remarkable feature of the Cuban coast
+is the number of excellent anchorages, roadsteads and harbours. On the
+N. shore, beginning at the W., Bahía Honda, Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas,
+Nuevitas and Nipe; and on the S. shore running westward Guantánamo,
+Santiago and Cienfuegos, are harbours of the first class, several of
+them among the best of the world. Mariel, Cabańas, Banes, Sagua la
+Grande and Baracoa on the N., and Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, Batabanó and
+Trinidad on the S. are also excellent ports or anchorages. The peculiar
+pouch-shape of almost all the harbours named (Matanzas being a marked
+exception) greatly increases their security and defensibility. These
+pouch harbours are probably "drowned" drainage basins. The number of
+small bays that can be utilized for coast trade traffic is
+extraordinary.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Cuba.]
+
+In popular language the different portions of the island are
+distinguished as the Vuelta Abajo ("lower turn"), W. of Havana; the
+Vuelta Arriba ("upper turn"), E. of Havana to Cienfuegos--Vuelta Abajo
+and Vuelta Arriba are also used colloquially at any point in the island
+to mean "east" and "west"--Las Cinco Villas--i.e. Villa Clara, Trinidad,
+Remedios, Cienfuegos and Sancti Spiritus--between Cienfuegos and Sancti
+Spiritus; and Tierra Adentro, referring to the region between Cienfuegos
+and Bayamo. These names are extremely common. The province and city of
+Puerto Príncipe are officially known as Camagüey, their original Indian
+name, which has practically supplanted the Spanish name in local usage.
+
+Five topographic divisions of the island are fairly marked. Santiago
+(now Oriente) province is high and mountainous. Camagüey is
+characterized by rolling, open plains, slightly broken, especially in
+the W., by low mountains. The E. part of Santa Clara province is
+decidedly rough and broken. The W. part, with the provinces of Matanzas
+and Havana, is flat and rolling, with occasional hills a few hundred
+feet high. Finally, Pinar del Rio is dominated by a prominent mountain
+range and by outlying piedmont hills and mesas. There are mountains in
+Cuba from one end of the island to the other, but they are not derived
+from any central mass and are not continuous. As just indicated there
+are three distinctively mountainous districts, various minor groups
+lying outside these. The three main systems are known in Cuba as the
+occidental, central and oriental. The first, the Organ mountains, in
+Pinar del Rio, rises in a sandy, marshy region near Cape San Antonio.
+The crest runs near the N. shore, leaving various flanking spurs and
+foothills, and a coastal plain which at its greatest breadth on the S.
+is some 20 m. wide. The plain on the N. is narrower and higher. The
+southern slope is smooth, and abounds in creeks and rivers. The portion
+of the southern plain between the bays of Cortés and Majana is the most
+famous portion of the Vuelta Abajo tobacco region. The mountain range is
+capriciously broken at points, especially near Bejucal. The highest part
+is the Pan de Guajaibón, near Bahía Honda, at the W. end of the chain;
+its altitude has been variously estimated from 2500 to 1950 ft. The
+central system has two wings, one approaching the N. coast, the other
+covering the island between Sancti Spiritus and Santa Clara. It
+comprehends a number of independent groups. The highest point, the Pico
+Potrerillo, is about 2900 ft. in altitude. The summits are generally
+well rounded, while the lower slopes are often steep. Frequent broad
+intervals of low upland or low level plain extend from sea to sea
+between and around the mountains. Near the coast runs a continuous belt
+of plantations, while grazing, tobacco and general farm lands cover the
+lower slopes of the hills, and virgin forests much of the uplands and
+mountains.
+
+The oriental mountain region includes the province of Oriente and a
+portion of Camagüey. In extent, in altitude, in mass, in complexity and
+in geological interest, it is much the most important of the three
+systems. Almost all the mountains are very bold. They are imperfectly
+known. There are two main ranges, the Sierra Maestra, and a line of
+various groups along the N. shore. The former runs from Cape Santa Cruz
+eastward along the coast some 125 m. to beyond the river Baconao. The
+Sierra de Cobre, a part of the system in the vicinity of Santiago, has a
+general elevation of about 3000 ft. Monte Turquino, 7700-8320 ft. in
+altitude, is the highest peak of the island. Gran Piedra rises more than
+5200 ft., the Ojo del Toro more than 3300, the Anvil de Baracoa is
+somewhat lower, and Pan de Matanzas is about 1267 ft. The western
+portions of the range rise abruptly from the ocean, forming a bold and
+beautiful coast. A multitude of ravines and gullies, filled with
+torrential streams or dry, according to the season of the year, and
+characterized by many beautiful cascades, seam the narrow coastal plain
+and the flanks of the mountains. The spurs of the central range are a
+highly intricate complex, covered with dense forests of superb woods.
+Many points are inaccessible, and the scenery is wild in the extreme.
+The mountains beyond Guantánamo are locally known by a variety of names,
+though topographically a continuation of the Sierra Maestra. The same is
+true of the chains that coalesce with these near Cape Maisí and diverge
+northwesterly along the N. coast of the island. The general character of
+this northern marginal system is much the same as that of the southern,
+save that the range is much less continuous. A dozen or more groups
+from Nipe in the E. to the coast N. of Camagüey in the W. are known only
+by individual names. The range near Baracoa is extremely wild and
+broken. The region between the lines of the two coastal systems is a
+much dissected plateau, imperfectly explored. The Cauto river, the only
+one flowing E. or W. and the largest of Cuba, flows through it westward
+to the southern coast near Manzanillo. The scenery in the oriental
+portion of the island is very beautiful, with wild mountains and
+tropical forests. In the central part there are extensive prairies. In
+the west there are swelling hills and gentle valleys, with the royal
+palm the dominating tree. The valley of the Yumurí, near Matanzas, a
+small circular basin crossed by a river that issues through a glen to
+the sea, is perhaps the most beautiful in Cuba.
+
+A very peculiar feature of Cuba is the abundance of caverns in the
+limestone deposits that underlie much of the island's surface. The caves
+of Cotilla near Havana, of Bellamar near Matanzas, of Monte Libano near
+Guantánamo, and those of San Juan de los Remedios, are the best known,
+but there are scores of others. Many streams are "disappearing," part of
+their course being through underground tunnels. Thus the Rio San Antonio
+suddenly disappears near San Antonio de los Bańos; the cascades of the
+Jatibónico del Norte disappear and reappear in a surprising manner; the
+Moa cascade (near Guantánamo) drops 300 ft. into a cavern and its waters
+later reissue from the earth; the Jojo river disappears in a great
+"sink" and later issues with violent current at the edge of the sea. The
+springs of fresh water that bubble up among the keys of the S. coast are
+also supposedly the outlets of underground streams.
+
+The number of rivers is very great, but almost without exception their
+courses are normal to the coast, and they are so short as to be of but
+slight importance. The Cauto river in Oriente province is exceptional;
+it is 250 m. long, and navigable by small vessels for about 75 m. Inside
+the bar at its mouth (formed by a storm in 1616) ships of 200 tons can
+still ascend to Cauto. In Camagüey province the Jatibónico del Sur; in
+Oriente the Salado, a branch of the Cauto; in Santa Clara the Sagua la
+Grande (which is navigable for some 20 m. and has an important traffic),
+and the Damuji; in Matanzas, the Canimar; and in Pinar del Rio the
+Cuyaguateje, are important streams. The water-parting in the four
+central provinces is very indefinite. There are few river valleys that
+are noteworthy--those of the Yumurí, the Trinidad and the Güines. At
+Guantánamo and Trinidad are other valleys, and between Mariel and Havana
+is the fine valley of Ariguanabo. Of lakes, there are a few on the
+coast, and a very few in the mountains. The finest is Lake Ariguanabo,
+near Havana, 6 sq. m. in area. Of the almost innumerable river cascades,
+those of the Sierra Maestra Mountains, and in particular the Moa
+cascade, have already been mentioned. The Guamá cascade in Oriente
+province and the Hanabanilla Fall near Cienfuegos (each more than 300
+ft. high), the Rosario Fall in Pinar del Rio, and the Almendares cascade
+near Havana, may also be mentioned.
+
+  _Geology._--The foundation of the island is formed of metamorphic and
+  igneous rocks, which appear in the Sierra Maestra and are exposed in
+  other parts of the island wherever the comparatively thin covering of
+  later beds has been worn away. A more or less continuous band of
+  serpentine belonging to this series forms the principal watershed,
+  although it nowhere rises to any great height. It is in this band that
+  the greater part of the mineral wealth of Cuba is situated. These
+  ancient rocks have hitherto yielded no fossils and their age is
+  therefore uncertain, but they are probably pre-Cretaceous at least.
+  Fossiliferous Cretaceous limestones containing _Rudistes_ have been
+  found in several parts of the island (Santiago de los Bańos, Santa
+  Clara province, &c.). At the base there is often an arkose, composed
+  largely of fragments of serpentine and granite derived from the
+  ancient floor. At Esperanza and other places in the Santa Clara
+  province, bituminous plant-bearing beds occur beneath the Tertiary
+  limestones, and at Baracoa a Radiolarian earth occupies a similar
+  position. The latter, like the similar deposits in other West Indian
+  islands, is probably of Oligocene age. It is the Tertiary limestones
+  which form the predominant feature in the geology of Cuba. Although
+  they do not exceed 1000 ft. in thickness, they probably at one time
+  covered the whole island except the summits of the Sierra Maestra,
+  where they have been observed, resting upon the older rocks, up to a
+  height of 2300 ft. They contain corals, but are not coral reefs. The
+  shells which have been found in them indicate that they belong for
+  the most part to the Oligocene period. They are frequently very much
+  disturbed and often strongly folded. Around the coast there is a
+  raised shelf of limestone which was undoubtedly a coral reef. But it
+  is of recent date and does not attain an elevation of more than 40 or
+  50 ft.
+
+  Minerals are fairly abundant in number, but few are present in
+  sufficient quantity to be industrially important. Traditions of gold
+  and silver, dating from the time of the Spanish conquest, still
+  endure, but these metals are in fact extremely rare. Oriente province
+  is distinctively the mineral province of the island. Large copper
+  deposits of peculiar richness occur here in the Sierra de Cobre, near
+  the city of Santiago; and both iron and manganese are abundant.
+  Besides the deposits in Oriente province, iron is known to exist in
+  considerable amount in Camagüey and Santa Clara, and copper in
+  Camagüey and Pinar del Rio provinces. The iron ores mined at Daiquiri
+  near Santiago are mainly rich hematites running above 60% of iron,
+  with very little sulphur or phosphorus admixture. The copper deposits
+  are mainly in well-marked fracture planes in serpentine; the ore is
+  pyrrhotite, with or without chalcopyrite. Manganese occurs especially
+  along the coast between Santiago and Manzanillo; the best ores run
+  above 50%. Chromium and a number of other rare minerals are known to
+  exist, but probably not in commercially available quantities.
+  Bituminous products of every grade, from clear translucent oils
+  resembling petroleum and refined naphtha, to lignite-like substances,
+  occur in all parts of the island. Much of the bituminous deposits is
+  on the dividing line between asphalt and coal. There is an endless
+  amount of stone, very little of which is hard enough to be good for
+  building material, the greatest part being a soft coralline limestone.
+  The best buildings in Havana are constructed of a very rich white
+  limestone, soft and readily worked when fresh, but hardening and
+  slightly darkening with age. There are extensive and valuable deposits
+  of beautiful marbles in the Isle of Pines, and lesser ones near
+  Santiago. The Organ Mountains contain a hard blue limestone; and
+  sandstones occur on the N. coast of Pinar del Rio province. Clays of
+  all qualities and colours abound. Mineral waters, though not yet
+  important in trade, are extremely abundant, and a score of places in
+  Cuba and the Isle of Pines are already known as health resorts. Those
+  near San Diego, Guanabacoa and Santa Maria del Rosario (near Havana)
+  and Madruga (near Güines) are the best known.
+
+  The soil of the island is almost wholly of modern formation, mainly
+  alluvial, with superficial limestones as another prominent feature. In
+  the original formation of the island volcanic disturbances and coral
+  growth played some part; but there are only very slight superficial
+  evidences in the island of former volcanic activity. Noteworthy
+  earthquakes are rare. They have been most common in Oriente province.
+  Those of 1776, 1842 and 1852 were particularly destructive, and of
+  earlier ones those of 1551 and 1624 at Bayamo and of 1578 and 1678 at
+  Santiago. Every year there are seismic disturbances, and though
+  Santiago is the point of most frequent visitation, they occur in all
+  parts of the island, in 1880 affecting the entire western end. Notable
+  seismic disturbances in Cuba have coincided with similar activity in
+  Central America so often as to make some connexion apparent.
+
+  _Flora._--The tropical heat and humidity of Cuba make possible a flora
+  of splendid richness. All the characteristic species of the West
+  Indies, the Central American and Mexican and southern Florida
+  seaboard, and nearly all the large trees of the Mexican tropic belt,
+  are embraced in it. As many as 3350 native flowering species were
+  catalogued in 1876. The total number of species of the island flora
+  was estimated in 1892 by a writer in the _Revista Cubana_ (vol. xv.
+  pp. 5-16) to be between 5000 and 6000, but hardly one-third of this
+  number had then been gathered into a herbarium, and all parts of the
+  island had not then been explored. It was estimated officially in 1904
+  that the wooded lands of the island comprised 3,628,434 acres, of
+  which one-third were in Oriente province, another third in Camagüey,
+  and hardly any in Havana province. Much of this area is of primeval
+  forest; somewhat more than a third of the total, belonging to the
+  government, was opened to sale (and speculative exspoliation) in 1904.
+  The woods are so dense over large districts as to be impenetrable,
+  except by cutting a path foot by foot through the close network of
+  vines and undergrowth. The jagüey (_Ficus_ sp.), which stifles in its
+  giant coils the greatest trees of the forest, and the copei (_Clusia
+  rosea_) are remarkable parasitic lianas. Of the palm there are more
+  than thirty species. The royal palm is the most characteristic tree of
+  Cuba. It attains a height of from 50 to 75 ft., and sometimes of more
+  than 100 ft. Alone, or in groups, or in long aisles, towering above
+  the plantations or its fellow trees of the forest, its beautiful crest
+  dominates every landscape. Every portion, from its roots to its
+  leaves, serves some useful purpose. From it the native draws lumber
+  for his hut, utensils for his kitchen, thatch for his roof, medicines,
+  preserved delicacies, and a long list of other articles. The corojo
+  palm (_Cocos crispa_) rivals the royal palm in beauty and utility;
+  oil, sugar, drink and wood are derived from it. The coco palm (_Cocos
+  nucifera_) is also put to varied uses. The mango is planted with the
+  royal palm along the avenues of the plantations. The beautiful ceiba
+  (_Bombax ceiba_ L., _Ceiba pentandra_) or silk cotton tree is the
+  giant of the Cuban forests; it often grows to a height of 100 to 150
+  ft. with enormous girth. The royal pińon (_Erythrina velatina_) is
+  remarkable for the magnificent purple flowers that cover it. The
+  tamarind and banyan are also noteworthy. Utilitarian trees and plants
+  are legion. There are at least forty choice cabinet and building
+  woods. Of these, ebonies, mahogany (for the bird's-eye variety such
+  enormous prices are paid as $1200 to $1800 per thousand board-feet),
+  cullá (or cuyá, _Bumelia retusa_), cocullo (cocuyo, _Bumelia nigra_),
+  ocuje (_Callophyllum viticifolia_, _Ornitrophis occidentalis_, _O.
+  cominia_), jigüe (jique, _Lysiloma sabicu_), mahagua (_Hibiscus
+  tiliaceus_), granadillo (_Brya ebenus_), icaquillo (_Licania incania_)
+  and agua-baría (_Cordia gerascanthes_) are perhaps the most beautiful.
+  Other woods, beautiful and precious, include guayacan (Guaiacum
+  sanctum), baría (varía, _Cordia gerascanthoides_)--the fragrant,
+  hard-wood Spanish elm--the quiebra-hacha (_Copaifera hymenofolia_),
+  which three are of wonderful lasting qualities; the jiquí (_Malpighia
+  obovata_), acana (_Achras disecta_, _Bassia albescens_), caigarán (or
+  caguairan, _Hymenaea floribunda_), and the dagame (_Calicophyllum
+  candidissimum_), which four, like the cullá, are all wonderfully
+  resistant to humidity; the caimatillo (_Chrysophyllum oliviforme_),
+  the yaya (or yayajabico, yayabito: _Erythalis fructicosa_, _Bocagea
+  virgata_, _Guateria virgata_, _Asimina Blaini_), a magnificent
+  construction wood; the maboa (_Cameraria latifolia_) and the jocuma
+  (jocum: _Sideroxylon mastichodendron_, _Bumelia saticifolia_), all of
+  individual beauties and qualities. Many species are rich in gums and
+  resins; the calambac, mastic, copal, cedar, &c. Many others are
+  oleaginous, among them, peanuts, sun-flowers, the bene seed (sesame),
+  corozo, almond and palmachristi. Others (in addition to some already
+  mentioned) are medicinal; as the palms, calabash, manchineel, pepper,
+  fustic and a long list of cathartics, caustics, emetics, astringents,
+  febrifuges, vermifuges, diuretics and tonics. Then, too, there are
+  various dyewoods; rosewood, logwood (or campeachy wood), indigo,
+  manajú (_Garcinia Morella_), Brazil-wood and saffron. Textile plants
+  are extremely common. The majagua tree grows as high as 40 ft.; from
+  its bark is made cordage of the finest quality, which is scarcely
+  affected by the atmosphere. Strong, fine, glossy fibres are yielded by
+  the exotic ramie (_Boehmeria nivea_), whose fibre, like that of the
+  majagua, is almost incorruptible; by the maya or rat-pineapple
+  (_Bromelia Pinguin_), and by the daquilla (or daiguiya--_Lagetta
+  lintearia_, _L. valenzuelana_), which like the maya yields a
+  brilliant, flexible product like silk; stronger cordage by the corojo
+  palms, and various henequén plants, native and exotic (especially
+  _Agave americana_, _A. Cubensis_); and various plantains, the exotic
+  _Sansevieria guineensis_, okra, jute, _Laportea_, various lianas, and
+  a great variety of reeds, supply varied textile materials of the best
+  quality. The yucca is a source of starch. For building and
+  miscellaneous purposes, in addition to the rare woods above named,
+  there are cedars (used in great quantities for cigar boxes); the pine,
+  found only in the W., where it gives its name to the Isle of Pines and
+  the province of Pinar del Rio; various palms; oaks of varying hardness
+  and colour, &c. The number of alimentary plants is extremely great.
+  Among economic plants should be mentioned the coffee, cacao, citron,
+  cinnamon, cocoanut and rubber tree. Wheat, Indian corn and many
+  vegetables, especially tuberous, are particularly important. Plantain
+  occurs in several varieties; it is in part a cheap and healthful
+  substitute for bread, which is also made from the bitter cassava,
+  after the poison is extracted. The sweet cassava yields tapioca.
+  Bread-trees are fairly common, but are little cared for. White and
+  sweet potatoes, yams, sweet and bitter yuccas, sago and okra, may also
+  be mentioned.
+
+  Fruits are varied and delicious. The pineapple is the most favoured by
+  Cubans. Four or five annual crops grow from one plant, but not more
+  than three can be marketed, unless locally, as the product
+  deteriorates. The better ("purple") varieties are mainly consumed in
+  the island, and the smaller and less juicy "white" varieties exported.
+  The tamarind is everywhere. Bananas are grown particularly in the
+  region about Nipe, Gibara and Baracoa, whence they are exported in
+  large quantities, though there is a tendency to lessen their culture
+  in these parts in favour of sugar. Mangoes, though exotic, are
+  extremely common, and in the E. grow wild in the forests. They are the
+  favourite fruit of the negroes. Oranges are little cultivated,
+  although they offer apparently almost unlimited possibilities; their
+  culture decreased steadily after 1880, but after about 1900 was again
+  greatly extended. Lemons yield continuously through the year, but like
+  oranges, not much has yet been done with them commercially.
+  Pomegranates are as universally used in Cuba as apples in the United.
+  States. Figs and grapes degenerate in Cuba. Dates grow better, but
+  nothing has been done with them. The coco-nut palm is most abundant in
+  the vicinity of Baracoa. Among the common fruits are various
+  anonas--the custard apple (_Anona cherimolia_), sweet-sop (_A.
+  squamosa_), sour-sop (_A. muricata_), mamón (_A. reticulata_), and
+  others,--the star-apple (_Chrysophyllum cainito_, _C. pomiferum_),
+  rose-apple (_Eugenia jambos_), pawpaw, the sapodilla (_Sapota
+  achras_), the caniste (_Sapota Elongata_), jagua (_Genipa americana_),
+  alligator pear (_Persea gratissima_), the yellow mammee (_Mammea
+  americana_) and so-called "red mammee" (_Lucuma mammosa_) and limes.
+
+  _Fauna._--The fauna of Cuba, like the flora, is still imperfectly
+  known. Collectively it shows long isolation from the other Antilles.
+  Only two land mammals are known to be indigenous. One is the hutía
+  (agouti) or Cuban rat, of which three species are known (_Capromys
+  Fournieri_, _C. melanurus_ and _C. Poey_). It lives in the most
+  solitary woods, especially in the eastern hills. The other is a
+  peculiar insectivore (_Solenodon paradoxus_), the only other
+  representatives of whose family are found in Madagascar. Various
+  animals, apparently indigenous, that are described by the early
+  historians of the conquest, have disappeared. An Antillean rabbit is
+  very abundant. Bats in prodigious numbers, and some of them of
+  extraordinary size, inhabit the many caves of the island; more than
+  twenty species are known. Rats and mice, especially the guayabita
+  (_Mus musculus_), an extremely destructive rodent, are very abundant.
+  The manatee, or sea-cow, frequents the mouths of rivers, the sargasso
+  drifts, and the regions of submarine fresh-water springs off the
+  coast. Horses, asses, cows, deer, sheep, goats, swine, cats and dogs
+  were introduced by the early Spaniards. The last three are common in a
+  wild state. Deer are not native, and are very rare; a few live in the
+  swamps.
+
+  Of birds there are more than 200 indigenous species, it is said, and
+  migratory species are also numerous. Waders are represented by more
+  than fifty species. Vultures are represented by only one species, the
+  turkey buzzard, which is the universal scavenger of the fields, and
+  until recent years even of the cities, and has always been protected
+  by custom and the Laws of the Indies. Falcons are represented by a
+  score of species, at least, several of them nocturnal. Kestrels are
+  common. The gallinaceous order is rich in _Columbidae_. Trumpeters are
+  notably represented, and climbers still more so. Among the latter are
+  species of curious habits and remarkable colouring. Woodpeckers
+  (_Coloptes auratus_), macaws, parrakeets and other small parrots, and
+  trogons, these last of beautifully resplendent plumage, deserve
+  particular mention. The Cuban mocking-bird is a wonderful songster. Of
+  humming-birds there are said to be sixty species, probably only one
+  indigenous. Of the other birds mere mention may be made of the wild
+  pigeon, raven, indigo-bird, English lady-bird and linnet.
+
+  Reptiles are numerous. Many tortoises are notable. The crocodile and
+  cayman occur in the swampy littoral of the south. Of lizards the
+  iguana (_Cyclura caudata_) is noteworthy. Chameleons are common.
+  Snakes are not numerous, and it is said that none is poisonous or
+  vicious. There is one enormous boa, the maja (_Epicrates angulifer_),
+  which feeds on pigs, goats and the like, but does not molest man.
+
+  Fishes are present in even greater variety than birds. Felipa Poey, in
+  his _Ictiologia Cubana_, listed 782 species of fish and crustaceans,
+  of which 105 were doubtful; but more than one-half of the remainder
+  were first described by Poey. The fish of Cuban waters are remarkable
+  for their metallic colourings. The largest species are found off the
+  northern coast. Food fishes are relatively not abundant, presumably
+  because the deep sea escarpments of the N. are unfavourable to their
+  life. Shell fish are unimportant. Two species of blind fish, of
+  extreme scientific interest, are found in the caves of the island. Of
+  the "percoideos" there are many genera. Among the most important are
+  the robalo (_Labrax_), an exquisite food fish, the tunny, eel, Spanish
+  sardine and mangua. Of the sharks the genus _Squalus_ is represented
+  by individuals that grow to a length of 26 to 30 ft. The hammer-head
+  attains a weight at times of 600 lb. The saw-fish is common. Of
+  fresh-water fish the lisa, dogro, guayácón and viajocos (_Chromis
+  fuscomaculatus_) are possibly the most noteworthy.
+
+  Molluscs are extraordinarily numerous; and many, both of water and
+  land, are rarities among their kind for size and richness of colour.
+  Of crustaceans, land-crabs are remarkable for size and number.
+  Arachnids are prodigiously numerous. Insect life is abundant and
+  beautiful. The bite of the scorpion and of the numerous spiders
+  produces no serious effects. The nigua, the Cuban jigger, is a pest of
+  serious consequence, and the mal de nigua (jigger sickness) sometimes
+  causes the death of lower animals and men. Sand-flies and biting gnats
+  are lesser nuisances. Lepidoptera are very brilliant in colouring. The
+  cucujo or Cuban firefly (_Pyrophorus noctilucus_) gives out so strong
+  a light that a few of them serve effectively as a lantern. The
+  _Stegomyia_ mosquito is the agent of yellow fever inoculation. Sponges
+  grow in great variety.
+
+_Climate._--The climate of Cuba is tropical and distinctively insular in
+characteristics of humidity, equability and high mean temperature. There
+are two distinct seasons: a "dry" season from November to April, and a
+hotter, "wet" season. About two-thirds of the total precipitation falls
+in the latter. Droughts, extensive in area and in duration, are by no
+means uncommon. At Havana the mean temperature is about 76° F., with
+extreme monthly oscillations ranging on the average from 6° to 12° F.
+for different months, and with a range between the means of the coldest
+and warmest months of 10° (70° to 80°); temperatures below 50° or above
+90° being rare. The mean rainfall at Havana is about 40.6 in. (sometimes
+over 80), and the mean absolute humidity of different months ranges from
+70 to 80%. These figures represent fairly well the conditions of much of
+the northern coast. In the N.E. the rainfall is much greater. The
+equability of heat throughout the day is masked and relieved by the
+afternoon sea breezes. The trades are steady through the year, and in
+the dry season the western part of the island enjoys cool "northers."
+Despite this the interior is somewhat cooler than the coast, and in the
+uplands frost is not uncommon. The southern littoral is also (except in
+sheltered points such as Santiago, which is one of the hottest cities of
+the island) somewhat cooler than the northern.
+
+More than eight or ten years rarely pass without tornadoes or hurricanes
+of local severity at least. Notably destructive ones occurred in 1768,
+1774, 1842, 1844, 1846, 1865, 1870, 1876, 1885 and 1894. Those of 1842
+and 1844 caused extreme distress in the island. In 1846, 300 vessels and
+2000 houses were destroyed at Havana; in 1896 the banana groves of the
+N.E. coast were ruined and the banana industry prostrated; and in 1906
+Havana suffered damage. The autumn months, particularly October and
+November, are those in which such storms most frequently occur.
+
+_Health._--Convincing evidence is offered by the qualities of the
+Spanish race in Cuba that white men of temperate lands can be perfectly
+acclimatized in this tropical island. As for diseases, some common to
+Cuba and Europe are more frequent or severe in the island, others rarer
+or milder. There are the usual malarial, bilious and intermittent
+fevers, and liver, stomach and intestinal complaints prevalent in
+tropical countries; but unhygienic living is, in Cuba as elsewhere,
+mainly responsible for their existence. Yellow fever (which first
+appeared in Cuba in 1647) was long the only epidemic disease, Havana
+being an endemic focus. Aside from the recurrent loss of life, the
+pecuniary loss from such epidemics was enormous, and the interference
+with commerce and social intercourse with other countries extremely
+vexatious. The Cuban coast was uninterruptedly full of infection, and
+the danger of an outbreak in each year was never absent, until the work
+of the United States army in 1901-1902 conclusively proved that this
+disease, though ineradicable by the most extreme sanitary measures,
+based on the accepted theory of its origin as a filth-disease, could be
+eradicated entirely by removing the possibility of inoculation by the
+_Stegomyia_ mosquito. Since then yellow fever has ceased to be a scourge
+in Cuba. Small-pox was the cause of a greater mortality than yellow
+fever even before the means of combating the latter had been
+ascertained. The remarkable sanitary work begun during the American
+occupation and continued by the republic of Cuba, has shown that the
+ravages of this and other diseases can be greatly diminished. Leprosy is
+rather common, but seemingly only slightly contagious. Consumption is
+very prevalent.
+
+_Agriculture._--Soils are of four classes: calcareous-ferruginous,
+alluvial, argillous and silicious. Calcareous lands are predominant,
+especially in the uplands. Deep residual clay soils derived from
+underlying limestones, and coloured red or black according to the
+predominance of oxides of iron or vegetable detritus, characterize the
+plains. A red-black soil known as "mulatto" or tawny is perhaps the best
+fitted for general cultivation. Tobacco is most generally cultivated on
+loose red soils, which are rich in clays and silicates; and sugar-cane
+preferably on the black and mulatto soils; but in general, contrary to
+prevalent suppositions, colour is no test of quality and not a very
+valuable guide in the setting of crops. Almost without exception the
+lands throughout the island are of extreme fertility. The lowlands about
+Cienfuegos, Trinidad, Mariel and Matanzas are noted for their richness.
+The census of 1899 showed that farm lands occupied three-tenths of the
+total area; the cultivated area being one-tenth of the farms or 3% of
+the whole. At the end of 1905 it was officially estimated that 16% was
+in cultivation. In 1902 it was officially estimated that the public land
+available for permanent agrarian cultivation, including forest lands,
+was only 186,967 hectares (416,995 acres), almost wholly in the province
+of Oriente. The average size of a farm in 1899 was 143 acres. More than
+85% of all cultivated lands were then occupied by whites; and somewhat
+more than one-half (56.6%) of all occupiers were renters. Holdings of
+more than 32 acres constituted only 7% of the total. As regards crops,
+47% of the cultivated area was given over to sugar, 11% to sweet
+potatoes, 9% to tobacco and almost 9% to bananas. But owing to the
+disturbed conditions created by the war it is probable that these
+figures by no means represent normal conditions. The actual sugar crop
+of 1899-1900, for example, was not a quarter of that of 1894. With the
+establishment of peace in 1898 and the influx of American and other
+capital and of a heavy immigration, great changes took place in
+agriculture as in other industrial conditions.
+
+
+  Sugar.
+
+Sugar has been the dominant crop since the end of the 18th century.
+Before the Civil War of 1895-1898 the capital invested in sugar estates
+was greater by half than that represented by tobacco and coffee
+plantations, live-stock ranches and other farms. Since that time fruit
+and live-stock interests have increased. The dependence of the island on
+one crop has been an artificial economic condition often of grave
+momentary danger to prosperity; but generally speaking, the progress of
+the industry has been steady. The competition of the sugar-beet has been
+felt severely. During and after the war of 1868-1878, when many Cuban
+estates were confiscated, many families emigrated, and many others were
+ruined, the ownership of plantations largely passed from the hands of
+Cubans to Spaniards. Under the conditions of free labour, the
+development of railways abroad, the improvement of machinery both in
+cane and beet producing countries, the general competition of the beet,
+and the fall of prices, it was impossible for the Cuban industry to
+survive without radical betterment of methods. About 1885 began an
+immense development of centralization (the tendency having been evident
+many years before this). Plantations have increased greatly in size (and
+also diminished in number), greater capital is involved, bagasse
+furnaces have been introduced, double grinding mills have increased by
+more than a half the yield of juice from a given weight of cane, and
+extractive operations instead of being carried on on all plantations
+have been (since 1880) concentrated in comparatively few "centrals" (168
+in Feb. 1908). Three-fourths of all are in the jurisdictions of
+Cienfuegos, Cárdenas, Havana, Matanzas and Sagua la Grande, which are
+the great sugar centres of the island (three-fourths of the crop coming
+from Matanzas and Santa Clara provinces). Caibarién, Guantánamo and
+Manzanillo are next in importance. A comparatively low cost of labour,
+the fact that labour is not, as in the days of slavery, that of
+unintelligent blacks but of intelligent free labourers, the centralized
+organization and modern methods that prevail on the plantations, the
+remarkable fertility of the soil (which yields 5 or 6 crops on good soil
+and with good management, without replanting), and the proximity of the
+United States, in whose markets Cuba disposes of almost all her crop,
+have long enabled her to distance her smaller West Indian rivals and to
+compete with the bounty-fed beet. The methods of cultivation, however,
+are still distinctly extensive, and the returns are much less than they
+would be (and in some other cane countries are) under more intensive and
+scientific methods of cultivation. Indeed, conditions were relatively
+primitive so late as 1880, if compared with those of other
+sugar-producing countries. More than four-fifths of the total area sown
+to cane in the island is in the three provinces of Santa Clara, Matanzas
+and Oriente (formerly Santiago), the former two representing two-thirds
+of the area and three-fourths of the crop. The majority of the sugar
+estates are of an area less than 3000 acres, and the most common area is
+between 1500 and 2000 acres; but the extremes range from a very small
+size to 60,000 acres. Only a part of the great estates is ever planted
+in any one season. The most profitable unit is calculated to be a daily
+consumption of 1500 tons of cane, or 150,000 in a grinding season of 100
+days, which implies a feeding area not above 6000 acres. In the season
+of 1904-1905, which may be taken as typical, 179 estates, with a planted
+area of 431,056 acres, produced 11,576,137 tons of cane, and yielded--in
+addition to alcohol, brandy and molasses--1,089,814 tons of sugar. Of
+this amount 416,862 tons were produced by 24 estates yielding more than
+11,000 tons each, including one (planting 28,050 acres) that yielded
+33,609, and 4 others more than 22,000 tons each. The production of the
+island from 1850 to 1868 averaged 469,934 tons yearly, rising from
+223,145 to 749,000; from 1869 to 1886 (continuing high during the
+period of the Ten Years' War), 632,003 tons; from 1887 to 1907--omitting
+the five years 1896-1900 when the industry was prostrated by
+war,--909,827 tons (and including the war period, 758,066); and in the
+six harvests of 1901-1906, 1,016,899 tons. Prior to 1902 the million
+mark, was reached only twice--in 1894 and 1895. Following the
+resuscitation of the industry after the last war, the island's crop rose
+steadily from one-sixth to a full quarter of the total cane sugar output
+of the world, its share in the world's product of sugar of all kinds
+ranging from a tenth to an eighth. Of this enormous output, from 98.3%
+upward went to the United States;[1] of whose total importation of all
+sugars and of cane sugar the proportion of Cuban cane--steadily
+rising--was respectively 49.8 and 53.7% in the seasons of 1900-1901 and
+1904-1905.
+
+
+  Tobacco.
+
+If sugar is the island's greatest crop, tobacco is her most renowned in
+the markets of the world. Three-fourths of the tobacco of Cuba comes
+from Pinar del Rio province; the rest mainly from the provinces of
+Havana and Santa Clara,--the description _de partido_ being applied to
+the leaf not produced in Havana and Pinar del Rio provinces, and
+sometimes to all produced outside the _vuelta abajo_. This district,
+including the finest land, is on the southern slope of the Organ
+Mountains between the Honda river and Mantua; bananas are cultivated
+with the tobacco. "Vegas" (tobacco fields) of especially good repute are
+also found near Trinidad, Remedios, Yara, Mayarí and Vicana. The tobacco
+industry has been uniformly prosperous, except when crippled by the
+destruction of war in 1868-1878 and 1895-1898. Even in the time of
+slavery tobacco was generally a white-man's crop; for it requires
+intelligent labour and intensive care. In recent years the growth of the
+leaf under cloth tents has greatly increased, as it has been abundantly
+proved that the product thus secured is much more valuable--lighter in
+colour and weight, finer in texture, with an increased proportion of
+wrapper leaves, and more uniform qualities, and with lesser amounts of
+cellulose, nicotine, gums and resins. In these respects the finest Cuban
+tobacco crops, produced in the sun, hardly rival the finest Sumatra
+product; but produced under cheese-cloth they do. "Cuban tobacco" does
+not mean to-day, as a commercial fact, what the words imply; for the
+original _Nicotiana Tabacum_, variety _havanensis_, can probably be
+found pure to-day only in out-of-the-way corners of Pinar del Rio. After
+the Ten Year's War seed of Mexican and United States tobaccos was in
+great demand to re-seed the ruined vegas, and was introduced in great
+quantities; and although by a later law the destruction of these exotic
+species was ordered, that destruction was in fact quite impossible.
+"Lusty growers and coarser than the genuine old-time Cuban ... Mexican
+tobaccos (_Nicotiana Tabacum_, variety _macrophyllum_) are to-day
+predominant in a large part of Cuban vegas.... Ordinary commercial Cuban
+seed of to-day is largely, and often altogether, Mexican tobacco."
+Though improved in the Cuban environment, the foreign tobaccos
+introduced after the Ten Years' War did not lose their exotic character,
+but prevailed over the indigenous forms: "Tobaccos with exactly the
+character of the introduced types are now the prevalent forms"
+(quotation from Bulletin of the _Estación Central Agronómica_, Feb.
+1908). In the markets of the world Cuban tobacco has always suffered
+less competition than Cuban sugar, and still less has been done than in
+the case of sugar cane in the study of methods of cultivation, which in
+several respects are far behind those of other tobacco-growing
+countries. The crop of 1907 was 201,512 bales (109,562,400 lb. Sp.).
+
+
+  Coffee.
+
+Coffee-raising was once a flourishing and very promising industry. It
+first attained prominence with the settlement in eastern Cuba, late in
+the 18th century, of French refugee immigrants from San Domingo. Some
+"cafetales" were established by the newcomers near Havana, but the
+industry has always been almost exclusively one of Oriente province;
+with Santa Clara as a much smaller producer. Before the war of
+1868-1878 the production amounted to about 25,000,000 lb. yearly. The
+war of 1895-1898 still further diminished the vitality of the industry.
+In 1907 the crop was 6,595,700 lb. The berries are of fine quality, and
+despite the competition of Brazil there is no (agricultural) reason why
+the home market at least should not be supplied from Cuban estates.
+
+  Of other agricultural crops those of fruits are of greatest
+  importance--bananas (which are planted about once in three years),
+  pine-apples (planted about once in five years), coco-nuts, oranges,
+  &c. The coco-nut industry has long been largely confined to the region
+  about Baracoa, owing to the ruin of the trees elsewhere by a disease
+  not yet thoroughly understood, which, appearing finally near Baracoa,
+  threatened by 1908 to destroy the industry there as well. Yams and
+  sweet-potatoes, yuccas, malangas, cacao, rice--which is one of the
+  most important foods of the people, but which is not yet widely
+  cultivated on a profitable basis--and Indian corn, which grows
+  everywhere and yields two crops yearly, may be mentioned also. In very
+  recent years gardening has become an interest of importance,
+  particularly in the province of Pinar del Rio. Save on the coffee,
+  tobacco and sugar plantations, where competition in large markets has
+  compelled the adoption of adequate modern methods, agriculture in Cuba
+  is still very primitive. The wooden ploughstick, for instance--taking
+  the country as a whole--has never been displaced. A central
+  agricultural experiment station (founded 1904) is maintained by the
+  government at Santiago de las Vegas; but there is no agricultural
+  college, nor any special school for the scientific teaching and
+  improvement of sugar and tobacco farming or manufacture.
+
+  Stock-breeding is a highly important interest. It was the
+  all-important one in the early history of the island, down to about
+  the latter part of the 18th century. Grasses grow luxuriantly, and the
+  savannahs of central Cuba are, in this respect, excellent cattle
+  ranges. The droughts to which the island is recurrently subject are,
+  however, a not unimportant drawback to the industry; and though the
+  best ranges, under favourable conditions, are luxuriant, nevertheless
+  the pastures of the island are in general mediocre. Practically
+  nothing has yet been done in the study of native grasses and the
+  introduction of exotic species. The possibilities of the stock
+  interest have as yet by no means been realized. The civil wars were
+  probably more disastrous to it than to any other agricultural interest
+  of the island. It has been authoritatively estimated, for example,
+  that from 90 to 95% of all horses, neat cattle and hogs in the entire
+  island were lost in the war years of 1895-1898. In the decade after
+  1898 particularly great progress was made in the raising of
+  live-stock. The fishing and sponge industries are important. Batabanó
+  and Caibarién are centres of the sponge fisheries.
+
+_Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries of Cuba have never been
+more than insignificant as compared with what they might be. In 1907
+48.5% of all wage-earners were engaged in agriculture, fishing and
+mining, 16.3 in manufactures, and 17.7 in trade and transportation. Such
+manufactures as are of any consequence are mostly connected with the
+sugar and tobacco industries. Forest resources have been but slightly
+touched (more so since the end of Spanish rule) except mahogany, which
+goes to the United States, and cedar, which is used to box the tobacco
+products of the island, much going also to the United States. The value
+of forest products in 1901-1902 amounted to $320,528. There are some
+tanneries, some preparation of preserves and other fruit products, and
+some old handicraft industries like the making of hats; but these have
+been of comparatively scant importance. Despite natural advantages for
+all meat industries, canned meats have generally been imported. The
+leading manufactures are cigars and cigarettes, sugar, rum and whisky.
+The tobacco industries are very largely concentrated in Havana, and
+there are factories in Santiago de las Vegas and Bejucal. The yearly
+output of cigars was locally estimated in 1908 at about 500,000,000, but
+this is probably too high an estimate. In 1904-1906 the yearly average
+sent to the United States was 234,063,652 cigars, 29,776,429 lb. of leaf
+and 14,203,571 packages of cigarettes. The sugar industry is not
+similarly centralized. With the improvement of methods the old partially
+refined grades (moscobados) have disappeared.
+
+_Mining._--Mining is of very considerable importance. The Cobre copper
+mines near Santiago were once the greatest producers of the world. They
+were worked from 1524 until about 1730, when they were abandoned for
+almost a century, after which they were reopened and greatly developed.
+In 1828-1840 about two million dollars' worth of ore was shipped yearly
+to the United States alone. After 1868 the mines were again abandoned
+and flooded, the mining property being ruined during the civil war.
+Finally, after 1900 they again became prosperous producers. The "Cobre"
+mine is only the most famous and productive of various copper
+properties. The copper output has not greatly increased since 1890, and
+is of slight importance in mineral exports. Iron and manganese have, on
+the contrary, been greatly developed in the same period. Iron is now the
+most important mineral product. The iron ores are even more accessible
+than the famous ones of the Lake Superior region in the United States.
+No shafts or tunnels are necessary except for exploration; the mining
+consists entirely in open-cut and terrace work. The cost of exploitation
+is accordingly slight. Daiquiri, near Santiago, and mines near Nipe, on
+the north coast, are the chief centres of production. Nearly the entire
+product goes to the United States. The first exports from the Daiquiri
+district were made by an American company in 1884; the Nipe (Cagimaya)
+mines became prominent in promise in 1906. The shipments from Oriente
+province from 1884 to 1901 aggregated 5,053,847 long tons, almost all
+going to the United States (which is true of other mineral products
+also). After 1900 production was greatly increased and by 1906 had come
+to exceed half a million tons annually. There are small mines in Santa
+Clara and Camagüey provinces. Manganese is mined mainly near La Maya and
+El Cristo in Oriente. The traditions as to gold and silver have already
+been referred to. Evidences of ancient workings remain near Holguin and
+Gibara, and it is possible that some of these workings are still
+exploitable. Mining for the precious metals ceased at a very early date,
+after rich discoveries were made on the continent. Bituminous products,
+though, as already stated, widely distributed, are not as yet much
+developed. The most promising deposits and the most important workings
+are in Matanzas and Santa Clara provinces. Petroleum has been used to
+some extent both as a fuel and as an illuminant. Small amounts of
+asphalt have been sent to the United States. Locally, asphalts are used
+as gas enrichers. Grahamite and glance-pitch are common, and are
+exported for use in varnish and paint manufactures. The commercial
+product of stones, brick and cement is of rapidly increasing importance.
+The foundation of the island is in many places almost pure carbonate of
+lime, and there are numerous small limekilns. The product is used to
+bleach sugar, as well as for construction and disinfection purposes. The
+number of small brick plants is legion, almost all very primitive.
+
+_Commerce._--Commerce (resting largely upon specialized agriculture) is
+vastly more prominent as yet than manufacturing and mining in the
+island's economy. The leading articles of export are sugar, tobacco and
+fruit products; of import, textiles, foodstuffs, lumber and wood
+products, and machinery. Sugar and tobacco products together represent
+seven-eighths (in 1904-1907 respectively 60.3 and 27.3%) of the normal
+annual exports. In the quinquennial period 1890-1894 (immediately
+preceding the War of Independence) the average yearly commerce of the
+island in and out was $86,875,663 with the United States; and
+$28,161,726 with Spain.[2] During the American military occupation of
+the island in 1899-1902, of the total imports 45.9% were from the United
+States, 14 from other American countries, 15 from Spain, 14 from the
+United Kingdom, 6 from France and 4 from Germany; of the exports the
+corresponding percentages for the same countries were 70.7, 2, 3, 10, 4
+and 7. No special favours were enjoyed by the United States in this
+period, and about the same percentages prevailed in the years following.
+The total commercial movement of the island in the five calendar years
+1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 (for the five fiscal years 1902-1903 to
+1906-1907, $185,987,020) annually, and of this the share of the United
+States was $108,431,000 yearly, representing 45.8% of all imports and
+81.9% of all exports. The proportion of imports taken from the United
+States is greatest in foodstuffs, metals and metal manufactures, timber
+and furniture, mineral oils and lard. The trade of the United States
+with the island was as great in 1900-1907 as with Mexico and all the
+other West Indies combined; as great as its trade with Spain, Portugal
+and Italy combined; and almost as great as its trade with China and
+Japan.
+
+_Communications._--Poor means of communication have always been a great
+handicap to the industries of the island. The first railroad in Cuba
+(and the first in Spanish lands) was opened from Havana to Güines in
+1837. In succeeding years a fairly ample system was built up between the
+cities of Pinar del Rio and Santa Clara, with a number of short spurs
+from the chief ports farther eastward into the interior. After the first
+American occupation a private company built a line from Santa Clara to
+Santiago, more than half the length of the island, finally connecting
+its two ends (1902). The policy of the railways was always one rather of
+extortion than of fairness or of any interest in the development of the
+country, but better conditions have begun. There was ostensible
+government regulation of rates after 1877, but the roads were guaranteed
+outright against any loss of revenue, and in fact practically nothing
+was ever done in the way of reform in the Spanish period. In 1900 the
+total length of railways was 2097 m., of which 1226 were of 17 public
+roads and 871 m. of 107 private roads. In August 1908 the mileage of all
+railways (including electric) in Cuba was 2329.8 m. The telegraph and
+telephone systems are owned by the government. Cables connect the island
+with Florida, Jamaica, Haiti and San Domingo, Porto Rico, the lesser
+Antilles, Panama, Venezuela and Brazil. Havana, Santiago and Cienfuegos
+are cable ports. Wagon roads are still of small extent and primitive
+character save in a very few localities. The peculiar two-wheeled carts
+of the country, carrying enormous loads of 4 to 6 tons, destroy even the
+finest road. Similar carts, slightly lighter, used in the cities,
+quickly destroy any paving but stone block. The only good highways of
+any considerable length in 1908 were in the two western provinces and in
+the vicinity of Santiago. During the second American occupation work was
+begun on a network of good rural highways.
+
+_Population._--Various censuses were taken in Cuba beginning in 1774;
+but the results of those preceding the abolition of slavery, at least,
+are probably without exception extremely untrustworthy. The census of
+1887 showed a population of 1,631,687, that of 1899 a population of
+1,572,792 (the decrease of 3.6% is explained by the intervening war);
+and by the census of 1907 there were 2,048,980 inhabitants, 30.3% more
+than in 1899. The average of settlement per square mile varied from
+169.7 in Havana province to 11.8 in Camagüey, and was 46.4 for all of
+Cuba; the percentage of urban population (in cities, that is, with more
+than 1000 inhabitants) in the different provinces varied from 18.2 in
+Pinar del Rio to 74.7 in Havana, and was 43.9 for the entire island.
+There were five cities having populations above 25,000--Havana, 297,159;
+Santiago, 45,470; Matanzas, 36,009; Cienfuegos, 30,100; Puerto Príncipe
+(or Camagüey), 29,616; and fourteen more above 8000--Cardenas,
+Manzanillo, Guanabacoa, Santa Clara, Sagua la Grande, Sancti Spiritus,
+Guantánamo, Trinidad, Pinar del Rio, San Antonio de los Bańos,
+Jovellanos, Marianao, Caibarién and Güines. The proportion of the total
+population which in 1907 was in cities of 8000 or more was only 30.3%;
+and the proportion in cities of 25,000 or more was 21.4%. Mainly owing
+to the large element of transient foreign whites without families (long
+characteristic of Cuba), males outnumber females--in 1907 as 21 to 19.
+Native whites, almost everywhere in the majority, constituted 59.8% of
+all inhabitants; persons of negro and mixed blood, 29.7%; foreign-born
+whites, 9.9%; Chinese less than 0.6%. Foreigners constituted 25.6% of
+the population in the city of Havana; only 7% in Pinar del Rio province.
+Native blood is most predominant in the provinces of Oriente and Pinar
+del Rio. After the end of the war of 1895-1898 a large immigration from
+Spain began; the inflow from the United States was very small in
+comparison. The Republic strongly encourages immigration. In 1900-1906
+there were 143,122 immigrants, of whom 124,863 were Spaniards, 4557 were
+from the United States, 2561 were Spanish Americans, and a few were
+Italian, Syrian, Chinese, French, English, &c. The Chinese element is a
+remnant of a former coolie population; their numbers in 1907 (11,217)
+were less than a fourth the number in 1887. Their introduction began in
+1847 and ended in 1871. Conjugal conditions in Cuba are peculiar. In
+1907 only 20.7% of the total population were legally married; an
+additional 8.6% were living in more or less permanent consensual unions,
+these being particularly common among the negroes. Including all unions
+the total is below the European proportion, but above that of Porto Rico
+or Jamaica in 1899.
+
+The negro element is strongest in the province of Oriente and weakest in
+Camagüey; in the former it constituted 43.1% of the population, in the
+latter 18.3%, and in Havana City 25.5%. In Guantánamo, in Santiago de
+Cuba, and in seven other towns they exceeded the whites in number.
+Caibarién and San Antonio de los Bańos had the largest proportion of
+white population. The position of the negroes in Cuba is exceptional.
+Despite the long period of slavery they are decidedly below the whites
+in number. The Spanish slave laws (although in practice often
+frightfully abused) were always comparatively generous to the slave,
+making relatively easy, among other things, the purchase of his freedom,
+the number of free blacks being always great. Since the abolition of
+slavery the status of the black has been made more definite, and his
+rights naturally much greater. The wars of 1868-1878 and 1895-1898 and
+the threatened war of 1906 all helped to give to the negro element its
+high position. There is no antagonism between the divisions of the
+coloured race. All hold their own with the white in industrial
+usefulness to the community, and though the blacks are more backward in
+education and various other tests of social advancement, still their
+outlook is full of promise. There is practically no colour caste in
+Cuba; politically the negro is the white man's equal; socially there is
+very little ostensible inequality and almost perfect toleration. The
+negro in Cuba shows promising though undeveloped traits of landlordship.
+Women labour habitually in the fields. Miscegenation of blacks and
+whites was extremely common before emancipation. It is sometimes said
+that since then there has been a counter-tendency, but it is impossible
+to prove such a statement conclusively except with the aid of future
+censuses. Few of the negroes are black; some of the blackest have the
+regular features of the Caucasian; and racial mixtures are everywhere
+evidenced by colour of skin and by physiognomy. Its seems certain that
+the African element has been holding its own in the population totals
+since emancipation.
+
+Cuba is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic in religion, but under the new
+Republic there is a complete separation of church and state, and
+liberalism and indifference are increasing. Illiteracy is extremely
+widespread. In 1907 the census showed 56.6% (43.3 in 1899) of persons
+above ten years who could read. Of the voting population 53.2% of native
+white, and 37.3% of coloured Cuban citizens, and 71.6% of Spanish
+citizens could read. A revolution in education was begun the first year
+of the United States military occupation and continued under the
+Republic.
+
+_Constitution._--The constitution upon which the government of Cuba
+rests was framed during the period of the United States military
+government; it was adopted the 21st of February 1901, and certain
+amendments or conditions required by the United States were accepted on
+the 12th of June 1901. The constitution is republican and modelled on
+the Constitution of the United States, with some marked differences of
+greater centralization, due to colonial experience under the rule of
+Spain, notably as regards federalism; the provinces of the island being
+less important than the states of the American Union. The president of
+the Republic, who is elected for four years by an electoral college, and
+cannot hold office for more than two successive terms, has a cabinet
+whose members he may appoint and remove freely, their number being
+determined by law. He sanctions, promulgates and executes the laws, and
+supplements them (partly co-ordinately with congress) by administrative
+regulations in harmony with their ends; holds a veto power and pardoning
+power; controls with the senate political appointments and removals; and
+conducts foreign relations, submitting treaties to the senate for
+ratification. Congress consists of two houses. The senate contains four
+members from each province, chosen for eight years by a provincial
+electoral board, which consists of the provincial councilmen plus a
+double number of electors (half of them paying high taxes) who are
+selected at a special election by their fellow citizens. Half of the
+senators retire every four years. The senate is the court of trial for
+the president, officers of the cabinet, and provincial governors when
+accused of political offences. It also acts jointly with the president
+in political appointments and treaty making. The house of
+representatives, whose members are chosen directly by the citizens for
+four years, one-half retiring every two years, has the special power of
+impeaching the president and cabinet officers. Congress meets twice
+annually, in April and November. Its powers are extensive, including, in
+addition to ordinary legislative powers, control of financial affairs,
+foreign affairs, the power to declare war and approve treaties of peace,
+amnesties, electoral legislation for the provinces and municipalities,
+control of the electoral vote for president and vice-president, and
+designation of an acting president in case of the death or incapacity of
+these officers. The subjects of legislative power are very similar to
+those of the United States congress; but control of railroads, canals
+and public roads is explicitly given to the federal government. Justice
+is administered by courts of various grades, with a supreme court at
+Havana as the head; the members of this being appointed by the president
+and senate. This court passes on the constitutionality of all laws,
+decrees and regulations.
+
+There are six provinces--Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara,
+Camagüey or Puerto Príncipe, and Oriente. Each has a provincial governor
+and assembly chosen directly by the people, generally charged with
+independent control of matters affecting the province; but the president
+may interfere against an abuse of power by either the governor or the
+assembly. Municipalities are administered by mayors (alcaldes) and
+assemblies elected by the people, and control strictly municipal
+affairs. The "termino municipal" is the chief political and
+administrative civil division. It is an urban district together with
+contiguous rural territory. Its divisions are "barrios." The president
+may interfere if necessary in the municipality as in the province; and
+so may the governor of the province. But all interference is subject to
+review of claims by the courts. Both provinces and municipalities are
+forbidden by the constitution to contract debts without a coincident
+provision of permanent revenue for their settlement.
+
+The franchise is granted to every male Cuban twenty-one years of age,
+not mentally incapacitated, nor previously a convict of crime, nor
+serving in the army or navy of the state. Foreigners may become citizens
+in five years by naturalization. Church and state are completely
+separated, toleration being guaranteed for the profession and practice
+of all religious beliefs, and the government may not subsidize any
+religion.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+Primary education is declared by the constitution to be free and
+compulsory; and its expenses are paid by the central government so far
+as it may be beyond the power of the province or municipality to bear
+them. Secondary and advanced education is controlled by the state. In
+the last days of Spanish rule (1894), there were 904 public and 704
+private schools, and not more than 60,000 pupils enrolled; in 1000 there
+were 3550 public schools with an enrolment of 172,273 and an average
+attendance of 123,362. In the four school years from 1903-1904 to
+1906-1907 the figures of enrolment and average attendance were: 201,824
+and 110,531; 194,657 and 105,706; 186,571 and 98,329; and 189,289 and
+93,865. In 1906-1907 the percentage (31.6) of attendants to children of
+school age was twice as large as in 1898-1899. Private schools, some of
+very high grade, draw many pupils. Almost all schools are primary. The
+university of Havana (founded 1728) was given greatly improved
+facilities, especially of material equipment, by the American military
+government, and seems to have begun an ambitious progress. In 1907 the
+number of students was 554. Below the university there are six
+provincial institutes, one in each province, in each of which there is a
+preparatory department, a department of secondary education, and (this
+due to peculiar local conditions) a school of surveying; and in that of
+Havana commercial departments in addition. In Havana, also, there is a
+school of painting and sculpture, a school of arts and trades, and a
+national library, all of which are supported or subventioned by the
+national government, as are also a public library in Matanzas, and the
+Agricultural Experiment Station at Santiago de las Vegas. In connexion
+with the university is a botanical garden; with the national sanitary
+service, a biological laboratory, and special services for small-pox,
+glanders and yellow fever. Independent of the government are various
+schools and learned societies in Havana (q.v.). A school was established
+by the government in Key West, Florida (U.S.A.), in 1905, for the
+benefit of the Cuban colony there. Finally, the government sustains
+about two score of penal establishments, reform schools, hospitals,
+dispensaries and asylums, which are scattered all over the
+island,--every town of any considerable size having one or more of these
+charities.
+
+
+  Former government.
+
+Under the colonial rule of Spain the head of government was a supreme
+civil-military officer, the governor and captain-general. His control of
+the entire administrative life of the island was practically absolute.
+Originally residents at Santiago de Cuba, the captains-general resided
+after 1589 at Havana. Because of the isolation of the eastern part of
+the island, the dangers from pirates, and the important considerations
+which had caused Santiago de Cuba (q.v.) to be the first capital of the
+island, Cuba was divided in 1607 into two departments, and a governor,
+subordinate in military matters to the captain-general at Havana, was
+appointed to rule the territory east of Puerto Príncipe. In 1801, when
+the audiencia--of which the captain-general was _ex officio_
+president--began its functions at that point, the governor of Santiago
+became subordinated in political matters as much as in military. Two
+chief courts of justice (audiencias) sat at Havana (after 1832) and
+Puerto Príncipe (1800-1853); appeals could go to Spain; below the
+audiencias were "alcaldes mayores" or district judges and ordinary
+"alcaldes" or local judges. The audiencias also held important political
+powers under the Laws of the Indies. The captaincy-general of Cuba was
+not originally, however, by any means so broad in powers as the
+viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru; and by the creation in 1765 of the
+office of intendant--the delegate of the national treasury--his
+faculties were very greatly curtailed. The great powers of the intendant
+were, however, merged in those of the governor-general in 1853; and the
+captain-general having been given by royal order in 1825 (several times
+later explicitly confirmed, and not revoked until 1870) the absolute
+powers (to be assumed at his initiative and discretion) of the governor
+of a besieged city, and by a royal order of 1834 the power to banish at
+will persons supposed to be inimical to the public peace; and being by
+virtue of his office the president and dominator of all the important
+administrative boards of the government, held the government of the
+island, and in any emergency the liberty and property of its
+inhabitants, in his hand. The royal orders following 1825 developed a
+system of extraordinary and extreme repression. In 1878, as the result
+of the Ten Years' War, various administrative reforms, of a
+decentralizing tendency, were introduced. The six provinces were
+created, and had governors and assemblies ("diputaciones"); and a
+municipal law was provided that in many ways was a sound basis for local
+government. But centralization remained very great. In the municipality
+the alcalde (mayor) was appointed by the governor-general, and the
+ayuntamiento (council) was controlled by the veto of the provincial
+governor and by the assembly of the province. The deputation was subject
+in turn to the same veto of the provincial governor, and he controlled
+by the governor-general. There was besides a provincial commission of
+five lawyers named by the governor-general from the members of the
+deputation, who settled election questions, and questions of eligibility
+in this body, gave advice as to laws, acted for the deputation when it
+was not sitting, and in general facilitated centralized control of the
+administrative system. The character of this body was altered in 1890,
+and in 1898, in which latter year its functions were reduced to the
+essentially judicial. Despite superficial decentralization after 1878
+any real growth of local self-government was rendered impossible.
+Moreover, no great reforms were made in the abuses naturally incident to
+the old personal system. Exile and imprisonment at the will of the
+government and without trial were common. Personal liberty, liberty of
+conscience, speech, assembly, petition, association, press, liberty of
+movement and security of home, were without real guarantee even within
+the extremely small limits in which they nominally existed. Under the
+constitution of the Republic the sphere of individual liberty is large
+and constitutionally protected against the government.
+
+_Finance._--There has been a great change in the budget of Cuba since
+the advent of the Republic. In 1891-1896 the average annual income was
+$20,738,930, the annual average expenditure $25,967,139. More than half
+of the revenue was derived from customs duties (two-thirds of the total
+being collected at Havana). Of the expenditure more than ten million
+dollars annually went for the public debt, 5.5 to 6 millions for the
+army and navy, as much more for civil administration (including more
+than two millions for purely Peninsular services with which the colony
+was burdened); and on an average probably one million more went for
+sinecures. Every Cuban paid about twice as heavy taxes as a Spaniard of
+the Peninsula. Very little was spent on sanitation, roads, other public
+works and education. The revenue receipts under the Republic have
+increased especially over those of the old régime in the item of customs
+duties; and the expenditure is very differently distributed. Lotteries
+which were an important source of revenue under Spain were abolished
+under the Republic. The debt resting on the colony in 1895 (a large part
+of it as a result of the war of 1868-1878, the entire cost of which was
+laid upon the island, but a part as the result of Spain's war adventures
+in Mexico and San Domingo, home loans, &c.) was officially stated at
+$168,500,000. The attainment of independence freed the island from this
+debt, and from enormous contemplated additions to cover the expense
+incurred by Spain during the last insurrection. The debt of the Republic
+in April 1908 was $48,146,585, including twenty-seven millions which
+were assumed in 1902 for the payment of the army of independence, four
+for agriculture, and four for the payment of revolutionary debts, and
+$2,196,585, representing obligations assumed by the revolution's
+representative in the United States during the War of Independence.
+United States and British investments, always important in the
+agriculture and manufactures of the island, greatly increased following
+1898, and by 1908 those of each nation were supposed to exceed
+considerably $100,000,000.
+
+_Archaeology._--Archaeological study in Cuba has been limited, and has
+not produced results of great importance. Almost nothing is actually
+known of prehistoric Cuba; and a few skulls and implements are the only
+basis existing for conjecture. Very little also is known as to the
+natives who inhabited the island at the time of the discovery. They were
+a tall race of copper hue; fairly intelligent, mild in temperament, who
+lived in poor huts and practised a limited and primitive agriculture.
+How numerous they were when the Spaniards first came among them cannot
+be said; undoubtedly tradition has greatly exaggerated their number.
+They are supposed to have been practically extinct by 1550. Even in the
+19th century reports were spread of communities in which Indian blood
+was supposedly still plainly dominant; but the conclusion of the
+competent scientists who have investigated such rumours has been that at
+least absolutely nothing of the language and traditions of the
+aborigines has survived.
+
+_History._--Cuba was discovered by Columbus in the course of his first
+voyage, on the 27th of October 1492. He died believing Cuba was part of
+a continent. In 1508 Sebastian de Ocampo circumnavigated it. In 1511
+Diego Velazquez began the conquest of the island. Baracoa (the landing
+point), Bayamo, Santiago de Cuba, Puerto Príncipe, Sancti Spiritus,
+Trinidad and the original Havana were all founded by 1515. Velazquez's
+reputation and legends of wealth drew many immigrants to the island.
+From Cuba went the expeditions that discovered Yucatan (1517), and
+explored the shores of Mexico, Hernando Cortés's expedition for the
+invasion of Mexico, and de Soto's for the exploration of Florida. The
+last two had a pernicious effect on Cuba, draining it of horses, money
+and of men. At least as early as 1523 the African slave trade was begun.
+In 1544 the Indians, so far as they had not succumbed to the labour of
+the mines and fields to which they were put by the Spaniards, were
+proclaimed emancipated. The administration in the 16th century was loose
+and violent. The local authorities were divided among themselves by
+bitter feuds--the ecclesiastical against the civil, the _ayuntamiento_
+against the governors, the administrative officers among themselves;
+brigandage, mutinies and intestinal struggles disturbed the peace. As a
+result of the transfer of Jamaica to England, the population of Cuba was
+greatly augmented by Jamaican immigrants to about 30,000 in the middle
+of the 17th century.
+
+The activity of English and French pirates began in the 16th century,
+and reached its climax in the middle of the 17th century. So early also
+began dissatisfaction with the economic regulations of the colonial
+system, even grave resistance to their enforcement; and illicit trade
+with privateers and foreign colonies had begun long before, and in the
+17th and 18th centuries was the basis of the island's wealth. In 1762
+Havana was captured after a long resistance by a British force under
+Admiral Sir George Pocock and the earl of Albemarle, with heavy loss to
+the besiegers. It was returned to Spain the next year in exchange for
+the Floridas. From this date begins the modern history of the island.
+The British opened the port to commerce and the slave trade and revealed
+its possibilities. The government of Spain, beginning in 1764, made
+notable breaches in the old monopolistic system of colonial trade
+throughout America; and Cuba received special privileges, also, that
+were a basis for real prosperity. Spain paid increasing attention to the
+island, and in harmony with the policy of the Laws of the Indies many
+decrees intended to stimulate agriculture and commerce were issued by
+the crown, first in the form of monopolies, then with increased freedom
+and with bounties. Various colonial products and the slave trade were
+favoured in this way. After the cession of the Spanish portion of San
+Domingo to France hundreds of Spanish families emigrated to Cuba, and
+many thousand more immigrants, mainly French, followed them from the
+entire island during the revolution of the blacks. Most of them settled
+in Oriente province, where their names and blood are still apparent, and
+with their cafetales and sugar plantations converted that region from
+neglect and poverty to high prosperity.
+
+Under a succession of liberal governors (especially Luis de las Casas,
+1790-1796, and the marqués de Someruelos, 1799-1813), at the end of the
+18th century and the first part of the 19th, when the wars in Europe cut
+off Spain almost entirely from the colony, Cuba was practically
+independent. Trade was comparatively free, and worked a revolution in
+culture and material conditions. General Las Casas, in particular, left
+behind him in Cuba an undying memory of good efforts. Free commerce with
+foreigners--a fact after 1809--was definitely legalized in 1818
+(confirmed in 1824). The state tobacco monopoly was abolished in 1817.
+The reported populations by the (untrustworthy) censuses of 1774, 1792
+and 1817 were 161,670, 273,301 and 553,033. Something of political
+freedom was enjoyed during the two terms of Spanish constitutional
+government under the constitution of 1812. The sharp division between
+creoles and peninsulars (i.e. between those born in Cuba and those born
+in Spain), the question of annexation to the United States or possibly
+to some other power, the plotting for independence, all go back to the
+early years of the century.
+
+Partly because of political and social divisions thus revealed,
+conspiracies being rife in the decade 1820-1830, and partly as
+preparation for the defence against Mexico and Colombia, who throughout
+these same years were threatening the island with invasion, the
+captains-general, in 1825, received the powers above referred to; which
+became, as time passed, monstrously in disaccord with the general
+tendencies of colonial government and with increasing liberties in
+Spain, but continued to be the spiritual basis of Spanish rule in the
+island. Among the governors of the 19th century Miguel Tacon, governor
+in 1834-1839, a forceful and high-handed soldier, deserves mention,
+especially in the annals of Havana; he ruled as a tyrant, made many
+reforms as regarded law and order, and left Havana, in particular, full
+of municipal improvements. The good he did was limited to the spheres of
+public works and police; in other respects his rule was a pernicious
+influence for Cuba. Politically his rule was marked by the proclamation
+at Santiago in 1836, without his consent, of the Spanish constitution of
+1834; he repressed the movement, and in 1837 the deputies of Cuba to the
+Cortes of Spain (to which they were admitted in the two earlier
+constitutional periods) were excluded from that body, and it was
+declared in the national constitution that Cuba (and Porto Rico) should
+be governed by "special laws." The inapplicability of many laws passed
+for the Peninsula--all of which under a constitutional system would
+apply to Cuba as to any other province, unless that system be
+modified--was indeed notorious; and Cuban opinion had repeatedly,
+through official bodies, protested against laws thus imposed that worked
+injustice, and had pleaded for special consideration of colonial
+conditions. The promise of "special laws" based upon such consideration
+was therefore not, in itself, unjust, nor unwelcome. But as the colony
+had no voice in the Cortes, while the "special laws" were never passed
+(Cuba expected special fundamental laws, reforming her government, and
+the government regarded the old Laws of the Indies as satisfying the
+obligation of the constitution) the arbitrary rule of the
+captains-general remained quite supreme, under the will of the crown,
+and colonial discontent became stronger and stronger. The rule of
+Leopoldo O'Donnell was marked in 1844 by a cruel and bloody persecution
+of negroes for a supposed plot of servile war; O'Donnell's actions being
+partly due to the inquietude that had prevailed for some years over the
+supposed machinations of English abolitionists and even of English
+official residents in the island, and also over the mutual jealousies
+and supposed annexation ambitions of Great Britain and the United
+States.
+
+A Cuban international question had arisen before 1820. Spain, the United
+States, England, France, Colombia and Mexico were all involved in it,
+the first four continually. In the eighteen-fifties a strong pro-slavery
+interest in the United States advocated the acquisition of the island.
+One feature of this was the "Ostend Manifesto" (see Buchanan, James), in
+which the ministers of the United States at London, Paris and Madrid
+declared that if Spain refused a money offer for the colony the United
+States should seize it. Their government gave this document publicity.
+The Cuban policy of Presidents Pierce and Buchanan (during 1853-1861)
+was vainly directed to acquiring the island. From 1849 to 1851 there
+were three abortive filibustering expeditions from the United States,
+two being under a Spanish general, Narciso Lopez (1798-1851). The
+domestic problem, the problem of discontent in the island, had become
+acute by 1850, and from this time on to 1868 the years were full of
+conflict between liberal and reactionary sentiment in the colony,
+centreing about the asserted connivance of the captains-general in the
+illegal slave trade (declared illegal after 1820 by the treaties of 1817
+and 1835 between Great Britain and Spain), the notorious immorality and
+prodigal wastefulness of the government, and the selfish exploitation of
+the colony by Spaniards and the Spanish government. From early in the
+19th century there had always been separatists, reformists and
+repressionists in the island, but they were individuals rather than
+groups. The last were peninsulars, the others mainly creoles, and among
+the wealthy classes of the latter the separatists gradually gained
+increasing support.
+
+An ineffective and extremely corrupt administration, a grave economic
+condition, new and heavy taxes, military repression, recurring heavy
+deficits in the budget, adding to a debt (about $150,000,000 in 1868)
+already very large and burdensome, and the complete fiasco of the
+_junta_ of inquiry of Cuban and Porto Rican representatives which met in
+Madrid in 1866-1867--all were important influences favouring the
+outbreak of the Ten Years' War. Among those who waged the war were men
+who fought to compel reforms, others who fought for annexation to the
+United States, others who fought for independence. The reformists
+demanded, besides the correction of the above evils, action against
+slavery, assimilation of rights between peninsulars and creoles and the
+practical recognition of equality, e.g. in the matter of office-holding,
+a grievance centuries old in Cuba as in other Spanish colonies, and
+guarantees of personal liberties. The separatists, headed by Carlos
+Manuel de Céspedes (1819-1874), a wealthy planter who proclaimed the
+revolution at Yara on the 10th of October, demanded the same reforms,
+including gradual emancipation of the slaves with indemnity to owners,
+and the grant of free and universal suffrage. War was confined
+throughout the ten years almost wholly to the E. provinces. The policy
+of successive captains-general was alternately uncompromisingly
+repressive and conciliatory. The Spanish volunteers committed horrible
+excesses in Havana and other places; the rebels also burned and killed
+indiscriminatingly, and the war became increasingly cruel and
+sanguinary. Intervention by the United States seemed probable, but did
+not come, and after alternations in the fortunes of war, Martinez Campos
+in January 1878 secured the acceptance by the rebels of the convention
+(pacto) of Zanjón, which promised amnesty for the war, liberty to slaves
+in the rebel ranks, the abolition of slavery, reforms in government, and
+colonial autonomy. A small rising after peace (the "Little War" of
+1879-1880) was easily repressed. Gradual abolition of slavery was
+declared by a law of the 13th of February 1880; definitive abolition in
+1886; and in 1893 the equal civil status of blacks and whites in all
+respects was proclaimed by General Calleja. There is no more evidence to
+warrant the wholly erroneous statement sometimes made that emancipation
+was an economic set-back to Cuba than could be gathered to support a
+similar statement regarding the United States. Coolie importation from
+China had been stopped in 1871.
+
+As for autonomy and political reforms it has already been remarked that
+the change from the old régime was only superficial. The Spanish
+constitution of 1876 was proclaimed in Cuba in 1881. In 1878-1895
+political parties had a complex development. The Liberal party was of
+growing radicalism, the Union Constitutional party of growing
+conservatism; and after 1893 a Reformist party was launched that drew
+the compromisers and the waverers. The demands of the Liberals were as
+in 1868; those for personal and property rights were much more
+definitely stated, and among explicit reforms demanded were the
+separation of civil and military power, general recognition of
+administrative responsibility under a colonial autonomous constitutional
+régime; also among economic matters, customs reforms and reciprocity
+with the United States were demanded. As for the representation accorded
+Cuba in the Spanish Cortes, as a rule about a quarter of her deputies
+were Cuban-born, and the choice of only a few autonomists was allowed by
+those who controlled the elections. Reciprocity with the United States
+was in force from 1891 to 1894 and was extremely beneficial to Cuba. Its
+cessation greatly increased disaffection.
+
+Discontent grew, and another war was prepared for. On the 23rd of
+February 1895 General Calleja suspended the constitutional guarantees.
+The leading chiefs of the Ten Years' War took the field again--Máximo
+Gómez, Antonio Macéo, Jose Martí, Calixto García and others. Unlike that
+war, this was carried to the western provinces, and indeed was fiercest
+there. Among the military means adopted by the Spaniards to isolate
+their foe were "trochas" (i.e. entrenchments, barbwire fences, and lines
+of block-houses) across the narrow parts of the island, and
+"reconcentracion" of non-combatants in camps guarded by the Spanish
+forces. The latter measure produced extreme suffering and much
+starvation (as the reconcentrados were largely thrown upon the charity
+of the beggared communities in which they were huddled). In October 1897
+the Spanish premier, P. M. Sagasta, announced the policy of autonomy,
+and the new dispensation was proclaimed in Cuba in December. But again
+all final authority was reserved to the captain-general. The system was
+never to have a practical trial, although a full government was quickly
+organized under it. The American people had sent food to the
+reconcentrados; President McKinley, while opposing recognition of the
+rebels, affirmed the possibility of intervention; Spain resented this
+attitude; and finally, in February 1898, the United States battleship
+"Maine" was blown up--by whom will probably never be known--in the
+harbour of Havana.
+
+On the 20th of April the United States demanded the withdrawal of
+Spanish troops from the island. War followed immediately. A fine Spanish
+squadron seeking to escape from Santiago harbour was utterly destroyed
+by the American blockading force on the 3rd of July; Santiago was
+invested by land forces, and on the 15th of July the city surrendered.
+Other operations in Cuba were slight. By the treaty of Paris, signed on
+the 10th of December, Spain "relinquished" the island to the United
+States in trust for its inhabitants; the temporary character of American
+occupation being recognized throughout the treaty, in accord with the
+terms of the American declaration of war, in which the United States
+disclaimed any intention to control the island except for its
+pacification, and expressed the determination to leave the island
+thereupon to the control of its people. Spanish authority ceased on the
+1st of January 1899, and was followed by American "military" rule
+(January 1, 1899-May 20, 1902). During these three years the great
+majority of offices were filled by Cubans, and the government was made
+as different as possible from the military control to which the colony
+had been accustomed. Very much was done for public works, sanitation,
+the reform of administration, civil service and education. Most notable
+of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for
+centuries. A constitutional convention sat at Havana from the 5th of
+November 1900 to the 21st of February 1901. The provisions of the
+document thus formed have already been referred to. In the determination
+of the relations that should subsist between the new republic and the
+United States certain definite conditions known as the Platt Amendment
+were finally imposed by the United States, and accepted by Cuba (12th of
+June 1901) as a part of her constitution. By these Cuba was bound not to
+incur debts her current revenues will not bear; to continue the sanitary
+administration undertaken by the military government of intervention; to
+lease naval stations (since located at Bahía Honda and Guantánamo) to
+the United States; and finally, the right of the United States to
+intervene, if necessary, in the affairs of the island was explicitly
+affirmed in the provision, "That the government of Cuba consents that
+the United States may exercise the right to intervene for the protection
+of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the
+protection of life, property and individual liberty, and for discharging
+the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the treaty of Paris on
+the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the government of
+Cuba." The status thus created is very exceptional in the history of
+international relations. The status of the Isle of Pines was left an
+open question by the treaty of Paris, but a decision of the Supreme
+Court of the United States has declared it (in a question of customs
+duties) to be a part of Cuba, and though a treaty to the same end did
+not secure ratification (1908) by the United States Senate, repeated
+efforts by American residents thereon to secure annexation to the United
+States were ignored by the United States government.
+
+The first Cuban congress met on the 5th of May 1902, prepared to take
+over the government from the American military authorities, which it did
+on the 20th of May. Tomas Estrada Palma (1835-1908) became the first
+president of the Republic. In material prosperity the progress of the
+island from 1902 to 1906 was very great; but in its politics, various
+social and economic elements, and political habits and examples of
+Spanish provenience that ill befit a democracy, led once more to
+revolution. Congress neglected to pass certain laws which were required
+by the constitution, and which, as regards municipal autonomy,
+independence of the judiciary, and congressional representation of
+minority parties, were intended to make impossible the abuses of
+centralized government that had characterized Spanish administration.
+Political parties were forming without very evident basis for
+differences outside questions of political patronage and the good or ill
+use of power; and, in the absence of the laws just mentioned, the
+Moderates, being in power, used every instrument of government to
+strengthen their hold on office. The preliminaries of the elections of
+December 1905 and March 1906 being marked by frauds and injustice, the
+Liberals deserted the polls at those elections, and instead of appealing
+to judicial tribunals controlled by the Moderates, issued a manifesto of
+revolution on the 28th of July 1906.[3] This insurrection rapidly
+assumed large proportions. The government was weak and lacked moral
+support in the whole island. After repeated petitions from President
+Palma for intervention by the United States, commissioners (William H.
+Taft, Secretary of War, and Robert Bacon, Acting Secretary of State)
+were sent from Washington to act as peace mediators.
+
+All possible efforts to secure a compromise that would preserve the
+Republic failed. The president resigned (on the 28th of September),
+Congress dispersed without choosing a successor, and as an alternative
+to anarchy the United States was compelled to proclaim on the 29th of
+September 1906 a provisional government,--to last "long enough to
+restore order and peace and public confidence," and hold new elections.
+The insurrectionists promptly disbanded. Government was maintained under
+the Cuban flag,--the diplomatic and consular relations with even the
+United States remaining in outward forms unchanged; and the regular
+forms of the constitution were scrupulously maintained so far as
+possible. No use was made of American military force save as a passive
+background to the government. The government of intervention at first
+directed its main effort simply to holding the country together, without
+undertaking much that could divide public opinion or seem of unpalatably
+foreign impulse; and later to the establishment of a few fundamental
+laws which, when intervention ceased, should give greater simplicity,
+strength and stability to a new native government. These laws strictly
+defined the powers of the president; more clearly separated the
+executive departments, so as to lessen friction and jealousies; reformed
+the courts; reformed administrative routine; and increased the strength
+of the provinces at the expense of the municipalities. On the 28th of
+January 1909 the American administration ceased, and the Republic was a
+second time inaugurated, with General José Miguel Gomez (b. 1856), the
+leader of the Miguelista faction of the Liberal party, as president, and
+Alfredo Zayas, the leader of the Zayista faction of the same party, as
+vice-president. The last American troops were withdrawn from the island
+on the 1st of April 1909.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--General Description.--There is no trustworthy recent
+  description. The best books are E. Pechardo, _Geografía de la isla de
+  Cuba_ (4 tom., Havana, 1854); M. Rodriguez-Ferrer, _Naturaleza y
+  civilización de ... Cuba_, vol. i. (Madrid, 1876). See also _United
+  States Geological Survey, Bulletin 192_ (1902), H. Gannett, "A
+  Gazetteer of Cuba." Of general descriptions in English, in addition to
+  travels cited below, may be cited R. T. Hill, _Cuba and Porto Rico
+  with the other West Indies_ (New York, 1898).
+
+  Fauna and Flora.--A. H. R. Grisebach, _Catalogus plantarum Cubensium_
+  (Leipzig, 1866), and F. A. Sauvalle, _Flora Cubana: revisio catalogi
+  Grisebachiani_ (Havana, 1868); and _Flora Cubana: enumeratio nova
+  plantarum Cubensium_ (Havana, 1873); F. Poey et al., _Repertorio
+  fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba_ (2 vols., Havana, 1865-1868), and
+  F. Poey, _Memorias sobre la historia natural de ... Cuba_ (3 tom.,
+  Havana, 1851-1860); Ramon de la Sagra, with many collaborators,
+  _Historia física, política y natural de ... Cuba_ (Paris, 1842-1851,
+  12 vols.; issued also in French; vols. 3-12 being the "Historia
+  Natural"); _Anales_ of the Academia de Ciencias (Havana, 1863- ,
+  annual); M. Gomez de la Maza, _Flora Habanera_ (Havana, 1897); S. A.
+  de Morales, _Flora arborícola de Cuba aplicada_ (Havana, 1887, only
+  part published); D. H. Seguí, _Ojeado sobre la flora médica y tóxica
+  de Cuba_ (Havana, 1900); J. Gundlach, _Contribucion ŕ la entomología
+  Cubana_ (Havana, 1881); J. M. Fernandez y Jimenez, _Tratado de la
+  arboricultura Cubana_ (Havana, 1867).
+
+  Geology and Minerals.--M. F. de Castro, "Pruebas paleontologicas de
+  que la isla de Cuba ha estado unida al continento americano y breve
+  idea de su constitucion geologica," _Bol. Com. Mapa Geol. de Esp._
+  vol. viii. (1881), pp. 357-372; M. F. de Castro and P. Salterain y
+  Legarra, "Croquis geologico de la isla de Cuba," ibid. vol. viii. pl.
+  vi. (published with vol. xi., 1884). Many articles in _Anales_ of the
+  Academy; also, R. T. Hill in _Harvard College Museum of Comparative
+  Zöology, Bulletin_, vol. 16, pp. 243-288 (1895); _United States
+  Geological Survey_, 22nd Annual Report, 1901, C. W. Hayes _et al._,
+  "Geological Reconnaissance of Cuba"; _Civil Report of General Leonard
+  Wood_, governor of Cuba (1902), vol. v., H. C. Brown, "Report on
+  Mineral Resources of Cuba."
+
+  Climate.--See the _Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Agricultura_,
+  and publications of the observatory of Havana. Sanitation.--For
+  conditions 1899-1902, see _Civil Reports_ of American military
+  governors. For conditions since 1902 consult the _Informe Mensual_
+  (1903-   ) of the Junta Superior de Sanidad.
+
+  Agriculture.--Consult the _Boletin_ above mentioned, publications of
+  the Estación Central Agronómica, and current statistical serial
+  reports of the treasury department (Hacienda) on natural resources,
+  live-stock interests, the sugar industry (annual), &c.
+
+  Industries, Commerce, Communications.--See the works of Sagra and
+  Pezuela. For conditions about 1899 consult R. P. Porter (Special
+  Commissioner of the United States government), _Industrial Cuba_ (New
+  York, 1899); W. J. Clark, _Commercial Cuba_ (New York, 1898); reports
+  of foreign consular agents in Cuba; and the statistical annuals of the
+  Hacienda on foreign commerce and railways.
+
+  Population.--The early censuses were extremely unreliable.
+  Illuminating discussions of them can be found in Humboldt's _Essay_,
+  Saco's _Papeles_ and Pezuela's _Diccionario_. See _United States
+  Department of War, Report on the Census of Cuba 1899_ (Washington,
+  1899); _U.S. Bureau of the Census, Cuba: Population, History and
+  Resources, 1907_ (1909).
+
+  Education.--See _Civil Reports_ of the American military government,
+  1899-1902; United States commissioner of education, _Report,
+  1897-1898_; current reports in _Informe del superintendente de
+  escuelas de Cuba ..._ (Havana, 1903-   ). On Letters and Culture.--E.
+  Pechardo y Tapia, _Diccionario ... de voces Cubanas_ (Havana, 1836,
+  4th ed., 1875; all editions with many errors); Antonio Bachiller y
+  Morales, _Apuntes para la historia de las letras y de la instrucción
+  pública de Cuba_ (3 tom., Havana, 1859-1861); J. M. Mestre, _De la
+  filosofía en la Habana_ (Havana, 1862); A. Mitjans, _Estudio sobre el
+  movimiento científico y literario de Cuba_ (Havana, 1890); biographies
+  of Varela and Luz Caballero by Rodriguez (see below); files of _La
+  Revista de Cuba_ (16 vols., Havana, 1877-1884) and _La Revista Cubana_
+  (21 vols., Havana, 1885-1895). The literature of TRAVEL is rich. It
+  suffices to mention _Letters from the Havannah_, by the English consul
+  (London, 1821); E. M. Masse, _L'Île de Cuba_ (Paris, 1825); D.
+  Turnbull, _Travels in the West_ (London, 1840), and R. R. Madden, _The
+  Island of Cuba_ (London, 1853)--two very important books regarding
+  slavery; J. B. Rosemond de Beauvallon, _L'Île de Cuba_ (Paris, 1844);
+  J. G. Taylor, _The United States and Cuba_ (London, 1851); F. Bremer,
+  _The Homes of the New World_ (2 vols., New York, 1853); M. M. Ballou,
+  _History of Cuba, or Notes of a Traveller_ (Boston, 1854); R. H. Dana,
+  _To Cuba and Back_ (Boston, 1859); J. von Sivers, _Die Perle der
+  Antillen_ (Leipzig, 1861); A. C. N. Gallenga, _The Pearl of the
+  Antilles_ (London, 1873); S. Hazard, _Cuba with Pen and Pencil_
+  (Hartford, Conn., 1873); H. Piron, _L'Île de Cuba_ (Paris, 1876). Of
+  later books, F. Matthews, _The New-Born Cuba_ (New York, 1899); R.
+  Davey, _Cuba Past and Present_ (London, 1898). Among the writers who
+  have left short impressions are A. Granier de Cassagnac (1844), J. J.
+  A. Ampčre (1855), A. Trollope (1860), J. A. Froude (1888).
+
+  Administration.--Consult the literature of history and colonial reform
+  given below. Also: Leandro Garcia y Gragitena, _Guia del empleado de
+  hacienda_ (Havana, 1860), with very valuable historical data; Carlos
+  de Sedano y Cruzat, _Cuba desde 1850 ŕ 1873_. _Coleccion de informes,
+  memorias, proyectos y antecedentes sobre el gobierno de la isla de
+  Cuba_ (Madrid, 1875); Vicente Vasquez Queipo, _Informe fiscal sobre
+  fomento de la poblacion blanca_ (Madrid, 1845); _Informacion sobre
+  reformas en Cuba y Puerto Rico celebrada en Madrid en 1866 y 67 por
+  los representantes de ambas islas_ (2 tom., New York, 1867; 2nd ed.,
+  New York, 1877); and the _Diccionario_ of Pezuela. These, with the
+  works of Saco, Sagra, Arango and Alexander von Humboldt's work, _Essai
+  politique sur l'île de Cuba_ (2 vols., Paris 1826; Spanish editions, 1
+  vol., Paris, 1827 and 1840; English translation by J. S. Thrasher,
+  with interpolations, New York, 1856), are indispensable. For
+  conditions at the end of the 18th century, Fran. de Arango y Parreńo,
+  _Obras_ (2 tom., Havana, 1888). For later conditions, E. Valdes
+  Dominguez, _Los Antiguos Diputados de Cuba_ (Havana, 1879); B. Huber,
+  _Aperçu statistique de l'île de Cuba_ (Paris, 1826); Humboldt; Sagra,
+  vols. 1-2 of the book cited above, being the _Historia física y
+  política_, and also the earlier work on which they are based,
+  _Historia económica-política y estadística de ... Cuba_ (Havana,
+  1831); treatises on administrative law in Cuba by J. M. Morilla
+  (Havana, 1847; 2nd ed., 1865, 2 vols.) and A. Govin (3 vols., Havana,
+  1882-1883); A. S. Rowan and M. M. Ramsay, _The Island of Cuba_ (New
+  York, 1896); _Coleccion de reales ordenes, decretos y disposiciones_
+  (Havana, serial, 1857-1898); _Spanish Rule in Cuba_. _Laws Governing
+  the Island. Reviews Published by the Colonial Office in Madrid ..._
+  (New York, for the Spanish legation, 1896); and compilations of
+  Spanish colonial laws listed under article INDIES, LAWS OF THE. On the
+  new Republican régime: _Gaceta Oficial_ (Havana, 1903-   ); reports of
+  departments of government; M. Romero Palafox, _Agenda de la republica
+  de Cuba_ (Havana, 1905). See also the _Civil Reports_ of the United
+  States military governors, J. R. Brooke (2 vols., 1899; Havana and
+  Washington, 1900), L. Wood (33 vols., 1900-1902; Washington,
+  1901-1902).
+
+  History.--The works (see above) of Sagra, Humboldt and Arango are
+  indispensable; also those of Francisco Calcagno, _Diccionario
+  biográfico Cubano_ (ostensibly, New York, 1878); Vidal Morales y
+  Morales, _Iniciadores y primeros mártires de la revolución Cubana_
+  (Havana, 1901); José Ahumada y Centurión, _Memoria histórica política
+  de ... Cuba_ (Havana, 1874); Jacobo de la Pezuela, _Diccionario
+  geográfico-estadístico-histórico de ... Cuba_ (4 tom., Madrid,
+  1863-1866); _Historia de ... Cuba_, (4 tom., Madrid, 1868-1878;
+  supplanting his _Ensayo histórico de ... Cuba_, Madrid and New York,
+  1842); and José Antonio Saco, _Obras_ (2 vols., New York, 1853),
+  _Papeles_ (3 tom., Paris, 1858-1859), and _Coleccion postuma de
+  Papeles_ (Havana, 1881). Also: Rodriguez Ferrer, _op. cit._ above,
+  vol. 2 (Madrid, 1888); P. G. Guitéras, _Historia de ... Cuba_ (2
+  vols., New York, 1865-1866). Of great value is J. Zaragoza, _Las
+  Insurrecciones en Cuba_. _Apuntes para la historia política_ (2 tom.,
+  Madrid, 1872-1873); also J. I. Rodriguez, _Vida de ... Félix Varela_
+  (New York, 1878), and _Vida de D. José de la Luz_ (New York, 1874; 2nd
+  ed., 1879). On early history see _Coleccion de documentos inéditos
+  relativos al descubrimiento ... de ultramar_ (series 2, vols. 1, 4, 6,
+  Madrid, 1885-1890). On archaeology, N. Fort y Roldan, _Cuba indigena_
+  (Madrid, 1881); M. Rodriguez Ferrer (see above); and especially A.
+  Bachiller y Morales, _Cuba primitiva_ (Havana, 1883). For the history
+  of the Cuban international problem consult José Ignacio Rodriguez,
+  _Idea de la anexion de la isla de Cuba ŕ los Estados Unidos de
+  America_ (Havana, 1900), and J. M. Callahan, Cuba and International
+  Relations (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1898), which
+  supplement each other. On the domestic reform problem there is an
+  enormous literature, from which may be selected (see general histories
+  above and works cited under § Administration of this bibliography): M.
+  Torrente, _Bosquejo económico-político_ (2 tom., Madrid-Havana,
+  1852-1853); D. A. Galiano, _Cuba en 1858_ (Madrid, 1859); José de la
+  Concha, twice Captain-General of Cuba, _Memorias sobre el estado
+  político, gobierno y administración de ... Cuba_ (Madrid, 1853); A.
+  Lopez de Letona, _Isla de Cuba, reflexiones_ (Madrid, 1856); F. A.
+  Conte, _Aspiraciones del partido liberal de Cuba_ (Havana, 1892); P.
+  Valiente, _Réformes dans les îles de Cuba et de Porto Rico_ (Paris,
+  1869); C. de Sedano, _Cuba: Estudios políticos_ (Madrid, 1872); H. H.
+  S. Aimes, _History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511-1868_ (New York, 1907); F.
+  Armas y Cčspedes, _De la esclavitud en Cuba_ (Madrid, 1866), and
+  _Régimen político de las Antillas Espańolas_ (Palma, 1882); R.
+  Cabrera, _Cuba y sus Jueces_ (Havana, 1887; 9th ed., Philadelphia,
+  1895; 8th ed., in English, _Cuba and the Cubans_, Philadelphia, 1896);
+  P. de Alzola y Minondo, _El Problema Cubano_ (Bilbao, 1898); various
+  works by R. M. de Labra, including _La Cuestion social en las Antillas
+  Espańolas_ (Madrid, 1874), _Sistemas coloniales_ (Madrid, 1874), &c.;
+  R. Montoro, _Discursos ... 1878-1893_ (Philadelphia, 1894); Labra _et
+  al._, _El Problema colonial contemporánea_ (2 vols., Madrid, 1894);
+  articles by Em. Castelar _et al._, in Spanish reviews (1895-1898). On
+  the period since 1899 the best two books in English are C. M. Pepper,
+  _To-morrow in Cuba_ (New York, 1899); A. G. Robinson, _Cuba and the
+  Intervention_ (New York, 1905).     (F. S. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Other countries taking only 27,462 long tons out of a total of
+    5,719,777 in the seven fiscal years 1899-1900 to 1905-1906.
+
+  [2] In these same years the trade of the United States with Cuba and
+    Porto Rico was: importations from the islands, $59,221,444 annually;
+    exportations to the islands, $20,017,156. The corresponding figures
+    for Spain were $7,265,142 and $20,035,183; and for the United
+    Kingdom, $714,837 and $11,971,129, the trade with other countries
+    being of much less amount.
+
+  [3] In the preliminary registration by Moderate officials a total
+    electorate was registered of 432,313,--about 30% of the supposed
+    population of the island.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7
+       "Crocoite" to "Cuba"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 20, 2012 [EBook #38622]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VII SLICE VII<br /><br />
+Crocoite to Cuba</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CROCOITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CROWE, EYRE EVANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CROCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CROESUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CROW INDIANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CROFT, SIR HERBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CROWLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CROFT, SIR JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CROWLEY, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CROFT, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CROWN</a> (coin)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CROFTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CROWN and CORONET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CROKER, JOHN WILSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CROWN DEBT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CROKER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CROWNE, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CROWN LAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CROLL, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CROWN POINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CROLY, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CROMAGNON RACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CROYDON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CROZAT, PIERRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CROMARTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CROZET ISLANDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CROMARTY FIRTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CROZIER, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CROME, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CROZIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CROMER, EVELYN BARING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CRUCIAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CROMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CRUCIFERAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CROMORNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CRUDEN, ALEXANDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CROMPTON, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CRUDEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CROMPTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CRUELTY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CROMWELL, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CROMWELL, OLIVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CRUNDEN, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CROMWELL, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CRUSADES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CROMWELL, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CRUSTACEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CROOKSTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CRUSTUMERIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CROP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CRUVEILHIER, JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CROQUET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CRYOLITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CRORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CRYPT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CROSBY, HOWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CRYPTEIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CRYPTOBRANCHUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CROSSBILL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CRYPTOGRAPHY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CROSSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CRYPTOMERIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CROSSING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CRYPTO-PORTICUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CRYSTAL-GAZING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CROSS RIVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CRYSTALLITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CRYSTALLIZATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CROSS SPRINGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CRYSTALLOGRAPHY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CROTCH, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CRYSTAL PALACE, THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CROTCHET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CSENGERY, ANTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CROTONA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CSIKY, GREGOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CROTONIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CROTON OIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CSOMA DE KÖRÖS, ALEXANDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CROUP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CTENOPHORA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CTESIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CROW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CTESIPHON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CROWBERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CUBA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CROWD</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CROCOITE,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a mineral consisting of lead chromate, PbCrO<span class="su">4</span>,
+and crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It is sometimes used
+as a paint, being identical in composition with the artificial
+product chrome-yellow; it is the only chromate of any importance
+found in nature. It was discovered at Berezovsk near
+Ekaterinburg in the Urals in 1766; and named crocoise by
+F. S. Beudant in 1832, from the Greek <span class="grk" title="krokos">&#954;&#961;&#972;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, saffron, in allusion
+to its colour, a name first altered to crocoisite and afterwards
+to crocoite. It is found as well-developed crystals of a bright
+hyacinth-red colour, which are translucent and have an adamantine
+to vitreous lustre. On exposure to light much of the
+translucency and brilliancy is lost. The streak is orange-yellow;
+hardness 2˝-3; specific gravity 6.0. In the Urals the crystals
+are found in quartz-veins traversing granite or gneiss: other
+localities which have yielded good crystallized specimens are
+Congonhas do Campo near Ouro Preto in Brazil, Luzon in the
+Philippines, and Umtali in Mashonaland. Gold is often found
+associated with this mineral. Crystals far surpassing in beauty
+any previously known have been found in the Adelaide Mine at
+Dundas, Tasmania; they are long slender prisms, 3 or 4 in. in
+length, with a brilliant lustre and colour.</p>
+
+<p>Associated with crocoite at Berezovsk are the closely allied
+minerals phoenicochroite and vauquelinite. The former is a
+basic lead Chromate, Pb<span class="su">3</span>Cr<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">9</span>, and the latter a lead and
+copper phosphate-chromate, 2(Pb, Cu)CrO<span class="su">4</span>. (Pb, Cu)<span class="su">3</span>(PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>.
+Vauquelinite forms brown or green monoclinic crystals, and
+was named after L. N. Vauquelin, who in 1797 discovered
+(simultaneously with and independently of M. H. Klaproth)
+the element chromium in crocoite.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROCUS,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a botanical genus of the natural order Iridaceae,
+containing about 70 species, natives of Europe, North Africa,
+and temperate Asia, and especially developed in the dry country
+of south-eastern Europe and western and central Asia. The
+plants are admirably adapted for climates in which a season
+favourable to growth alternates with a hot or dry season;
+during the latter they remain dormant beneath the ground in
+the form of a short thickened stem protected by the scaly remains
+of the bases of last season&rsquo;s leaves (known botanically as a
+&ldquo;corm&rdquo;). At the beginning of the new season of growth, new
+flower- and leaf-bearing shoots are developed from the corm at
+the expense of the food-stuff stored within it. New corms are
+produced at the end of the season, and by these the plant is
+multiplied.</p>
+
+<p>These crocuses of the flower garden are mostly horticultural
+varieties of <i>C. vernus</i>, <i>C. versicolor</i> and <i>C. aureus</i> (Dutch crocus),
+the two former yielding the white, purple and striped, and the
+latter the yellow varieties. The crocus succeeds in any fairly
+good garden soil, and is usually planted near the edges of beds
+or borders in the flower garden, or in broadish patches at intervals
+along the mixed borders. The corms should be planted 3 in.
+below the surface, and as they become crowded they should be
+taken up and replanted with a refreshment of the soil, at least
+every five or six years. Crocuses have also a pleasing effect
+when dotted about on the lawns and grassy banks of the pleasure
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the best of the varieties are:&mdash;<i>Purple</i>: David Rizzio,
+Sir J. Franklin, purpureus grandiflorus. <i>Striped</i>: Albion, La
+Majestueuse, Sir Walter Scott, Cloth of <i>Silver</i>, Mme Mina.
+<i>White</i>: Caroline Chisholm, Mont Blanc. <i>Yellow</i>: Large Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>The species of crocus are not very readily obtainable, but
+those who make a specialty of hardy bulbs ought certainly to
+search them out and grow them. They require the same culture
+as the more familiar garden varieties; but, as some of them are
+apt to suffer from excess of moisture, it is advisable to plant them
+in prepared soil in a raised pit, where they are brought nearer
+to the eye, and where they can be sheltered when necessary by
+glazed sashes, which, however, should not be closed except
+when the plants are at rest, or during inclement weather in order
+to protect the blossoms, especially in the case of winter flowering
+species. The autumn blooming kinds include many plants of
+very great beauty. The following species are recommended:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Spring flowering:&mdash;<i>Yellow</i>: <i>C. aureus</i>, <i>aureus</i> var. <i>sulphureus</i>,
+<i>chrysanthus</i>, <i>Olivieri</i>, <i>Korolkowi</i>, <i>Balansae</i>, <i>ancyrensis</i>, <i>Susianus</i>,
+<i>stellaris</i>. <i>Lilac</i>: <i>C. Imperati</i>, <i>Sieberi</i>, <i>etruscus</i>, <i>vernus</i>, <i>Tomasinianus</i>,
+<i>banaticus</i>. <i>White</i>: <i>C. biflorus</i> and vars., <i>candidus</i>,
+<i>vernus</i> vars. <i>Striped</i>: <i>C. versicolor</i>, <i>reticulatus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Autumn flowering:&mdash;<i>Yellow</i>: <i>C. Scharojani</i>. <i>Lilac</i>: <i>C.
+asluricus</i>, <i>cancellatus</i> var., <i>cilicicus</i>, <i>byzantinus</i> (<i>iridiflorus</i>),
+<i>longiflorus</i>, <i>medius</i>, <i>nudiflorus</i>, <i>pulchellus</i>, <i>Salzmanni</i>, <i>sativus</i>
+vars. speciosus, zonatus. White: caspius, cancellatus, hadrialicus,
+<i>marathonisius</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Winter flowering:&mdash;<i>C. hyemaeis</i>, <i>laevigatus</i>, <i>vitellinus</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROESUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> last king of Lydia, of the Mermnad dynasty,
+(560-546 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), succeeded his father Alyattes after a war with his
+half-brother. He completed the conquest of Ionia by capturing
+Ephesus, Miletus and other places, and extended the Lydian
+empire as far as the Halys. His wealth, due to trade, was
+proverbial, and he used part of it in securing alliances with the
+Greek states whose fleets might supplement his own army.
+Various legends were told about him by the Greeks, one of the
+most famous being that of Solon&rsquo;s visit to him with the lesson
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span>
+it conveyed of the divine nemesis which waits upon overmuch
+prosperity (Hdt. i. 29 seq.; but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>). After the overthrow
+of the Median empire (549 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Croesus found himself
+confronted by the rising power of Cyrus, and along with
+Nabonidos of Babylon took measures to resist it. A coalition
+was formed between the Lydian and Babylonian kings, Egypt
+promised troops and Sparta its fleet. But the coalition was
+defeated by the rapid movements of Cyrus and the treachery of
+Eurybatus of Ephesus, who fled to Persia with the gold that had
+been entrusted to him, and betrayed the plans of the confederates.
+Fortified with the Delphic oracles Croesus marched
+to the frontier of his empire, but after some initial successes
+fortune turned against him and he was forced to retreat to
+Sardis. Here he was followed by Cyrus who took the city by
+storm. We may gather from the recently discovered poem of
+Bacchylides (iii. 23-62) that he hoped to escape his conqueror
+by burning himself with his wealth on a funeral pyre, like
+Saracus, the last king of Assyria, but that he fell into the hands
+of Cyrus before he could effect his purpose.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A different version
+of the story is given (from Lydian sources) by Herodotus (followed
+by Xenophon), who makes Cyrus condemn his prisoner to be
+burnt alive, a mode of death hardly consistent with the Persian
+reverence for fire. Apollo, however, came to the rescue of his
+pious worshipper, and the name of Solon uttered by Croesus
+resulted in his deliverance. According to Ctesias, who uses
+Persian sources, and says nothing of the attempt to burn Croesus,
+he subsequently became attached to the court of Cyrus and
+received the governorship of Barene in Media. Fragments of
+columns from the temple of Attemis now in the British Museum
+have upon them a dedication by Croesus in Greek.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Schubert, <i>De Croeso et Solone fabula</i> (1868); M. G. Radet,
+<i>La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades</i> (1892-1893);
+A. S. Murray, <i>Journ. Hell. Studies</i>, x. pp. 1-10 (1889); for the
+supposition that Croesus did actually perish on his own pyre see
+G. B. Grundy, <i>Great Persian War</i>, p. 28; Grote, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>
+(ed. 1907), p. 104. Cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrus</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lydia</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This is probably a Greek legend (cf. the Attic vase of about
+500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in <i>Journ. of Hell. Stud.</i>, 1898, p. 268).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROFT, SIR HERBERT,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> Bart. (1751-1816), English author,
+was born at Dunster Park, Berkshire, on the 1st of November
+1751, son of Herbert Croft (see below) of Stifford, Essex. He
+matriculated at University College, Oxford, in March 1771,
+and was subsequently entered at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. He was called
+to the bar, but in 1782 returned to Oxford with a view to preparing
+for holy orders. In 1786 he received the vicarage of Prittlewell,
+Essex, but he remained at Oxford for some years
+accumulating materials for a proposed English dictionary.
+He was twice married, and on the day after his second wedding
+day he was imprisoned at Exeter for debt. He then retired to
+Hamburg, and two years later his library was sold. He had
+succeeded in 1797 to the title, but not to the estates, of a distant
+cousin, Sir John Croft, the fourth baronet. He returned to
+England in 1800, but went abroad once more in 1802. He lived
+near Amiens at a house owned by Lady Mary Hamilton, said
+to have been a daughter of the earl of Leven and Melville. Later
+he removed to Paris, where he died on the 26th of April 1816.
+In some of his numerous literary enterprises he had the help of
+Charles Nodier. Croft wrote the Life of Edward Young inserted
+in Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Poets</i>. In 1780 he published <i>Love
+and Madness, a Story too true, in a series of letters between Parties
+whose names could perhaps be mentioned were they less known or
+less lamented</i>. This book, which passed through seven editions,
+narrates the passion of a clergyman named James Hackman for
+Martha Ray, mistress of the earl of Sandwich, who was shot by
+her lover as she was leaving Covent Garden in 1779 (see the
+Case and Memoirs of the late Rev. Mr James Hackman, 1779).
+<i>Love and Madness</i> has permanent interest because Croft inserted,
+among other miscellaneous matter, information about Thomas
+Chatterton gained from letters which he obtained from the poet&rsquo;s
+sister, Mrs Newton, under false pretences, and used without
+payment. Robert Southey, when about to publish an edition
+of Chatterton&rsquo;s works for the benefit of his family, published
+(November 1799) details of Croft&rsquo;s proceedings in the <i>Monthly
+Review</i>. To this attack Croft wrote a reply addressed to John
+Nichols in the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, and afterwards printed
+separately as <i>Chatterton and Love and Madness ...</i> (1800).
+This tract evades the main accusation, and contains much abuse
+of Southey. Croft, however, supplied the material for the
+exhaustive account of Chatterton in A. Kippis&rsquo;s <i>Biographia
+Britannica</i> (vol. iv., 1789). In 1788 he addressed a letter to
+William Pitt on the subject of a new dictionary. He criticized
+Samuel Johnson&rsquo;s efforts, and in 1790 he claimed to have collected
+11,000 words used by excellent authorities but omitted by
+Johnson. Two years later he issued proposals for a revised
+edition of Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary</i>, but subscribers were lacking and
+his 200 vols. of MS. remained unused. Croft was a good scholar
+and linguist, and the author of some curious books in French.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Love Letters of Mr H. and Miss R. 1775-1779</i> were edited
+from Croft&rsquo;s book by Mr Gilbert Burgess (1895). See also John
+Nichols&rsquo;s <i>Illustrations ...</i> (1828), v. 202-218.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROFT, SIR JAMES<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (d. 1590), lord deputy of Ireland, belonged
+to an old family of Herefordshire, which county he represented
+in parliament in 1541. He was made governor of Haddington
+in 1549, and became lord deputy of Ireland in 1551. There he
+effected little beyond gaining for himself the reputation of a
+conciliatory disposition. Croft was all his life a double-dealer.
+He was imprisoned in the Tower for treason in the reign of Mary,
+but was released and treated with consideration by Elizabeth
+after her accession. He was made governor of Berwick, where
+he was visited by John Knox in 1559, and where he busied
+himself actively on behalf of the Scottish Protestants, though
+in 1560 he was suspected, probably with good reason, of treasonable
+correspondence with Mary of Guise, the Catholic regent of
+Scotland; and for ten years he was out of public employment.
+But in 1570 Elizabeth, who showed the greatest forbearance
+and favour to Sir James Croft, made him a privy councillor
+and controller of her household. He was one of the commissioners
+for the trial of Mary queen of Scots, and in 1588 was
+sent on a diplomatic mission to arrange peace with the duke
+of Parma. Croft established private relations with Parma, for
+which on his return he was sent to the Tower. He was released
+before the end of 1589, and died on the 4th of September 1590.</p>
+
+<p>Croft&rsquo;s eldest son, Edward, was put on his trial in 1589 on
+the curious charge of having contrived the death of the earl
+of Leicester by witchcraft, in revenge for the earl&rsquo;s supposed
+hostility to Sir James Croft. Edward Croft was father of Sir
+Herbert Croft (d. 1622), who became a Roman Catholic and
+wrote several controversial pieces in defence of that faith. His
+son Herbert Croft (1603-1691), bishop of Hereford, after being
+for some time, like his father, a member of the Roman church,
+returned to the church of England about 1630, and about ten
+years later was chaplain to Charles I., and obtained within a
+few years a prebend&rsquo;s stall at Worcester, a canonry of Windsor,
+and the deanery of Hereford, all of which preferments he lost
+during the Civil War and Commonwealth. By Charles II. he
+was made bishop of Hereford in 1661. Bishop Croft was the
+author of many books and pamphlets, several of them against
+the Roman Catholics; and one of his works, entitled <i>The Naked
+Truth, or the True State of the Primitive Church</i> (London, 1675),
+was very celebrated in its day, and gave rise to prolonged
+controversy. The bishop died in 1691. His son Herbert was
+created a baronet in 1671, and was the ancestor of Sir Herbert
+Croft (<i>q.v.</i>), the 18th century writer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See Richard Bagwell, <i>Ireland under the Tudors</i>,
+vol. i. (3 vols., London, 1885); David Lloyd, <i>State Worthies from
+the Reformation to the Revolution</i> (2 vols., London, 1766); John Strype,
+<i>Annals of the Reformation</i> (Oxford, 1824), which contains an account
+of the trial of Edward Croft; S. L. Lee&rsquo;s art. &ldquo;Croft, Sir James,&rdquo; in
+<i>Dict. of National Biography</i>, vol. xiii.; and for Bishop Croft see
+Anthony ŕ Wood, <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i> (ed. Bliss, 1813-1820); John
+Le Neve, <i>Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae</i> (ed. by T. D. Hardy, Oxford,
+1854).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROFT<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Crofts</span>), <b>WILLIAM</b> (1678-1727), English composer,
+was born in 1678, at Nether Ettington in Warwickshire. He
+received his musical education in the Chapel Royal under Dr Blow.
+He early obtained the place of organist of St Anne&rsquo;s, Soho, and
+in 1700 was admitted a gentleman extraordinary of the Chapel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span>
+Royal. In 1707 he was appointed joint-organist with Blow;
+and upon the death of the latter in 1708 he became solo organist,
+and also master of the children and composer of the Chapel
+Royal, besides being made organist of Westminster Abbey.
+In 1712 he wrote a brief introduction on the history of English
+church music to a collection of the words of anthems which he
+had edited under the title of <i>Divine Harmony</i>. In 1713 he
+obtained his degree of doctor of music in the university of Oxford.
+In 1724 he published an edition of his choral music in 2 vols.
+folio, under the name of <i>Musica Sacra, or Select Anthems in
+score, for two, three, four, five, six, seven and eight voices, to which
+is added the Burial Service, as it is occasionally performed in
+Westminster Abbey</i>. This handsome work included a portrait of
+the composer and was the first of the kind executed on pewter
+plates and in score. John Page, in his <i>Harmonia Sacra</i>, published
+in 1800 in 3 vols. folio, gives seven of Croft&rsquo;s anthems. Of
+instrumental music, Croft published six sets of airs for two violins
+and a bass, six sonatas for two flutes, six solos for a flute and bass.
+He died at Bath on the 14th of August 1727, and was buried in
+the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, where a monument was
+erected to his memory by his friend and admirer Humphrey
+Wyrley Birch. Burney in his <i>History of Music</i> devotes several
+pages of his third volume (pp. 603-612) to Dr Croft&rsquo;s life, and
+criticisms of some of his anthems. During the earlier period of
+his life Croft wrote much for the theatre, including overtures
+and incidental music for <i>Courtship ŕ la mode</i> (1700), <i>The Funeral</i>
+(1702) and <i>The Lying Lover</i> (1703).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROFTER,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a term used, more particularly in the Highlands
+and islands of Scotland, to designate a tenant who rents and
+cultivates a small holding of land or &ldquo;croft.&rdquo; This Old English
+word, meaning originally an enclosed field, seems to correspond
+to the Dutch <i>kroft</i>, a field on high ground or downs. The ultimate
+origin is unknown. By the Crofters&rsquo; Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886,
+a crofter is defined as the tenant of a holding who resides on
+his holding, the annual rent of which does not exceed Ł30 in money,
+and which is situated in a crofting parish. The wholesale clearances
+of tenants from their crofts during the 19th century,
+in violation of, as the tenants claimed, an implied security of
+tenure, has led in the past to much agitation on the part of the
+crofters to secure consideration of their grievances. They have
+been the subject of royal commissions and of considerable legislation,
+but the effect of the Crofters Act of 1886, with subsequent
+amending acts, has been to improve their condition markedly,
+and much of the agitation has now died out. A history of the
+legislation dealing with the crofters is given in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROKER, JOHN WILSON<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1780-1857), British statesman and
+author, was born at Galway on the 20th of December 1780,
+being the only son of John Croker, the surveyor-general of customs
+and excise in Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College,
+Dublin, where he graduated in 1800. Immediately afterwards
+he was entered at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, and in 1802 he was called to the
+Irish bar. His interest in the French Revolution led him to
+collect a large number of valuable documents on the subject,
+which are now in the British Museum. In 1804 he published
+anonymously <i>Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the
+State of the Irish Stage</i>, a series of caustic criticisms in verse on
+the management of the Dublin theatres. The book ran through
+five editions in one year. Equally successful was the <i>Intercepted
+Letter from Canton</i> (1805), also anonymous, a satire on Dublin
+society. In 1807 he published a pamphlet on <i>The State of
+Ireland, Past and Present</i>, in which he advocated Catholic
+emancipation.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year he entered parliament as member for
+Downpatrick, obtaining the seat on petition, though he had
+been unsuccessful at the poll. The acumen displayed in his
+Irish pamphlet led Spencer Perceval to recommend him in 1808
+to Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had just been appointed to the
+command of the British forces in the Peninsula, as his deputy
+in the office of chief secretary for Ireland. This connexion led
+to a friendship which remained unbroken till Wellington&rsquo;s death.
+The notorious case of the duke of York in connexion with his
+abuse of military patronage furnished him with an opportunity
+for distinguishing himself. The speech which he delivered on
+the 14th of March 1809, in answer to the charges of Colonel
+Wardle, was regarded as the most able and ingenious defence
+of the duke that was made in the debate; and Croker was
+appointed to the office of secretary to the Admiralty, which he
+held without interruption under various administrations for
+more than twenty years. He proved an excellent public servant,
+and made many improvements which have been of permanent
+value in the organization of his office. Among the first acts of
+his official career was the exposure of a fellow-official who had
+misappropriated the public funds to the extent of Ł200,000.</p>
+
+<p>In 1827 he became the representative of the university of
+Dublin, having previously sat successively for the boroughs of
+Athlone, Yarmouth (Isle of Wight), Bodmin and Aldeburgh.
+He was a determined opponent of the Reform Bill, and vowed
+that he would never sit in a reformed parliament; his parliamentary
+career accordingly terminated in 1832. Two years
+earlier he had retired from his post at the admiralty on a pension
+of Ł1500 a year. Many of his political speeches were published
+in pamphlet form, and they show him to have been a vigorous
+and effective, though somewhat unscrupulous and often virulently
+personal, party debater. Croker had been an ardent
+supporter of Peel, but finally broke with him when he began to
+advocate the repeal of the Corn Laws. He is said to have been
+the first to use (Jan. 1830) the term &ldquo;conservatives.&rdquo; He was
+for many years one of the leading contributors on literary and
+historical subjects to the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, with which he had
+been associated from its foundation. The rancorous spirit in
+which many of his articles were written did much to embitter
+party feeling. It also reacted unfavourably on Croker&rsquo;s reputation
+as a worker in the department of pure literature by bringing
+political animosities into literary criticism. He had no sympathy
+with the younger school of poets who were in revolt against the
+artificial methods of the 18th century, and he was responsible
+for the famous <i>Quarterly</i> article on Keats. It is, nevertheless,
+unjust to judge Croker by the criticisms which Macaulay brought
+against his <i>magnum opus</i>, his edition of Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Life of Johnson</i>
+(1831). With all its defects the work had merits which Macaulay
+was of course not concerned to point out, and Croker&rsquo;s researches
+have been of the greatest value to subsequent editors. There
+is little doubt that Macaulay had personal reasons for his attack
+on Croker, who had more than once exposed in the House the
+fallacies that lay hidden under the orator&rsquo;s brilliant rhetoric.
+Croker made no immediate reply to Macaulay&rsquo;s attack, but when
+the first two volumes of the <i>History</i> appeared he took the opportunity
+of pointing out the inaccuracies that abounded in the
+work. Croker was occupied for several years on an annotated
+edition of Pope&rsquo;s works. It was left unfinished at the time of his
+death, but it was afterwards completed by the Rev. Whitwell
+Elwin and Mr W. J. Courthope. He died at St Albans Bank,
+Hampton, on the 10th of August 1857.</p>
+
+<p>Croker was generally supposed to be the original from which
+Disraeli drew the character of &ldquo;Rigby&rdquo; in <i>Coningsby</i>, because
+he had for many years had the sole management of the estates of
+the marquess of Hertford, the &ldquo;Lord Monmouth&rdquo; of the story;
+but the comparison is a great injustice to the sterling worth of
+Croker&rsquo;s character.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief works of Croker not already mentioned were his <i>Stories
+for Children from the History of England</i> (1817), which provided the
+model for Scott&rsquo;s <i>Tales of a Grandfather</i>; <i>Letters on the Naval War
+with America</i>; <i>A Reply to the Letters of Malachi Malagrowther</i> (1826);
+<i>Military Events of the French Revolution of 1830</i> (1831); a translation
+of Bassompierre&rsquo;s <i>Embassy to England</i> (1819); and several lyrical
+pieces of some merit, such as the <i>Songs of Trafalgar</i> (1806) and <i>The
+Battles of Talavera</i> (1809). He also edited the <i>Suffolk Papers</i> (1823),
+<i>Hervey&rsquo;s Memoirs of the Court of George II.</i> (1817), the <i>Letters of Mary
+Lepel, Lady Hervey</i> (1821-1822), and <i>Walpole&rsquo;s Letters to Lord Hertford</i>
+(1824). His memoirs, diaries and correspondence were edited by
+Louis J. Jennings in 1884 under the title of <i>The Croker Papers</i> (3 vols.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROKER, RICHARD<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1843-&emsp;&emsp;), American politician, was
+born at Blackrock, Ireland, on the 24th of November 1843.
+He was taken to the United States by his parents when two
+years old, and was educated in the public schools of New York
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span>
+City, where he eventually became a member of Tammany Hall
+and active in its politics. He was an alderman from 1868 to 1870,
+a coroner from 1873 to 1876, a fire commissioner in 1883 and
+1887, and city chamberlain from 1889 to 1890. After the fall
+of John Kelly he became the leader of Tammany Hall (<i>q.v.</i>),
+and for some time almost completely controlled the organization.
+His greatest political success was his bringing about the election
+of Robert A. van Wyck as first mayor of greater New York in
+1897, and during van Wyck&rsquo;s administration Croker is popularly
+supposed to have dominated completely the government of the
+city. After Croker&rsquo;s failure to &ldquo;carry&rdquo; the city in the presidential
+election of 1900 and the defeat of his mayoralty
+candidate, Edward M. Shepard, in 1901, he resigned from his
+position of leadership in Tammany, and retired to a country life
+in England and Ireland. In 1907 he won the Derby with his
+race-horse Orby.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1798-1854), Irish antiquary
+and humorist, was born in Cork on the 15th of January 1798.
+He was apprenticed to a merchant, but in 1819, through the
+interest of John Wilson Croker, who was, however, no relation
+of his, he became a clerk in the Admiralty. Moore was indebted
+to him in the production of his <i>Irish Melodies</i> for &ldquo;many curious
+fragments of ancient poetry.&rdquo; In 1825 he produced his most
+popular book, the <i>Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South
+of Ireland</i>, which he followed up by the publication of his <i>Legends
+of the Lakes</i> (1829), his <i>Adventures of Barney Mahoney</i> (1852),
+and an edition of the <i>Popular Songs of Ireland</i> (1839). In 1827
+he was made a member of the Irish Academy; in 1839 and 1840
+he helped to found the Camden and Percy Societies, and in 1843
+the British Archaeological Association. He wrote <i>Narratives
+Illustrative of the Contests in Ireland in 1641 and 1688</i> (1841), for
+the Camden Society, <i>Historical Songs of Ireland</i>, &amp;c. (1841), for the
+Percy Society, and several other works. He was also a member
+of the Hakluyt and the Antiquarian Society. He died in London
+on the 8th of August 1854.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROLL, JAMES<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1821-1890), Scottish man of science, was
+born of a peasant family at Little Whitefield, in the parish of
+Cargill, in Perthshire, on the 2nd of January 1821. He was
+regarded as an unpromising boy, but a trifling circumstance
+aroused a passion for reading, and he made great progress in
+self-education. He was apprenticed to a wheelwright at Collace
+in Perthshire, but being debarred by ill-health from manual
+labour, he became successively a shop-keeper and an insurance
+agent. In 1859 he was made keeper of the Andersonian Museum
+in Glasgow, a humble appointment, which, however, gave him
+congenial occupation. In 1857, being deeply impressed by the
+metaphysics of Jonathan Edwards, he had published an anonymous
+volume entitled <i>The Philosophy of Theism</i>; but his
+connexion with the Museum induced him to take up physical
+science, and from 1861 onwards he studied with such perseverance
+that he was enabled to contribute papers to the <i>Philosophical
+Magazine</i> and other journals. For that magazine in 1864 he
+wrote his celebrated essay &ldquo;On the Physical Cause of the
+Changes of Climate during Geological Epochs.&rdquo; This led to
+his receiving an appointment on the Scottish Geological Survey
+in 1867, and for thirteen years he took charge of the Edinburgh
+Office. In 1875 he summed up his researches upon the ancient
+condition of the earth in his <i>Climate and Time, in their Geological
+Relations</i>, in which he contends that terrestrial revolutions are
+due in a measure to cosmical causes. This theory excited warm
+controversy. Croll&rsquo;s replies to his opponents are collected in his
+<i>Climate and Cosmology</i> (1885). He had been compelled by
+ill-health to withdraw from the public service in 1880; yet,
+working under the greatest difficulties, and harassed by the
+inadequacy of his retiring pension, he managed to produce
+<i>Stellar Evolution</i>, discussing, among other things, the age of the
+sun, in 1889; and <i>The Philosophical Basis of Evolution</i>, partly
+a critique of Herbert Spencer&rsquo;s philosophy, in 1890. He died
+on the 15th of December 1890. The soundness of Croll&rsquo;s astronomical
+theory regarding the glacial period has since been
+criticized by E. P. Culverwell in the <i>Geological Magazine</i> for
+1895, and by others; and it is now generally abandoned. Nevertheless
+it must be admitted that his character as a scientific
+worker under great discouragements was nothing less than
+heroic. The hon. degree of LL.D. was conferred on him in 1876
+by the university of St Andrews; and he was elected F.R.S.
+in the same year.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An <i>Autobiographical Sketch of James Croll, with Memoir of his Life
+and Work</i>, was prepared by J. C. Irons, and published in 1896.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROLY, GEORGE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1780-1860), British divine and author,
+son of a Dublin physician, was born on the 17th of August 1780.
+He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and after ordination
+was appointed to a small curacy in the north of Ireland. About
+1810 he came to London, and occupied himself with literary
+work. A man of restless energy, he claims attention by his
+extraordinary versatility. He wrote dramatic criticisms for
+a short-lived periodical called the <i>New Times</i>; he was one of
+the earliest contributors to <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>; and to the
+<i>Literary Gazette</i> he contributed poems, reviews and essays on
+all kinds of subjects. In 1819 he married Margaret Helen
+Begbie. Efforts to secure an English living for Croly were
+frustrated, according to the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (Jan. 1861),
+because Lord Eldon confounded him with a Roman Catholic
+of the same name. Excluding his contributions to the daily
+and weekly press his chief works were:&mdash;<i>Paris in 1815</i> (1817),
+a poem in imitation of <i>Childe Harold; Catiline</i> (1822), a
+tragedy lacking in dramatic force; <i>Salathiel: A Story of the
+Past, the Present and the Future</i> (1829), a successful romance
+of the &ldquo;Wandering Jew&rdquo; type; <i>The Life and Times of his late
+Majesty George the Fourth</i> (1830); <i>Marston; or, The Soldier and
+Statesman</i> (1846), a novel of modern life; <i>The Modern Orlando</i>
+(1846), a satire which owes something to <i>Don Juan</i>; and some
+biographies, sermons and theological works.</p>
+
+<p>Croly was an effective preacher, and continued to hope for
+preferment from the Tory leaders, to whom he had rendered
+considerable services by his pen; but he eventually received,
+in 1835, the living of St Stephen&rsquo;s, Walbrook, London, from a
+Whig patron, Lord Brougham, with whose family he was
+connected. In 1847 he was made afternoon lecturer at the
+Foundling hospital, but this appointment proved unfortunate.
+He died suddenly on the 24th of November 1860, in London.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Poetical Works</i> (2 vols.) were collected in 1830. For a list of
+his works see Allibone&rsquo;s <i>Critical Dictionary of English Literature</i>
+(1859).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMAGNON RACE,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> the name given by Paul Broca to a
+type of mankind supposed to be represented by remains found
+by Lartet, Christy and others, in France in the Cromagnon cave
+at Les Eyzies, Tayac district, Dordogne. At the foot of a steep
+rock near the village this small cave, nearly filled with debris,
+was found by workmen in 1868. Towards the top of the loose
+strata three human skeletons were unearthed. They were those
+of an old man, a young man and a woman, the latter&rsquo;s skull
+bearing the mark of a severe wound. The skulls presented such
+special characteristics that Broca took them as types of a race.
+Palaeolithic man is exclusively long-headed, and the dolichocephalic
+appearance of the crania (they had a mean cephalic index
+of 73.34) supported the view that the &ldquo;find&rdquo; at Les Eyzies
+was palaeolithic. It is, however, inaccurate to state that
+brachycephaly appears at once with the neolithic age, dolichocephaly
+even of a pronounced type persisting far into neolithic
+times. The Cromagnon race may thus be, as many anthropologists
+believe it, early neolithic, a type of man who spread over
+and inhabited a large portion of Europe at the close of the
+Pleistocene period. Some have sought to find in it the substratum
+of the present populations of western Europe.
+Quatrefages identifies Cromagnon man with the tall, long-headed,
+fair Kabyles (Berbers) who still survive in various parts of
+Mauritania. He suggests the introduction of the Cromagnon
+from Siberia, &ldquo;arriving in Europe simultaneously with the great
+mammals (which were driven by the cold from Siberia), and no
+doubt following their route.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. H. Keane&rsquo;s <i>Ethnology</i> (1896); Mortillet, <i>Le Préhistorique</i>
+(1900); Sergi, <i>The Mediterranean Race</i> (1901); Lord Avebury,
+<i>Prehistoric Times</i>, p. 317 of 1900 edition.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1630-1714),
+Scottish statesman, was the eldest son of Sir John
+Mackenzie, Bart., of Tarbat (d. 1654), and belonged to the
+same family as the earls of Seaforth. In 1654 he joined the rising
+in Scotland on behalf of Charles II. and after an exile of six years
+he returned to his own country and took some part in public
+affairs after the Restoration. In 1661 he became a lord of session
+as Lord Tarbat, but having been concerned in a vain attempt to
+overthrow Charles II.&rsquo;s secretary, the earl of Lauderdale, he was
+dismissed from office in 1664. A period of retirement followed
+until 1678 when Mackenzie was appointed lord justice general
+of Scotland; in 1681 he became lord clerk register and a lord of
+session for the second time, and from 1682 to 1688 he was the
+chief minister of Charles II. and James II. in Scotland, being
+created viscount of Tarbat in 1685. In 1688, however, he deserted
+James and soon afterwards made his peace with William III.,
+his experience being very serviceable to the new government
+in settling the affairs of Scotland. From 1692 to 1695 Tarbat
+was again lord clerk register, and having served for a short time
+as a secretary of state under Queen Anne he was created earl of
+Cromarty in 1703. He was again lord justice general from 1704
+to 1710. He warmly supported the union between England and
+Scotland, writing some pamphlets in favour of this step, and he
+died on the 17th of August 1714. Cromarty was a man of much
+learning, and among his numerous writings may be mentioned his
+<i>Account of the conspiracies by the earls of Gowry and R. Logan</i>
+(Edinburgh, 1713).</p>
+
+<p>The earl&rsquo;s grandson George, 3rd earl of Cromarty (<i>c.</i> 1703-1766),
+succeeded his father John, the 2nd earl, in February 1731.
+In 1745 he joined Charles Edward, the young pretender, and he
+served with the Jacobites until April 1746 when he was taken
+prisoner in Sutherlandshire. He was tried and sentenced to
+death, but he obtained a conditional pardon although his peerage
+was forfeited. He died on the 28th of September 1766.</p>
+
+<p>This earl&rsquo;s eldest son was John Mackenzie, Lord Macleod
+(1727-1789), who shared his father&rsquo;s fortunes in 1745 and his fate
+in 1746. Having pleaded guilty at his trial Macleod was pardoned
+on condition that he gave up all his rights in the estates of the
+earldom, and he left England and entered the Swedish army.
+In this service he rose to high rank and was made Count Cromarty.
+The count returned to England in 1777 and was successful in
+raising, mainly among the Mackenzies, two splendid battalions
+of Highlanders, the first of which, now the Highland Light
+Infantry, served under him in India. In 1784 he regained the
+family estates and he died on the 2nd of April 1789. Macleod
+wrote an account of the Jacobite rising of 1745, and also one of a
+campaign in Bohemia in which he took part in 1757; both are
+printed in Sir W. Fraser&rsquo;s <i>Earls of Cromartie</i> (Edinburgh, 1876).</p>
+
+<p>Macleod left no children, and his heir was his cousin, Kenneth
+Mackenzie (d. 1796), a grandson of the 2nd earl, who also died
+childless. The estates then passed to Macleod&rsquo;s sister, Isabel
+(1725-1801), wife of George Murray, 6th Lord Elibank. In
+1861 Isabel&rsquo;s descendant, Anne (1829-1888), wife of George,
+3rd duke of Sutherland, was created countess of Cromartie with
+remainder to her second son Francis (1852-1893), who became
+earl of Cromartie in 1888. In 1895, two years after the death of
+Francis, his daughter Sibell Lilian (b. 1878) was granted by
+letters patent the title of countess of Cromartie.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMARTY,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a police burgh and seaport of the county of Ross
+and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1242. It is situated on
+the southern shore of the mouth of Cromarty Firth, 5 m. E. by
+S. of Invergordon on the opposite coast, with which there is
+daily communication by steamer, and 9 m. N.E. of Fortrose,
+the most convenient railway station. Before the union of the
+shires of Ross and Cromarty, it was the county town of Cromartyshire,
+and is one of the Wick district group of parliamentary
+burghs. Its name is variously derived from the Gaelic <i>crom</i>,
+crooked, and <i>bath</i>, bay, or <i>ard</i>, height, meaning either the
+&ldquo;crooked bay,&rdquo; or the &ldquo;bend between the heights&rdquo; (the high
+rocks, or Sutors, which guard the entrance to the Firth), and gave
+the title to the earldom of Cromarty. The principal buildings are
+the town hall and the Hugh Miller Institute. The harbour,
+enclosed by two piers, accommodates the herring fleet, but the
+fisheries, the staple industry, have declined. The town, however,
+is in growing repute as a midsummer resort. The thatched house
+with crow-stepped gables in Church Street, in which Hugh
+Miller the geologist was born, still stands, and a statue has been
+erected to his memory. To the east of the burgh is Cromarty
+House, occupying the site of the old castle of the earls of Ross.
+It was the birthplace of Sir Thomas Urquhart, the translator
+of Rabelais.</p>
+
+<p>Cromarty, formerly a county in the north of Scotland, was
+incorporated with Ross-shire in 1889 under the designation of the
+county of Ross and Cromarty. The nucleus of the county consisted
+of the lands of Cromarty in the north of the peninsula of
+the Black Isle. To this were added from time to time the various
+estates scattered throughout Ross-shire&mdash;the most considerable
+of which were the districts around Ullapool and Little Loch
+Broom on the Atlantic coast, the area in which Ben Wyvis is
+situated, and a tract to the north of Loch Fannich&mdash;which had
+been acquired by the ancestors of Sir George Mackenzie (1630-1714),
+afterwards Viscount Tarbat (1685) and 1st earl of Cromarty
+(1703). Desirous of combining these sporadic properties into one
+shire, Viscount Tarbat was enabled to procure their annexation
+to his sheriffdom of Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, the area of the
+enlarged county amounting to nearly 370 sq. m. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ross and
+Cromarty</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMARTY FIRTH,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> an arm of the North Sea, belonging to the
+county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. From the Moray Firth
+it extends inland in a westerly and then south-westerly direction
+for a distance of 19 m. Excepting at the Bay of Nigg, on the
+northern shore, and Cromarty Bay, on the southern, where it is
+about 5 m. wide (due N. and S.), and at Alness Bay, where it is
+2 m. wide, it has an average width of 1 m. and a depth varying
+from 5 to 10 fathoms, forming one of the safest and most commodious
+anchorages in the north of Scotland. Besides other
+streams it receives the Conon, Peffery, Skiack and Alness, and
+the principal places on its shores are Dingwall near the head,
+Cromarty near the mouth, Kiltearn, Invergordon and Kilmuir on
+the north. The entrance is guarded by two precipitous rocks&mdash;the
+one on the north 400 ft., that on the south 463 ft. high&mdash;called
+the Sutors from a fancied resemblance to a couple of shoemakers
+(<i>Scotice</i>, souter), bending over their lasts. There are ferries
+at Cromarty, Invergordon and Dingwall.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROME, JOHN<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1769-1821), English landscape painter,
+founder and chief representative of the &ldquo;Norwich School,&rdquo;
+often called Old Crome, to distinguish him from his son, was
+born at Norwich, on the 21st of December 1769. His father
+was a weaver, and could give him only the scantiest education.
+His early years were spent in work of the humblest kind; and
+at a fit age he became apprentice to a house-painter. To this step
+he appears to have been led by an inborn love of art and the
+desire to acquaint himself by any means with its materials and
+processes. During his apprenticeship he sometimes painted
+signboards, and devoted what leisure time he had to sketching
+from nature. Through the influence of a rich art-loving friend
+he was enabled to exchange his occupation of house-painter for
+that of drawing-master; and in this he was engaged throughout
+his life. He took great delight in a collection of Dutch pictures
+to which he had access, and these he carefully studied. About
+1790 he was introduced to Sir William Beechey, whose house in
+London he frequently visited, and from whom he gathered
+additional knowledge and help in his art. In 1805 the Norwich
+Society of Artists took definite shape, its origin being traceable
+a year or two further back. Crome was its president and the
+largest contributor to its annual exhibitions. Among his
+pupils were James Stark, Vincent, Thirtle and John Bernay
+(Barney) Crome (1794-1842), his son. J. S. Cotman, too, a
+greater artist than any of these, was associated with him.
+Crome continued to reside at Norwich, and with the exception
+of his short visits to London had little or no communication
+with the great artists of his own time. He first exhibited at
+the Royal Academy in 1806; but in this and the following twelve
+years he exhibited there only fourteen of his works. With very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span>
+few exceptions Crome&rsquo;s subjects are taken from the familiar
+scenery of his native county. Fidelity to nature was his dominant
+aim. &ldquo;The bit of heath, the boat, and the slow water of the
+flattish land, trees most of all&mdash;the single tree in elaborate study,
+the group of trees, and how the growth of one affects that of
+another, and the characteristics of each,&rdquo;&mdash;these, says Frederick
+Wedmore (<i>Studies in English Art</i>), are the things to which he is
+most constant. He still remains, says the same critic, of many
+trees the greatest draughtsman, and is especially the master
+of the oak. His most important works are&mdash;&ldquo;Mousehold Heath,
+near Norwich,&rdquo; now in the National Gallery; &ldquo;Clump of Trees,
+Hautbois Common&rdquo;; &ldquo;Oak at Poringland&rdquo;; the &ldquo;Willow&rdquo;;
+&ldquo;Coast Scene near Yarmouth&rdquo;; &ldquo;Bruges, on the Ostend
+River&rdquo;; &ldquo;Slate Quarries&rdquo;; the &ldquo;Italian Boulevards&rdquo;; and
+the &ldquo;Fishmarket at Boulogne.&rdquo; He executed a good many
+etchings, and the great charm of these is in the beautiful and
+faithful representation of trees. Crome enjoyed a very limited
+reputation during his life, and his pictures were sold at low
+prices; but since his death they have been more and more
+appreciated, and have given him a high place among English
+painters of landscape. He died at Norwich on the 22nd of
+April 1821. His son, J. B. Crome, was his assistant in teaching,
+and his best pictures were in the same style, his moonlight effects
+being much admired.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A collection of &ldquo;Old&rdquo; Crome&rsquo;s etchings, entitled <i>Norfolk Picturesque
+Scenery</i>, was published in 1834, and was re-issued with a memoir
+by Dawson Turner in 1838, but in this issue the prints were retouched
+by other hands.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMER, EVELYN BARING,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl</span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), British
+statesman and diplomatist, was born on the 26th of February
+1841, the ninth son of Henry Baring, M.P., by Cecilia Anne,
+eldest daughter of Admiral Windham of Felbrigge Hall, Norfolk.
+Having joined the Royal Artillery in 1858, he was appointed
+in 1861 A.D.C. to Sir Henry Storks, high commissioner of the
+Ionian Islands, and acted as secretary to the same chief during
+the inquiry into the Jamaica outbreak in 1865. Gazetted
+captain in 1870, he went in 1872 as private secretary to his cousin
+Lord Northbrook, Viceroy of India, where he remained until
+1876, when he became major, received the C.S.I., and was
+appointed British commissioner of the Egyptian public debt
+office. Up to this period Major Baring had given no unusual
+signs of promise, and the appointment of a comparatively
+untried major of artillery as the British representative on a
+Financial Board composed of representatives of all the great
+powers was considered a bold one. Within a very short time
+it was recognized that the Englishman, though keeping himself
+carefully in the background, was unmistakably the predominant
+factor on the board. He was mainly responsible for the searching
+report, issued in 1878, of the commission of inquiry that had
+been instituted into the financial methods of the Khedive Ismail;
+and when that able and unscrupulous Oriental had to submit to
+an enforced abdication in 1879, it was Major Baring who became
+the British controller-general and practical director of the Dual
+Control. Had he remained in Egypt, the whole course of
+Egyptian history might have been altered, but his services were
+deemed more necessary in India, and under Lord Ripon he
+became financial member of council in June 1880. He remained
+there till 1883, leaving an unmistakable mark on the Indian
+financial system, and then, having been rewarded by the K.C.S.I.,
+he was appointed British agent and consul-general in Egypt
+and a minister plenipotentiary in the diplomatic service.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Evelyn Baring was at that time only a man of forty-two,
+who had gained a reputation for considerable financial ability,
+combined with an abruptness of manner and a certain autocracy
+of demeanour which, it was feared, would impede his success
+in a position which required considerable tact and diplomacy.
+It was a friendly colleague who wrote&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;The virtues of Patience are known,</p>
+  <p class="i2">But I think that, when put to the touch,</p>
+<p class="i05">The people of Egypt will own, with a groan,</p>
+  <p class="i2">There&rsquo;s an Evil in Baring too much.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When he arrived in Cairo in 1883 he found the administration
+of the country almost non-existent. Ismail had ruled with all
+the vices, but also with all the advantages, of autocracy. Disorder
+in the finances, brutality towards the people, had been
+combined with public tranquillity and the outer semblance of
+civilization. Order, at least, reigned from the Sudan to the
+Mediterranean, and such trivial military disturbances as had
+occurred had been of Ismail&rsquo;s own devising and for his own
+purposes. Tewfik, who had succeeded him, had neither the
+inclination nor character to be a despot. Within three years
+his government had been all but overthrown, and he was only
+khedive by the grace of British bayonets. Government by
+bayonets was not in accord with the views of the House of
+Commons, yet Ismail&rsquo;s government by the kourbash could not be
+restored. The British government, under Mr Gladstone, desired
+to establish in Egypt a sort of constitutional government; and
+as there existed no single element of a constitution, they had
+sent out Lord Dufferin (the first marquess of Dufferin) to frame
+one. That gifted nobleman, in the delightful lucidity of his
+picturesque report, left nothing to be desired except the material
+necessary to convert the flowing periods into political entities.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+In the absence of that, the constitution was still-born, and Sir
+Evelyn Baring arrived to find, not indeed a clean slate, but a
+worn-out papyrus, disfigured by the efforts of centuries to
+describe in hieroglyph a method of rule for a docile people.</p>
+
+<p>From that date the history of Sir Evelyn Baring, who became
+Baron Cromer in 1892, G.C.B. in 1895, viscount in 1897, and
+earl in 1901, is the history of Egypt, and requires the barest
+mention of its salient points here. From the outset he realized
+that the task he had to perform could only be effected piecemeal
+and in detail, and his very first measure was one which, though
+severely criticized at the time, has been justified by events, and
+which in any case showed that he shirked no responsibility, and
+was capable of adopting heroic methods. He counselled the
+abandonment, at least temporarily, by Egypt of its authority
+in the Sudan provinces, already challenged by the mahdi. His
+views were shared by the British ministry of the day and the
+policy of abandonment enforced upon the Egyptian government.
+At the same time it was decided that efforts should be made to
+relieve the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan and this resolve
+led to the mission of General C. G. Gordon (<i>q.v.</i>) to Khartum.
+Lord Cromer subsequently told the story of Gordon&rsquo;s mission
+at length, making clear the measure of responsibility resting upon
+him as British agent. The proposal to employ Gordon came
+from the British government and twice Sir Evelyn rejected the
+suggestion. Finally, mistrusting his own judgment, for he did
+not consider Gordon the proper person for the mission, Baring
+yielded to pressure from Lord Granville. Thereafter he gave
+Gordon all the support possible, and in the critical matter of
+the proposed despatch of Zobeir to Khartum, Baring&mdash;after a
+few days&rsquo; hesitation&mdash;cordially endorsed Gordon&rsquo;s request. The
+request was refused by the British government&mdash;and the catastrophe
+which followed at Khartum rendered inevitable.</p>
+
+<p>The Sudan crisis being over, for the time, Sir Evelyn Baring
+set to work to reorganize Egypt itself. This work he attacked
+in detail. The very first essential was to regulate the financial
+situation; and in Egypt, where the entire revenue is based on
+the production of the soil, irrigation was of the first importance.
+With the assistance of Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff, in the public
+works department, and Sir Edgar Vincent, as financial adviser,
+these two great departments were practically put in order before
+he gave more than superficial attention to the rest. The ministry
+of justice was the next department seriously taken in hand, with
+the assistance of Sir John Scott, while the army had been reformed
+under Sir Evelyn Wood, who was succeeded by Sir
+Francis (afterwards Lord) Grenfell. Education, the ministry
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span>
+of the interior, and gradually every other department, came to
+be reorganized, or, more correctly speaking, formed, under Lord
+Cromer&rsquo;s carefully persistent direction, until it may be said to-day
+that the Egyptian administration can safely challenge comparison
+with that of any other state. In the meantime the rule of
+the mahdi and his successor, the khalifa, in the temporarily
+abandoned provinces of the Sudan, had been weakened by
+internal dissensions; the Italians from Massawa, the Belgians
+from the Congo State, and the French from their West African
+possessions, had gradually approached nearer to the valley
+of the Nile; and the moment had arrived at which Egypt must
+decide either to recover her position in the Sudan or allow the
+Upper Nile to fall into hands hostile to Great Britain and her
+position in Egypt. Lord Cromer was as quick to recognize the
+moment for action and to act as he had fifteen years earlier been
+prompt to recognize the necessity of abstention. In March-September
+1896 the first advance was made to Dongola under
+the Sirdar, Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener; between
+July 1897 and April 1898 the advance was pushed forward to
+the Atbara; and on the 2nd of September 1898, the battle of
+Omdurman finally crushed the power of the khalifa and restored
+the Sudan to the rule of Egypt and Great Britain. In the
+negotiations which resulted in the Anglo-French Declaration of
+the 8th of April 1904, whereby France bound herself not to
+obstruct in any manner the action of Great Britain in Egypt
+and the Egyptian government acquired financial freedom, Lord
+Cromer took an active part. He also successfully guarded the
+interests of Egypt and Great Britain in 1906 when Turkey
+attempted by encroachments in the Sinai Peninsula to obtain
+a strategic position on the Suez Canal. To have effected all this
+in the face of the greatest difficulties&mdash;political, national and
+international&mdash;and at the same time to have raised the credit
+of the country from a condition of bankruptcy to an equality
+with that of the first European powers, entitles Lord Cromer
+to a very high place among the greatest administrators and
+statesmen that the British empire has produced. In April 1907,
+in consequence of the state of his health, he resigned office,
+having held the post of British agent in Egypt for twenty-four
+years. In July of the same year parliament granted Ł50,000 out
+of the public funds to Lord Cromer in recognition of his &ldquo;eminent
+services&rdquo; in Egypt. In 1908 he published, in two volumes,
+<i>Modern Egypt</i>, in which he gave an impartial narrative of events
+in Egypt and the Sudan since 1876, and dealt with the results to
+Egypt of the British occupation of the country. Lord Cromer
+also took part in the political controversies at home, joining
+himself to the free-trade wing of the Unionist party.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Cromer married in 1876 Ethel Stanley, daughter of Sir
+Rowland Stanley Errington, eleventh baronet, but was left a
+widower with two sons in 1898; and in 1901 he married Lady
+Katherine Thynne, daughter of the 4th marquess of Bath.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In 1892 Lord Dufferin wrote to Lord Cromer: &ldquo;These institutions
+were a good deal ridiculed at the time, but as it was then uncertain
+how long we were going to remain, or rather how soon the Turks
+might not be reinvested with their ancient supremacy, I desired to
+erect some sort of barrier, however feeble, against their intolerable
+tyranny.&rdquo; In 1906 Lord Cromer bore public testimony to the good
+results of the measures adopted on Lord Dufferin&rsquo;s &ldquo;statesmanlike
+initiative.&rdquo; Such results were, however, only possible in consequence
+of the continuance of the British occupation.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMER,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a watering-place in the northern parliamentary
+division of Norfolk, England, 139 m. N.E. by N. from London
+by the Great Eastern railway; served also by the Midland and
+Great Northern joint line. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3781.
+Standing on cliffs of considerable elevation, the town has repeatedly
+suffered from ravages of the sea. A wall and esplanade
+extend along the bottom of the cliffs, and there is a fine stretch of
+sandy beach. There is also a short pier. The church of St
+Peter and St Paul is Perpendicular (largely restored) with a lofty
+tower. On a site of three acres stands the convalescent home of
+the Norfolk and Norwich hospital. There is an excellent golf
+course. The herring, cod, lobster and crab fisheries are prosecuted.
+The village of Sheringham (pop. of urban district, 2359), lying to
+the west, is also frequented by visitors. A so-called Roman camp,
+on an elevation overlooking the sea, is actually a modern beacon.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:183px; height:589px" src="images/img485a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Bass Tournebout.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CROMORNE,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> also <b>CRUMHORNE</b><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Ger. <i>Krummhorn</i>; Fr.
+<i>tournebout</i>), a wind instrument of wood in which a cylindrical
+column of air is set in vibration by a reed. The lower extremity
+is turned up in a half-circle, and from this peculiarity it has gained
+the French name <i>tournebout</i>. The reed of the cromorne, like that
+of the bassoon, is formed by a double tongue of cane adapted
+to the small end of a conical brass tube or crook, the large end
+fitting into the main bore of the instrument. It presents, however,
+this difference, that it is not, like that of the bassoon, in
+contact with the player&rsquo;s lips, but is covered by a cap pierced
+in the upper part with a raised slit against which the performer&rsquo;s
+lips rest, the air being forced through the opening into the cap
+and setting the reed in vibration. The reed itself is
+therefore not subject to the pressure of the lips. The
+compass of the instrument is in consequence limited
+to the simple fundamental sounds produced by the
+successive opening of the lateral holes. The length
+of the cromornes is inconsiderable in proportion to
+the deep sounds produced by them, which arises
+from the fact that these instruments, like all tubes of
+cylindrical bore provided with reeds, have the acoustic
+properties of the stopped pipes of an organ. That is
+to say, theoretically they require only half the length
+necessary for the open pipes of an organ or for conical
+tubes provided with reeds, to produce notes of the
+same pitch. Moreover, when, to obtain an harmonic,
+the column of air is divided, the cromorne will not
+give the octave, like the oboe and bassoon, but the
+twelfth, corresponding in this peculiarity with the
+clarinet and all stopped pipes or bourdons. In order,
+however, to obtain an harmonic on the cromorne, the
+cap would have to be discarded, for a reed only
+overblows to give the harmonic overtones when
+pressed by the lips. With the ordinary boring of eight
+lateral holes the cromorne possesses a limited compass
+of a ninth. Sometimes, however, deeper sounds
+are obtained by the addition of one or more keys.
+By its construction the cromorne is one
+of the oldest wind instruments; it is
+evidently derived from the Gr. aulos<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+and the Roman tibia, which likewise
+consisted of a simple cylindrical pipe of
+which the air column was set in vibration,
+at first by a double reed, and, we have
+reason to believe, later by a single reed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aulos</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clarinet</a></span>). The Phrygian aulos was sometimes curved (see
+Tib. ii. i. 85 <i>Phrygio tibia curva sono</i>; Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> xi. 737
+<i>curva choros indixit tibia Bacchi</i>).<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Notwithstanding the successive improvements that were introduced
+in the manufacture of wind instruments, the cromorne scarcely
+ever varied in the details of its construction. Such as we see it
+represented in the treatise by Virdung<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> we find it again about the
+epoch of its disappearance.<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The cromornes existed as a complete
+family from the 15th century, consisting, according to Virdung, of
+four instruments; Praetorius<a name="fa6c" id="fa6c" href="#ft6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> cites five&mdash;the deep bass, the bass,
+the tenor or alto, the cantus or soprano and the high soprano, with
+compass as shown. A band, or, to use the expression of Praetorius,
+an &ldquo;accort&rdquo; of cromornes comprised 1 deep bass, 2 bass, 3 tenor,
+2 cantus, 1 high soprano = 9.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:532px; height:79px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img485b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Mersenne<a name="fa7c" id="fa7c" href="#ft7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> explains the construction of the cromorne, giving careful
+illustrations of the instrument with and without the cap. From him
+we learn that these instruments were made in England, where they
+were played in concert in sets of four, five and six. Their scheme of
+construction and especially the reed and cap is very similar to that
+of the chalumeau of the musette (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bag-pipe</a></span>), but its timbre is by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span>
+no means so pleasant. Mersenne&rsquo;s cromornes have ten fingerholes,
+Nos. 7 and 8 being duplicates for right and left-handed players.
+They were probably sometimes used, as was the case with the
+hautbois de Poitou (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bag-pipe</a></span>), without the cap, when an extended
+compass was required.</p>
+
+<p>The cromornes were in very general use in Europe from the 14th
+to the 17th century, and are to be found in illustrations of pageants,
+as for instance in the magnificent collection of woodcuts designed by
+Hans Burgmair, a pupil of Albrecht Dürer, representing the triumph
+of the emperor Maximilian,<a name="fa8c" id="fa8c" href="#ft8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a> where a bass and a tenor Krumbhorn
+player figure in the procession among countless other musicians.
+In the inventory of the wardrobe, &amp;c., belonging to Henry VIII. at
+Westminster, made during the reign of Edward VI., we find eighteen
+crumhornes (see British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, ff. 202b and
+205). The cromornes did not always form an orchestra by themselves,
+but were also used in concert with other instruments and
+notably with flutes and oboes, as in municipal bands and in the
+private bands of princes. In 1685 the orchestra of the Neue Kirche
+at Strassburg comprised two tournebouts or cromornes, and until
+the middle of the 18th century these instruments formed part of the
+court band known as &ldquo;Musique de la Grande Écurie&rdquo; in the service
+of the French kings. They are first mentioned in the accounts for
+the year 1662, together with the tromba-marina, although the
+instrument was already highly esteemed in the 16th century. In
+that year five players of the cromorne were enrolled among the
+musicians of the Grande Écurie du Roi;<a name="fa9c" id="fa9c" href="#ft9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a> they received a yearly
+salary of 120 livres, which various supplementary allowances brought
+up to about 330 livres. In 1729 one of the cromorne players sold
+his appointment for 4000 francs. This was a sign of the failing
+popularity of the instrument. The duties of the cromorne and
+tromba-marina players consisted in playing in the great <i>divertissements</i>
+and at court functions and festivals in honour of royal marriages,
+births and thanksgivings.</p>
+
+<p>Cromornes have become of extreme rarity and are not to be
+found in all collections. The Paris Conservatoire possesses one large
+bass cromorne of the 16th century, the Kgl. Hochschule für Musik,<a name="fa10c" id="fa10c" href="#ft10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a>
+Berlin, a set of seven, and the Ambroser Sammlung, Vienna, a
+cromorne in E&#9837;.<a name="fa11c" id="fa11c" href="#ft11c"><span class="sp">11</span></a> The museum of the Conservatoire Royal de
+Musique at Brussels has the good fortune to possess a complete
+family which is said to have belonged to the duke of Ferrara, Alphonso
+II. d&rsquo;Este, a prince who reigned from 1559 to 1597. The soprano
+(cantus or discant) has the same compass as above, while those of
+the alto, the tenor (furnished with a key) and the bass are as shown.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:449px; height:70px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img486.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind">The bass (see figure), besides having two keys, is distinguished from
+the others by two contrivances like small bolts, which slide in grooves
+and close the two holes that give the lowest notes of the instrument.
+The use of these bolts, placed at the extremity of the tournebout
+and out of reach of the fingers of the instrumentalist, renders necessary
+the assistance of a person whose sole mission is to attend to
+them during the performance. E. van der Straeten<a name="fa12c" id="fa12c" href="#ft12c"><span class="sp">12</span></a> mentions a
+key belonging to a large cromorne bearing the date 1537, of which
+he gives a large drawing. A cromorne appears in a musical scene
+with a trumpet in Hermann Finck&rsquo;s <i>Practica Musica</i>.<a name="fa13c" id="fa13c" href="#ft13c"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Platerspil,&rdquo; of which Virdung gives a drawing, is only
+a kind of cromorne. It is characterized by having, instead of a
+cap to cover the reed, a spherical receiver surrounding the reed,
+to which the tube for insufflation is adapted. The Platerspiel is
+also frequently classified among bagpipes. In the <i>Cantigas di Sante
+Maria</i>,<a name="fa14c" id="fa14c" href="#ft14c"><span class="sp">14</span></a> a MS. of the 13th century preserved in the Escorial, Madrid,
+two instruments of this type are represented. One of these has two
+straight, parallel pipes, slightly conical; the other is frankly conical
+with wide bore turned up at the end.</p>
+
+<p>Other instruments belonging by their most important characteristics
+of cylindrical bore and double reed to the same family as the
+cromorne, although the bore was somewhat differently disposed,
+are the racket bassoon and the sourdine or sordelline. The latter
+was introduced into the orchestra by Cavaliere in his opera <i>Rappresentazione
+di anima e di corpo</i>, and is described by Giudotto<a name="fa15c" id="fa15c" href="#ft15c"><span class="sp">15</span></a> in
+his edition of the score as &ldquo;Flauti overo due tibie all&rsquo; antica che
+noi chiamiamo sordelline,&rdquo; a description which tallies with what has
+been said above concerning the aulos and tibia.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(V. M. and K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Crumhorne need not be regarded as a corruption of the German,
+since the two words of which it is composed were both in use in
+medieval England. <i>Crumb</i> = curved; <i>crumbe</i> = hook, bend; <i>crome</i> =
+a staff with a hook at the end of it. See Stratmann&rsquo;s <i>Middle English
+Dictionary</i> (1891), and Halliwell, <i>Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial
+Words</i> (London, 1881).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See A. Howard, &ldquo;Aulos or Tibia,&rdquo; <i>Harvard Studies</i>, iv. (Boston,
+1893).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See also A. A. Howard, op. cit., &ldquo;Phrygian Aulos,&rdquo; pp. 35-38.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See Diderot and d&rsquo;Alembert&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopédie</i> (Paris, 1751-1780),
+t. 5, &ldquo;Lutherie,&rdquo; pl. ix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Organographia</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7c" id="ft7c" href="#fa7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>L&rsquo;Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636-1637), book v. pp. 289 and
+290. Cf. &ldquo;Musette,&rdquo; pp. 282-287 and 305.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8c" id="ft8c" href="#fa8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See &ldquo;Triumphzug des Kaisers Maximilian I.&rdquo; Beilage zum II.
+Band des <i>Jahrb. der Sammlungen des Allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses</i>
+(Vienna, 1884-1885), pl. 20. Explanatory text and part i. in Band i.
+of the same publication, 1883-1884. A French edition with 135
+plates was also published in Vienna by A. Schmidt, and in London
+by J. Edwards (1796). See also Dr August Reissmann, <i>Illustrierte
+Geschichte der deutschen Musik</i> (Leipzig, 1881), where a few of
+the plates are reproduced.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See J. Écorcheville, &ldquo;Quelques documents sur la musique
+de la grande écurie du roi,&rdquo; <i>Sammelband d. Intern. Musik. Ges.</i>
+Jahrg. ii., Heft 4 (1901, Leipzig, London, &amp;c.), pp. 630-632.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Oskar Fleischer, <i>Führer</i> (Berlin, 1892), p. 29, Nos. 400 to 406.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11c" id="ft11c" href="#fa11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> For an illustration see Captain C. R. Day, <i>Descriptive Catalogue</i>
+(London, 1891), pl. iv. E. and p. 99.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12c" id="ft12c" href="#fa12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Histoire de la musique aux Pays-Bas avant le XIX<span class="sp">e</span> sičcle</i>
+(Brussels, 1867-1888), vol. vii. p. 336, and description, p. 333 et seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13c" id="ft13c" href="#fa13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Wittenberg, 1556; reproduced by A. Reissmann, op. cit., pp.
+233 and 226.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14c" id="ft14c" href="#fa14c"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Reproduced in Riańo&rsquo;s <i>Notes on Early Spanish Music</i> (London,
+1887), pp. 119-127.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15c" id="ft15c" href="#fa15c"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See Hugo Goldschmidt, &ldquo;Das Orchester der italienischen Oper
+im 17. Jahrh.&rdquo; <i>Sammelband der Intern. Musikgesellschaft</i>, Jahrg. ii.,
+Heft 1 (Leipzig, 1900), p. 24.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMPTON, SAMUEL<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1753-1827), English inventor, was
+born on the 3rd of December 1753 at Firwood near Bolton-le-Moors,
+Lancashire. While yet a boy he lost his father, and had
+to contribute to the family resources by spinning yarn. The
+defects of the spinning jenny imbued him with the idea of
+devising something better, and for five or six years the effort
+absorbed all his spare time and money, including what he earned
+by playing the violin at the Bolton theatre. About 1779 he
+succeeded in producing a machine which span yarn suitable
+for use in the manufacture of muslin, and which was known
+as the muslin wheel or the Hall-in-the-Wood wheel (from the
+name of the house in which he and his family resided), and later
+as the spinning mule. After his marriage in 1780 a good demand
+arose for the yarn which he himself made at Hall-in-the-Wood,
+but the prying to which his methods were subjected drove him,
+in the absence of means to take out a patent, to the choice of
+destroying his machine or making it public. He adopted the
+latter alternative on the promise of a number of manufacturers
+to pay him for the use of the mule, but all he received was about
+Ł60. He then resumed spinning on his own account, but with
+indifferent success. In 1800 a sum of Ł500 was raised for his
+benefit by subscription, and when in 1809 Edmund Cartwright,
+the inventor of the power-loom obtained Ł10,000 from parliament,
+he determined also to apply for a grant. In 1811 he made
+a tour in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Scotland
+to collect evidence showing how extensively his mule was used,
+and in 1812 parliament allowed him Ł5000. With the aid of this
+money he embarked in business, first as a bleacher and then as
+a cotton merchant and spinner, but again without success. In
+1824 some friends, without his knowledge, bought him an
+annuity of Ł63. He died at Bolton on the 26th of June 1827.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMPTON,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> an urban district of Lancashire, England,
+2˝ m. N. of Oldham, within the parliamentary borough of
+Oldham. Pop. (1901) 13,427. At Shaw, a populous village
+included within it, is a station on the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire
+railway. Cotton mills and the collieries of the neighbourhood
+employ the large industrial population.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMWELL, HENRY<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1628-1674), fourth son of Oliver
+Cromwell, was born at Huntingdon on the 20th of January
+1628, and served under his father during the latter part of the
+Civil War. His active life, however, was mainly spent in Ireland,
+whither he took some troops to assist Oliver early in 1650, and
+he was one of the Irish representatives in the Little, or Nominated,
+Parliament of 1653. In 1654 he was again in Ireland, and after
+making certain recommendations to his father, now lord protector,
+with regard to the government of that country, he
+became major-general of the forces in Ireland and a member
+of the Irish council of state, taking up his new duties in July 1655.
+Nominally Henry was subordinate to the lord-deputy, Charles
+Fleetwood, but Fleetwood&rsquo;s departure for England in September
+1655 left him for all practical purposes the ruler of Ireland. He
+moderated the lord-deputy&rsquo;s policy of deporting the Irish, and
+unlike him he paid some attention to the interests of the English
+settlers; moreover, again unlike Fleetwood, he appears to have
+held the scales evenly between the different Protestant sects,
+and his undoubted popularity in Ireland is attested by Clarendon.
+In November 1657 Henry himself was made lord-deputy; but
+before this time he had refused a gift of property worth Ł1500 a
+year, basing his refusal on the grounds of the poverty of the
+country, a poverty which was not the least of his troubles.
+In 1657 he advised his father not to accept the office of king,
+although in 1634 he had supported a motion to this effect;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span>
+and after the dissolution of Cromwell&rsquo;s second parliament in
+February 1658 he showed his anxiety that the protector should
+act in a moderate and constitutional manner. After Oliver&rsquo;s
+death Henry hailed with delight the succession of his brother
+Richard to the office of protector, but although he was now
+appointed lieutenant and governor general of Ireland, it was
+only with great reluctance that he remained in that country.
+Having rejected proposals to assist in the restoration of Charles
+II., Henry was recalled to England in June 1659 just after his
+brother&rsquo;s fall; quietly obeying this order he resigned his office
+at once. Although he lost some property at the Restoration,
+he was allowed after some solicitation to keep the estate he had
+bought in Ireland. His concluding years were passed at Spinney
+Abbey in Cambridgeshire; he was unmolested by the government,
+and he died on the 23rd of March 1674. In 1653 Henry
+married Elizabeth (d. 1687), daughter of Sir Francis Russell, and
+he left five sons and two daughters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMWELL, OLIVER<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1599-1658), lord protector of England,
+was the 5th and only surviving son of Robert Cromwell of
+Huntingdon and of Elizabeth Steward, widow of William Lynn.
+His paternal grandfather was Sir Henry Cromwell of Hinchinbrook,
+a leading personage in Huntingdonshire, and grandson
+of Richard Williams, knighted by Henry VIII., nephew of
+Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, Henry VIII.&rsquo;s minister, whose
+name he adopted. His mother was descended from a family
+named Styward in Norfolk, which was not, however, connected
+in any way, as has been often asserted, with the royal house of
+Stuart. Oliver was born on the 25th of April 1599, was educated
+under Dr Thomas Beard, a fervent puritan, at the free school
+at Huntingdon, and on the 23rd of April 1616 matriculated as
+a fellow-commoner at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
+then a hotbed of puritanism, subsequently studying law in
+London. The royalist anecdotes relating to his youth, including
+charges of ill-conduct, do not deserve credit, the entries in the
+register of St John&rsquo;s, Huntingdon, noting Oliver&rsquo;s submission
+on two occasions to church censure being forgeries; but it is
+not improbable that his youth was wild and possibly dissolute.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+According to Edmund Waller he was &ldquo;very well read in the
+Greek and Roman story.&rdquo; Burnet declares he had little Latin,
+but he was able to converse with the Dutch ambassador in that
+language. According to James Heath in his <i>Flagellum</i>, &ldquo;he
+was more famous for his exercises in the fields than in the schools,
+being one of the chief match-makers and players at football,
+cudgels, or any other boisterous game or sport.&rdquo; On the 22nd
+of August 1620 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James
+Bourchier, a city merchant of Tower Hill, and of Felstead in
+Essex; and his father having died in 1617 he settled at Huntingdon
+and occupied himself in the management of his small estate.
+In 1628 he was returned to parliament as member for the
+borough, and on the 11th of February 1629 he spoke in
+support of puritan doctrine, complaining of the attempt by the
+king to silence Dr Beard, who had raised his voice against the
+&ldquo;flat popery&rdquo; inculcated by Dr Alabaster at Paul&rsquo;s Cross. He was
+also one of the members who refused to adjourn at the king&rsquo;s
+command till Sir John Eliot&rsquo;s resolutions had been passed.</p>
+
+<p>During the eleven years of government without parliament
+very little is recorded of Cromwell. His name is not connected
+with the resistance to the levy of ship-money or to the action of
+the ecclesiastical courts, but in 1630 he was one of those fined
+for refusing to take up knighthood. The same year he was named
+one of the justices of the peace for his borough; and on the grant
+of a new charter showed great zeal in defending the rights of the
+commoners, and succeeded in procuring an alteration in the
+charter in their favour, exhibiting much warmth of temper
+during the dispute and being committed to custody by the
+privy council for angry words spoken against the mayor, for
+which he afterwards apologized. He also defended the rights of
+the commoners of Ely threatened by the &ldquo;adventurers&rdquo; who had
+drained the Great Level, and he was nicknamed afterwards by
+a royalist newspaper &ldquo;Lord of the Fens.&rdquo; He was again later
+the champion of the commoners of St Ives in the Long Parliament
+against enclosures by the earl of Manchester, obtaining a commission
+of the House of Commons to inquire into the case, and
+drawing upon himself the severe censure of the chairman, the
+future Lord Clarendon, by his &ldquo;impetuous carriage&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;insolent behaviour,&rdquo; and by the passionate vehemence he
+imparted into the business. Bishop Williams, a kinsman of
+Cromwell&rsquo;s, relates at this time that he was &ldquo;a common spokesman
+for sectaries, and maintained their part with great stubbornness&rdquo;;
+and his earliest extant letter (in 1635) is an appeal for
+subscriptions for a puritan lecturer. There appears to be no
+foundation for the statement that he was stopped by an order of
+council when on the point of abandoning England for America,
+though there can be little doubt that the thoughts of emigration
+suggested themselves to his mind at this period. He viewed
+the &ldquo;innovations in religion&rdquo; with abhorrence. According to
+Clarendon he told the latter in 1641 that if the Grand Remonstrance
+had not passed &ldquo;he would have sold all he had the next
+morning and never have seen England more.&rdquo; In 1631 he converted
+his landed property into money, and John Hampden,
+his cousin, a patentee of Connecticut in 1632, was on the point
+of emigrating. Cromwell was perhaps arrested in his project
+by his succession in 1636 to the estate of his uncle Sir Thomas
+Steward, and to his office of farmer of the cathedral tithes at Ely,
+whither he now removed. Meanwhile, like Bunyan and many
+other puritans, Cromwell had been passing through a trying
+period of mental and religious change and struggle, beginning
+with deep melancholy and religious doubt and depression, and
+ending with &ldquo;seeing light&rdquo; and with enthusiastic and convinced
+faith, which remained henceforth the chief characteristic and
+impulse in his career.</p>
+
+<p>He represented Cambridge in the Short and Long Parliaments
+of 1640, and at once showed extraordinary zeal and audacity
+in his opposition to the government, taking a large
+share in business and serving on numerous and important
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell&rsquo;s first parliamentary efforts.</span>
+committees. As the cousin of Hampden and
+St. John he was intimately associated with the leaders
+of the parliamentary party. His sphere of action,
+however, was not in parliament. He was not an
+orator, and though he could express himself forcibly on occasion,
+his speech was incoherent and devoid of any of the arts of
+rhetoric. Clarendon notes on his first appearance in parliament
+that &ldquo;he seemed to have a person in no degree gracious, no
+ornament of discourse, none of those talents which use to reconcile
+the affections of the standers by; yet as he grew into place
+and authority his parts seemed to be renewed.&rdquo; He supported
+stoutly the extreme party of opposition to the king, but did not
+take the lead except on a few less important occasions, and was
+apparently silent in the debates on the Petition of Right, the
+Grand Remonstrance and the Militia. His first recorded intervention
+in debate in the Long Parliament was on the 9th of
+November 1640, a few days after the meeting of the House, when
+he delivered a petition from the imprisoned John Lilburne.
+He was described by Sir Philip Warwick on this occasion:&mdash;&ldquo;I
+came into the House one morning well clad and perceived a
+gentleman speaking whom I knew not, very ordinarily apparelled;
+for it was a plain cloth suit which seemed to have been made
+by an ill country tailor; his linen was plain and not very clean;
+... his stature was of a good size; his sword stuck close to
+his side; his countenance swollen and reddish; his voice sharp
+and untunable and his eloquence full of fervour ... I sincerely
+profess it much lessened my reverence as to that great council
+for he was very much hearkened unto.&rdquo; On the 30th of December
+he moved to the second reading of Strode&rsquo;s bill for annual parliaments.
+His chief interest from the first, however, lay in the religious
+question. He belonged to the Root and Branch party,
+and spoke in favour of the petition of the London citizens for the
+abolition of episcopacy on the 9th of February 1641, and pressed
+upon the House the Root and Branch Bill in May. On the 6th
+of November he carried a motion entrusting the train-bands
+south of the Trent to the command of the earl of Essex. On the
+14th of January 1642, after the king&rsquo;s attempt to seize the five
+members, he moved for a committee to put the kingdom in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span>
+posture of defence. He contributed Ł600 to the proposed Irish
+campaign and Ł500 for raising forces in England&mdash;large sums
+from his small estate&mdash;and on his own initiative in July 1642 sent
+arms of the value of Ł100 down to Cambridge, seized the magazine
+there in August, and prevented the king&rsquo;s commission of array
+from being executed in the county, taking these important steps
+on his own authority and receiving subsequently indemnity by
+vote of the House of Commons. Shortly afterwards he joined
+Essex with sixty horse, and was present at Edgehill, where his
+troop was one of the few not routed by Rupert&rsquo;s charge, Cromwell
+himself being mentioned among those officers who &ldquo;never stirred
+from their troops but fought till the last minute.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>During the earlier part of the year 1643 the military position
+of Charles was greatly superior to that of the parliament. Essex
+was inactive near Oxford; in the west Sir Ralph
+Hopton had won a series of victories, and in the north
+<span class="sidenote">Beginning of Civil War.</span>
+Newcastle defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton Moor,
+and all Yorkshire except Hull was in his hands. It
+seemed likely that the whole of the north would be laid open and
+the royalists be able to march upon London and join Charles
+and Hopton there. This stroke, which would most probably have
+given the victory to the king, was prevented by the &ldquo;Eastern
+Association,&rdquo; a union of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridgeshire
+and Hertfordshire, constituted in December 1642 and augmented
+in 1643 by Huntingdonshire and Lincolnshire, of which Cromwell
+was the leading spirit. His zeal and energy met everywhere
+with conspicuous success. In January 1643 he seized the royalist
+high sheriff of Hertfordshire in the act of proclaiming the king&rsquo;s
+commission of array at St Albans; in February he was at
+Cambridge taking measures for the defence of the town; in
+March suppressing royalist risings at Lowestoft and Lynn; in
+April those of Huntingdon, when he also recaptured Crowland
+from the king&rsquo;s party. In May he defeated a greatly superior
+royalist force at Grantham, proceeding afterwards to Nottingham
+in accordance with Essex&rsquo;s plan of penetrating into Yorkshire to
+relieve the Fairfaxes; where, however, difficulties, arising from
+jealousies between the officers, and the treachery of John Hotham,
+whose arrest Cromwell was instrumental in effecting, obliged
+him to retire again to the association, leaving the Fairfaxes to
+be defeated at Adwalton Moor. He showed extraordinary
+energy, resource and military talent in stemming the advance of
+the royalists, who now followed up their victories by advancing
+into the association; he defeated them at Gainsborough on the
+28th of July, and managed a masterly retreat before overwhelming
+numbers to Lincoln, while the victory on the 11th of
+October at Winceby finally secured the association, and maintained
+the wedge which prevented the junction of the royalists
+in the north with the king in the south.</p>
+
+<p>One great source of Cromwell&rsquo;s strength was the military
+reforms he had initiated. At Edgehill he had observed the
+inferiority of the parliamentary to the royalist horse,
+composed as it was of soldiers of fortune and the dregs
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell&rsquo;s soldiers.</span>
+of the populace. &ldquo;Do you think,&rdquo; he had said, &ldquo;that
+the spirits of such base, mean fellows will ever be able
+to encounter gentlemen that have honour and courage and
+resolution in them? You must get men of a spirit that is likely
+to go as far as gentlemen will go or you will be beaten still.&rdquo;
+The royalists were fighting for a great cause. To succeed the
+parliamentary soldiers must also be inspired by some great
+principle, and this was now found in religion. Cromwell chose
+his own troops, both officers and privates, from the &ldquo;religious
+men,&rdquo; who fought not for pay or for adventure, but for their
+faith. He declared, when answering a complaint that a certain
+captain in his regiment was a better preacher than fighter, that
+he who prayed best would fight best, and that he knew nothing
+could &ldquo;give the like courage and confidence as the knowledge
+of God in Christ will.&rdquo; The superiority of these men&mdash;more
+intelligent than the common soldiers, better disciplined, better
+trained, better armed, excellent horsemen and fighting for a
+great cause&mdash;not only over the other parliamentary troops but
+over the royalists, was soon observed in battle. According to
+Clarendon the latter, though frequently victorious in a charge,
+could not rally afterwards, &ldquo;whereas Cromwell&rsquo;s troops if they
+prevailed, or though they were beaten and routed, presently
+rallied again and stood in good order till they received new
+orders&rdquo;; and the king&rsquo;s military successes dwindled in proportion
+to the gradual preponderance of Cromwell&rsquo;s troops in
+the parliamentary army. At first these picked men only existed
+in Cromwell&rsquo;s own troop, which, however, by frequent additions
+became the nucleus of a regiment, and by the time of the New
+Model included about 11,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>In July 1643 Cromwell had been appointed governor of the
+Isle of Ely; on the 22nd of January 1644 he became second in
+command under the earl of Manchester as lieutenant-general
+of the Eastern Association, and on the 16th of February 1644
+a member of the Committee of Both Kingdoms with greatly
+increased influence. In March he took Hillesden House in
+Buckinghamshire; in May was at the siege of Lincoln, when he
+repulsed Goring&rsquo;s attempt to relieve the town, and subsequently
+took part in Manchester&rsquo;s campaign in the north. At Marston
+Moor (<i>q.v.</i>) on the 2nd of July he commanded all the horse
+of the Eastern Association, with some Scottish troops; and
+though for a time disabled by a wound in the neck, he charged
+and routed Rupert&rsquo;s troops opposed to him, and subsequently
+went to the support of the Scots, who were hard pressed by the
+enemy, and converted what appeared at one time a defeat into
+a decisive victory. It was on this occasion that he earned the
+nickname of &ldquo;Ironsides,&rdquo; applied to him now by Prince Rupert,
+and afterwards to his soldiers, &ldquo;from the impenetrable strength
+of his troops which could by no means be broken or divided.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The movements of Manchester after Marston Moor were
+marked by great apathy. He was one of the moderate party
+who desired an accommodation with the king, and was opposed
+to Cromwell&rsquo;s sectaries. He remained at Lincoln, did nothing
+to prevent the defeat of Essex&rsquo;s army in the west, and when
+he at last advanced south to join Essex&rsquo;s and Waller&rsquo;s troops
+his management of the army led to the failure of the attack
+upon the king at Newbury on the 27th of October 1644. He
+delayed supporting the infantry till too late, and was repulsed;
+he allowed the royal army to march past his outposts; and a
+fortnight afterwards, without any attempt to prevent it, and
+greatly to Cromwell&rsquo;s vexation, permitted the moving of the
+king&rsquo;s artillery and the relief of Donnington Castle by Prince
+Rupert. &ldquo;If you beat the king ninety-nine times,&rdquo; Manchester
+urged at Newbury, &ldquo;yet he is king still and so will his posterity
+be after him; but if the king beat us once we shall all be hanged
+and our posterity be made slaves.&rdquo; &ldquo;My lord,&rdquo; answered
+Cromwell, &ldquo;if this be so, why did we take up arms at first?
+This is against fighting ever hereafter. If so let us make peace,
+be it ever so base.&rdquo; The contention brought to a crisis the
+struggle between the moderate Presbyterians and the Scots on
+the one side, who decided to maintain the monarchy and fought
+for an accommodation and to establish Presbyterianism in
+England, and on the other the republicans who would be satisfied
+with nothing less than the complete overthrow of the king,
+and the Independents who regarded the establishment of
+Presbyterianism as an evil almost as great as that of the Church
+of England. On the 25th of November Cromwell charged
+Manchester with &ldquo;unwillingness to have the war prosecuted
+to a full victory&rdquo;; which Manchester answered by accusing
+Cromwell of having used expressions against the nobility, the
+Scots and Presbyterianism; of desiring to fill the army of the
+Eastern Association with Independents to prevent any accommodation;
+and of having vowed if he met the king in battle
+he would as lief fire his pistol at him as at anybody else. The
+lords and the Scots vehemently took Manchester&rsquo;s part; but
+the Commons eventually sided with Cromwell, appointed Sir
+Thomas Fairfax general of the New Model Army, and passed
+two self-denying ordinances, the second of which, ordering all
+members of both houses to lay down their commissions within
+forty days, was accepted by the lords on the 3rd of April 1645.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Cromwell had been ordered on the 3rd of March
+by the House to take his regiment to the assistance of Waller,
+under whom he served as an admirable subordinate. &ldquo;Although
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span>
+he was blunt,&rdquo; says Waller, &ldquo;he did not bear himself with pride
+or disdain. As an officer he was obedient and did never dispute
+my orders or argue upon them.&rdquo; He returned on the 19th of
+April, and on the 23rd was sent to Oxfordshire to prevent a
+junction between Charles and Prince Rupert, in which he
+succeeded after some small engagements and the storming of
+Blechingdon House. His services were felt to be too valuable
+to be lost, and on the 10th of May his command was prolonged
+for forty days. On the 28th he was sent to Ely for the defence
+of the eastern counties against the king&rsquo;s advance; and on the
+10th of June, upon Fairfax&rsquo;s petition, he was named by the
+Commons lieutenant-general, joining Fairfax on the 13th with
+six hundred horse. At the decisive battle of Naseby (the 14th
+<span class="sidenote">The battle of Naseby.</span>
+of June 1645) he commanded the parliamentary right
+wing and routed the cavalry of Sir Marmaduke Langdale,
+subsequently falling upon and defeating the
+royalist centre, and pursuing the fugitives as far as
+the outskirts of Leicester. At Langport again, on the 10th of
+July 1645, his management of the troops was largely instrumental
+in gaining the victory. As the king had no longer a
+field army, the war after Naseby resolved itself into a series of
+sieges which Charles had no means of raising. Cromwell was
+present at the sieges of Bridgwater, Bath, Sherborne and Bristol;
+and later, in command of four regiments of foot and three of
+horse, he was employed in clearing Wiltshire and Hampshire
+of the royalist garrisons. He took Devizes and Laycock House,
+Winchester and Basing House, and rejoined Fairfax in October
+at Exeter, and accompanied him to Cornwall, where he assisted
+in the defeat of Hopton&rsquo;s forces and in the suppression of the
+royalists in the west. On the 9th of January 1646 he surprised
+Lord Wentworth&rsquo;s brigade at Bovey Tracey, and was present
+with Fairfax at the fall of Exeter on the 9th of April. He then
+went to London to give an account of proceedings to the parliament,
+was thanked for his services and rewarded with the estate
+of the marquess of Worcester. He was present again with
+Fairfax at the capitulation of Oxford on the 24th of June, which
+practically terminated the Civil War, when he used his influence
+in favour of granting lenient terms. He then removed with his
+family from Ely to Drury Lane, London, and about a year later
+to King Street, Westminster.</p>
+
+<p>The war being now over, the great question of the establishment
+of Presbyterianism or Independency had to be decided.
+Cromwell, without naming himself an adherent of any denomination,
+fought vigorously for Independency as a policy. In 1644
+he had remonstrated at the removal by Crawford of an anabaptist
+lieutenant-colonel. &ldquo;The state,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;in choosing
+men to serve it, takes no notice of their opinions. If they be
+willing faithfully to serve it, that satisfies. Take heed of being
+sharp ... against those to whom you can object little but that
+they square not with you in every opinion concerning matters of
+religion.&rdquo; He had patronized Lilburne and welcomed all into
+his regiment, and the Independents had spread from his troops
+throughout the whole army. But while the sectarians were
+in a vast majority in the army, the parliament was equally
+strong in Presbyterianism and opposed to toleration. The
+proposed disbandment of the army in February 1647 would have
+placed the soldiers entirely in the power of the parliament; while
+the negotiations of the king, first with the Scots and then with the
+parliament, appeared to hazard all the fruits of victory. The
+petition from the army to the parliament for arrears of pay was
+suppressed and the petitioners declared enemies of the state.
+In consequence the army organized a systematic opposition,
+and elected representatives styled Agitators or Agents to urge
+their claims.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell, though greatly disliking the policy of the Presbyterians,
+yet gave little support at first to the army in resisting
+parliament. In May 1647 in company with Skippon,
+Ireton and Fleetwood, he visited the army, inquired
+<span class="sidenote">Parliament and the army.</span>
+into and reported on the grievances, and endeavoured
+to persuade them to submit to the parliament. &ldquo;If
+that authority falls to nothing,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;nothing can follow
+but confusion.&rdquo; The Presbyterians, however, now engaged in
+a plan for restoring the king under their own control, and by the
+means of a Scottish army, forced on their policy, and on the 27th
+of May ordered the immediate disbandment of the army, without
+any guarantee for the payment of arrears. A mutiny was the
+consequence. The soldiers refused to disband, and on the 3rd of
+June Cromwell, whom, it was believed, the parliament intended
+to arrest, joined the army. &ldquo;If he would not forthwith come
+and lead them,&rdquo; they had told him, &ldquo;they would go their own
+way without him.&rdquo; The supremacy of the army without a
+guiding hand meant anarchy, that of the Presbyterians the
+outbreak of another civil war.</p>
+
+<p>Possession of the king&rsquo;s person now became an important
+consideration. On the 31st of May 1647 Cromwell had ordered
+Cornet Joyce to prevent the king&rsquo;s removal by the parliament
+or the Scots from Holmby, and Joyce by his own authority
+and with the king&rsquo;s consent brought him to Newmarket to the
+headquarters of the army. Cromwell soon restored order, and
+the representative council, including privates as well as officers
+chosen to negotiate with the parliament, was subordinated
+to the council of war. The army with Cromwell then advanced
+towards London. In a letter to the city, possibly written by
+Cromwell himself, the officers repudiated any wish to alter the
+civil government or upset the establishment of Presbyterianism,
+but demanded religious toleration. Subsequently, in the
+declaration of the 14th of June, arbitrary power either in the
+parliament or in the king was denounced, and demand was made
+for a representative parliament, the speedy termination of the
+actual assembly, and the recognition of the right to petition.
+Cromwell used his influence in restraining the more eager who
+wished to march on London immediately, and in avoiding the
+use of force by which nothing permanent could be effected,
+urging that &ldquo;whatsoever we get by treaty will be firm and durable.
+It will be conveyed over to posterity.&rdquo; The army faction
+gradually gathered strength in the parliament. Eleven Presbyterian
+leaders impeached by the army withdrew of their own
+accord on the 26th of June, and the parliament finally yielded.
+Fairfax was appointed sole commander-in-chief on the 19th of
+July, the soldiers levied to oppose the army were dismissed,
+and the command of the city militia was again restored to the
+committee approved by the army. These votes, however, were
+cancelled later, on the 26th of July, under the pressure of the
+royalist city mob which invaded the two Houses; but the two
+speakers, with eight peers and fifty-seven members of the
+Commons, themselves joined the army, which now advanced to
+London, overawing all resistance, escorting the fugitive members
+in triumph to Westminster on the 6th of August, and obliging
+the parliament on the 20th to cancel the last votes, with the
+threat of a regiment of cavalry drawn up by Cromwell in Hyde
+Park.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell and the army now turned with hopes of a settlement
+to Charles. On the 4th of July Cromwell had had an interview
+with the king at Caversham. He was not insensible to Charles&rsquo;s
+good qualities, was touched by the paternal affection he showed
+for his children, and is said to have declared that Charles &ldquo;was the
+uprightest and most conscientious man of his three kingdoms.&rdquo;
+The <i>Heads of the Proposals</i>, which, on Charles raising objections,
+had been modified by the influence of Cromwell and Ireton,
+demanded the control of the militia and the choice of ministers
+by parliament for ten years, a religious toleration, and a council
+of state to which much of the royal control over the army and
+foreign policy would be delegated. These proposals without
+doubt largely diminished the royal power, and were rejected by
+Charles with the hope of maintaining his sovereign rights by
+&ldquo;playing a game,&rdquo; to use his own words, <i>i.e.</i> by negotiating
+simultaneously with army and parliament, by inflaming their
+jealousies and differences, and finally by these means securing
+his restoration with his full prerogatives unimpaired. On the
+9th of September Charles refused once mere the <i>Newcastle
+Propositions</i> offered him by the parliament, and Cromwell,
+together with Ireton and Vane, obtained the passing of a motion
+for a new application; but the terms asked by the parliament
+were higher than before and included a harsh condition&mdash;the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span>
+exclusion from pardon of all the king&rsquo;s leading adherents, besides
+the indefinite establishment of Presbyterianism and the refusal of
+toleration to the Roman Catholics and members of the Church
+of England.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the failure to come to terms with Charles and
+provide a settlement appeared to threaten a general anarchy.
+Cromwell&rsquo;s moderate counsels created distrust in his good faith
+amongst the soldiers, who accused him of &ldquo;prostituting the
+liberties and persons of all the people at the foot of the king&rsquo;s
+interest.&rdquo; The agitators demanded immediate settlement
+by force by the army. The extreme republicans, anticipating
+Rousseau, put forward the <i>Agreement of the People</i>. This was
+strongly opposed by Cromwell, who declared the very consideration
+of it had dangers, that it would bring upon the country
+&ldquo;utter confusion&rdquo; and &ldquo;make England like Switzerland.&rdquo;
+Universal suffrage he rejected as tending &ldquo;very much to
+anarchy,&rdquo; spoke against the hasty abolition of either the
+monarchy or the Lords, and refused entirely to consider the
+abstract principles brought into the debate. Political problems
+were not to be so resolved, but practically. With Cromwell as
+with Burke the question was &ldquo;whether the spirit of the people
+of this nation is prepared to go along with it.&rdquo; The special
+form of government was not the important point, but its possibility
+and its acceptability. The great problem was to found
+a stable government, an authority to keep order. If every man
+should fight for the best form of government the state would
+come to desolation. He reproached the soldiers for their insubordination
+against their officers, and the army for its rebellion
+against the parliament. He would lay hold of anything &ldquo;if
+it had but the force of authority,&rdquo; rather than have none.
+Cromwell&rsquo;s influence prevailed and these extreme proposals
+were laid aside.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile all hopes of an accommodation with Charles were
+dispelled by his flight on the 11th of November from Hampton
+Court to Carisbroke Castle in the Isle of Wight, his
+object being to negotiate independently with the
+<span class="sidenote">Flight of the king.</span>
+Scots, the parliament and the army. His action,
+however, in the event, diminished rather than increased
+his chances of success, owing to the distrust of his intentions
+which it inspired. Both the army and the parliament gave
+cold replies to his offers to negotiate; and Charles, on the 27th
+of December 1647, entered into the <i>Engagement</i> with the Scots
+by which he promised the establishment of Presbyterianism for
+three years, the suppression of the Independents and their sects,
+together with privileges for the Scottish nobles, while the Scots
+undertook to invade England and restore him to his throne.
+This alliance, though the exact terms were not known to Cromwell&mdash;&ldquo;the
+attempt to vassalize us to a foreign nation,&rdquo; to use his
+own words&mdash;convinced him of the uselessness of any plan for
+maintaining Charles on the throne; though he still appears to
+have clung to monarchy, proposing in January 1648 the transference
+of the crown to the prince of Wales. A week after the
+signing of the treaty he supported a proposal for the king&rsquo;s
+deposition, and the vote of <i>No Addresses</i> was carried. Meanwhile
+the position of Charles&rsquo;s opponents had been considerably
+strengthened by the suppression of a dangerous rebellion in
+November 1647 by Cromwell&rsquo;s intervention, and by the return
+of troops to obedience. Cromwell&rsquo;s difficulties, however, were
+immense. His moderate and trimming attitude was understood
+neither by the extreme Independents nor by the Presbyterians.
+He made one attempt to reconcile the disputes between the army
+and the politicians by a conference, but ended the barren discussion
+on the relative merits of aristocracies, monarchies and
+democracies, interspersed with Bible texts, by throwing a
+cushion at the speaker&rsquo;s head and running downstairs. On the
+19th of January 1648 Cromwell was accused of high treason by
+Lilburne. Plots were formed for his assassination. He was
+overtaken by a dangerous illness, and on the 2nd of March civil
+war in support of the king broke out.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell left London in May to suppress the royalists in Wales,
+and took Pembroke Castle on the 11th of July. Meanwhile
+behind his back the royalists had risen all over England, the
+fleet in the Downs had declared for Charles, and the Scottish
+army under Hamilton had invaded the north. Immediately
+on the fall of Pembroke Cromwell set out to relieve Lambert,
+who was slowly retreating before Hamilton&rsquo;s superior forces;
+he joined him near Knaresborough on the 12th of August, and
+started next day in pursuit of Hamilton in Lancashire, placing
+himself at Stonyhurst near Preston, cutting off Hamilton from
+the north and his allies, and defeating him in detail on the
+17th, 18th and 19th at Preston and at Warrington. He then
+marched north into Scotland, following the forces of Monro,
+and established a new government of the Argyle faction at
+Edinburgh; replying to the Independents who disapproved
+of his mild treatment of the Presbyterians, that he desired
+&ldquo;union and right understanding between the godly people,
+Scots, English, Jews, Gentiles, Presbyterians, Anabaptists and
+all; ... a more glorious work in our eyes than if we had gotten
+the sacking and plunder of Edinburgh ... and made a conquest
+from the Tweed to the Orcades.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The incident of the Second Civil War and the treaty with the
+Scots exasperated Cromwell against the king. On his return
+to London he found the parliament again negotiating
+with Charles, and on the eve of making a treaty which
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell supports the Remonstrance.</span>
+Charles himself had no intention of keeping and
+regarded merely as a means of regaining his power,
+and which would have thrown away in one moment
+all the advantages gained during years of bloodshed and struggle.
+Cromwell therefore did not hesitate to join the army in its
+opposition to the parliament, and supported the Remonstrance
+of the troops (20th of November 1648), which included the
+demand for the king&rsquo;s punishment as &ldquo;the grand author of all
+our troubles,&rdquo; and justified the use of force by the army if other
+means failed. The parliament, however, continued to negotiate,
+and accordingly Charles was removed by the army to Hurst
+Castle on the 1st of December, the troops occupied London on
+the 2nd; while on the 6th and 7th Colonel Pride &ldquo;purged&rdquo;
+the House of Commons of the Presbyterians. Cromwell was
+not the originator of this act, but showed his approval of it by
+taking his seat among the fifty or sixty Independent members
+who remained.</p>
+
+<p>The disposal of the king was now the great question to be
+decided. During the next few weeks Cromwell appears to have
+made once more attempts to come to terms with Charles; but
+the king was inflexible in his refusal to part with the essential
+powers of the monarchy, or with the Church; and at the end
+of December it was resolved to bring him to trial. The exact
+share which Cromwell had in this decision and its sequel is
+obscure, and the later accounts of the regicides when on their
+trial at the Restoration, ascribing the whole transaction to his
+initiation and agency, cannot be altogether accepted. But it
+is plain that, once convinced of the necessity for the king&rsquo;s
+execution, he was the chief instrument in overcoming all scruples
+among his judges, and in resisting the protests and appeals of
+the Scots. To Algernon Sidney, who refused to take part in
+proceedings on the plea that neither the king nor any man could
+be tried by such a court, Cromwell replied, &ldquo;I tell you, we will
+cut off his head with the crown upon it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The execution of the king took place on the 30th of January
+1649. This event, the turning-point in Cromwell&rsquo;s career, casts
+a shadow, from one point of view, over the whole of
+his future statesmanship. He himself never repented
+<span class="sidenote">The execution of Charles I.</span>
+of the act, regarding it, on the contrary, as &ldquo;one which
+Christians in after times will mention with honour and
+all tyrants in the world look at with fear,&rdquo; and as one directly
+ordained by God. Opinions, no doubt, will always differ as to
+the wisdom or authority of the policy which brought Charles
+to the scaffold. On the one hand, there was no law except that
+of force by which an offence could be attributed to the sovereign,
+the anointed king, the source of justice. The ordinance establishing
+the special tribunal for the trial was passed by a remnant
+of the House of Commons alone, from which all dissentients
+were excluded by the army. The tribunal was composed, not
+of judges&mdash;for all unanimously refused to sit on it&mdash;but of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span>
+fifty-two men drawn from among the king&rsquo;s enemies. The
+execution was a military and not a national act, and at the last
+scene on the scaffold the triumphant shouts of the soldiery could
+not overwhelm the groans and sobs raised by the populace.
+Whatever crimes might be charged against Charles, his past
+conduct might appear to be condoned by the act of negotiating
+with him. On the other hand, the execution seemed to Cromwell
+the only alternative to anarchy, or to a return to despotism and
+the abandonment of all they had fought for. Cromwell had
+exhausted every expedient for arriving at an arrangement with
+the king by which the royal authority might be preserved, and
+the repeated perfidy and inexhaustible shiftiness of Charles had
+proved the hopelessness of such attempts. The results produced
+by the king&rsquo;s execution were far-reaching and permanent. It
+is true that Puritan austerity and the lack of any strong central
+authority after Oliver&rsquo;s death produced a reaction which
+temporarily restored Charles&rsquo;s dynasty to the throne; but it is
+not less true that the execution of the king, at a later time when
+all over Europe absolute monarchies &ldquo;by divine right&rdquo; were
+being established on the ruins of the ancient popular constitutions,
+was an object lesson to all the world; and it produced a
+profound effect, not only in establishing constitutional monarchy
+in Great Britain after James II., with the dread of his father&rsquo;s
+fate before him, had abdicated by flight, but in giving the
+impulse to that revolt against the idea of &ldquo;the divinity that doth
+hedge a king&rdquo; which culminated in the Revolution of 1789, and
+of which the mighty effects are still evident in Europe and
+beyond.</p>
+
+<p>The king and the monarchy being now destroyed in England,
+Cromwell had next to turn his attention to the suppression of
+royalism in Ireland and in Scotland. In Ireland
+Ormonde had succeeded in uniting the English and the
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell in Ireland.</span>
+Irish in a league against the supporters of the parliament,
+and only a few scattered forts held out for the
+Commonwealth, while the young king was every day expected
+to land and complete the conquest of the island. Accordingly
+in March 1649 Cromwell was appointed lord-lieutenant and commander-in-chief
+for its reduction. But before starting he was
+called upon to suppress disorder at home. He treated the
+Levellers with some severity and showed his instinctive dislike
+to revolutionary proposals. &ldquo;Did not that levelling principle,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;tend to the reducing of all to an equality? What was
+the purport of it but to make the tenant as liberal a fortune as
+the landlord, which I think if obtained would not have lasted
+long.&rdquo; Equally characteristic was his treatment of the mutinous
+army, in which he suppressed a rebellion in May. He landed at
+Dublin on the 13th of August. Before his arrival the Dublin
+garrison had defeated Ormonde with a loss of 5000 men, and
+Cromwell&rsquo;s work was limited to the capture of detached fortresses.
+On the 10th of September he stormed Drogheda, and by his order
+the whole of its 2800 defenders were put to the sword without
+quarter. Cromwell, who was as a rule especially scrupulous
+in protecting non-combatants from violence, justified his severity
+in this case by the cruelties perpetrated by the Irish in the
+rebellion of 1641, and as being necessary on military and political
+grounds in that it &ldquo;would tend to prevent the effusion of blood
+for the future, which were the satisfactory grounds of such actions
+which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret.&rdquo; After
+the fall of Drogheda Cromwell sent a few troops to relieve
+Londonderry, and marched himself to Wexford, which he took
+on the 11th of October, and where similar scenes of cruelty were
+repeated; every captured priest, to use Cromwell&rsquo;s own words,
+being immediately &ldquo;knocked on the head,&rdquo; though the story of
+the three hundred women slaughtered in the market-place has
+no foundation.</p>
+
+<p>The surrender of Trim, Dundalk and Ross followed, but at
+Waterford Cromwell met with a stubborn resistance and the
+advent of winter obliged him to raise the siege. Next year
+Cromwell penetrated into Munster. Cashel, Cahir and several
+castles fell in February, and Kilkenny in March; Clonmel
+repulsing the assault with great loss, but surrendering on the
+10th of May 1650. Cromwell himself sailed a fortnight later,
+leaving the reduction of the island, which was completed in
+1652, to his generals. The re-settlement of the conquered and
+devastated country was now organized on the Tudor and Straffordian
+basis of colonization from England, conversion to Protestantism,
+and establishment of law and order. Cromwell
+thoroughly approved of the enormous scheme of confiscation
+and colonization, causing great privations and sufferings, which
+was carried out. The Roman Catholic landowners lost their
+estates, all or part according to their degree of guilt, and these
+were distributed among Cromwell&rsquo;s soldiers and the creditors
+of the government; Cromwell also invited new settlers from
+home and from New England, two-thirds of the whole land of
+Ireland being thus transferred to new proprietors. The suppression
+of Roman Catholicism was zealously pursued by
+Cromwell; the priests were hunted down and imprisoned or
+exiled to Spain or Barbados, the mass was everywhere forbidden,
+and the only liberty allowed was that of conscience, the Romanist
+not being obliged to attend Protestant services.</p>
+
+<p>These methods, together with education, &ldquo;assiduous preaching
+... humanity, good life, equal and honest dealing with men of
+different opinion,&rdquo; Cromwell thought, would convert the whole
+island to Protestantism. The law was ably and justly administered,
+and Irish trade was admitted to the same privileges
+as English, enjoying the same rights in foreign and colonial trade;
+and no attempt was made to subordinate the interests of the
+former to the latter, which was the policy adopted both before
+and after Cromwell&rsquo;s time, while the union of Irish and English
+interests was further recognized by the Irish representation at
+Westminster in the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and 1659. These
+advantages, however, scarcely benefited at all the Irish Roman
+Catholics, who were excluded from political life and from the
+corporate towns; and Cromwell&rsquo;s union meant little more than
+the union of the English colony in Ireland with England. A
+just administration, too, did not compensate for unjust laws
+or produce contentment; the policy of conversion and colonization
+was unsuccessful, the descendants of many of Cromwell&rsquo;s
+soldiers becoming merged in the Roman Catholic Irish, and the
+union with England, political and commercial, being extinguished
+at the Restoration. Cromwell&rsquo;s land settlement&mdash;modified by the
+restoration under Charles II. of about one-third of the estates
+to the royalists&mdash;survived, and added to the difficulties with
+which the English government was afterwards confronted in
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Cromwell had hurried home to deal with the
+royalists in Scotland. He urged Fairfax to attack the Scots
+at once in their own country and to forestall their
+invasion; but Fairfax refused and resigned, and
+<span class="sidenote">The battles of Dunbar and Worcester.</span>
+Cromwell was appointed by parliament, on the 26th
+of June 1650, commander-in-chief of all the forces
+of the Commonwealth. He entered Scotland in July,
+and after a campaign in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh which
+proved unsuccessful in drawing out the Scots from their fortresses,
+he retreated to Dunbar to await reinforcements from Berwick.
+The Scots under Leslie followed him, occupied Doon Hill commanding
+the town, and seized the passes between Dunbar and
+Berwick which Cromwell had omitted to secure. Cromwell was
+outman&oelig;uvred and in a perilous situation, completely cut off
+from England and from his supplies except from the sea. But
+Leslie descended the hill to complete his triumph, and Cromwell
+immediately observed the disadvantages of his antagonist&rsquo;s
+new position, cramped by the hill behind and separated from
+his left wing. A stubborn struggle on the next day, the 3rd of
+September, gave Cromwell a decisive victory. Advancing, he
+occupied Edinburgh and Leith. At first it seemed likely that his
+victories and subsequent remonstrances would effect a peace
+with the Scots; but by 1651 Charles II. had succeeded in forming
+a new union of royalists and presbyterians, and another campaign
+became inevitable. Some delay was caused in beginning operations
+by Cromwell&rsquo;s dangerous illness, during which his life was
+despaired of; but in June he was confronting Leslie entrenched
+in the hills near Stirling, impregnable to attack and refusing
+an engagement. Cromwell determined to turn his antagonist&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span>
+position. He sent 14,000 men into Fifeshire and marched to
+Perth, which he captured on the 2nd of August, thus cutting off
+Leslie from the north and his supplies. This movement, however,
+left open the way to England, and Charles immediately marched
+south, in reality thus giving Cromwell the wished-for opportunity
+of crushing the royalists finally and decisively. Cromwell
+followed through Yorkshire, and uniting with Lambert and
+Harrison at Evesham proceeded to attack the royalists at
+Worcester; where on the 3rd of September after a fierce struggle
+the great victory, &ldquo;the crowning mercy&rdquo; which terminated the
+Civil War, was obtained over Charles.</p>
+
+<p>Monk completed the subjugation of Scotland by 1654. The
+settlement here was made on more moderate lines than in Ireland.
+The estates of only twenty-four leaders of the defeated cause
+were forfeited by Cromwell, and the national church was left
+untouched though deprived of all powers of interference with the
+civil government, the general assembly being dissolved in 1653.
+Large steps were made towards the union of the two kingdoms
+by the representation of Scotland in the parliament at Westminster;
+free trade between the two countries was established,
+the administration of justice greatly improved, vassalage and
+heritable jurisdictions abolished, and security and good order
+maintained by the council of nine appointed by the Protector.
+In 1658 the improved condition of Scotland was the subject of
+Cromwell&rsquo;s special congratulation in addressing parliament.
+But as in Ireland so Cromwell&rsquo;s policy in Scotland was unpopular
+and was only upheld by the maintenance of a large army,
+necessitating heavy taxation and implying the loss of the national
+independence. It also vanished at the Restoration.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th of September 1651 Cromwell made his triumphal
+entry into London at the conclusion of his victorious campaigns;
+and parliament granted him Hampton Court as a residence
+with Ł4000 a year. These triumphs, however, had all been
+obtained by force of arms; the more difficult task now awaited
+Cromwell of governing England by parliament and by law.
+As Milton wrote:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Cromwell! our chief of men, who through a cloud</p>
+  <p class="i2">Not of war only, but detractions rude,</p>
+  <p class="i2">Guided by faith and matchless fortitude,</p>
+  <p class="i2">To peace and truth thy glorious way hast ploughed,</p>
+  <p class="i2"> &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; ... Peace hath her victories</p>
+  <p class="i2">No less renowned than war.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s moderation and freedom from imperiousness were
+acknowledged even by those least friendly to his principles.
+Although the idol of his victorious army, and in a position
+enabling him to exercise autocratic power, he laboured unostentatiously
+for more than a year and a half as a member
+of the parliament, whose authority he supported to the best of
+his ability. While occupied with work on committees and in
+administration he pressed forward several schemes of reform,
+including a large measure of law reform prepared by a commission
+presided over by Matthew Hale, and the settlement of
+the church; but very little was accomplished by the parliament,
+which seemed to be almost exclusively taken up with the
+maintenance and increase of its own powers; and Cromwell&rsquo;s
+dissatisfaction, and that of the army which increased every
+day, was intensified by the knowledge that the parliament,
+instead of dissolving for a new election, was seeking to perpetuate
+its tenure of power. At length, in April 1653, a &ldquo;bill for a new
+representation&rdquo; was discussed, which provided for the retention
+of their seats by the existing members without re-election, so
+that they would also be the sole judges of the eligibility of the
+rest. This measure, which placed the whole powers of the state&mdash;executive,
+legislative, military and judicial&mdash;in the hands of
+one irresponsible and permanent chamber, &ldquo;the horridest
+arbitrariness that ever was exercised in the world,&rdquo; Cromwell
+and the army determined to resist at all costs. On the 15th of
+April they proposed that the parliament should appoint a
+provisional government and dissolve itself. This compromise
+was refused by the parliament, which proceeded on the 20th to
+press through its last stages the &ldquo;bill for a new representation.&rdquo;
+Cromwell hastened to the House, and at the last moment, on
+the bill being put to the vote, whispering to Harrison, &ldquo;This is
+the time; I must do it,&rdquo; he rose, and after alluding to the
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell expels the Long Parliament.</span>
+former good services of the parliament, proceeded to
+overwhelm the members with reproaches. Striding up
+and down the House in a passion, he made no attempt
+to control himself, and turning towards individuals
+as he hurled significant epithets at each, he called
+some &ldquo;whoremasters,&rdquo; others &ldquo;drunkards, corrupt, unjust,
+scandalous to the profession of the Gospel.&rdquo; &ldquo;Perhaps you
+think,&rdquo; he exclaimed, &ldquo;that this is not parliamentary language;
+I confess it is not, neither are you to expect any such from me.&rdquo;
+In reply to a complaint of his violence he cried, &ldquo;Come, come,
+I will put an end to your prating. You are no parliament, I
+say you are no parliament. I will put an end to your sitting.&rdquo;
+By his directions Harrison then fetched in a small band of
+Cromwell&rsquo;s musketeers and compelled the speaker Lenthall to
+vacate the chair. Looking at the mace he said, &ldquo;What shall
+we do with this bauble?&rdquo; and ordered a soldier to take it away.
+The members then trooped out, Cromwell crying after them,
+&ldquo;It is you that have forced me to this; for I have sought the
+Lord night and day that He would rather slay me than put me
+upon the doing this work.&rdquo; He then snatched the obnoxious
+bill from the clerk, put it under his cloak, and commanding the
+doors to be locked went back to Whitehall. In the afternoon
+he dissolved the council in spite of John Bradshaw&rsquo;s remonstrances,
+who said, &ldquo;Sir, we have heard what you did at
+the House this morning...; but you are mistaken to think
+that the parliament is dissolved, for no power under heaven can
+dissolve them but themselves; therefore take you notice of
+that.&rdquo; Cromwell had no patience with formal pedantry of this
+sort; and in point of strict legality &ldquo;The Rump&rdquo; of the Long
+Parliament had little better title to authority than the officers
+who expelled it from the House. After this Cromwell had
+nothing left but the army with which to govern, and &ldquo;henceforth
+his life was a vain attempt to clothe that force in constitutional
+forms, and make it seem something else so that it might become
+something else.&rdquo;<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>By the dissolution of the Long Parliament Cromwell as
+commander-in-chief was left the sole authority in the state.
+He determined immediately to summon another parliament.
+This was the &ldquo;Little&rdquo; or &ldquo;Barebones Parliament,&rdquo; consisting of
+one hundred and forty persons selected by the council of officers
+from among those nominated by the congregations in each
+county, which met on the 4th of July 1653. This assembly,
+however, soon showed itself impracticable and incapable, and
+on the 12th of December the speaker, followed by the more
+moderate members, marched to Whitehall and returned their
+powers to Cromwell, while the rest were expelled by the
+army.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell, who had no desire to exercise arbitrary power
+and whose main object therefore was to devise some constitutional
+limit to the authority which circumstances had placed in
+his hands, now accepted the written constitution drawn up by
+some of the officers, called the <i>Instrument of Government</i>, the
+earliest example of a &ldquo;fixed government&rdquo; based on &ldquo;fundamentals,&rdquo;
+or constitutional guarantees, and the only example
+of it in English history. Its authors had wished Oliver to assume
+the title of king, but this he repeatedly refused; and in the
+instrument he was named Protector, a parliament was established,
+limited in powers but whose measures were not restricted
+by the Protector&rsquo;s veto unless they contravened the constitution,
+the Protector&rsquo;s executive power being also limited by the council.
+The Protector and the council together were given a life tenure of
+office, with a large army and a settled revenue sufficient for public
+needs in time of peace; while the clauses relating to religion
+&ldquo;are remarkable as laying down for the first time with authority
+a principle of toleration,&rdquo;<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> though this toleration did not apply
+to Roman Catholics and Anglicans. On the 16th of December
+1653 Cromwell was installed in his new office, dressed as a civilian
+in a plain black coat instead of in scarlet as a general, in order
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span>
+to demonstrate that military government had given place to
+civil; for he approached his task in the same spirit that had
+prompted his declaration to the Little Parliament of his
+wish &ldquo;to divest the sword of all power in the Civil administration.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the interval between his nomination as Protector and the
+summoning of his first parliament in September 1654, Cromwell
+was empowered together with his council to legislate by
+ordinances; and eighty-two were issued in all, dealing
+<span class="sidenote">The government of the Protector.</span>
+with numerous and various reforms and including
+the reorganization of the treasury, the settlement
+of Ireland and Scotland and the union of the three
+kingdoms, the relief of poor prisoners, and the maintenance of
+the highways. These ordinances in many instances showed the
+hand of the true statesman. Cromwell was essentially a conservative
+reformer; in his attempts to purge the court of
+chancery of its most flagrant abuses, and to settle the ecclesiastical
+affairs of the nation, he showed himself anxious to retain as
+much of the existing system as could be left untouched without
+doing positive evil. He was out-voted by his council on the
+question of commutation of tithes, and his enlightened zeal for
+reforming the &ldquo;wicked and abominable&rdquo; sentences of the
+criminal law met with complete failure. Most of these ordinances
+were subsequently confirmed by parliament, and, &ldquo;on the whole,
+this body of dictatorial legislation, abnormal in form as it is,
+in substance was a real, wise and moderate set of reforms.&rdquo;<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+His ordinances for the &ldquo;Reformation of Manners,&rdquo; the product
+of the puritan spirit, had but a transitory effect. The Long
+Parliament had ordered a strict observance of Sunday, punished
+swearing severely, and made adultery a capital crime; Cromwell
+issued further ordinances against duelling, swearing, race-meetings
+and cock-fights&mdash;the last as tending to the disturbance
+of the public peace and the encouragement of &ldquo;dissolute
+practices to the dishonour of God.&rdquo; Cromwell himself was
+no ascetic and saw no harm in honest sport. He was exceedingly
+fond of horses and hunting, leaping ditches prudently avoided
+by the foreign ambassadors. Baxter describes him as full of
+animal spirits, &ldquo;naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity and
+alacrity as another man is when he hath drunken a cup of wine
+too much,&rdquo; and notes his &ldquo;familiar rustic carriage with his
+soldiers in sporting.&rdquo; He was fond of music and of art, and kept
+statues in Hampton Court Gardens which scandalized good
+puritans. He preferred that Englishmen should be free rather
+than sober by compulsion. Writing to the Scottish clergy, and
+rejecting their claim to suppress dissent in order to extirpate
+error, he said, &ldquo;Your pretended fear lest error should step in
+is like the man who would keep all wine out of the country lest
+men should be drunk. It will be found an unjust and unwise
+jealousy to deprive a man of his natural liberty upon a supposition
+he may abuse it. When he doth abuse it, judge.&rdquo; It
+is probable that very little of this moral legislation was enforced
+in practice, though special efforts were made under the government
+of the major-generals. Cromwell expected more results
+from the effects of education and culture. A part of the revenue
+of confiscated church lands was allotted to the maintenance of
+schools, and the question of national education was seriously
+taken in hand by the Commonwealth. Cromwell was especially
+interested in the universities. In 1649 he had been elected
+D.C.L. at Oxford, and in 1651 chancellor of the University, an
+office which he held till 1657, when he was succeeded by his son
+Richard. He founded a new readership in Divinity, and presented
+Greek MSS. to the Bodleian. He appointed visitors
+for the universities and great public schools, and defended the
+universities from the attacks of the extreme sectaries who
+clamoured for their abolition, even Clarendon allowing that
+Oxford &ldquo;yielded a harvest of extraordinary good and sound
+knowledge in all parts of learning.&rdquo; In 1657 he founded a new
+university at Durham, which was suppressed at the Restoration.
+He patronized learning. Milton and Marvell were his secretaries.
+He allowed the royalists Hobbes and Cowley to return to England,
+and lived in friendship with the poet Waller.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s religious policy included the maintenance of a
+national church, a policy acceptable to the army but much
+disliked by the Scots, who wanted the church to
+control the state, not the state the church. He
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell&rsquo;s church policy.</span>
+improved the incomes of poor livings by revenues
+derived from episcopal estates and the fines of delinquents.
+An important feature of his church government was
+the appointment on the 20th of March 1654 of the &ldquo;Triers,&rdquo;
+thirty-eight clerical and lay commissioners, who decided upon
+the qualifications of candidates for livings, and without whose
+recommendation none could be appointed; while an ordinance
+of August 1654 provided for the removal of the unfit, the latter
+class including besides immoral persons those holding &ldquo;popish&rdquo;
+or blasphemous opinions, those publicly using the English
+Prayer Book, and the disaffected to the government. Religious
+toleration was granted, but with the important exception that
+some harsh measures were enacted against Anglicans and
+Roman Catholics, to neither of whom was liberty of worship
+accorded. The acts imposing fines for recusancy, repealed in
+1650, were later executed with great severity. In 1655 a proclamation
+was issued for administering the laws against the
+priests and Jesuits, and some executions were carried out.
+Complete toleration in fact was only extended to Protestant
+nonconformists, who composed the Cromwellian established
+church, and who now meted out to their antagonists the same
+treatment which they themselves were later to receive under the
+<i>Clarendon Code</i> of Charles II.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell himself, however, remained throughout a staunch
+and constant upholder of religious toleration. &ldquo;I had rather
+that Mahommedanism were permitted amongst us,&rdquo;
+he avowed, &ldquo;than that one of God&rsquo;s children should
+<span class="sidenote">His religious toleration.</span>
+be persecuted.&rdquo; Far in advance of his contemporaries
+on this question, whenever his personal action is
+disclosed it is invariably on the side of forbearance and of
+moderation. It is probable, from the absence of evidence to
+the contrary, that much of this severe legislation was never
+executed, and it was without doubt Cromwell&rsquo;s restraining
+hand which moderated the narrow persecuting spirit of the
+executive. In practice Anglican private worship appears to have
+been little interfered with; and although the recusant fines were
+rigorously exacted, the same seems to have been the case with
+the private celebration of the mass. Bordeaux, the French
+envoy in England, wrote that, in spite of the severe laws, the
+Romanists received better treatment under the Protectorate
+than under any other government. Cromwell&rsquo;s strong personal
+inclination towards toleration is clearly seen in his treatment of
+the Jews and Quakers. He was unable, owing to the opposition
+of the divines and of the merchants, to secure the full recognition
+of the right to reside in England of the former who had for
+some time lived in small numbers and traded unnoticed and
+untroubled in the country; but he obtained an opinion from
+two judges that there was no law which forbade their return, and
+he gave them a private assurance of his protection, with leave
+to celebrate their private worship and to possess a cemetery.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s policy in this instance was not overturned at
+the Restoration, and the great Jewish immigration into England
+with all its important consequences may be held to date practically
+from these first concessions made by Cromwell. His
+personal intervention also alleviated the condition of the Quakers,
+much persecuted at this time. In an interview in 1654 the
+sincerity and enthusiasm of George Fox had greatly moved
+Cromwell and had convinced him of their freedom from dangerous
+political schemes. He ordered Fox&rsquo;s liberation, and in November
+1657 issued a general order directing that Quakers should be
+treated with leniency, and be discharged from confinement.
+Doctrines directly attacking Christianity Cromwell regarded,
+indeed, as outside toleration and to be punished by the civil
+power, but at the same time he mitigated the severity of the
+penalty ordained by the law. In general the toleration enjoyed
+under Cromwell was probably far larger than at any period
+since religion became the contending ground of political parties,
+and certainly greater than under his immediate successors.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span>
+Lilburne and the anabaptists, and John Rogers and the Fifth
+Monarchy men, were prosecuted only on account of their direct
+attacks upon the government, and Cromwell in his broad-minded
+and tolerant statesmanship was himself in advance of
+his age and his administration. He believed in the spiritual and
+unseen rather than in the outward and visible unity of
+Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>In foreign policy Cromwell&rsquo;s chief aims appear to have been
+to support and extend the Protestant faith, to promote English
+trade, and to prevent a Stuart restoration by foreign
+aid&mdash;the religious mission of England in the world,
+<span class="sidenote">Foreign policy.</span>
+her commercial interests, and her political independence
+being indissolubly connected in his mind. The beginning of his
+rule inherited a war with France and Holland; the former consequent
+on Cromwell&rsquo;s failure to obtain terms for the Huguenots
+or the cession of Dunkirk, and the latter&mdash;for which he was not
+responsible&mdash;the result of commercial rivalry, of disputes concerning
+the rights of neutrals, of bitter memories of Dutch misdeeds
+in the East Indies, and of dynastic causes arising from the stadtholder,
+William II. of Orange, having married Mary, daughter
+of Charles I. In 1651 the Dutch completed a treaty with Denmark
+to injure English trade in the Baltic; to which England
+replied the same year by the Navigation Act, which suppressed
+the Dutch trade with the English colonies and the Dutch fish
+trade with England, and struck at the Dutch carrying trade.
+War was declared in May 1652 after a fight between Blake and
+Tromp off Dover, and was continued with signal victories and
+defeats on both sides till 1654. The religious element, however,
+which predominated in Cromwell&rsquo;s foreign policy inclined him
+to peace, and in April of that year terms were arranged by which
+England on the whole was decidedly the gainer. The Dutch
+acknowledged the supremacy of the English flag in the British seas,
+which Tromp had before refused; they accepted the Navigation
+Act, and undertook privately to exclude the princes of Orange
+from the command of their forces. The Protestant policy was
+further followed up by treaties with Sweden and Denmark which
+secured the passage of the Sound for English ships on the same
+conditions as the Dutch, and a treaty with Portugal which liberated
+English subjects from the Inquisition and allowed commerce
+with the Portuguese colonies. The two great Roman Catholic
+powers now both bid for Cromwell&rsquo;s alliance. Cromwell wisely
+inclined towards France, for Spain was then a greater menace
+than France alike to the Protestant cause and to the growth
+of British trade in the western hemisphere; but as no concessions
+could be gained from either France or Spain, the year 1654
+closed without a treaty being made with either. In December
+1654 Penn and Venables sailed for the West Indies with orders
+to attack the Spanish colonies and the French shipping; and
+for the first time since the Plantagenets an English fleet appeared
+in the Mediterranean, where Blake upheld the supremacy of
+the English flag, made a treaty with the dey of Algiers, destroyed
+the castles and ships of the dey of Tunis at Porto Farina on the
+4th of April 1655, and liberated the English prisoners captured
+by the pirates.</p>
+
+<p>The incident of the massacre of the Protestant Vaudois at
+this time decided Cromwell&rsquo;s policy in favour of France. In
+response to Cromwell&rsquo;s splendid championship of the persecuted
+people&mdash;which has been well described as &ldquo;one of the noblest
+memories of England&rdquo;&mdash;France undertook to put pressure upon
+Savoy, in consequence of which the persecution ceased for a
+time; but Cromwell&rsquo;s intervention had less practical effect than
+has generally been supposed, though &ldquo;never was the great
+conception of a powerful state having duties along with interests
+more magnanimously realized.&rdquo;<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The treaty of Pinerolo withdrew
+the edict ordering the persecutions, but they were soon
+afterwards renewed, and in 1658 formed the subject of another
+remonstrance by Cromwell to Louis XIV. in his last extant public
+letter before his death. The treaty of Westminster (24th of
+October 1655) dealt chiefly with commercial subjects, and contained
+a clause promising the expulsion from France of political
+exiles. Meanwhile the West Indian expedition had been defeated
+at Hispaniola, and war was declared by Spain, who now promised
+help to Charles II. for regaining his throne. Cromwell
+sent powerful English fleets to watch the coast of Spain and to
+prevent communications with the West Indies and America;
+on the 8th of September 1656 a fleet of treasure ships was destroyed
+off Cadiz by Stayner, and on the 20th of April 1657
+Blake performed his last exploit in the destruction of the whole
+Spanish fleet of sixteen treasure ships in the harbour of Santa
+Cruz in Teneriffe. These naval victories were followed by a
+further military alliance with France against Spain, termed
+the treaty of Paris (the 23rd of March 1657). Cromwell furnished
+6000 men with a fleet to join in the attack upon Spain in Flanders,
+and obtained as reward Mardyke and Dunkirk, the former being
+captured and handed over on the 3rd of October 1657, and the
+latter after the battle of the Dunes on the 4th of June 1658,
+when Cromwell&rsquo;s Ironsides were once more pitted against English
+royalists fighting for the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the character of Cromwell&rsquo;s policy abroad. The
+inspiring principle had been the defence and support of Protestantism,
+the question with Cromwell being &ldquo;whether the
+Christian world should be all popery.&rdquo; He desired England to
+be everywhere the protector of the oppressed and the upholder of
+&ldquo;true religion.&rdquo; His policy was in principle the policy of
+Elizabeth, of Gustavus Adolphus, and&mdash;in the following generation&mdash;of
+William of Orange. He appreciated, without over-estimating,
+the value of England&rsquo;s insular position. &ldquo;You have
+accounted yourselves happy,&rdquo; he said in January 1658, &ldquo;in
+being environed by a great ditch from all the world beside.
+Truly you will not be able to keep your ditch nor your shipping
+unless you turn your ships and shipping into troops of horse
+and companies of foot, and fight to defend yourselves on <i>terra
+firma</i>.&rdquo; He did not regard himself merely as the trustee of the
+national resources. These were not to be employed for the
+advancement of English interests alone. &ldquo;God&rsquo;s interest in
+the world,&rdquo; he declared, &ldquo;is more extensive than all the people
+of these three nations. God has brought us hither to consider
+the work we may do in the world as well as at home.&rdquo; In 1653
+he had made the astonishing proposal to the Dutch that England
+and Holland should divide the habitable globe outside Europe
+between them, that all states maintaining the Inquisition should
+be treated as enemies by both the proposed allies, and that the
+latter &ldquo;should send missionaries to all peoples willing to receive
+them, to inculcate the truth of Jesus Christ and the Holy Gospel.&rdquo;
+Great writers like Milton and Harrington supported Cromwell&rsquo;s
+view of the duty of a statesman; the poet Waller acclaimed
+Cromwell as &ldquo;the world&rsquo;s protector&rdquo;; but the London tradesmen
+complained of the loss of their Spanish trade and regarded
+Holland and not Spain as the national enemy. But Cromwell&rsquo;s
+dream of putting himself at the head of European Protestantism
+never even approached realization. War broke out between the
+Protestant states of Sweden, Denmark, Holland and Brandenburg,
+with whom religion was entirely subordinated to individual
+aims and interests, and who were far from rising to Cromwell&rsquo;s
+great conceptions; while the Vaudois were soon subjected to
+fresh persecutions. On the other hand, Cromwell could justly
+boast &ldquo;there is not a nation in Europe but is very willing to ask
+a good understanding with you.&rdquo; He raised England to a
+predominant position among the Powers of Europe, and anticipated
+the triumphs of the elder Pitt. &ldquo;It was hard to discover,&rdquo;
+wrote Clarendon, &ldquo;which feared him most, France, Spain or the
+Low Countries.&rdquo; The vigour and success with which he organized
+the national resources and upheld the national honour, asserted
+the British sovereignty of the seas, defended the oppressed, and
+caused his name to be feared and respected in foreign courts
+where that of Stuart was despised and neglected, command praise
+and admiration equally from contemporaries and from modern
+critics, from his friends and from his opponents. &ldquo;He once more
+joined us to the continent,&rdquo; wrote Marvell, while Dryden describes
+him as teaching the British lion to roar. &ldquo;Cromwell&rsquo;s greatness
+at home,&rdquo; said Clarendon, &ldquo;was a mere shadow of his greatness
+abroad.&rdquo; &ldquo;It is strange,&rdquo; wrote Pepys in 1667 under a different
+régime, &ldquo;how everybody nowadays reflect upon Oliver and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span>
+commend him, what brave things he did, and made all the neighbour
+princes fear him.&rdquo; To Cromwell more than to any other
+British ruler belongs the credit of having laid the foundation of
+England&rsquo;s maritime supremacy and of her over-sea empire.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s colonial policy aimed definitely at the recognition
+and extension of the British empire. By March 1652 the whole
+of the territory governed by the Stuarts had submitted
+to the authority of the Commonwealth, and the Navigation
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell and the empire.</span>
+Act of the 9th of October 1651, by which colonial
+goods could only be imported to England in British
+ships and all foreign trade to the colonies was restricted to
+products of the exporting country, sought to bind the colonies
+to England and to support the interests of the shipowners and
+merchants, and therefore of the English maritime supremacy,
+the act being, moreover, memorable as the first public measure
+which treated the colonies as a whole and as an integral part of
+Great Britain. The hindrance, however, to the general development
+of trade which the act involved aroused at once loud
+complaints, to which Cromwell turned a deaf ear, continuing
+to seize Dutch ships trading in forbidden goods. In the internal
+administration of the colonies Cromwell interfered very little,
+maintaining specially friendly relations with the New Englanders,
+and showing no jealousy of their desire for self-government.
+The war with France, Holland and Spain offered opportunities of
+gaining additional territory. A small expedition sent by Cromwell
+in February 1654 to capture New Amsterdam (New York) from
+the Dutch was abandoned on the conclusion of peace, and the
+fleet turned to attack the French colonies; Major Robert Sedgwick
+taking with a handful of men the fort of St John&rsquo;s, Port
+Royal or Annapolis, and the French fort on the river Penobscot,
+the whole territory from this river to the mouth of the St Lawrence
+remaining British territory till its cession in 1667. In December
+1654 Cromwell despatched Penn and Venables with a fleet of
+thirty-eight ships and 2500 soldiers to the West Indies, their
+numbers being raised by recruits at the islands to 7000 men.
+The attack on Hispaniola, however, was a disastrous failure,
+and though a landing at Jamaica and the capture of the capital,
+Santiago de la Vega, was effected, the expedition was almost
+annihilated by disease; and Penn and Venables returned to
+England, when Cromwell threw them into the Tower. Cromwell,
+however, persevered, reminding Fortescue, who was left in command,
+that the war was one against the &ldquo;Roman Babylon,&rdquo;
+that they were &ldquo;fighting the Lord&rsquo;s battles&rdquo;; and he sent out
+reinforcements under Sedgwick, offering inducements to the
+New Englanders to migrate to Jamaica. In spite of almost
+insuperable difficulties the colony took root, trade began, the
+fleet lay in wait for the Spanish treasure ships, the settlements
+of the Spaniards were raided, and their repeated attempts to
+retake the island were successfully resisted. In 1658 Colonel
+Edward Doyley, the governor, gained a decisive victory over
+thirty companies of Spanish foot, and sent ten of their flags to
+Cromwell. The Protector, however, did not live to witness the
+final triumph of his undertaking, which gave to England, as he
+had wished, &ldquo;the mastery of those seas,&rdquo; ensuring the English
+colonies against Spanish attacks, and being maintained and
+followed up at the Restoration.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the first parliament of the Protectorate had met
+in September 1654. A scheme of electoral reform had been
+carried by which members were taken from the small
+and corrupt boroughs and given to the large hitherto
+<span class="sidenote">Parliamentary difficulties.</span>
+unrepresented towns, and which provided for thirty
+representatives from Scotland and from Ireland.
+Instead, however, of proceeding with the work of practical
+legislation, accepting the Instrument of Government without
+challenge as the basis of its authority, the parliament immediately
+began to discuss and find fault with the constitution
+and to debate about &ldquo;Fundamentals.&rdquo; About a hundred
+members who refused to engage not to attempt to change the
+form of government were excluded on the 12th of September.
+The rest sat on, discussing the constitution, drawing up lists of
+damnable heresies and of incontrovertible articles of faith,
+producing plans for the reduction of the army and demanding
+for themselves its control. Incensed by the dilatory and factious
+proceedings of the House, Cromwell dismissed the parliament
+on the 22nd of January 1655. Various dangerous plots against
+his government and person were at this time rife. Vane, Ludlow,
+Robert Overton, Harrison and Major Wildman, the head of the
+Levellers, were all arrested, while the royalist rising under
+Penruddock was crushed in Devonshire. Other attacks upon his
+authority were met with the same resort to force. The judges
+and lawyers began to question the legality of his ordinances,
+and to doubt their competency to convict royalist prisoners of
+treason. A merchant named Cony refused to pay customs not
+imposed by parliament, his counsel declaring their levy by
+ordinance to be contrary to Magna Carta, and Chief Justice
+Rolle resigning in order to avoid giving judgment. Cromwell was
+thus inevitably drawn farther along the path of arbitrary
+government. He arrested the persons who refused to pay taxes,
+and sent Cony&rsquo;s lawyers to the Tower. Hitherto he had been
+scrupulously impartial in raising the best men to the judicial
+bench, including the illustrious Matthew Hale, but he now
+appointed compliant judges, and, alluding to Magna Carta in
+terms impossible to transcribe for modern readers, declared that
+&ldquo;it should not control his actions which he knew were for the
+safety of the Commonwealth.&rdquo; The country was now divided
+<span class="sidenote">The major-generals.</span>
+into twelve districts each governed by a major-general,
+to whom was entrusted the duty of maintaining order,
+stamping out disaffection and plots, and executing
+the laws relating to public morals. They had power
+to transport royalists and those who could not produce good
+characters, and supported themselves by a special tax of 10%
+on the incomes of the royalist gentry. Enormous numbers of
+ale-houses were closed&mdash;a proceeding which excited intense resentment
+and was probably no slight cause of the royalist
+reaction. Still more serious an encroachment upon the constitution
+perhaps even than the institution of the major-generals
+was Cromwell&rsquo;s tampering with the municipal franchise by
+confiscating the charters, depriving the burgesses, now hostile
+to his government, of their parliamentary votes, and limiting
+the franchise to the corporation; thereby corrupting the national
+liberties at their very source, and introducing an evil precedent
+only too readily followed by Charles II. and James II.</p>
+
+<p>It was in these embarrassed and perilous circumstances that
+Cromwell summoned a new parliament in the summer of 1656.
+In spite of the influence and interference of the major-generals
+a large number of members hostile to the
+<span class="sidenote">Refusal of the crown.</span>
+government were returned, of whom Cromwell&rsquo;s
+council immediately excluded nearly a hundred.
+The major-generals were the object of general attack, while the
+special tax on the royalists was declared unjust, and the bill
+for its continuation rejected by a large majority. An attempt
+at the assassination of Cromwell by Miles Sindercombe added
+to the general feeling of anxiety and unrest. The military rule
+excited universal hostility; there was an earnest desire for a
+settled and constitutional government, and the revival of the
+monarchy in the person of Cromwell appeared the only way
+of obtaining it. On the 23rd of February 1657 the <i>Remonstrance</i>
+offering Cromwell the crown was moved by Sir Christopher
+Packe in the parliament and violently resisted by the officers
+and the army party, one hundred officers waiting upon Cromwell
+on the 27th to petition against his acceptance of it. On the 25th
+of March the <i>Remonstrance</i>, now termed the <i>Petition and Advice</i>,
+and including a new scheme of government, was passed by a
+majority of 123 to 62 in spite of the opposition of the officers;
+and on the 31st it was presented to Cromwell in the Banqueting
+House at Whitehall whence Charles I. had stepped out on to
+the scaffold. Cromwell replied by requesting a brief delay to ask
+counsel of God and his own heart. On the 8th of May about
+thirty officers presented a petition to parliament against the
+revival of the monarchy, and Fleetwood, Desborough and
+Lambert threatened to lay down their commissions. Accordingly
+Cromwell the same day refused the crown definitely, greatly to
+the astonishment both of his followers and his enemies, who
+considered his decision a fatal neglect of an opportunity of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span>
+consolidating his rule and power. In particular, his acceptance
+of the crown would have guaranteed his followers, under the act
+of Henry VII., from liability in the future to the charge of high
+treason for having given allegiance to himself as a <i>de facto</i> king.
+Cromwell himself, however, seems to have regarded the question
+of title as of secondary importance, as merely (to use his own
+words) &ldquo;a feather in the hat,&rdquo; &ldquo;a shining bauble for crowds
+to gaze at or kneel to.&rdquo; &ldquo;Your father,&rdquo; wrote Sir Francis
+Russell to Henry Cromwell, &ldquo;hath of late made more wise
+men fools than ever; he laughs and is merry, but they hang
+down their heads and are pitifully out of countenance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th of May the petition was presented to Cromwell
+again, with the title of Protector substituted for that of King,
+and he now accepted it. On the 26th of June 1657 he was once
+more installed as Protector, this time, however, with regal
+ceremony in contrast with the simple formalities observed on
+the first occasion, the heralds proclaiming his accession in the
+same manner as that of the kings. Cromwell&rsquo;s government
+seemed now established on the firmer footing of law and national
+approval, he himself obtaining the powers though not the title
+of a constitutional monarch, with a permanent revenue of
+Ł1,300,000 for the ordinary expenses of the administration, the
+command of the forces, the right to nominate his successor and,
+subject to the approval of parliament, the members of the council
+and of the new second chamber now established, while at the
+same time the freedom of parliament was guaranteed in its
+elections. Difficulties, however, appeared immediately the
+parliament got to work. The republicans hostile to the Protectorate,
+excluded before, now returned, took the places vacated
+by strong supporters of Cromwell who had been removed to the
+Lords, and attacked the authority of the new chamber, opened
+communications with the disaffected in the city and army,
+protested against unparliamentary taxation and arbitrary imprisonment,
+and demanded again the supremacy of parliament.
+In consequence Cromwell summoned both Houses to his presence
+on the 4th of February 1658, and having pointed out the perils
+to which they were once more exposing the state, dissolved
+parliament, dismissing the members with the words, &ldquo;let God
+be judge between me and you.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>During the period following the dissolution Cromwell&rsquo;s power
+appeared outwardly at least to be at its height. The revolts
+of royalists and sectaries against his government had been easily
+suppressed, and the various attempts to assassinate him, contemptuously
+referred to by Cromwell as &ldquo;little fiddling things,&rdquo;
+were anticipated and prevented by an excellent system of police
+and spies, and by his bodyguard of 160 men. The victory at
+Dunkirk increased his reputation, while Louis XIV. showed his
+respect for the ruler of England by the splendid reception given
+to the Protector&rsquo;s envoy, Lord Fauconberg, and by a complimentary
+mission despatched to England.</p>
+
+<p>The great career, the incidents of which we have been following,
+was now, however, drawing to a close. Cromwell&rsquo;s health had
+long been impaired by the hardships of campaigning. Now at
+the age of 58 he was already old, and his firm, strong signature
+had become feeble and trembling. The responsibilities and
+anxieties of government unassisted by parliament, and the
+continued struggle against the force of anarchy, weighed upon
+him and exhausted his physical powers. &ldquo;It has been hitherto,&rdquo;
+Cromwell said, &ldquo;a matter of, I think, but philosophical discourse,
+that a great place, a great authority, is a great burthen. I know
+it is.&rdquo; &ldquo;I can say in the presence of God, in comparison of
+whom we are but like poor creeping ants upon the earth, I
+would have lived under my woodside to have kept a flock of
+sheep rather than undertook such a government as this.&rdquo; &ldquo;I
+doubt not to say,&rdquo; declared his steward Maidston, &ldquo;it drank
+up his spirits, of which his natural constitution afforded a vast
+stock, and brought him to his grave.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Domestic bereavements added further causes of grief and of
+weakened vitality. On the 6th of February 1658 he lost his
+favourite daughter, Elizabeth Claypole, and he was much cast
+down by the shock of his bereavement and of her long sufferings.
+Shortly afterwards he fell ill of an intermittent fever, but seemed
+to recover. On the 20th of August George Fox met him riding
+at the head of his guards in the park at Hampton Court, but
+declared &ldquo;he looked like a dead man.&rdquo; The next day he again
+fell ill and was removed from Hampton Court to Whitehall,
+where his condition became worse. The anecdotes believed and
+circulated by the royalists that Cromwell died in all the agonies
+of remorse and fear are entirely false. On the 31st of August
+<span class="sidenote">Death.</span>
+he seemed to rally, and one who slept in his bedchamber
+and who heard him praying, declared, &ldquo;a public spirit
+to God&rsquo;s cause did breathe in him to the very last.&rdquo; During the
+next few days he grew weaker and resigned himself to death.
+&ldquo;I would,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;be willing to be further serviceable to God
+and his people, but my work is done.&rdquo; For the first time doubts
+as to his spiritual state seemed to have troubled him. &ldquo;Tell
+me is it possible to fall from grace?&rdquo; he asked the attendant
+minister. &ldquo;No, it is not possible,&rdquo; the latter replied. &ldquo;Then,&rdquo;
+said Cromwell, &ldquo;I am safe, for I know that I was once in grace.&rdquo;
+He refused medicine to induce sleep, declaring &ldquo;it is not my
+design to drink or to sleep, but my design is to make what haste
+I can to be gone.&rdquo; Towards the morning of the 3rd of September
+he again spoke, &ldquo;using divers holy expressions, implying much
+inward consolation and peace,&rdquo; together with &ldquo;some exceeding
+self-debasing words, annihilating and judging himself.&rdquo; He
+died on the afternoon of the same day, his day of triumph, the
+anniversary both of Dunbar and of Worcester. His body was
+privately buried in the chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster
+Abbey, the public funeral taking place on the 23rd of November,
+with great ceremony and on the same scale as that of Philip II.
+of Spain, and costing the enormous sum of Ł60,000. At the
+Restoration his body was exhumed, and on the 30th of January
+1661, the anniversary of the execution of Charles I., it was
+drawn on a sledge from Holborn to Tyburn, together with the
+bodies of Ireton and Bradshaw, accompanied by &ldquo;the universal
+outcry and curses of the people.&rdquo; There it was hanged on a
+gallows, and in the evening taken down, when the head was cut
+off and set up upon Westminster Hall, where it remained till as
+late as 1684, the trunk being thrown into a pit underneath the
+gallows. According to various legends Cromwell&rsquo;s last burial
+place is stated to be Westminster Abbey, Naseby Field or Newburgh
+Abbey; but there appears to be no evidence to support
+them, or to create any reasonable doubt that the great Protector&rsquo;s
+dust lies now where it was buried, in the neighbourhood of the
+present Connaught Square.</p>
+
+<p>As a military commander Cromwell was as prompt as Gustavus,
+as ardent as Condé, as exact as Turenne. These, moreover,
+were soldiers from their earliest years. Condé&rsquo;s fame
+was established in his twenty-second year, Gustavus
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell&rsquo;s military genius.</span>
+was twenty-seven and Turenne thirty-three at the
+beginning of their careers as commanders-in-chief.
+Cromwell, on the other hand, was forty-three when he fought
+in his first battle. In less than two years he had taken his rank
+as one of the great cavalry leaders of history. His campaigns
+of 1648 and 1651 placed him still higher as a great commander.
+Worcester, his crowning victory, has been indicated by a German
+critic as the prototype of Sédan. Yet his early military education
+could have consisted at most of the perusal of the <i>Swedish
+Intelligencer</i> and the practice of riding. It is not, therefore, strange
+that Cromwell&rsquo;s first essays in war were characterised more by
+energy than technical skill. It was some time before he realized
+the spirit of cavalry tactics, of which he was later so complete a
+master. At first he speaks with complacence of a <i>męlée</i>, and
+reports that he and his men &ldquo;agreed to charge&rdquo; the enemy.
+But before long he came to understand, as no other commander
+of the age save Gustavus understood it, the value of true
+&ldquo;shock-action.&rdquo; Of Marston Moor he writes, &ldquo;we never charged
+but we routed them&rdquo;; and thereafter his battles were decided
+by the shock of closed squadrons, the fresh impulse of a second
+and even a third line, and above all by the unquestioning discipline
+and complete control over their horses to which he
+trained his men. This gave them not merely greater steadiness,
+but, what was far more important, the power of rallying
+and reforming for a second effort. The Royalist cavalry was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span>
+disorganized by victory as often as by defeat, and illustrated on
+numerous fields the now discredited maxim that cavalry cannot
+charge twice in one day. Cromwell shares with Frederick the
+Great the credit of founding the modern cavalry spirit. As a
+horsemaster he was far superior to Murat. His marches in the
+eastern campaign of 1643 show a daily average at one time of
+28 m. as against the 21 of Murat&rsquo;s cavalry in the celebrated
+pursuit after Jena. And this result he achieved with men of
+less than two years&rsquo; service, men, too, more heavily equipped
+and worse mounted than the veterans of the <i>Grande Armée</i>.
+It has been said that his battles were decided by shock action;
+the real emphasis should be laid upon the word &ldquo;decided.&rdquo;
+The swift, unhesitating charge was more than unusual in the
+wars of the time, and was possible only because of the peculiar
+earnestness of the men who fought the English war. The
+professional soldiers of the Continent could rarely be brought
+to force a decision; but the English, contending for a cause,
+were imbued with the spirit of the modern &ldquo;nation in arms&rdquo;;
+and having taken up arms wished to decide the quarrel by arms.
+This feeling was not less conspicuous in the far-ranging rides,
+or raids, of the Cromwellian cavalry. At one time, as in the
+case of Blechingdon, they would perform strange exploits worthy
+of the most daring hussars; at another their speed and tenacity
+paralyses armies. Not even Sheridan&rsquo;s horsemen in 1864-65
+did their work more effectively than did the English squadrons
+in the Preston campaign. Cromwell appreciated this feeling at
+its exact worth, and his pre-eminence in the Civil War was due
+to this highest gift of a general, the power of feeling the pulse
+of his army. Resolution, vigour and clear sight marked his
+conduct as a commander-in-chief. He aimed at nothing less than
+the annihilation of the enemy&rsquo;s forces, which Clausewitz was
+the first to define, a hundred and fifty years later, as the true
+objective of military operations. Not merely as exemplifying
+the tactical envelopment, but also as embodying the central
+idea of grand strategy, was Worcester the prototype of Sédan.
+The contrast between a campaign of Cromwell&rsquo;s and one of
+Turenne&rsquo;s is far more than remarkable, and the observation of
+a military critic who maintains that Cromwell&rsquo;s art of war was
+two centuries in advance of its time, finds universal acceptance.</p>
+
+<p>At a time when throughout the rest of Europe armies were
+man&oelig;uvring against one another with no more than a formal
+result, the English and Scots were fighting decisive battles;
+and Cromwell&rsquo;s battles were more decisive than those of any
+other leader. Until his fiery energy made itself felt, hardly any
+army on either side actually suffered rout; but at Marston Moor
+and Naseby the troops of the defeated party were completely dissolved,
+while at Worcester the royalist army was annihilated.
+Dunbar attested his constancy and gave proof that Cromwell
+was a master of the tactics of all arms. Preston was an example
+like Austerlitz of the two stages of a battle as defined by
+Napoleon, the first <i>flottante</i>, the second <i>foudroyante</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s strategic man&oelig;uvres, if less adroit than those of
+Turenne or Montecucculi, were, in accordance with his own
+genius and the temper of his army, directed always to forcing a
+decisive battle. That he was also capable of strategy of the other
+type was clear from his conduct of the Irish War. But his
+chief work was of a different kind and done on a different scale.
+The greatest feat of Turenne was the rescue of one province in
+1674-1675; Cromwell, in 1648 and again in 1651, had two-thirds
+of England and half of Scotland for his theatre of war. Turenne
+levelled down his methods to suit the ends which he had in view.
+The task of Cromwell was far greater. Any comparison between
+the generalship of these two great commanders would therefore
+be misleading, for want of a common basis. It is when he is
+contrasted with other commanders, not of the age of Louis XIV.,
+but of the Civil War, that Cromwell&rsquo;s greatness is most conspicuous.
+Whilst others busied themselves with the application
+of the accepted rules of the Dutch, the German, and other formal
+schools of tactical thought, Cromwell almost alone saw clearly
+into the heart of the questions at issue, and evolved the strategy,
+the tactics, and the training suited to the work to which he had
+set his hand.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s career as a statesman has been already traced in
+its different spheres, and an endeavour has been made to show the
+breadth and wisdom of his conceptions and at the
+same time the cause of the immediate failure of his
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell&rsquo;s statesmanship.</span>
+constructive policy. Whether if Cromwell had survived
+he would have succeeded in gradually establishing
+legal government is a question which can never be answered.
+His administration as it stands in history is undoubtedly open
+to the charge that after abolishing the absolutism of the ancient
+monarchy he substituted for it, not law and liberty, but a military
+tyranny far more despotic than the most arbitrary administration
+of Charles I. The statement of Vane and Ludlow, when they
+refused to acknowledge Cromwell&rsquo;s government, that it was
+&ldquo;in substance a re-establishment of that which we all engaged
+against,&rdquo; was true. The levy of ship money and customs by
+Charles sinks into insignificance beside Cromwell&rsquo;s wholesale
+taxation by ordinances; the inquisitional methods of the
+major-generals and the unjust and exceptional taxation of
+royalists outdid the scandals of the extra-legal courts of the
+Stuarts; the shipment of British subjects by Cromwell as slaves
+to Barbados has no parallel in the Stuart administration; while
+the prying into morals, the encouragement of informers, the
+attempt to make the people religious by force, were the counterpart
+of the Laudian system, and Cromwell&rsquo;s drastic treatment
+of the Irish exceeded anything dreamed of by Strafford. He
+discovered that parliamentary government after all was not
+the easy and plain task that Pym and Vane had imagined, and
+Cromwell had in the end no better justification of his rule than
+that which Strafford had suggested to Charles I.,&mdash;&ldquo;parliament
+refusing (to give support and co-operation in carrying on the
+government) you are acquitted before God and man.&rdquo; The
+fault was no doubt partly Cromwell&rsquo;s own. He had neither the
+patience nor the tact for managing loquacious parliamentary
+pedants. But the chief responsibility was not his but theirs.
+John Morley (<i>Oliver Cromwell</i>, p. 297) has truly observed of the
+execution of Charles I., that it was &ldquo;an act of war, and was
+just as defensible or just as assailable, and on the same grounds,
+as the war itself.&rdquo; The parliamentary party took leave of
+legality when they took up arms against the sovereign, and it
+was therefore idle to dream of a formally legal sanction for any
+of their subsequent revolutionary proceedings. An entirely
+fresh start had to be made. A new foundation had to be laid
+on which a new system of legality might be reared. It was for
+this that Cromwell strove. If the Rump or the Little Parliament
+had in a business-like spirit assumed and discharged the functions
+of a constituent assembly, such a foundation might have been
+provided. It was only when five years had passed since the
+death of the king without any &ldquo;settlement of the nation&rdquo; being
+arrived at, that Cromwell at last accepted a constitution drafted
+by his military officers, and attempted to impose it on the
+parliament. And it was not until the parliament refused to
+acknowledge the Instrument as the required starting point for
+the new legality, that Cromwell in the last resort took arbitrary
+power into his hands as the only method remaining for carrying
+on the government. For much as he hated arbitrariness, he
+hated anarchy still more. While therefore Cromwell&rsquo;s administration
+became in practice little different from that of Strafford,
+the aims and ideals of the two statesmen had nothing in common.
+It is therefore profoundly true, as observed by S. R. Gardiner
+(<i>Cromwell</i>, p. 315), that &ldquo;what makes Cromwell&rsquo;s biography
+so interesting in his perpetual effort to walk in the paths of
+legality&mdash;an effort always frustrated by the necessities of the
+situation. The man&mdash;it is ever so with the noblest&mdash;was greater
+than his work.&rdquo; The nature of Cromwell&rsquo;s statesmanship is to
+be seen rather in his struggles against the retrograde influences
+and opinions of his time, in the many political reforms anticipated
+though not originated or established by himself, and in his
+religious, perhaps fanatical, enthusiasm, than in the outward
+character of his administration, which, however, in spite of its
+despotism shows itself in its inner spirit of justice, patriotism
+and self-sacrifice, so immeasurably superior to that of the
+Stuarts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span></p>
+
+<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s personal character has been inevitably the subject
+of unceasing controversy. According to Clarendon he was
+&ldquo;a brave bad man,&rdquo; with &ldquo;all the wickedness against
+which damnation is pronounced and for which hell fire
+<span class="sidenote">Personal character.</span>
+is prepared.&rdquo; Yet he cannot deny that &ldquo;he had some
+virtues which have caused the memory of some men in all ages
+to be celebrated&rdquo;; and admits that &ldquo;he was not a man of
+blood,&rdquo; and that he possessed &ldquo;a wonderful understanding
+in the natures and humour of men,&rdquo; and &ldquo;a great spirit, an
+admirable circumspection and sagacity and a most magnanimous
+resolution.&rdquo; According to contemporary republicans he was
+a mere selfish adventurer, sacrificing the national cause &ldquo;to
+the idol of his own ambition.&rdquo; Richard Baxter thought him a
+good man who fell before a great temptation. The writers of
+the next century generally condemned him as a mixture of
+knave, fanatic and hypocrite, and in 1839 John Forster endorsed
+Landor&rsquo;s verdict that Cromwell lived a hypocrite and died a
+traitor. These crude ideas of Cromwell&rsquo;s character were extinguished
+by Macaulay&rsquo;s irresistible logic, by the publication of
+Cromwell&rsquo;s letters by Carlyle in 1845, which showed Cromwell
+clearly to be &ldquo;not a man of falsehoods, but a man of truth&rdquo;;
+and by Gardiner, whom, however, it is somewhat difficult to
+follow when he represents Cromwell as &ldquo;a typical Englishman.&rdquo;
+In particular that conception which regarded &ldquo;ambition&rdquo;
+as the guiding motive in his career has been dispelled by a more
+intimate and accurate knowledge of his life; this shows him to
+have been very little the creator of his own career, which was
+largely the result of circumstances outside his control, the
+influence of past events and of the actions of others, the pressure
+of the national will, the natural superiority of his own genius.
+&ldquo;A man never mounts so high,&rdquo; Cromwell said to the French
+ambassador in 1647, &ldquo;as when he does not know where he is
+going.&rdquo; &ldquo;These issues and events,&rdquo; he said in 1656, &ldquo;have not
+been forecast, but were providences in things.&rdquo; His &ldquo;hypocrisy&rdquo;
+consists principally in the Biblical language he employed,
+which with Cromwell, as with many of his contemporaries,
+was the most natural way of expressing his feelings, and in the
+ascription of every incident to the direct intervention of God&rsquo;s
+providence, which was really Cromwell&rsquo;s sincere belief and
+conviction. In later times Cromwell&rsquo;s character and administration
+have been the subject of almost too indiscriminate
+eulogy, which has found tangible shape in the statue erected
+to his memory at Westminster in 1899. Here Cromwell&rsquo;s effigy
+stands in the midst of the sanctuaries of the law, the church,
+and the parliament, the three foundations of the state which he
+subverted, and in sight of Whitehall where he destroyed the
+monarchy in blood. Yet Cromwell&rsquo;s monument is not altogether
+misplaced in such surroundings, for in him are found the true
+principles of piety, of justice, of liberty and of governance.</p>
+
+<p>John Maidston, Cromwell&rsquo;s steward, gives the &ldquo;character
+of his person.&rdquo; &ldquo;His body was compact and strong, his stature
+under six foot (I believe about two inches), his head so shaped
+as you might see it a storehouse and a shop both of a vast treasury
+of natural parts.&rdquo; &ldquo;His temper exceeding fiery, as I have known,
+but the flame of it, ... kept down for the most part, was soon
+allayed with those moral endowments he had. He was naturally
+compassionate towards objects in distress even to an effeminate
+measure; though God had made him a heart wherein was left
+little room for fear, ... yet did he exceed in tenderness towards
+sufferers. A larger soul I think hath seldom dwelt in a house of
+clay than his was. I believe if his story were impartially transmitted
+and the unprejudiced world well possessed with it, she
+would add him to her nine worthies.&rdquo; By his wife Elizabeth
+Bourchier, Cromwell had four sons, Robert (who died in 1639),
+Oliver (who died in 1644 while serving in his father&rsquo;s regiment),
+Richard, who succeeded him as Protector, and Henry. He also
+had four daughters. Of these Bridget was the wife successively
+of Ireton and Fleetwood, Elizabeth married John Claypole,
+Mary was wife of Thomas Belasyse, Lord Fauconberg; and
+Frances was the wife of Sir Robert Rich, and secondly of Sir
+John Russell. The last male descendant of the Protector was
+his great-great-grandson, Oliver Cromwell of Cheshunt, who died
+in 1821. By the female line, through his children Henry,
+Bridget and Frances, the Protector has had numerous
+descendants, and is the ancestor of many well-known families.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;A detailed bibliography, with the chief authorities
+for particular periods, will be found in the article in the <i>Dict. of Nat.
+Biography</i>, by C. H. Firth (1888). The following works may be
+mentioned: S. R. Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of England</i> (1883-1884) and of
+the <i>Great Civil War</i> (1886), <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s Place in History</i> (1897), <i>Oliver
+Cromwell</i> (1901), and <i>History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate</i>
+(1894-1903); <i>Cromwell</i>, by C. H. Firth (1900); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i>, by
+J. Morley (1904); <i>The Last Years of the Protectorate, 1656-1658</i>,
+2 vols., by C. H. Firth (1909); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i>, by Fred. Harrison
+(1903); <i>Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell</i>, by T. Carlyle, ed. by
+S. C. Lomas, with an introd. by C. H. Firth (the best edition, rejecting
+the spurious Squire papers, 1904); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i>, by F. Hoenig
+(1887); <i>Oliver Cromwell, the Protector</i>, by R. F. D. Palgrave (1890);
+<i>Oliver Cromwell ... and the Royalist Insurrection ... of March
+1655</i>, by the same author (1903); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i>, by Theodore
+Roosevelt (1900); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i>, by R. Pauli (tr. 1888); <i>Cromwell,
+a Speech delivered at the Cromwell Tercentenary Celebration 1899</i>, by
+Lord Rosebery (1900); <i>The Two Protectors</i>, by Sir Richard Tangye
+(valuable for its illustrations, 1899); <i>Life of Sir Henry Vane</i>, by
+W. W. Ireland (1905); <i>Die Politik des Protectors Oliver Cromwell in
+der Auffassung und Tätigkeit ... des Staatssekretärs John Thurloe</i>,
+by Freiherr v. Bischofshausen (1899); <i>Cromwell as a Soldier</i>, by T. S.
+Baldock (1899); <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s Army</i>, by C. H. Firth (1902); <i>The Diplomatic
+Relations between Cromwell and Charles X. of Sweden</i>, by G. Jones
+(1897); <i>The Interregnum</i>, by F. A. Inderwick (dealing with the legal
+aspect of Cromwell&rsquo;s rule, 1891); <i>Administration of the Royal Navy</i>,
+by M. Oppenheim (1896); <i>History of the English Church during the
+Civil Wars</i>, by W. Shaw (1900); <i>The Protestant Interest in Cromwell&rsquo;s
+Foreign Relations</i>, by J. N. Bowman (1900); <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s Jewish
+Intelligencies</i> (1891), <i>Crypto-Jews under the Commonwealth</i> (1894),
+<i>Menasseh Ben Israel&rsquo;s Mission to Oliver Cromwell</i> (1901), by L. Wolf.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.; C. F. A.; R. J. M.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Life of Sir H. Vane</i>, by W. W. Ireland, 222.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> C. H. Firth, Cromwell, p. 324.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> John Morley, Oliver Cromwell, p. 393.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Frederic Harrison, <i>Oliver Cromwell</i>, p. 214.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> John Morley, <i>Oliver Cromwell</i>, p. 483.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Frederic Harrison, <i>Cromwell</i>, p. 34.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMWELL, RICHARD<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1626-1712), lord protector of
+England, eldest surviving son of Oliver Cromwell and of Elizabeth
+Bourchier, was born on the 4th of October 1626. He served
+in the parliamentary army, and in 1647 was admitted a member
+of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. In 1649 he married Dorothy, daughter of
+Richard Mayor, or Major, of Hursley in Hampshire. He
+represented Hampshire in the parliament of 1654, and Cambridge
+University in that of 1656, and in November 1655 was appointed
+one of the council of trade. But he was not brought forward
+by his father or prepared in any way for his future greatness,
+and lived in the country occupied with field sports, till after the
+institution of the second protectorate in 1657 and the recognition
+of Oliver&rsquo;s right to name his successor. On the 18th of July he
+succeeded his father as chancellor of the university of Oxford,
+on the 31st of December he was made a member of the council
+of state, and about the same time obtained a regiment and a
+seat in Cromwell&rsquo;s House of Lords. He was received generally
+as his father&rsquo;s successor, and was nominated by him as such on
+his death-bed. He was proclaimed on the 3rd of September 1658,
+and at first his accession was acclaimed with general favour both
+at home and abroad. Dissensions, however, soon broke out
+between the military faction and the civilians. Richard&rsquo;s
+elevation, not being &ldquo;general of the army as his father was,&rdquo;
+was distasteful to the officers, who desired the appointment of
+a commander-in-chief from among themselves, a request refused
+by Richard. The officers in the council, moreover, showed
+jealousy of the civil members, and to settle these difficulties
+and to provide money a parliament was summoned on the 27th
+of January 1659, which declared Richard protector, and incurred
+the hostility of the army by criticizing severely the arbitrary
+military government of Oliver&rsquo;s last two years, and by impeaching
+one of the major-generals. A council of the army accordingly
+established itself in opposition to the parliament, and demanded
+on the 6th of April a justification and confirmation of former
+proceedings, to which the parliament replied by forbidding
+meetings of the army council without the permission of the
+protector, and insisting that all officers should take an oath not
+to disturb the proceedings in parliament. The army now broke
+into open rebellion and assembled at St James&rsquo;s. Richard was
+completely in their power; he identified himself with their
+cause, and the same night dissolved the parliament. The Long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span>
+Parliament (which re-assembled on the 7th of May) and the
+heads of the army came to an agreement to effect his dismissal;
+and in the subsequent events Richard appears to have played a
+purely passive part, refusing to make any attempt to keep his
+power or to forward a restoration of the monarchy. On the 25th
+of May his submission was communicated to the House. He
+retired into private life, heavily burdened with debts incurred
+during his tenure of office and narrowly escaping arrest even
+before he quitted Whitehall. In the summer of 1660 he left
+England for France, where he lived in seclusion under the name
+of John Clarke, subsequently removing elsewhere, either (for
+the accounts differ) to Spain, to Italy, or to Geneva. He was
+long regarded by the government as a dangerous person, and in
+1671 a strict search was made for him but without avail. He
+returned to England about 1680 and lived at Cheshunt, in the
+house of Sergeant Pengelly, where he died on the 12th of July
+1712, being buried in Hursley church in Hampshire. Richard
+Cromwell was treated with general contempt by his contemporaries,
+and invidiously compared with his great father. According
+to Mrs Hutchinson he was &ldquo;gentle and virtuous but a peasant in
+his nature and became not greatness.&rdquo; He was nevertheless
+a man of respectable abilities, of an irreproachable private
+character, and a good speaker.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See the article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i>,
+and authorities there cited; Noble&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of the Protectoral House
+of Cromwell</i> (1787); <i>Memoirs of the Protector ... and of his Sons</i>,
+by O. Cromwell (1820); <i>The Two Protectors</i>, by Sir R. Tangye (1899);
+<i>Kebleland and a Short Life of Richard Cromwell</i>, by W. T. Warren
+(1900); <i>Letters and Speeches of O. Cromwell</i>, by T. Carlyle (1904);
+<i>Eng. Hist. Review</i>, xiii. 93 (letters) and xviii. 79; <i>Cal. of State Papers,
+Domestic, Lansdowne MSS.</i> in British Museum.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROMWELL, THOMAS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of Essex</span> (1485?-1540), born
+probably not later than 1485 and possibly a year or two earlier,
+was the only son of Walter Cromwell, <i>alias</i> Smyth, a brewer,
+smith and fuller of Putney. His grandfather, John Cromwell,
+seems to have belonged to the Nottinghamshire family, of whom
+the most distinguished member was Ralph, Lord Cromwell
+(1394?-1456), lord treasurer; and he migrated from Norwell,
+Co. Notts, to Wimbledon some time before 1461. John&rsquo;s son,
+Walter, seems to have acquired the <i>alias</i> Smyth from being
+apprenticed to his uncle, William Smyth, &ldquo;armourer,&rdquo; of Wimbledon.
+He was of a turbulent, vicious disposition, perpetually
+being fined in the manor-court for drunkenness, for evading the
+assize of beer, and for turning more than his proper number of
+beasts on to Putney Common. Once he was punished for a
+sanguinary assault, and his connexion with Wimbledon ceased in
+1514 when he &ldquo;falsely and fraudulently erased the evidences and
+terrures of the lord.&rdquo; Till that time he had flourished like the
+bay-tree.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances the absence of Thomas Cromwell&rsquo;s
+name from the Wimbledon manor rolls is almost a presumption
+of respectability. Perhaps it would be safer to attribute it to
+Cromwell&rsquo;s absence from the manor. He is said to have
+quarrelled with his father&mdash;no great crime considering the father&rsquo;s
+character&mdash;and fled to Italy, where he served as a soldier in the
+French army at the battle of the Garigliano (Dec. 1503). He
+escaped from the battle-field to Florence, where he was befriended
+by the banker Frescobaldi, a debt which he appears to have
+repaid with superabundant interest later on. He is next heard
+of at Antwerp as a trader, and about 1510 he was induced to
+accompany a Bostonian to Rome in quest of some papal indulgences
+for a Boston gild; Cromwell secured the boon by the
+timely present of some choice sweetmeats to Julius II. In 1512
+there is some slight evidence that he was at Middelburg, and also
+in London, engaged in business as a merchant and solicitor.
+His marriage must have taken place about the same time,
+judging from the age of his son Gregory. His wife was Elizabeth
+Wykes, daughter of a well-to-do shearman of Putney, whose
+business Cromwell carried on in combination with his own.</p>
+
+<p>For about eight years after 1512 we hear nothing of Cromwell.
+A letter to him from Cicely, marchioness of Dorset, in which he
+is seen in confidential business relations with her ladyship, is
+probably earlier than 1520, and it is possible that Cromwell owed
+his introduction to Wolsey to the Dorset family. On the other
+hand, it is stated that his cousin, Robert Cromwell, vicar of
+Battersea under the cardinal, gave Thomas the stewardship of
+the archiepiscopal estate of York House. At any rate he was
+advising Wolsey on legal points in 1520, and from that date he
+occurs frequently not only as mentor to the cardinal, but to
+noblemen and others when in difficulties, especially of a financial
+character; he made large sums as a money-lender.</p>
+
+<p>In 1523 Cromwell emerges into public life as a member of
+parliament. The official returns for this election are lost and
+it is not known for what constituency he sat, but we have a
+humorous letter from Cromwell describing its proceedings, and
+a remarkable speech which he wrote and perhaps delivered,
+opposing the reckless war with France and indicating a sounder
+policy which was pursued after Wolsey&rsquo;s fall. If, he said, war
+was to be waged, it would be better to secure Boulogne than
+advance on Paris; if the king went in person and were killed
+without leaving a male heir, he hinted there would be civil war;
+it would be wiser to attempt a union with Scotland, and in any
+case the proposed subsidy would be a fatal drain on the resources
+of the realm. Neither Henry nor Wolsey was so foolish as to
+resent this criticism, and Cromwell lost nothing by it. He was
+made a collector of the subsidy he had opposed&mdash;a doubtful
+favour perhaps&mdash;and in 1524 was admitted at Gray&rsquo;s Inn; but
+he now became the most confidential servant of the cardinal.
+In 1525 he was Wolsey&rsquo;s agent in the dissolution of the smaller
+monasteries which were designed to provide the endowments
+for Wolsey&rsquo;s foundations at Oxford and Ipswich, a task which
+gave Cromwell a taste and a facility for similar enterprises on
+a greater scale later on. For these foundations Cromwell drew
+up the necessary deeds, and he was receiver-general of cardinal&rsquo;s
+college, constantly supervising the workmen there and at Ipswich.
+His ruthless vigour and his accessibility to bribes earned him
+such unpopularity that there were rumours of his projected
+assassination or imprisonment. All this constituted a further
+bond of sympathy between him and his master, and Cromwell
+grew in Wolsey&rsquo;s favour until his fall. His wife had died in 1527
+or 1528, and in July 1529 he made his will, in which one of the
+chief beneficiaries was his nephew, Richard Williams, alias
+Cromwell, the great-grandfather of the protector.</p>
+
+<p>Wolsey&rsquo;s disgrace reduced Cromwell to such despair that
+Cavendish once found him in tears and at his prayers &ldquo;which
+had been a strange sight in him afore.&rdquo; Many of the cardinal&rsquo;s
+servants had been taken over by the king, but Cromwell had
+made himself particularly obnoxious. However, he rode to
+court from Esher to &ldquo;make or mar,&rdquo; as he himself expressed
+it, and offered his services to Norfolk. Possibly he had already
+paved the way by the pensions and grants which he induced
+Wolsey to make through him, out of the lands and revenues of
+his bishoprics and abbeys, to nobles and courtiers who were
+hard pressed to keep up the lavish style of Henry&rsquo;s court.
+Cromwell could be most useful to the government in parliament,
+and the government, represented by Norfolk, undertook to use
+its influence in procuring him a seat, on the natural understanding
+that Cromwell should do his best to further government business
+in the House of Commons. This was on the 2nd of November
+1529; the elections had been made, and parliament was to meet
+on the morrow. A seat was, however, found or made for Cromwell
+at Taunton. He signalized himself by a powerful speech
+in opposition to the bill of attainder against Wolsey which had
+already passed the Lords. The bill was thrown out, possibly
+with Henry&rsquo;s connivance, though no theory has yet explained
+its curious history so completely as the statement of Cavendish
+and other contemporaries, that its rejection was due to the
+arguments of Cromwell. Doubtless he championed his fallen
+chief not so much for virtue&rsquo;s sake as for the impression it would
+make on others. He did not feel called upon to accompany
+Wolsey on his exile from the court.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell had now, according to Cardinal Pole, whose story
+has been too readily accepted, been converted into an &ldquo;emissary
+of Satan&rdquo; by the study of Machiavelli&rsquo;s <i>Prince</i>. In the one
+interview which Pole had with Cromwell, the latter, so Pole
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span>
+wrote ten years later in 1539, recommended him to read a new
+Italian book on politics, which Pole says he afterwards discovered
+was Machiavelli&rsquo;s <i>Prince</i>. But this discovery was not
+made for some years: the <i>Prince</i> was not published until 1532,
+three years after the conversation; there is evidence that
+Cromwell was not acquainted with it until 1537 or 1539, and
+there is nothing in the <i>Prince</i> bearing on the precise point under
+discussion by Pole and Cromwell. On the other hand, the point
+is discussed in Castiglione&rsquo;s <i>Il Cortegiano</i> which had just been
+published in 1528, and of which Cromwell promised to lend
+Bonner a copy in 1530. The <i>Cortegiano</i> is the antithesis of the
+<i>Prince</i>; and there is little doubt that Pole&rsquo;s account is the
+offspring of an imagination heated by his own perusal of the
+Prince in 1538, and by Cromwell&rsquo;s ruin of the Pole family at
+the same time; until then he had failed to see in Cromwell
+the Machiavellian &ldquo;emissary of Satan.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Equally fanciful is Pole&rsquo;s ascription of the whole responsibility
+for the Reformation to Cromwell&rsquo;s suggestion. It was impossible
+for Pole to realize the substantial causes of that perfectly natural
+development, and it was his cue to represent Henry as having
+acted at the diabolic suggestion of Satan&rsquo;s emissary. In reality
+the whole programme, the destruction of the liberties and
+confiscation of the wealth of the church by parliamentary agency,
+had been indicated before Cromwell had spoken to Henry. The
+use of Praemunire had been applied to Wolsey; laymen had
+supplanted ecclesiastics in the chief offices of state; the plan
+of getting a divorce without papal intervention had been the
+original idea, which Wolsey had induced the king to abandon,
+and it had been revived by Cranmer&rsquo;s suggestion about the
+universities. The root idea of the supreme authority of the king
+had been asserted in Tyndale&rsquo;s <i>Obedience of a Christian Man</i>
+published in 1528, which Anne Boleyn herself had brought to
+Henry&rsquo;s notice: &ldquo;this,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;is a book for me and all kings
+to read,&rdquo; and Campeggio had felt compelled to warn him against
+these notions, of which Pole imagines that he had never heard
+until they were put into his head by Cromwell late in 1530.
+In the same way Cromwell&rsquo;s influence over the government
+from 1529-1533 has been grossly exaggerated. It was not till
+1531 that he was admitted to the privy council nor till 1534
+that he was made secretary, though he had been made master
+of the Jewel-House, clerk of the Hanaper and master of the Wards
+in 1532, and chancellor of the exchequer (then a minor office)
+in 1533. It is not till 1533 that his name is as much as mentioned
+in the correspondence of any foreign ambassador resident in
+London. This obscurity has been attributed to deliberate
+suppression: but no secrecy was made about Cranmer&rsquo;s suggestion,
+and it was not Henry&rsquo;s habit to assume a responsibility
+which he could devolve upon others. It is said that Cromwell&rsquo;s
+life would not have been safe, had he been known as the author
+of this policy; but that is not a consideration which would have
+appealed to Henry, and he was just as able to protect his minister
+in 1530 as he was in 1536. Cromwell, in fact, was not the author
+of that policy, but he was the most efficient instrument in its
+execution.</p>
+
+<p>He was Henry&rsquo;s parliamentary agent, but even in this capacity
+his power has been overrated, and he is supposed to have invented
+those parliamentary complaints against the clergy, which were
+transmuted into the legislation of 1532. But the complaints were
+old enough; many of them had been heard in parliament nearly
+twenty years before, and there is ample evidence to show that
+the petition against the clergy represents the &ldquo;infinite clamours&rdquo;
+of the Commons against the Church, which the House itself
+resolved should be &ldquo;put in writing and delivered to the king.&rdquo;
+The actual drafting of the statute, as of all the Reformation Acts
+between 1532 and 1539, was largely Cromwell&rsquo;s work; and the
+success with which parliament was managed during this period
+was also due to him. It was not an easy task, for the House of
+Commons more than once rejected government measures, and
+members were heard to threaten Henry VIII. with the fate of
+Richard III.; they even complained of Cromwell&rsquo;s reporting
+their proceedings to the king. That was his business rather than
+conveying imaginary royal orders to the House. &ldquo;They be
+contented,&rdquo; he wrote in one of these reports, &ldquo;that deed and
+writing shall be treason,&rdquo; but words were only to be misprision:
+they refused to include an heir&rsquo;s rebellion or disobedience in
+the bill &ldquo;as rebellion is already treason, and disobedience is no
+cause of forfeiture of inheritance.&rdquo; There was, of course, room
+for manipulation, which Cromwell extended to parliamentary
+elections; but parliamentary opinion was a force of which he
+had to take account, and not a negligible quantity.</p>
+
+<p>From the date of his appointment as secretary in 1534,
+Cromwell&rsquo;s biography belongs to the history of England, but
+it is necessary to define his personal attitude to the revolution
+in which he was the king&rsquo;s most conspicuous agent. He was
+included by Foxe in his <i>Book of Martyrs</i> to the Protestant faith:
+more recent historians regard him as a sacrilegious ruffian.
+Now, there were two cardinal principles in the Protestantism
+of the 16th century&mdash;the supremacy of the temporal sovereign
+over the church in matters of government, and the supremacy
+of the Scriptures over the Church in matters of faith. There
+is no room for doubt as to the sincerity of Cromwell&rsquo;s belief in
+the first of these two articles: he paid at his own expense for
+an English translation of Marsiglio of Padua&rsquo;s <i>Defensor Pacis</i>,
+the classic medieval advocate of that doctrine; he had a scheme
+for governing England by means of administrative councils
+nominated by the king to the detriment of parliament; and he
+urged upon Henry the adoption of the maxim of the Roman civil
+law&mdash;<i>quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem</i>. He wanted, in
+his own words, &ldquo;one body politic&rdquo; and no rival to the king&rsquo;s
+authority; and he set the divine right of kings against the
+divine right of the papacy. There is more doubt about the
+sincerity of Cromwell&rsquo;s attachment to the second article; it is
+true that he set up a Bible in every parish church, and regarded
+them as invaluable; and the correspondents who unbosom
+themselves to him are all of a Protestant way of thinking.
+But Protestantism was the greatest support of absolute
+monarchy. Hence its value in Cromwell&rsquo;s eyes. Of religious
+conviction there is in him little trace, and still less of the religious
+temperament. He was a polished representative of the callous,
+secular middle class of that most irreligious age. Sentiment
+found no place, and feeling little, in his composition; he used
+the axe with as little passion as the surgeon does the knife, and
+he operated on some of the best and noblest in the land. He
+saw that it was wiser to proscribe a few great opponents than to
+fall on humbler prey; but he set law above justice, and law to
+him was simply the will of the state.</p>
+
+<p>In 1534 Cromwell was appointed master of the Rolls, and in
+1535 chancellor of Cambridge University and visitor-general
+of the monasteries. The policy of the Dissolution has been
+theoretically denounced, but practically approved in every
+civilized state, Catholic as well as Protestant. Every one has
+found it necessary, sooner or later, to curtail or to destroy its
+monastic foundations; only those which delayed the task longest
+have generally lagged farthest behind in national progress. The
+need for reform was admitted by a committee of cardinals
+appointed by Paul III. in 1535, and it had been begun by Wolsey.
+Cromwell was not affected by the iniquities of the monks except
+as arguments for the confiscation of their property. He had
+boasted that he would make Henry VIII. the richest prince in
+Christendom; and the monasteries, with their direct dependence
+on the pope and their cosmopolitan organization, were obstacles
+to that absolute authority of the national state which was
+Cromwell&rsquo;s ideal. He had learnt how to visit monasteries under
+Wolsey, and the visitation of 1535 was carried out with ruthless
+efficiency. During the storm which followed, Henry took the
+management of affairs into his own hands, but Cromwell was
+rewarded in July 1536 by being knighted, created lord privy
+seal, Baron Cromwell, and vicar-general and viceregent of the
+king in &ldquo;Spirituals.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In this last offensive capacity he sent a lay deputy to preside
+in Convocation, taking precedence of the bishops and archbishops,
+and issued his famous Injunctions of 1536 and 1538; a Bible
+was to be provided in every church; the <i>Paternoster</i>, Creed and
+Ten Commandments were to be recited by the incumbent in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span>
+English; he was to preach at least once a quarter, and to start
+a register of births, marriages and deaths. During these years
+the outlook abroad grew threatening because of the alliance,
+under papal guarantee, between Charles V. and Francis I.;
+and Cromwell sought to counterbalance it by a political and
+theological union between England and the Lutheran princes of
+Germany. The theological part of the scheme broke down in
+1538 when Henry categorically refused to concede the three
+reforms demanded by the Lutheran envoys. This was ominous,
+and the parliament of 1539, into which Cromwell tried to introduce
+a number of personal adherents, proved thoroughly reactionary.
+The temporal peers were unanimous in favour of
+the Six Articles, the bishops were divided, and the Commons
+for the most part agreed with the Lords. Cromwell, however,
+succeeded in suspending the execution of the act, and was allowed
+to proceed with his one independent essay in foreign policy.
+The friendship between Francis and Charles was apparently
+getting closer; Pole was exhorting them to a crusade against
+a king who was worse than the Turk; and anxious eyes searched
+the Channel in 1539 for signs of the coming Armada. Under
+these circumstances Henry acquiesced in Cromwell&rsquo;s negotiations
+for a marriage with Anne of Cleves. Anne, of course, was not
+a Lutheran, and the state religion in Cleves was at least as
+Catholic as Henry&rsquo;s own. But her sister was married to the
+elector of Saxony, and her brother had claims on Guelders,
+which Charles V. refused to recognize. Guelders was to the
+emperor&rsquo;s dominions in the Netherlands what Scotland was to
+England, and had often been used by France in the same way,
+and an alliance between England, Guelders, Cleves and the
+Schmalkaldic League would, Cromwell thought, make Charles&rsquo;s
+position in the Netherlands almost untenable. Anne herself
+was the weak point in the argument; Henry conceived an
+invincible repugnance to her from the first; he was restrained
+from an immediate breach with his new allies only by fear of
+Francis and Charles. In the spring of 1540 he was reassured on
+that score; no attack on him from that quarter was impending;
+there was a rift between the two Catholic sovereigns, and there
+was no real need for Anne and her German friends.</p>
+
+<p>From that moment Cromwell&rsquo;s fate was sealed; the Lords
+loathed him as an upstart even more than they had loathed
+Wolsey; he had no church to support him; Norfolk and
+Gardiner detested him from pique as well as on principle, and
+he had no friend in the council save Cranmer. As lay viceregent
+he had given umbrage to nearly every churchman, and he had put
+all his eggs in the one basket of royal favour, which had now
+failed him. Cromwell did not succumb without an effort, and a
+desperate struggle ensued in the council. In April the French
+ambassador wrote that he was tottering to his fall; a few days
+later he was created earl of Essex and lord great chamberlain,
+and two of his satellites were made secretaries to the king;
+he then despatched one bishop to the Tower, and threatened
+to send five others to join him. At last Henry struck as suddenly
+and remorselessly as a beast of prey; on the 10th of June
+Norfolk accused him of treason; the whole council joined in
+the attack, and Cromwell was sent to the Tower. A vast number
+of crimes was laid to his charge, but not submitted for trial.
+An act of attainder was passed against him without a dissentient
+voice, and after contributing his mite towards the divorce of
+Anne, he was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 28th of July,
+repudiating all heresy and declaring that he died in the Catholic
+faith.</p>
+
+<p>In estimating Cromwell&rsquo;s character it must be remembered
+that his father was a blackguard, and that he himself spent the
+formative years of his life in a vile school of morals. A ruffian
+he doubtless was, as he says, in his youth, and he was the last
+man to need the tuition of Machiavelli. Nevertheless he civilized
+himself to a certain extent; he was not a drunkard nor a forger
+like his father; from personal immorality he seems to have been
+singularly free; he was a kind master, and a stanch friend; and
+he possessed all the outward graces of the Renaissance period.
+He was not vindictive, and his atrocious acts were done in no
+private quarrel, but in what he conceived to be the interests
+of his master and the state. Where those interests were
+concerned he had no heart and no conscience and no religious
+faith; no man was more completely blighted by the 16th century
+worship of the state.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The authorities for the early life of Cromwell are the Wimbledon
+manor rolls, used by Mr John Phillips of Putney in <i>The Antiquary</i>
+(1880), vol. ii., and the <i>Antiquarian Mag.</i> (1882), vol. ii.; Pole&rsquo;s
+<i>Apologia</i>, i. 126; Bandello&rsquo;s <i>Novella</i>, xxxiv.; Chapuys&rsquo; letter to
+Granvelle, 21 Nov. 1535; and Foxe&rsquo;s <i>Acts and Mon.</i> From 1522
+see <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vols. iii.-xvi.; Cavendish&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Wolsey</i>; Hall&rsquo;s <i>Chron.</i>; Wriothesley&rsquo;s <i>Chron.</i> These and
+practically all other available sources have been utilized in R. B.
+Merriman&rsquo;s <i>Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell</i> (2 vols., 1902).
+For Cromwell and Machiavelli see Paul van Dyke&rsquo;s <i>Renascence
+Portraits</i> (1906), App.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1840-&emsp;&emsp;), Boer general,
+was born about 1840 in the Transvaal and in 1881 took part in
+the first Boer War in the rank of commandant. He commanded
+in the siege of the British garrison at Potchefstroom, though he
+was unable to force their surrender until after the conclusion of
+the general armistice. The Boer leader was at this time accused
+of withholding knowledge of this armistice from the garrison
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Potchefstroom</a></span>). He held various official positions in the
+years 1881-1899, and commanded the Boer force which compelled
+the surrender of the Jameson raiders at Doornkop (Jan. 2,
+1896). In the war of 1899 Cronje was general commanding in
+the western theatre of war, and began the siege of Kimberley.
+He opposed the advance of the British division under Lord
+Methuen, and fought, though without success, three general
+actions at Belmont, Graspan and Modder River. At Magersfontein,
+early in December 1899, he completely repulsed a general
+attack made upon his position, and thereby checked for two
+months the northward advance of the British column. In the
+campaign of February 1900, Cronje opposed Lord Roberts&rsquo;s
+army on the Magersfontein battleground, but he was unable
+to prevent the relief of Kimberley; retreating westward, he
+was surrounded near Paardeberg, and, after a most obstinate
+resistance, was forced to surrender with the remnant of his army
+(Feb. 27, 1900). As a prisoner of war Cronje was sent to St
+Helena, where he remained until released after the conclusion
+of peace (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1832-&emsp;&emsp;), English chemist and
+physicist, was born in London on the 17th of June 1832, and
+studied chemistry at the Royal College of Chemistry under
+A. W. von Hofmann, whose assistant he became in 1851. Three
+years later he was appointed an assistant in the meteorological
+department of the Radcliffe observatory, Oxford, and in 1855
+he obtained a chemical post at Chester. In 1861, while conducting
+a spectroscopic examination of the residue left in the manufacture
+of sulphuric acid, he observed a bright green line which
+had not been noticed previously, and by following up the
+indication thus given he succeeded in isolating a new element,
+thallium, a specimen of which was shown in public for the first
+time at the exhibition of 1862. During the next eight years he
+carried out a minute investigation of this metal and its properties.
+While determining its atomic weight, he thought it desirable,
+for the sake of accuracy, to weigh it in a vacuum, and even in
+these circumstances he found that the balance behaved in an
+anomalous manner, the metal appearing to be heavier when
+cold than when hot. This phenomenon he explained as a
+&ldquo;repulsion from radiation,&rdquo; and he expressed his discovery in
+the statement that in a vessel exhausted of air a body tends to
+move away from another body hotter than itself. Utilizing this
+principle he constructed the radiometer (<i>q.v.</i>), which he was at
+first disposed to regard as a machine that directly transformed
+light into motion, but which was afterwards perceived to depend
+on thermal action. Thence he was led to his famous researches
+on the phenomena produced by the discharge of electricity
+through highly exhausted tubes (sometimes known as &ldquo;Crookes&rsquo;
+tubes&rdquo; in consequence), and to the development of his theory
+of &ldquo;radiant matter&rdquo; or matter in a &ldquo;fourth state,&rdquo; which led
+up to the modern electronic theory. In 1883 he began an inquiry
+into the nature and constitution of the rare earths. By repeated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span>
+fractionations he was able to divide yttrium into distinct portions
+which gave different spectra when exposed in a high vacuum
+to the spark from an induction coil. This result he considered
+to be due, not to any removal of impurities, but to an actual
+splitting-up of the yttrium molecule into its constituents, and
+he ventured to draw the provisional conclusion that the so-called
+simple bodies are in reality compound molecules, at the same
+time suggesting that all the elements have been produced by a
+process of evolution from one primordial stuff or &ldquo;protyle.&rdquo;
+A later result of this method of investigation was the discovery
+of a new member of the rare earths, monium or victorium, the
+spectrum of which is characterized by an isolated group of lines,
+only to be detected photographically, high up in the ultra-violet;
+the existence of this body was announced in his presidential
+address to the British Association at Bristol in 1898. In the
+same address he called attention to the conditions of the world&rsquo;s
+food supply, urging that with the low yield at present realized
+per acre the supply of wheat would within a comparatively
+short time cease to be equal to the demand caused by increasing
+population, and that since nitrogenous manures are essential
+for an increase in the yield, the hope of averting starvation, as
+regards those races for whom wheat is a staple food, depended
+on the ability of the chemist to find an artificial method for
+fixing the nitrogen of the air. An authority on precious stones,
+and especially the diamond, he succeeded in artificially making
+some minute specimens of the latter gem; and on the discovery
+of radium he was one of the first to take up the study of its
+properties, in particular inventing the spinthariscope, an instrument
+in which the effects of a trace of radium salt are manifested
+by the phosphorescence produced on a zinc sulphide screen.
+In addition to many other researches besides those here mentioned,
+he wrote or edited various books on chemistry and
+chemical technology, including <i>Select Methods of Chemical
+Analysis</i>, which went through a number of editions; and he
+also gave a certain amount of time to the investigation of psychic
+phenomena, endeavouring to effect some measure of correlation
+between them and ordinary physical laws. He was knighted
+in 1897, and received the Royal (1875), Davy (1888), and Copley
+(1904) medals of the Royal Society, besides filling the offices
+of president of the Chemical Society and of the Institution
+of Electrical Engineers. He married Ellen, daughter of W.
+Humphrey, of Darlington, and their golden wedding was celebrated
+in 1906.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROOKSTON,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Polk county,
+Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red Lake river in the Red River
+valley, about 300 m. N.W. of Minneapolis, and about 25 m. E.
+of Grand Forks, North Dakota. Pop. (1890) 3457; (1900)
+5359; (1905, state census) 6794, 2049 being foreign-born, including
+656 from Norway (2 Norwegian weeklies are published),
+613 from Canada, 292 from Sweden; (1910 U.S. census) 7559.
+Crookston is served by the Great Northern and the Northern
+Pacific railways. It has a Carnegie library, and the St Vincent
+and Bethesda hospitals, and is the seat of a Federal Land Office
+and of a state agricultural high school (with an experimental
+farm). Dams on the Red Lake river provide a fine water-power,
+and among the city&rsquo;s manufactures are lumber, leather, flour,
+farm implements, wagons and bricks. The city is situated in
+a fertile farming region, and is a market for grain, potatoes and
+other agricultural products, and lumber. Crookston was settled
+about 1872, was incorporated in 1879, received its first city
+charter in 1883, and adopted a new one in 1906. It was named
+in honour of William Crooks, an early settler.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROP<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (a word common in various forms, such as Germ.
+<i>Kropf</i>, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence,
+round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic
+languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as <i>croupe</i>, whence the
+English &ldquo;crupper&rdquo;; and in Ital. <i>groppo</i>, whence English
+&ldquo;group&rdquo;), the <i>ingluvies</i>, or pouched expansion of a bird&rsquo;s
+oesophagus, in which the food remains to undergo a preparatory
+process of digestion before being passed into the true stomach.
+From the meaning of &ldquo;top&rdquo; or &ldquo;head,&rdquo; as applied to a plant,
+herb or flower, comes the common use of the word for the
+produce of cereals or other cultivated plants, the wheat-crop,
+the cotton-crop and the like, and generally, &ldquo;the crops&rdquo;;
+more particular expressions are the &ldquo;white-crop,&rdquo; for such
+grain crops as barley or wheat, which whiten as they grow ripe
+and &ldquo;green-crop&rdquo; for such as roots or potatoes which do not,
+and also for those which are cut in a green state, like clover
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>). Other uses, more or less technical, of the
+word are, in leather-dressing, for the whole untrimmed hide; in
+mining and geology, for the &ldquo;outcrop&rdquo; or appearance at the
+surface of a vein or stratum and, particularly in tin mining, of
+the best part of the ore produced after dressing. A &ldquo;hunting-crop&rdquo;
+is a short thick stock for a whip, with a small leather loop
+at one end, to which a thong may be attached. From the verb
+&ldquo;to crop,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> to take off the top of anything, comes &ldquo;crop&rdquo;
+meaning a closely cut head of hair, found in the name &ldquo;croppy&rdquo;
+given to the Roundheads at the time of the Great Rebellion,
+to the Catholics in Ireland in 1688 by the Orangemen, probably
+with reference to the priests&rsquo; tonsures, and to the Irish rebels
+of 1798, who cut their hair short in imitation of the French
+revolutionaries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1823-1900), American landscape
+painter, was born at Rossville, Staten Island, New York,
+on the 18th of February 1823. After practising architecture for
+several years, he turned his attention to painting, studying in
+Italy from 1847 to 1850. In 1851 he was elected a member of
+the National Academy of Design. From 1857 to 1863 he had a
+studio in London, and after his return to America enjoyed a
+considerable vogue, particularly as a painter of vivid autumnal
+effects, along the lines of the Hudson River school. He was one
+of the original members of the American Water Color Society.
+He continued actively in this profession until within a few days
+of his death, at Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, on the 22nd of
+June 1900. He made the architectural designs for the stations of
+the elevated railways in New York City.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROQUET<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>croc</i>, a crook, or crooked stick), a lawn
+game played with balls, mallets, hoops and two pegs. The game
+has been evolved, according to some writers, from the <i>paille-maille</i>
+which was played in Languedoc at least as early as the
+13th century. Under the name of <i>le jeu de la crosse</i>, or <i>la crosserie</i>,
+a similar game was at the same period immensely popular in
+Normandy, and especially at Avranches, but the object appears
+to have been to send the ball as far as possible by driving it
+with the mallet (see <i>Sports et jeux d&rsquo;adresse</i>, 1904, p. 203). Pall
+Mall, a fashionable game in England in the time of the Stuarts,
+was played with a ball and a mallet, and with two hoops or a
+hoop and a peg, the game being won by the player who ran the
+hoop or hoops and touched the peg under certain conditions
+in the fewest strokes. Croquet certainly has some resemblance
+to <i>paille-maille</i>, played with more hoops and more balls. It is
+said that the game was brought to Ireland from the south of
+France, and was first played on Lord Lonsdale&rsquo;s lawn in 1852,
+under the auspices of the eldest daughter of Sir Edmund
+Macnaghten. It came to England in 1856, or perhaps a few
+years earlier, and soon became popular.</p>
+
+<p>In 1868 the first all-comers&rsquo; meeting was held at Moreton-in-the-Marsh.
+In the same year the All England Croquet Club
+was formed, the annual contest for the championship taking
+place on the grounds of this club at Wimbledon.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But after
+being for ten years or so the most popular game for the country
+house and garden party, croquet was in its turn practically
+ousted by lawn tennis, until, with improved implements and a
+more scientific form of play, it was revived about 1894-1895.
+In 1896-1897 was formed the United All England Croquet
+Association, on the initiative of Mr Walter H. Peel. Under the
+name of the Croquet Association, with more than 2000 members
+and nearly a hundred affiliated clubs (1909), this body is the
+recognized ruling authority on croquet in the British Islands.
+Its headquarters are at the Roehampton Club, where the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span>
+championship and champion cup competitions are held each
+year.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Game and its Implements.</i>&mdash;The requisites for croquet are
+a level grass lawn, six hoops, two posts or pegs, balls, mallets, and
+hoop-clips to mark the progress of the players. The usual game
+is played between two sides, each having two balls, the side
+consisting of two players in partnership, each playing one ball,
+or of one player playing both balls. The essential characteristic
+of croquet is the scientific combination between two balls in
+partnership against the other two. The balls are distinguished
+by being coloured blue, red, black and yellow, and are played
+in that order, blue and black always opposing the other two.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:404px; height:510px" src="images/img503.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Diagram of croquet ground, showing setting of hoops and
+pegs, and order of play in accordance with the official Laws (1909) of
+the Croquet Association.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The ground for match play measures 35 yds. by 28 yds., and
+should be carefully marked out with white lines. In each corner
+a white spot is marked 1 yd. from each boundary. The hoops
+are made of round iron, not less than ˝ in. and not more than
+ž in. in diameter, and standing 12 in. out of the ground. For
+match play they are 3ž or 4 in. across, inside measurement.
+They are set up as in the accompanying diagram, the numbers
+and arrows indicating the order and direction in which they must
+be passed. Each hoop is run twice, and each peg struck once.
+The pegs may be struck from any direction.</p>
+
+<p>The pegs are 1˝ in. in diameter and when fixed stand 18 in.
+above the ground. The balls were formerly made of boxwood
+(earlier still of beechwood); composition balls are now in general
+use for tournaments. They must be 3<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in diameter and
+15 oz. to 16˝ oz. in weight. It will be seen that for match play
+the hoops are only <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> or at the most <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. wider than the diameter
+of the ball. The mallets may be of any size and weight, but the
+head must be made of wood (metal may be used only for weighting
+or strengthening purposes), and the ends must be parallel and
+similar. Only one mallet may be used in the course of a game,
+except in the case of <i>bona fide</i> damage.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the player is to score the points of the game by
+striking his ball through each of the hoops and against each of
+the pegs in a fixed order; and the side wins which first succeeds
+in scoring all the points with both the balls of the side. A metal
+clip corresponding in colour with the player&rsquo;s ball is attached to
+the hoop or peg which that ball has next to make in the proper
+order, as a record of its progress in the game. No point is scored
+by passing through a hoop or hitting a peg except in the proper
+order. Thus, if a player has in any turn or turns driven his ball
+successively through hoops 1, 2, and 3, his clip is attached to
+hoop 4, and the next point to be made by him will be that hoop;
+and so on till all the points (hoops and pegs) have been scored.
+Each player starts in turn from any point in a &ldquo;baulk&rdquo; or area
+3 ft. wide along the left-hand half of the &ldquo;southern&rdquo; boundary,
+marked A on the diagram, of the lawn&mdash;till 1906, from a point
+1 ft. in front of the middle of hoop 1. If he fails either to make
+a point or to &ldquo;roquet&rdquo;<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (<i>i.e.</i> drive his ball against) another ball
+in play, his turn is at an end and the next player in order takes
+his turn in like manner. If he succeeds in scoring a point, he
+is entitled (as in billiards) to another stroke; he may then either
+attempt to score another point, or he may roquet a ball. Having
+roqueted a ball&mdash;provided he has not already roqueted the same
+ball in the same turn without having scored a point in the
+interval&mdash;he is entitled to two further strokes: first he must
+&ldquo;take croquet,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> he places his own ball (which from the
+moment of the roquet is &ldquo;dead&rdquo; or &ldquo;in hand&rdquo;) in contact with
+the roqueted ball on any side of it, and then strikes his own ball
+with his mallet, being bound to move or shake both balls perceptibly.
+If at the beginning of a turn the striker&rsquo;s ball is in
+contact with another ball, a &ldquo;roquet&rdquo; is held to have been made
+and &ldquo;croquet&rdquo; must be taken at once. After taking croquet
+the striker is entitled to another stroke, with which he may
+score another point, or roquet another ball not previously
+roqueted in the same turn since a point was scored, or he may
+play for safety. Thus, by skilful alternation of making points
+and roqueting balls, a &ldquo;break&rdquo; may be made in which point
+after point, and even all the points in the game (for the ball in
+play), may be scored in a single turn, in addition to 3 or 4 points
+for the partner ball. The chief skill in the game perhaps consists
+in playing the stroke called &ldquo;taking croquet&rdquo; (but see below
+on the &ldquo;rush&rdquo;). Expert players can drive both balls together
+from one end of the ground to the other, or send one to a distance
+while retaining the other, or place each with accuracy in different
+directions as desired, the player obtaining position for scoring
+a point or roqueting another ball according to the strategical
+requirements of his position. Care has, however, to be taken in
+playing the croquet-stroke that both balls are absolutely moved
+or perceptibly shaken, and that neither of them be driven over
+the boundary line, for in either event the player&rsquo;s next
+stroke is forfeited and his turn brought summarily to an
+end.</p>
+
+<p>There are three distinct methods of holding the mallet among
+good players. A comparatively small number still adhere to the
+once universal &ldquo;side stroke,&rdquo; in which the player faces more
+or less at right angles to the line of aim, and strikes the ball very
+much like a golfer, with his hands close together on the mallet
+shaft. The majority use &ldquo;front play,&rdquo; in which the player faces
+in the direction in which he proposes to send the ball. The
+essential characteristic of this stroke is that eye, hand and ball
+should be in the same vertical plane, and the stroke is rather a
+swing&mdash;the &ldquo;pendulum stroke&rdquo;&mdash;than a hit. There are two
+ways of playing it. The majority of right-handed front players
+swing the mallet outside the right foot, holding it with the left
+hand as a pivot at the top of the shaft, while the right hand
+(about 12 in. lower down) applies the necessary force, though it
+must always be borne in mind that the heavy mallet-head,
+weighing from 3 to 3˝ &#8468; or even more, does the work by itself,
+and the nearer the stroke is to a simple swing, like that of a
+pendulum, the more likely it is to be accurate. Either the right
+or the left foot may be in advance, and should be roughly
+parallel to the line of aim, the player&rsquo;s weight being mainly on
+the rear foot. Most of the best Irish and some English players
+swing the mallet between their feet, using a grip like that of the
+side player or golfer, with the hands close together, and often
+interlocking. It is claimed that the loss of power caused by the
+hampered swing&mdash;usually compensated by an extra heavy
+mallet&mdash;is more than counterbalanced by the greater accuracy
+in aim. The beginner is well advised to try all these methods,
+and adopt that which comes most natural to him. Skirted
+players, of course, are unable to use the Irish stroke; and, as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span>
+one of the most meritorious features of croquet is that it is the
+only out-of-door game in which men and women can compete
+on terms of real equality, this has been put forward as a reason
+for barring it, if it is actually an advantage.</p>
+
+<p>When a croquet ground is thoroughly smooth and level, the
+game gives scope for considerable skill; a great variety of strokes
+may be played with the mallet, each having its own well-defined
+effect on the behaviour of the balls, while a knowledge of angles
+is essential. Skilful tactics are at least as necessary as skilful
+execution to enable the player so to dispose the balls on the
+ground while making a break that they may most effectively
+assist him in scoring his points. The tactics of croquet are in
+this respect similar to those of billiards, that the player tries
+to make what progress he can during his own break, and to leave
+the balls &ldquo;safe&rdquo; at the end of it; he must also keep in mind
+the needs of the other ball of his side by leaving his own ball,
+or the last player&rsquo;s ball, or both, within easy roqueting distance
+or in useful positions, and that of the next player isolated.
+Good judgment is really more valuable than mechanical skill.
+Croquet is a game of combination, partners endeavouring to
+keep together for mutual help, and to keep their opponents
+apart. It is important always to leave the next player in such
+a position that he will be unable to score a point or roquet a
+ball; a break, however profitable, which does not end by doing
+this is often fatal. Formerly this might be done by leaving the
+next player&rsquo;s ball in such a position that either a hoop or a peg
+lay between it and all the other balls (&ldquo;wiring&rdquo;), or so near to
+a hoop or peg that there was no room for a proper stroke to be
+taken in the required direction. Under rule 36 of the <i>Laws of
+Croquet</i> for 1906, a ball left in such a position, provided it were
+within a yard of the obstacle (&ldquo;close-wired&rdquo;), might at the
+striker&rsquo;s option be moved one yard in any direction. This
+rule left to the striker whose ball was &ldquo;wired&rdquo; more than a yard
+from the hoop or peg (&ldquo;distance-wired&rdquo;) the possibility of hitting
+his ball in such a way as to jump the obstacle. The jump-shot
+is, however, very bad for the lawn, and in 1907 a further provision
+was made by which the player whose ball is left &ldquo;wired&rdquo; from
+all the other balls by the stroke of an opponent may lift it
+and play from the &ldquo;baulk&rdquo; area. This practically means that
+&ldquo;wiring&rdquo; is impossible. The most that can be done is to &ldquo;close-wire&rdquo;
+the next player from two balls and leave him with a
+difficult shot at the third. If, however, the next player&rsquo;s ball
+has not been moved by the adversary, the adversary is entitled
+to wire the balls as best he can.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a specimen of elementary croquet tactics.
+If a player is going up to hoop 5 (diagram 1) in the course of a
+break, he should have contrived, if possible, to have a ball
+waiting for him at that hoop and another at hoop 6. With the
+aid of the first he runs hoop 5 and sends it on to the turning peg,
+stopping his ball in taking croquet close to the ball at 6. The
+corner hoops are the difficult ones, and after running hoop 6
+the assisting ball is croqueted to 1 back, the peg being struck
+with the aid of the ball already there, which is again struck and
+driven to 2 back. If the player has been able to leave the fourth
+ball in the centre of the ground (known as a centre ball), he hits
+this after taking croquet, takes croquet, going off it to the ball
+at 1 back, and continues the break, leaving the centre ball where
+it will be useful for 3 back and 4 back. A first-class player
+should, however, be able to make a break with 3 balls almost as
+easily as with 4. A useful device, especially in a losing game,
+is to get rid of the opponent&rsquo;s advanced ball if a &ldquo;rover&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+one which has run all the hoops and is for the winning peg) by
+croqueting it in such a way that it hits the peg and is thus out
+of the game. This can be done only by a ball which is itself also
+a rover. The opponent has then only one turn out of every three,
+and may be rendered practically helpless by leaving him always
+in a &ldquo;safe&rdquo; position. Inasmuch as a skilful player can cause
+an opponent&rsquo;s ball to pass through the last two or even three
+hoops in the course of his turn and then peg it out, it is considered
+prudent to leave unrun the last three hoops until the partner&rsquo;s
+ball is well advanced. There is a perennial agitation in the
+croquet world for a law prohibiting the player from pegging out
+his opponent&rsquo;s ball. Many good players also think it desirable
+that the four-ball break should be restricted or wholly forbidden,
+<i>e.g.</i> by barring the dead ball.</p>
+
+<p>To &ldquo;rush&rdquo; a ball is to roquet it hard so that it proceeds for a
+considerable distance in a desired direction. This stroke requires
+absolute accuracy and often considerable force, which must
+be applied in such a way as to drive the player&rsquo;s ball evenly;
+otherwise it is very liable, especially if the ground be not perfectly
+smooth, to jump the object ball. The rush stroke is absolutely
+essential to good play, as it enables croquet to be taken (<i>e.g.</i>)
+close to the required hoop, whereas to croquet into position
+from a great distance and also provide a ball for use after running
+the hoop is extremely difficult, often impossible. To &ldquo;rush&rdquo;
+successfully, the striker&rsquo;s ball must lie near the object ball,
+preferably, though not necessarily, in the line of the rush.
+By means of the rush it is possible to accomplish the complete
+round with the assistance of one ball only. To &ldquo;cut&rdquo; a ball
+is to hit it on the edge and cause it to move at some desired angle.
+&ldquo;Rolling croquet&rdquo; is made either by hitting near the top of
+the player&rsquo;s ball which gives it &ldquo;follow,&rdquo; or by making the mallet
+so hit the ball as to keep up a sustained pressure. The first
+impact must, however, result in a distinctly audible single tap;
+if a prolonged rattle or a second tap is heard the stroke is foul.
+The passing stroke is merely an extension of this. Here the
+player&rsquo;s ball proceeds a greater distance than the croqueted
+ball, but in somewhat the same direction. The &ldquo;stop stroke&rdquo; is
+made by a short, sharp tap, the mallet being withdrawn immediately
+after contact; the player&rsquo;s ball only rolls a short distance,
+the other going much farther. The &ldquo;jump stroke&rdquo; is made by
+striking downwards on to the ball, which can thus be made to
+jump over another ball, or even a hoop. &ldquo;Peeling&rdquo; (a term
+derived from Walter H. Peel, a famous advocate of the policy)
+is the term applied to the device of putting a partner&rsquo;s or an
+opponent&rsquo;s ball through the hoops with a view to ultimately
+pegging it out.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of croquet, and even the arrangement of the hoops,
+have not attained complete uniformity wherever the game is
+played. Croquet grounds are not always of full size, and some
+degree of elasticity in the rules is perhaps necessary to meet
+local conditions. The laws by which matches for the championship
+and all tournaments are governed are issued annually by
+the Croquet Association; and though from time to time trifling
+amendments may be made, they have probably reached
+permanence in essentials.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; <i>The Complete Croquet Player</i>
+(London, 1896); the latest <i>Laws of Croquet</i>, published annually by
+the Croquet Association, and its official organ <i>The Croquet Gazette</i>.
+For the principles of the game and its history in England, see C. D.
+Locock, <i>Modern Croquet Tactics</i> (London, 1907); A. Lillie, <i>Croquet
+up to Date</i> (London, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Croquet in the United States: Roque.</i>&mdash;Croquet was brought
+to America from England soon after its introduction into that
+country, and enjoyed a wide popularity as a game for boys
+and girls before the Civil War (see Miss Alcott&rsquo;s <i>Little Women</i>,
+cap. 12). American croquet is quite distinct from the modern
+English game. It is played on a lawn 60 ft. by 30, and preserves
+the old-fashioned English arrangement of ten hoops, including
+a central &ldquo;cage&rdquo; of two hoops. The balls, coloured red, white,
+blue and black, are 3ź in. in diameter, and the hoops are from
+3˝ to 4 in. wide, according to the skill of the players. This game,
+however, is not taken seriously in the United States; the
+<i>Official Croquet Guide</i> of Mr Charles Jacobus emphasizes &ldquo;the
+ease with which the game can be established,&rdquo; since almost every
+country home has a grass plot, and &ldquo;no elaboration is needed.&rdquo;
+The scientific game of croquet in the United States is known as
+&ldquo;roque.&rdquo; Under this title a still greater departure from the
+English game has been elaborated on quite independent lines
+from those of the English Croquet Association since 1882, in
+which year the National Roque Association was formed. Roque
+also suffered from the popularity of lawn tennis, but since 1897
+it has developed almost as fast as croquet in England. A great
+national championship tournament is held in Norwich, Conn.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span>
+every August, and the game&mdash;which is fully as scientific as
+modern English croquet&mdash;has numerous devotees, especially
+in New England.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:583px; height:324px" src="images/img505.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagram of roque ground, showing setting of arches and stakes
+and order of play, in accordance with the official laws (1906) of the National
+Roque Association.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Roque is played, not on grass, but on a prepared surface
+something like a cinder tennis-court. The standard ground,
+as adopted by the National Association in 1903, is hexagonal
+in shape, with ten arches (hoops) and two stakes (pegs) as
+shown in diagram 2. The length is 60 ft., width 30, and the
+&ldquo;corner pieces&rdquo; are 6 ft. long. An essential feature of the
+ground is that it is surrounded by a raised wooden border, often
+lined with india-rubber to facilitate the rebound of the ball,
+and it is permissible to play a &ldquo;carom&rdquo; (or rebounding shot)
+off this border; a skilful player can often thus hit a ball which
+is wired to a direct shot. A boundary line is marked 28 in.
+inside the border, on which a ball coming to rest outside it must
+be replaced. The hoops are run in the order marked on the
+diagram, so that the game consists of 36 points. Red and white
+are always partners against blue and black, and the essential
+features and tactics of the game are, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, the same
+as in modern English croquet&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> the skilful player goes always
+for a break and utilizes one or both of the opponent&rsquo;s balls in
+making it. The balls are 3ź in. in diameter, of hard rubber or
+composition, and the arches are 3<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> or 3˝ in. wide for first- and
+second-class players respectively; they are made of steel ˝ in.
+in diameter and stand about 8 in. out of the ground. The stakes
+are 1 in. in diameter and only 1˝ in. above the ground. The
+mallets are much shorter than those commonly employed in
+England, the majority of players using only one hand, though
+the two-handed &ldquo;pendulum stroke,&rdquo; played between the legs,
+finds an increasingly large number of adherents, on account of
+the greater accuracy which it gives. The &ldquo;jump shot&rdquo; is a
+necessary part of the player&rsquo;s equipment, as dead wiring is
+allowed; it is supplemented by the carom off the border or
+off a stake or arch, and roque players justly claim that their
+game is more like billiards than any other out-of-door
+game.</p>
+
+<p>The game of roque is opened by scoring (stringing) for lead
+from an imaginary line through the middle wicket (cage), the
+player whose ball rests nearest the southern boundary line
+having the choice of lead and balls. The balls are then placed
+on the four corner spots marked A in diagram, partner balls
+being diagonally opposite one another, and the starting ball
+having the choice of either of the upper corners. The leader,
+say red, usually begins by shooting at white; if he misses, a
+carom off the border will leave him somewhere near his partner,
+blue. White then shoots at red or blue, with probably a similar
+result. Blue is then &ldquo;in,&rdquo; with a certain roquet and the choice
+of laying for red or going for an immediate break himself. The
+general strategy of the game corresponds to that of croquet,
+the most important differences being that &ldquo;pegging out&rdquo; is
+not allowed, and that on the small ground with its ten arches
+and two stakes the three-ball break is usually adopted,
+the next player or &ldquo;danger ball&rdquo; being wired at the earliest
+opportunity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Spalding&rsquo;s <i>Official Roque Guide</i>, edited by Mr Charles Jacobus
+(New York, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This was largely the work of W. T. Whitmore-Jones (1831-1872),
+generally known as W. Jones Whitmore, who subsequently formed
+the short-lived National Croquet Club, and was largely responsible
+for the first codification of the laws.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The words &ldquo;roquet&rdquo; and &ldquo;croquet&rdquo; are pronounced as in
+French, with the <i>t</i> mute.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRORE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (Hindustani <i>karor</i>), an Anglo-Indian term for a hundred
+<i>lakhs</i> or ten million. It is in common use for statistics of trade
+and especially coinage. In the days when the rupee was worth its
+face value of 2s., a crore of rupees was exactly worth a million
+sterling, but now that the rupee is fixed at 15 to the Ł1, a crore
+is only worth Ł666,666.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSBY, HOWARD<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1826-1891), American preacher and
+teacher, great-grandson of Judge Joseph Crosby of Massachusetts
+and of Gen. William Floyd of New York, a signer of
+the Declaration of Independence, was born in New York City
+on the 27th of February 1826. He graduated in 1844 from
+the University of the City of New York (now New York University);
+became professor of Greek there in 1851, and in 1859
+became professor of Greek in Rutgers College, New Brunswick,
+New Jersey, where two years later he was ordained pastor of
+the first Presbyterian church. From 1870 to 1881 he was
+chancellor of the University of the City of New York; from
+1872 to 1881 was one of the American revisers of the
+English version of the New Testament; and in 1873 was
+moderator of the general assembly of the Presbyterian
+Church. He took a prominent part in politics, urged
+excise reform, opposed &ldquo;total abstinence,&rdquo; was one of the
+founders and was the first president of the New York
+Society for the Prevention of Crime, and pleaded for
+better management of Indian affairs and for international
+copyright. Among his publications are <i>The
+Lands of the Moslem</i> (1851), <i>Bible Companion</i> (1870),
+<i>Jesus: His Life and Works</i> (1871), <i>True Temperance
+Reform</i> (1879), <i>True Humanity of Christ</i> (1880), and
+commentaries on the book of Joshua (1875), Nehemiah
+(1877) and the New Testament (1885).</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Ernest Howard Crosby</span> (1856-1907), was a
+social reformer, and was born in New York City on the
+4th of November 1856. He graduated at the University
+of the City of New York in 1876 and at Columbia
+Law School in 1878; served in the New York Assembly
+in 1887-1889, securing the passage of a high-licence bill;
+in 1889-1894 was a judge of the Mixed Tribunal at Alexandria,
+Egypt, resigning upon coming under the influence
+of Tolstoy; and died in New York City on the 3rd of January
+1907. He was the first president (1894) of the Social Reform
+Club of New York City, and was president in 1900-1905 of the
+New York Anti-Imperialist League; was a leader in settlement
+work and in opposition to child labour, and was a disciple of
+Tolstoy as to universal peace and non-resistance, and of Henry
+George in his belief in the &ldquo;single tax&rdquo; principle. His writings,
+many of which are in the manner of Walt Whitman, comprise
+<i>Plain Talk in Psalm and Parable</i> (1899), <i>Swords and Ploughshares</i>
+(1902), and <i>Broadcast</i> (1905), all in verse; an anti-military
+novel, <i>Captain Jinks, Hero</i> (1902); and essays on
+Tolstoy (1904 and 1905) and on Garrison (1905).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSS,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> and <b>CRUCIFIXION</b> (Lat. <i>crux</i>, <i>crucis</i><a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>). The meaning
+ordinarily attached to the word &ldquo;cross&rdquo; is that of a figure
+composed of two or more lines which intersect, or touch each
+other transversely. Thus, two pieces of wood, or other material,
+so placed in juxtaposition to one another, are understood to
+form a cross. It should be noted, however, that Lipsius and
+other writers speak of the single upright stake to which criminals
+were bound as a cross, and to such a stake the name of <i>crux
+simplex</i> has been applied. The usual conception, however, of a
+cross is that of a compound figure.</p>
+
+<p>Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient
+times. It is known to have been used by nations such as
+those of Assyria, Egypt, Persia, by the Greeks, Carthaginians,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span>
+Macedonians, and from very early times by the Romans. It has
+been thought, too, that crucifixion was also used by the Jews
+themselves, and that there is an allusion to it (Deut. xxi. 22,
+23) as a punishment to be inflicted.</p>
+
+<p>Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment
+of crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first of all
+usually stripped naked, and bound to an upright stake, where
+he was so cruelly scourged with an implement, formed of strips
+of leather having pieces of iron, or some other hard material,
+at their ends, that not merely was the flesh often stripped from
+the bones, but even the entrails partly protruded, and the
+anatomy of the body was disclosed. In this pitiable state he
+was reclothed, and, if able to do so, was made to drag the stake
+to the place of execution, where he was either fastened to it,
+or impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, where a
+single stake was employed, we have the <i>crux simplex</i> of Lipsius.
+The other method is that with which we are more familiar, and
+which is described in the New Testament account of the crucifixion
+of Jesus Christ. In such a case, after the scourging at the
+stake, the criminal was made to carry a gibbet, formed of two
+transverse bars of wood, to the place of execution, and he was
+then fastened to it by iron nails driven through the outstretched
+arms and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as the
+cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position.
+In other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder,
+and was then fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness,
+or state of collapse, from which the criminal must often have
+suffered, had much to do in deciding this. It is not quite clear
+which of these two plans was followed in the case of the crucifixion
+of Christ, but the more general opinion has been that He
+was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that it was then lifted
+into position. The contrary opinion, has, however, prevailed
+to some extent, and there are representations of the crucifixion
+which depict Him as mounting a ladder placed against the cross.
+Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious
+desire, on the part of their authors, to emphasize the voluntary
+offering of Himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as
+being intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may
+be noted, however, that among the &ldquo;Emblems of the Passion,&rdquo;
+as they are called, and which were very favourite devices in
+the middle ages, the ladder is not infrequently found in conjunction
+with the crown of thorns, nails, spear, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:201px; height:89px" src="images/img506.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp; Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>From its simplicity of form, the cross has been used both
+as a religious symbol and as an ornament, from the dawn of
+man&rsquo;s civilization. Various objects, dating from periods long
+anterior to the Christian era, have been found, marked with
+crosses of different designs, in almost every part of the old
+world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded numberless
+examples, while numerous instances, dating from the later
+Stone Age to Christian times, have been found in nearly every
+part of Europe. The use of the cross as a religious symbol in
+pre-Christian times, and among non-Christian
+peoples, may probably be
+regarded as almost universal, and in
+very many cases it was connected
+with some form of nature worship.
+Two of the forms of the pre-Christian
+cross which are perhaps most frequently
+met with are the tau cross, so named from its resemblance
+to the Greek capital letter <img style="width:19px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img506a.jpg" alt="" />, and the <i>svastika</i> or <i>fylfot</i><a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> <img style="width:23px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img506b.jpg" alt="" />,
+also called &ldquo;<i>Gammadion</i>&rdquo; owing to its form being that of four
+Greek capital letters <i>gamma</i> <img style="width:16px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img506c.jpg" alt="" /> placed together. The tau cross
+is a common Egyptian device, and is indeed often called the
+Egyptian cross. The <i>svastika</i> has a very wide range of distribution,
+and is found on all kinds of objects. It was used as
+a religious emblem in India and China at least ten centuries
+before the Christian era, and is met with on Buddhist coins
+and inscriptions from various parts of India. A fine sepulchral
+urn found at Shropham in Norfolk, and now in the British
+Museum, has three bands of cruciform ornaments round it.
+The two uppermost of these are plain circles, each of which
+contains a plain cross; the lowest band is formed of a series of
+squares, in each of which is a <i>svastika</i>. In the Vatican Museum
+there is an Etruscan fibula of gold which is marked with the
+<i>svastika</i>, but it is a device of such common occurrence on objects
+of pre-Christian origin, that it is hardly necessary to specify
+individual instances. The cross, as a device in different forms,
+and often enclosed in a circle, is of frequent occurrence on coins
+and medals of pre-Christian date in France and elsewhere.
+Indeed, objects marked with pre-Christian crosses are to be seen
+in every important museum.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Christ on a cross necessarily conferred a new
+significance on the figure, which had hitherto been associated
+with a conception of religion not merely non-Christian, but in
+its essence often directly opposed to it. The Christians of early
+times were wont to trace, in things around them, hidden prophetical
+allusions to the truth of their faith, and such a testimony
+they seem to have readily recognized in the use of the cross as
+a religious emblem by those whose employment of it betokened
+a belief most repugnant to their own. The adoption by them of
+such forms, for example, as the tau cross and the <i>svastika</i> or
+<i>fylfot</i> was no doubt influenced by the idea of the occult Christian
+significance which they thought they recognized in those forms,
+and which they could use with a special meaning among themselves,
+without at the same time arousing the ill-feeling or
+shocking the sentiment of those among whom they lived.</p>
+
+<p>It was not till the time of Constantine that the cross was
+publicly used as the symbol of the Christian religion. Till then
+its employment had been restricted, and private among the
+Christians themselves. Under Constantine it became the
+acknowledged symbol of Christianity, in the same way in which,
+long afterwards, the crescent was adopted as the symbol of
+the Mahommedan religion. Constantine&rsquo;s action was no doubt
+influenced by the vision which he believed he saw of the cross in
+the sky with the accompanying words <span class="grk" title="en toutô nika">&#7952;&#957; &#964;&#959;&#973;&#964;&#8179; &#957;&#943;&#954;&#945;</span>, as well as
+by the story of the discovery of the true cross by his mother
+St Helena in the year 326. The legend is that, when visiting
+the holy places in Palestine, St Helena was guided to the site
+of the crucifixion by an aged Jew who had inherited traditional
+knowledge as to its position. After the ground had been dug
+to a considerable depth, three crosses were found, as well as
+the superscription placed over the Saviour&rsquo;s head on the cross, and
+the nails with which he had been crucified. The cross of the
+Lord was distinguished from the other two by the working
+of a miracle on a crippled woman who was stretched upon it.
+This finding, or &ldquo;invention,&rdquo; of the holy cross by St Helena is
+commemorated by a festival on the 3rd of May, called the
+&ldquo;Invention of the Holy Cross.&rdquo; The legend was widely accepted
+as true, and is related by writers such as St Ambrose, Rufinus,
+Sulpicius Severus and others, but it is discounted by the
+existence of an older legend, according to which the true cross
+was found in the reign of Tiberius, and while St James the
+Great was bishop of Jerusalem, by Protonice, the wife of Claudius.</p>
+
+<p>In recent times an attempt has been made to reconcile the
+two accounts, by attributing to St Helena the rediscovery of
+the true cross, originally found by Protonice, and which had
+been buried again on the spot. A change was made in 1895
+in the <i>Diario Romano</i>, when the word <i>Ritrovamento</i> was substituted
+for that of <i>Invenzione</i>, in the name of the festival of the
+3rd of May. After St Helena&rsquo;s discovery a church was built
+upon the site, and in it she placed the greater portion of the
+cross. The remaining portion she conveyed to Byzantium,
+and thence Constantine sent a piece to Rome, where it is said to
+be still preserved in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span>
+which was built to receive so precious a relic. It is exposed for
+the veneration of the faithful on Good Friday, 3rd of May, and
+the third Sunday in Lent, each year.</p>
+
+<p>Another festival of the holy cross is kept on the 14th of
+September, and is known as the &ldquo;Exaltation of the Holy Cross.&rdquo;
+It seems to have originated with the dedication, in the year 335,
+of the churches built on the sites of the crucifixion and the holy
+sepulchre. The observance of this festival passed from Jerusalem
+to Constantinople, and thence to Rome, where it appears to
+have been introduced in the 7th century. By some it is thought
+that the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross had its origin in
+Constantine&rsquo;s vision of the cross in the sky in the year 317, but
+whether it originated then, or, as is more generally supposed,
+at the dedication of the churches at Jerusalem, there is no
+doubt that it was afterwards kept with much greater solemnity
+in consequence of the recovery of the portion of the cross St
+Helena had left at Jerusalem, which had been taken away in the
+Persian victory, and was restored to Jerusalem by Heraclitus
+in 627. Pope Clement VIII. (1592-1604) raised the festival
+of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross to the dignity, liturgically
+known as that of a Greater Double.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the story of St Helena and the cross, it
+may be convenient to allude briefly to the superscription placed
+over the Saviour&rsquo;s head, and the nails, which it is said that she
+found with the cross. The earlier tradition as to the superscription
+is obscure, but it would seem that it ought to be considered
+part of the relic which Constantine sent to Rome. By
+some means it was entirely lost sight of until the year 1492,
+when it is said that it was accidentally found in a vault in the
+church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme at Rome. Pope Alexander
+III. published a bull certifying to the truth of this rediscovery
+of the relic, and authenticated its character.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the nails, a question has arisen whether there were
+three or four. In the earliest pictures of the Crucifixion the feet
+are shown as separately nailed to the cross, but at a later period
+they are crossed, and a single nail fixes them. In the former
+case there would be four nails, and in the latter only three.
+Four is the number generally accepted, and it is said that one
+was cast by St Helena into the sea, during a storm, in order
+to subdue the waves, another is said (but the legend cannot be
+traced far back) to have been beaten out into the iron circlet
+of the crown of Lombardy, while the remaining two are
+reputed to be preserved among the relics at Milan and Trier
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of the cross as the Christian symbol has
+been so manifold in its variety and application, and the different
+forms to which the figure has been adapted and elaborated are
+so complex, that it is only possible to deal with the outline of
+the subject.</p>
+
+<p>We learn from Tertullian and other early Christian writers
+of the constant use which the Christians of those days made of
+the sign of the cross. Tertullian (<i>De Cor. Mil.</i> cap. iii.) says:
+&ldquo;At each journey and progress, at each coming in and going out,
+at the putting on of shoes, at the bath, at meals, at the kindling
+of lights, at bedtime, at sitting down, whatsoever occupation
+engages us, we mark the brow with the sign of the cross.&rdquo; With
+so frequent an employment of the sign of the cross in their
+domestic life, it would be strange if we did not find that it was
+very frequently used in the public worship of the church. The
+earliest liturgical forms are comparatively late, and are without
+rubrics, but the allusions by different writers in early times
+to the ceremonial use of the sign of the cross in the public services
+are so numerous, and so much importance was attached to it,
+that we are left in no manner of doubt on the point. St
+Augustine, indeed, speaks of the sacraments as not duly
+ministered if the use of the sign of the cross were absent from
+their ministration (<i>Hom. cxviii. in S. Joan.</i>). Of the later
+liturgical use of the sign of the cross there is little need to speak,
+as a reference to the service books of the Greek and Latin
+churches will plainly indicate the frequency of, and the importance
+attached to, its employment. Its occasional use is retained
+by the Lutherans, and in the Church of England it is authoritatively
+used at baptism, and at the &ldquo;sacring&rdquo; or anointing of
+the sovereign at the coronation.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:124px; height:67px" src="images/img507a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3. &emsp;&emsp; Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Passing from the sign to the material figures of the cross,
+a very usual classification distinguishes three main forms:
+(1) the <i>crux immissa</i>, or <i>capitata</i> <img style="width:15px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img507d.jpg" alt="" /> (fig. 3) known also as the
+Latin cross, or if each limb is of the same length, <img style="width:21px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img507e.jpg" alt="" /> (fig. 4) as
+the Greek cross; (2) the <i>crux decussata</i>, formed like the letter <img style="width:19px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img507f.jpg" alt="" />,
+and (3) the <i>crux commissa</i> or tau cross,
+already mentioned. It was on a crux immissa
+that Christ is believed to have been crucified.
+The <i>crux decussata</i> is known as St Andrew&rsquo;s
+cross, from the tradition that St Andrew was
+put to death on a cross of that form. The
+<i>crux commissa</i> is often called St Anthony&rsquo;s cross, probably
+only because it resembles the crutch with which the great hermit
+is generally depicted.</p>
+
+<p>The cross in one form or other appears, appropriately, on the
+flags and ensigns of many Christian countries. The English
+cross of St George is a plain red cross on a white ground, the
+Scottish cross of St Andrew is a plain diagonal white cross on a
+blue ground, and the Irish cross of St Patrick is a plain diagonal
+red cross on a white ground. These three crosses are combined
+in the Union Jack (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flag</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:180px; height:107px" src="images/img507b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp; Fig. 6.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The cross has also been adopted by many orders of knighthood.
+Perhaps the best known of these is the cross of the knights of
+Malta. It is a white cross of eight points on a black ground
+(fig. 5) and is the proper Maltese cross,
+a name which is often wrongly applied
+to the cross <i>patée</i> (fig. 6). The knights
+of the Garter use the cross of St
+George, as do those of the order of St
+Michael and St George, the knights of
+the Thistle use St Andrew&rsquo;s cross, and
+those of St Patrick the cross of St
+Patrick charged with a shamrock leaf. The cross of the Danish
+order of the Dannebrog (fig. 7) affords a good example of this use
+of the cross. It is in form a white cross patée, superimposed
+upon a red one of the same form, and is surmounted by the
+royal cipher and crown, and has upon its surface the royal
+cipher repeated, and the legend, or motto, &ldquo;<i>Gud og Kongen</i>&rdquo;
+= &ldquo;God and the King.&rdquo; (For crosses of monastic orders see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:149px; height:301px" src="images/img507c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Cross of the
+Dannebrog.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Akin to the crosses of knightly orders are those which figure
+as charges on coats of arms. The science of heraldry evolved a
+wonderful variety of cross-forms during the period it held sway
+in the middle ages. The different forms of cross used in heraldry
+are, in fact, so numerous that it is only the larger works on that
+subject which attempt to record them all.
+For such crosses see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle ages the cross form, in
+one way or another, was predominant
+everywhere, and was introduced whenever
+opportunity offered itself for doing so. The
+larger churches were planned on its outline,
+so that the ridge line of their roofs proclaimed
+it far and wide. This was more
+particularly followed in the north of Europe,
+but when it was first introduced is not
+quite certain. All the ancient cathedral
+churches of England and Wales are cruciform
+in plan, except Llandaff.</p>
+
+<p>The artistic skill and ingenuity of the
+medieval designer has produced cross
+designs of endless variety, and of singular
+elegance and beauty. Some of the most
+beautiful of these designs are the gable crosses of the old
+churches. Fig. 8 shows the west gable cross of Washburn
+church, Worcestershire; fig. 9 that of the nave of Castle Acre
+church, Norfolk; and fig. 10 the east gable cross of Hethersett
+church in that county. They may be taken as good examples
+of a type of cross which is often of great beauty, but it is overlooked,
+owing to its bad position for observation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:526px; height:298px" src="images/img508a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Other architectural crosses, of great beauty of design, are
+those which occur on the grave slabs of the middle ages.
+Instances of a plainer type occur in Saxon times, but it was not
+till after the 11th century that they were fashioned after the
+intricate and beautiful designs with which our ancient churches
+are, as a rule, so plentifully supplied. Sometimes these crosses
+are incised in the slab, and almost as often they are executed
+in low relief. The long shaft of the cross is most commonly plain,
+but there are a very large number of instances in which this
+is not so, and in which branches, with leaf designs, are thrown
+out at intervals the entire length of the shaft. In some cases
+the shaft rises from a series of steps at its base, and in such a case
+the name of a Calvary cross is applied to it. Fig. 11, from Stradsett
+church, Norfolk, and fig. 12 from Bosbury church, Herefordshire,
+are good examples of the designs at the head of sepulchral
+crosses. Often, by the side of the cross, an emblem or symbol
+is placed, denoting the calling in life of the person commemorated.
+Thus a sword is placed to indicate a knight or soldier, a chalice
+for a priest, and so forth; but it would be travelling beyond the
+scope of this article to enter into a discussion as to such symbols.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:472px; height:309px" src="images/img508b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of upright standing crosses, the Irish and Iona types are well
+known, and their great artistic beauty and elaboration and
+excellence of sculpture are universally recognized. These crosses
+are sometimes spoken of as &ldquo;Runic Crosses&rdquo;; and the interlacing
+knotwork design with which many of them are ornamented
+is also at times spoken of as &ldquo;Runic.&rdquo; This is an erroneous
+application of the word, and has arisen from the fact that some
+of these crosses bear inscriptions in Runic characters. Standing
+crosses, of different kinds, were commonly set up in every
+suitable place during the middle ages, as the mutilated bases and
+shafts still remaining readily testify. Such crosses were erected
+in the centre of the market place, in the churchyard, on the village
+green, or as boundary stones, or marks to guide the traveller.
+Some, like the Black Friars cross at Hereford, were preaching
+stations, others, like the beautiful Eleanor crosses at Northampton,
+Geddington and Waltham, were commemorative
+in character. Of these latter crosses, which marked the places
+where the funeral procession of Queen Eleanor halted, there
+were originally ten or more, erected between 1241 and 1294.
+They were placed at Lincoln, Northampton, Stony Stratford,
+Woburn, Dunstable, St Albans, Waltham and London (Cheapside
+and Charing Cross). The cross at Geddington differs in outline
+from those at Northampton and Waltham, and it is not recorded
+on the roll of accounts for the nine others, all of which are mentioned,
+but there is no real doubt that it commemorates the
+resting of the coffin of the queen in Geddington church on its
+way from Harby. These crosses, like the Black Friars cross
+at Hereford, are elaborate architectural erections, and very
+similar to them in this respect are the beautiful market crosses
+at Winchester, Chichester, Salisbury, Devizes, Shepton Mallet,
+Leighton Buzzard, &amp;c. Of churchyard crosses, as distinguished
+from memorial crosses in churchyards, one only is believed to
+have escaped in a perfect condition the ravages of time, and the
+fanaticism of the past. It stands in the churchyard of Somerby,
+in Lincolnshire (Tennyson&rsquo;s birthplace), and is a tall shaft
+surmounted by a pedimented tabernacle, on one side of which
+is the crucifixion, and on the other the figure of the Virgin and
+Child. Churchyard crosses may have been used as occasional
+preaching stations, for reading the Gospel in the Palm Sunday
+procession, and generally for public proclamations, made usually
+at the conclusion of the chief Sunday morning service, much
+in the same way that market crosses were used on market days
+as places for proclamations in the towns.</p>
+
+<p>Of the ecclesiastical use of the sign of the cross mention has
+already been made, and it is desirable to mention briefly one
+or two instances of the ecclesiastical use of the cross itself. From
+a fairly early period it has been the prerogative of an archbishop
+or metropolitan, to have a cross borne before him within the
+limits of his province. The question urged between the archbishops
+of Canterbury and York about the carrying of their
+crosses before them, in each other&rsquo;s province, was a fruitful
+source of controversy in the middle ages. The archiepiscopal
+cross must not be confused with the crozier or pastoral staff.
+The latter, which is formed with a crook at the end, is quite
+distinct, and is used by archbishops and bishops alike, who bear
+it with the left hand in processions, and when blessing the people.
+The archiepiscopal cross, on the contrary, is always borne before
+the archbishop, or during the vacancy of the archiepiscopal see
+before the guardian of the spiritualities <i>sede vacante</i>. The
+bishop of Dol in Brittany, of ordinary diocesan bishops, alone
+possessed the privilege of having a cross borne before him in
+his diocese. Good illustrations of the archiepiscopal cross occur
+on the monumental brasses of Archbishop Waldeby, of York
+(1397), at Westminster Abbey, and of Archbishop Cranley,
+of Dublin (1417) in New College chapel, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>The custom of carrying a cross at the head of an ecclesiastical
+procession can be traced back to the end of the 4th century.
+The cross was originally taken from the altar, and raised on a
+pole, and so borne before the procession. Afterwards a separate
+cross was provided for processions, but in poor churches, where
+this was not the case, the altar cross continued to be used till quite
+a late period. A direction to this effect occurs as late as 1829,
+in the <i>Rituel</i> published for the diocese of La Rochelle in that year.
+In England altar crosses were not very usual in the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>As a personal ornament the cross came into common use, and
+was usually worn suspended by a chain from the neck. A cross
+of this kind, of very great interest and beauty, was found about
+1690, on the breast of Queen Dagmar, the wife of Waldemar II.,
+king of Denmark (d. 1213). It is of Byzantine design and
+workmanship, and is of enamelled gold (fig. 13 shows both sides
+of it); on one side is the Crucifixion, and on the other side the
+half figure of our Lord in the centre, with the Virgin and St John
+the Evangelist on either side, and St Chrysostom and St Basil
+above and below. From the way in which such crosses were
+worn, hanging over the chest, they are called pectoral crosses.
+At the present day a pectoral cross forms part of the recognized
+insignia of a Roman Catholic bishop, and is worn by him over
+his robes, but this official use of the pectoral cross is not ancient,
+and no instance is known of it in England before the Reformation.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span>
+The custom appears to have taken rise in the 16th century on the
+continent. It was not unusual to wear cruciform reliquaries,
+as objects of personal adornment, and such a reliquary was
+found on the body of St Cuthbert, when his tomb was opened in
+1827, but it was placed under, and not over his episcopal vestments,
+and formed no part of his bishop&rsquo;s attire. The custom
+of wearing a pectoral cross over ecclesiastical robes has, curiously
+enough, been copied from the comparatively modern Roman
+Catholic usage by the Lutheran bishops and superintendents
+in Scandinavia and Prussia; and in Sweden the cross is now
+delivered to the new bishop, on his installation in office, by the
+archbishop of Upsala, together with the mitre and crozier.
+Within the last generation the use of a pectoral cross, worn over
+their robes as part of the insignia of the episcopal office, has been
+adopted by some bishops of the Church of England, but it has no
+ancient sanction or authority.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:404px; height:298px" src="images/img509.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Dagmar Cross.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Mortillet, <i>Le Signe de la croix avant le Christianisme</i>
+(Paris, 1866); Bingham, <i>Antiquities of the Christian Church</i>;
+Lipsius, <i>De Cruce Christi</i>; Lady Eastlake, <i>History of our Lord</i>, vol.
+ii.; Cutts, <i>Manual of Sepulchral Slabs and Crosses</i>; (Anon.) <i>Handbook
+to Christian and Ecclesiastical Rome</i>, part ii. (London, 1897);
+Veldeuer, <i>History of the Holy Cross</i> (reprint, 1863).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. M. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Derivatives of the Latin <i>crux</i> appear in many forms in European
+languages, cf. Ger. <i>Kreuz</i>, Fr. <i>croix</i>, It. <i>croce</i>, &amp;c.; the English form
+seems Norse in origin (O.N. <i>Krosse</i>, mod. <i>Kors</i>). The O.E. name
+was <i>r&#333;d</i>, rood (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The acceptance of this word as the English equivalent for this
+peculiar form of the cross rests only, according to the <i>New English
+Dictionary</i>, on a MS. of about 1500 in the Lansdowne collection,
+which gives details for the erection of a memorial stained-glass
+window, &ldquo;... the fylfot in the nedermost pane under ther I
+knele ...&rdquo;; in the sketch given with the instructions a cross
+occupies the space indicated. It is a question, therefore, whether
+&ldquo;fylfot&rdquo; is a name for any device suitable to &ldquo;fill the foot&rdquo; of any
+design, or the name peculiar to this particular form of cross. The
+word is not, as was formerly accepted, a corruption of the O. Eng.
+<i>feowerfete</i>, four-footed.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSSBILL<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Bec-croisé</i>, Ger. <i>Kreuzschnabel</i>), the name
+given to a genus of birds, belonging to the family <i>Fringillidae</i>,
+or finches, from the unique peculiarity they possess among the
+whole class of having the horny sheaths of the bill crossing one
+another obliquely,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> whence the appellation <i>Loxia</i> (<span class="grk" title="loxos">&#955;&#959;&#958;&#972;&#962;</span>,
+<i>obliquus</i>), conferred by Gesner on the group and continued by
+Linnaeus. At first sight this singular structure appears so like
+a deformity that writers have not been wanting to account it
+such,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> ignorant of its being a piece of mechanism most beautifully
+adapted to the habits of the bird, enabling it to extract with the
+greatest ease, from fir-cones or fleshy fruits, the seeds which
+form its usual and almost invariable food. Its mode of using
+this unique instrument seems to have been first described by
+Townson (<i>Tracts on Nat. Hist.</i>, p. 116, London, 1799), but only
+partially, and it was Yarrell who, in 1829 (<i>Zool. Journ.</i>, iv.
+pp. 457-465, pl. xiv. figs. 1-7), explained fully the means whereby
+the jaws and the muscles which direct their movements become
+so effective in riving asunder cones or apples, while at the proper
+moment the scoop-like tongue is instantaneously thrust out and
+withdrawn, conveying the hitherto protected seed to the bird&rsquo;s
+mouth. The articulation of the mandible to the quadrate-bone
+is such as to allow of a very considerable amount of lateral play,
+and, by a particular arrangement of the muscles which move
+the former, it comes to pass that so soon as the bird opens its
+mouth the point of the mandible is brought immediately opposite
+to that of the maxilla (which itself is movable vertically),
+instead of crossing or overlapping it&mdash;the usual position when
+the mouth is closed. The two points thus meeting, the bill is
+inserted between the scales or into the pome, but on opening
+the mouth still more widely, the lateral motion of the mandible
+is once more brought to bear with great force to wrench aside
+the portion of the fruit attacked, and then the action of the tongue
+completes the operation, which is so rapidly performed as to
+defy scrutiny, except on very close inspection. Fortunately
+the birds soon become tame in confinement, and a little patience
+will enable an attentive observer to satisfy himself as to the
+process, the result of which at first seems almost as unaccountable
+as that of a clever conjuring trick.</p>
+
+<p>The common crossbill of the Palaearctic region (<i>Loxia curvirostra</i>)
+is about the size of a skylark, but more stoutly built.
+The young (which on leaving the nest have not the tips of the bill
+crossed) are of a dull olive colour with indistinct dark stripes
+on the lower parts, and the quills of the wings and tail dusky.
+After the first moult the difference between the sexes is shown
+by the hens inclining to yellowish-green, while the cocks become
+diversified by orange-yellow and red, their plumage finally
+deepening into a rich crimson-red, varied in places by a flame-colour.
+Their glowing hues, are, however, speedily lost by
+examples which may be kept in confinement, and are replaced by
+a dull orange, or in some cases by a bright golden-yellow, and
+specimens have, though rarely, occurred in a wild state exhibiting
+the same tints. The cause of these changes is at present obscure,
+if not unknown, and it must be admitted that their sequence
+has been disputed by some excellent authorities, but the balance
+of evidence is certainly in favour of the above statement. Depending
+mainly for food on the seeds of conifers, the movements
+of crossbills are irregular beyond those of most birds, and they
+would seem to rove in any direction and at any season in quest
+of their staple sustenance. But the pips of apples are also a
+favourite dainty, and it is recorded by the old chronicler Matthew
+Paris (<i>Hist. Angl.</i> MS. fol. 252), that in 1251 the orchards of
+England were ravaged by birds, &ldquo;pomorum grana, &amp; non aliud
+de eisdem pomis comedentes,&rdquo; which, from his description,
+&ldquo;Habebant autem partes rostri cancellatas, per quas poma
+quasi forcipi vel cultello dividebant,&rdquo; could be none other but
+crossbills. Notice of a like visitation in 1593 is recorded, but
+of late it has become evident that not a year passes without
+crossbills being observed in some part or other of England, while
+in certain localities in Scotland they seem to breed annually.
+The nest is rather rudely constructed, and the eggs, generally
+four in number, resemble those of the greenfinch, but are larger
+in size. This species ranges throughout the continent of Europe,<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+and occurs in the islands of the Mediterranean and in the fir-woods
+of the Atlas. In Asia it would seem to extend to Kamtschatka
+and Japan, keeping mainly to the forest-tracts.</p>
+
+<p>Three other forms of the genus also inhabit the Old World&mdash;two
+of them so closely resembling the common bird that their
+specific validity has been often questioned. The first of these,
+of large stature, the parrot-crossbill (<i>L. pityopsittacus</i>), comes
+occasionally to Great Britain, presumably from Scandinavia,
+where it is known to breed. The second (<i>L. himalayana</i>), which
+is a good deal smaller, is only known from the Himalaya Mountains.
+The third, the two-barred crossbill (<i>L. taenioptera</i>), is
+very distinct, and its proper home seems to be the most northern
+forests of the Russian empire, but it has occasionally occurred
+in western Europe and even in England.</p>
+
+<p>The New World has two birds of the genus. The first (<i>L.
+americana</i>), representing the common British species, but with
+a smaller bill, and the males easily recognizable by their more
+scarlet plumage, ranges from the northern limit of coniferous
+trees to the highlands of Mexico, or even farther. The other
+(<i>L. leucoptera</i>) is the equivalent of the two-barred crossbill, but
+smaller. It has twice occurred in England.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This peculiarity is found as an accidental malformation in the
+crows (<i>Corvidae</i>) and other groups; it is comparable to the monstrosities
+seen in rabbits and other members of the order <i>Glires</i>, in
+which the incisor teeth grow to an inordinate length.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A medieval legend ascribes the conformation of bill and coloration
+of plumage to a divine recognition of the bird&rsquo;s pity, bestowed
+on Christ at the crucifixion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Dr Malmgren found a small flock on Bear Island (lat. 74˝° N.),
+but to this barren spot they must have been driven by stress of
+weather.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSSEN,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Krossen</span>, a town of Germany, in the kingdom
+of Prussia, on the Oder, here crossed by a bridge, at the influx
+of the Bober, 31 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder by rail. Pop.
+(1900) 7369. Of the churches in the town three are Protestant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span>
+and one Roman Catholic. Besides the modern school (Realprogymnasium),
+there are a technical school for viniculture
+and fruit-growing and a dairy school. There are manufactories
+of copper and brass ware, cloth, &amp;c., while in the
+surrounding country the chief industries are fruit and grape
+growing. There is a brisk shipping trade, mainly in wine, fruit
+and fish. Crossen was founded in 1005 and was important during
+the middle ages as a point of passage across the Oder. It attained
+civic rights in 1232, was for a time the capital of a Silesian duchy,
+which, on the death of Barbara of Brandenburg, widow of the
+last duke, passed to Brandenburg (1482). In May 1886 the town
+was devastated by a whirlwind.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSSING,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> in architecture, the term given to the intersection
+of the nave and transept, frequently surmounted by a tower or
+by a dome on pendentives.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1826-1893), English geologist
+and Unitarian minister, was born at Lewes in Sussex, on the
+7th of December 1826. After being trained for the ministry at
+Manchester New College (1843-1848), he became pastor of
+Friargate chapel, Derby, until 1852, when he accepted charge
+of a Unitarian congregation in Glasgow. In 1869 he removed
+to Birmingham, where until the close of his life he was pastor
+of the Church of the Messiah. While in Glasgow his interest
+was awakened in geology by the perusal of A. C. Ramsay&rsquo;s
+<i>Geology of the Isle of Arran</i>, and from 1855 onwards he devoted
+his leisure to the pursuit of this science. He became an authority
+on glacial geology, and wrote much, especially in conjunction
+with David Robertson, on the post-tertiary fossiliferous beds
+of Scotland (<i>Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow</i>). He also prepared for
+the British Association a valuable series of Reports (1873-1892)
+on the erratic Blocks of England, Wales and Ireland. In conjunction
+with David Robertson and G. S. Brady he wrote the
+<i>Monograph of the Post Tertiary Entomostraca of Scotland</i>, &amp;c.
+for the Palaeontographical Society (1874); and he edited H.
+Carvill Lewis&rsquo; <i>Papers and Notes on the Glacial Geology of Great
+Britain and Ireland</i>, issued posthumously (1894). He died at
+Edgbaston, Birmingham, on the 1st of October 1893.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>H. W. Crosskey: his Life and Work</i>, by R. A. Armstrong (with
+chapter on his geological work by Prof. C. Lapworth, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSS RIVER,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a river of West Africa, over 500 m. long.
+It rises in 6° N, 10° 30&prime; E. in the mountains of Cameroon, and
+flows at first N.W. In 8° 48&prime; E., 5° 50&prime; N. are a series of rapids;
+below this point the river is navigable for shallow-draught boats.
+At 8° 20&prime; E., 6° 10&prime; N., its most northern point, the river turns
+S.W. and then S., entering the Gulf of Guinea through the Calabar
+estuary. The Calabar river, which rises about 5° 30&prime; N., 8° 30&prime; E.,
+has a course parallel to, and 10 to 20 m. east of, the Cross river.
+Near its mouth, on its east bank, is the town of Calabar (<i>q.v.</i>).
+It enters the estuary in 4° 45&prime; N. The Cross, Calabar, Kwa and
+other streams farther east, which rise on the flanks of the
+Cameroon Mountains, form a large delta. The Calabar and
+Kwa rivers are wholly within the British protectorate of Southern
+Nigeria, as is the Cross river from its mouth to the rapids
+mentioned. The upper course of the river is in German
+territory.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> in former times the method of
+disposing of executed criminals and suicides. At the cross-roads
+a rude cross usually stood, and this gave rise to the belief that
+these spots were selected as the next best burying-places to
+consecrated ground. The real explanation is that the ancient
+Teutonic peoples often built their altars at the cross-roads, and
+as human sacrifices, especially of criminals, formed part of the
+ritual, these spots came to be regarded as execution grounds.
+Hence after the introduction of Christianity, criminals and
+suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night, in order
+to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the pagans.
+An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous
+Tyburn in London, which stood on the spot where the Oxford,
+Edgware and London roads met.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROSS SPRINGER,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> in architecture, the block from which the
+diagonal ribs of a vault spring or start: the top of the springer
+is known as the skewback (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arch</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROTCH, WILLIAM<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1775-1847), English musician, was born
+in Green&rsquo;s Lane, Norwich, on the 5th of July 1775. His father
+was a master carpenter. The child was extraordinarily precocious,
+and when scarcely more than two years of age he played
+upon an organ of his parent&rsquo;s construction something like the
+tune of &ldquo;God save the King.&rdquo; At the age of four he came to
+London and gave daily recitals on the organ in the rooms of a
+milliner in Piccadilly. The precocity of his musical intuition
+was almost equalled by a singularly early aptitude for drawing.
+In 1786 he went to Cambridge as assistant to Dr Randall the
+organist. His oratorio <i>The Captivity of Judah</i> was played at
+Trinity Hall, Cambridge, on the 4th of June 1789. He was
+then only fourteen years of age. His intention of entering the
+church carried him to Oxford in 1788, but the superior attractions
+of a musical career acquired an increasing influence over
+him, and in 1790 he was appointed organist of Christ Church.
+At the early age of twenty-two he was appointed professor of
+music in the university of Oxford, and there in 1799 he took his
+degree of doctor in that art. In 1800 and the four following
+years he read lectures on music at Oxford. Next he was
+appointed lecturer on music to the Royal Institution, and
+subsequently, in 1822, principal of the London Royal Academy
+of Music. His last years were passed at Taunton in the house of
+his son, the Rev. W. R. Crotch, where he died suddenly on the
+29th of December 1847. He published a number of vocal and
+instrumental compositions, of which the best is his oratorio
+<i>Palestine</i>, produced in 1812. In 1831 appeared an 8vo volume
+containing the substance of his lectures on music, delivered at
+Oxford and in London. Previously, he had published three
+volumes of <i>Specimens of Various Styles of Music</i>. Among his
+didactic works is <i>Elements of Musical Composition and Thorough-Bass</i>
+(London, 1812). The oratorio bearing the title <i>The
+Captivity of Judah</i>, and produced on the occasion of the installation
+of the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the university
+of Oxford in 1834, is a totally different work from that which
+he wrote upon the same subject as a boy of fourteen. He
+arranged for the pianoforte a number of Handel&rsquo;s oratorios and
+operas, besides symphonies and quartetts of Haydn, Mozart
+and Beethoven. The great expectations excited by his infant
+precocity were not fulfilled; for he manifested no extraordinary
+genius for musical composition. But he was an industrious
+student and a sound artist, and his name remains familiar in
+English musical history.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROTCHET<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>croche</i>, a hook; whence also the
+Anglicized &ldquo;crochet,&rdquo; pronounced as in French, for the knitting-work
+done with a hook instead of on pins), properly a small
+hook, and so used of the hook-like <i>setae</i> or bristles found in
+certain worms which burrow in sand. In music, a &ldquo;crotchet&rdquo;
+is a note of half the value of a minim and double that of a quaver;
+it is marked by a round black head and a line without a tail or
+hook; the French <i>croche</i> is used of a &ldquo;quaver&rdquo; which has a tail,
+but in ancient music the <i>semiminima</i>, the modern crotchet,
+is marked by an open note with a hook. Derived either from
+an old French proverbial phrase, <i>il a des crochues en teste</i>, or from
+a meaning of twist or turn, as in the similar expression &ldquo;crank,&rdquo;
+comes the sense of a whim, fancy or perverse idea, seen also in
+the adjective &ldquo;crotchety&rdquo; of a fussy unreasonable person.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROTONA,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> <span class="sc">Croto</span> or <span class="sc">Croton</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Krotôn">&#922;&#961;&#972;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>, mod. Cotrone)
+a Greek town on the E. coast of the territory of the Bruttii
+(mod. <i>Calabria</i>), on a promontory 7 m. N.W. of the Lacinian
+promontory. It was founded by a colony of Achaeans led by
+Myscellus in 710 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Its name was, according to the legend,
+that of a local prince who afforded hospitality to Heracles, but
+was accidentally killed by him and buried on the spot. Like
+Sybaris, it soon became a city of power and wealth. It was
+especially celebrated for its successes in the Olympic games from
+588 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards, Milo being the most famous of its athletes.
+Pythagoras established himself here between 540 and 530 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+and formed a society of 300 disciples (among whom was Milo),
+who acquired considerable influence with the supreme council
+of 1000 by which the city was ruled. In 510 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Crotona
+was strong enough to defeat the Sybarites, with whom it had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span>
+previously been on friendly terms, and raze their city to the ground.
+Shortly afterwards, however, an insurrection took place, by
+which the disciples of Pythagoras were driven out, and a democracy
+established. The victory of the Locrians and Phlegians
+over Crotona in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> marked the beginning of its decline.
+It suffered after this from the attacks of Dionysius I., who
+became its master for twelve years, of the Bruttii, and of
+Agathocles, and even more from the invasion of Pyrrhus, after
+which in 277 the Romans obtained possession of it. Livy states
+that the walls had a length of 12 m. and that about half the area
+within them had at that time ceased to be inhabited. After the
+battle of Cannae Crotona revolted from Rome, and Hannibal
+made it his winter quarters for three years. It was made a
+colony by the Romans at the end of the war (194 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). After
+that time but little is heard of it, though Petronius mentions
+the corrupt morals of its inhabitants; but it continues to be
+mentioned down to the Gothic wars. The importance of the
+city was mainly due to its harbour, which, though not a good
+one, was the only port between Tarentum and Rhegium. The
+original settlement occupied the hill above it (143 ft.) and later
+became the acropolis. Its healthy situation was famous in
+antiquity, and to this was ascribed its superiority in athletics;
+it was the seat also of a medical school which in the days of
+Herodotus was considered the first in Greece. Of the exact site
+of the ancient city and its remains practically nothing is known;
+a few fragments of the productions of its art preserved in private
+hands at Cotrone are described by F. von Duhn in <i>Notizie
+degli scavi</i>, 1897, 343 seq.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROTONIC ACID<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">2</span>). Three acids of this empirical
+formula are known, viz. crotonic acid, isocrotonic acid and
+methacrylic acid; the constitutional formulae are&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:448px; height:62px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img511.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind">The isomerism of crotonic and isocrotonic acids is to be explained
+on the assumption of a different spatial arrangement of the
+atoms in the molecule (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stereochemistry</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Crotonic acid, so named from the fact that it was erroneously
+supposed to be a saponification product of croton oil, may be
+prepared by the oxidation of croton-aldehyde, CH<span class="su">3</span>ˇCH:CHˇCHO,
+obtained by dehydrating aldol, or by treating acetylene successively
+with sulphuric acid and water; by boiling allyl cyanide
+with caustic potash; by the distillation of &beta;-oxybutyric acid;
+by heating paraldehyde with malonic acid and acetic acid to
+100° C. (T. Komnenos, <i>Ann.</i>, 1883, 218, p. 149).</p>
+
+<p class="center">CH<span class="su">2</span>(COOH)<span class="su">2</span> + CH<span class="su">3</span>CHO &rarr; CH<span class="su">3</span>CH:C(COOH)<span class="su">2</span> &rarr; CH<span class="su">3</span>ˇCH:CHˇCOOH;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">or by heating pyruvic acid with an excess of acetic anhydride
+and sodium acetate to 160-180° C. (B. Homolka, <i>Ber.</i>, 1885, 18,
+p. 987). It crystallizes in needles (from hot water) which melt
+at 72° C. and boil at 180-181° C. It is moderately soluble in
+cold water. It combines directly with bromine, and, with
+fuming hydrobromic acid at 100° C., it gives chiefly &alpha;-brombutyric
+acid. With hydriodic acid it gives only &beta;-iodobutyric
+acid. Potash fusion converts it into acetic acid; nitric acid
+oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acids; chromic acid mixture
+to acetaldehyde and acetic acid, and potassium permanganate
+to &alpha;&beta;-dioxybutyric acid.</p>
+
+<p>Isocrotonic acid (Quartenylic acid) is obtained from &beta;-chlorisocrotonic
+acid, formed when acetoacetic ester is treated with
+phosphorus pentachloride and the product poured into water,
+by the action of sodium amalgam (A. Geuther). It is an oil,
+possessing a smell like that of butyric acid. It boils at 171.9° C.,
+with partial conversion into crotonic acid; the transformation
+is complete when the acid is heated to 170-180° C. in a sealed
+tube. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to &beta;&gamma;-dioxybutyric
+acid.</p>
+
+<p>Methacrylic acid was first obtained in the form of its ethyl
+ester by E. Frankland and B. F. Duppa (<i>Annalen</i>, 1865, 136,
+p. 12) by acting with phosphorus pentachloride on oxyisobutyric
+ester (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>ˇC(OH)ˇCOOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>. It is, however, more readily obtained
+by boiling citra- or meso-brompyrotartaric acids with
+alkalis. It crystallizes in prisms, which are soluble in water,
+melt at 16° C., and boil at 160.5° C. When fused with an alkali,
+it forms propionic acid; with biomine it yields &alpha;&beta;-dibromisobutyric
+acid. Sodium amalgam reduces it to isobutyric acid.
+A polymeric form of methacrylic acid has been described by
+F. Engelhorn (<i>Ann.</i>, 1880, 200, p. 70).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROTON OIL<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (<i>Crotonis Oleum</i>), an oil prepared from the seeds
+of <i>Croton Tiglium</i>, a tree belonging to the natural order Euphorbiaceae,
+and native or cultivated in India and the Malay Islands.
+The tree is from 15 to 20 ft. in height, and has few and spreading
+branches, alternate, oval-oblong leaves, acuminate at the point,
+and covered when young with stellate hairs, and terminal
+racemes of small, downy, greenish-yellow, monoecious flowers.
+The male blossoms have five petals and fifteen stamens; the
+females have no petals but a large oblong ovary bearing three
+bifid styles. The fruit or capsule is obtusely three-cornered,
+and about the size of a hazel-nut; it contains three cells each
+enclosing a seed. The seeds resemble those of the castor-oil
+plant; they are about half an inch long, and two-fifths of an inch
+broad, and have a cinnamon-brown, brittle integument; between
+the two halves of the kernel lie the large cotyledons and radicle.
+The ocular distinction between the two kinds of seeds may be of
+great practical importance. The most obvious distinction is that
+the castor-oil seeds have a polished and mottled surface. The
+kernels contain from 50 to 60% of oil, which is obtained by
+pressing them, when bruised to a pulp, between hot plates.
+Croton oil is a transparent and viscid liquid of a brownish or
+pale-yellow tinge, and acrid, peculiar and persistent taste, a
+disagreeable odour and acid reaction. It is soluble in volatile
+oils, carbon disulphide, and ether, and to some extent in alcohol.
+It contains acetic, butyric and valeric acids, with glycerides of
+acids of the same series, and a volatile body, C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, tiglic
+acid, metameric with angelic acid, and identical with methylcrotonic
+acid, CH<span class="su">3</span>ˇCH:C(CH<span class="su">3</span>)(CO<span class="su">2</span>H). The odour is due to various
+volatile acids, which are present to the extent of about 1%.
+A substance called crotonal appears to be responsible for its
+external, but not its internal, action. The latter is probably due
+to crotolinic acid, C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, which has active purgative properties.
+The maximum dose of croton oil is two minims, one-fourth of that
+quantity being usually ample.</p>
+
+<p>Applied to the skin, croton oil acts as a powerful irritant,
+inducing so much inflammation that definite pustules are formed.
+The destruction of the true skin gives rise to ugly scars which
+constitute, together with the pain caused by this application,
+abundant reason why croton oil should never be employed
+externally. Despite the pharmacopoeial liniment and the
+practice of a few, it may be said that this employment of
+croton oil is now entirely without justification or excuse.</p>
+
+<p>Taken internally, even in the minute doses already detailed,
+croton oil very soon causes much colic and the occurrence of a
+fluid diarrhoea which usually recurs several times. It is characteristic
+of this purgative that it is a hydragogue even in minimal
+dose, the fluid secretions of the bowel being most markedly
+increased. The drug appears to act only upon the small intestine.
+In somewhat larger doses it produces severe gastro-enteritis.
+The flow of bile is somewhat increased. Such effects may all
+be produced, even up to the discharge of blood, by the absorption
+of croton oil from the skin.</p>
+
+<p>The minuteness of the dose, the certainty of the action, and
+the large amount of fluid drained away constitute this the best
+drug for administration to an unconscious patient (especially
+in cases of apoplexy, when it is desirable to remove fluid from
+the body), or to insane patients who refuse to take any drug.
+One drop of the oil, placed on the back of the tongue, must
+inevitably be swallowed by reflex action. A dose should never
+be repeated. The characters of this drug obviously contra-indicate
+its use in all cases of organic disease or obstruction of
+the bowel, in pregnancy, or in cases of constipation in children
+or the aged.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROUP,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a name formerly given to diseases characterized by
+distress in breathing accompanied by a metallic cough and some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span>
+hoarseness of speech. It is now known that these symptoms
+are often associated with diphtheria (<i>q.v.</i>), spasmodic laryngitis
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and a third disease, spasmodic croup, to which the term
+is now alone applied. This occurs most frequently in children
+above two years of age; the child goes to bed quite well, and a
+few hours later suddenly awakes with great difficulty in inspiration,
+the chest wall becomes markedly retracted, and there is
+a metallic cough. The child becomes cyanosed, and, to the
+inexperienced nurse, seems in an almost moribund condition.
+In the course of four or five minutes, normal respiration starts
+again, and the attack is over for the time being; but it may
+recur several times a day. The seizure may be accompanied
+by convulsions, and death has occurred from dyspnoea. The
+best treatment is to plunge the child into a warm bath, and
+sponge the back and chest with cold water. Subsequently
+this can be done two or three times a day. Should the cyanosis
+become very severe, respiration can be restarted by making the
+child sick, either with a dose of ipecacuanha wine, or by forcing
+one&rsquo;s finger down the throat. Generally the bowels should be
+attended to; and the throat carefully examined for enlarged
+tonsils or adenoids, which if present should be treated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1663-1750), Swiss writer,
+was born at Lausanne. He was a many-sided man, whose
+numerous works on many subjects had a great vogue in their
+day, but are now forgotten. He has been described as an
+<i>initiateur plutôt qu&rsquo;un créateur</i>, chiefly because he introduced at
+Lausanne the philosophy of Descartes in opposition to the
+reigning Aristotelianism, and also as a Calvinist pendant (for
+he was a pastor) of the French <i>abbés</i> of the 18th century. He
+studied at Geneva, Leyden and Paris, before becoming (1700)
+professor of philosophy and mathematics at the academy of
+Lausanne, of which he was four times rector before 1724, when
+the theological disputes connected with the <i>Consensus</i><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> led him
+to accept a chair of philosophy and mathematics at Groningen.
+In 1726 he was appointed governor to the young prince Frederick
+of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1735 returned to Lausanne with a good
+pension. In 1737 he was reinstated in his old chair, which he
+retained to his death. Gibbon, describing his first stay at
+Lausanne (1752-1755), writes in his <i>Autobiography</i>, &ldquo;the logic
+of de Crousaz had prepared me to engage with his master Locke
+and his antagonist Bayle.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The most important of his works are: <i>Nouvel Essai de logique</i>
+(1712), <i>Géométrie des lignes et des surfaces rectilignes et circulaires</i>
+(1712), <i>Traité du beau</i> (1714), <i>Examen du traité de la liberté de
+penser d&rsquo;Antoine Collins</i> (1718), <i>De l&rsquo;éducation des enfants</i> (1722,
+dedicated to the then Princess of Wales), <i>Examen du pyrrhonisme
+ancien et moderne</i> (1733, an attack chiefly on Bayle), <i>Examen de
+l&rsquo;essai de M. Pope sur l&rsquo;homme</i> (1737, an attack on the Leibnitzian
+theory of that poem), <i>Logique</i> (6 vols., 1741), <i>De l&rsquo;esprit humain</i>
+(1741), and <i>Réflexions sur l&rsquo;ouvrage intitulé: La Belle Wolfienne</i>
+(1743).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The &ldquo;Consensus ecclesiarum Helveticarum reformatarum&rdquo;
+was a document drawn up in 1675 and imposed in 1722&mdash;as a test of
+strict Protestant orthodoxy as to the doctrine of grace&mdash;by Bern on
+its subjects in Lausanne and Vaux.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROW<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Dutch, <i>kraai</i>, Ger. <i>Krähe</i>, Fr. <i>corbeau</i>, Lat. <i>corvus</i>),
+a name most commonly applied in Britain to the bird properly
+called a rook (<i>Corvus frugilegus</i>), but perhaps originally peculiar
+to its congener, nowadays usually distinguished as the black
+or carrion-crow (<i>C. corone</i>). By ornithologists it is also used in
+a far wider sense, as under the title crows, or <i>Corvidae</i>, is included
+a vast number of birds from almost all parts of the world, and
+this family is probably the most highly developed of the whole
+class <i>Aves</i>. Leaving out of account the best known of these, as
+the raven, rook, daw, pie and jay, with their immediate allies,
+our attention will here be confined to the crows in general;
+and then the species of the family to which the appellation is
+more strictly applicable may be briefly considered. All
+authorities admit that the family is very extensive, and is capable
+of being parted into several groups, but scarcely any two agree.
+Especially must reserve be exercised as regards the group
+<i>Streperinae</i>, or piping crows, belonging to the Australian Region,
+and referred by some writers to the shrikes (<i>Laniidae</i>): and the
+jays too have been erected into a distinct family (<i>Garrulidae</i>),
+though it seems hardly possible to separate them even as a
+subfamily from the pies (<i>Pica</i> and its neighbours), which lead
+almost insensibly to the typical crows (<i>Corvinae</i>). Dismissing
+these subjects for the present, it will perhaps be most convenient
+to treat of the two groups which are represented by the genera
+<i>Pyrrhocorax</i> or choughs, and <i>Corvus</i> or true crows in the most
+limited sense.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pyrrhocorax</i> comprehends at least two very good species,
+which have been needlessly divided generically. The best
+known of them is the Cornish chough (<i>P. graculus</i>), formerly
+a denizen of the precipitous cliffs of the south coast of England,
+of Wales, of the west and north coasts of Ireland, and some of
+the Hebrides, but now greatly reduced in numbers, and only
+found in such places as are most free from the intrusion of man
+or of daws (<i>Corvus monedula</i>), which last seem to be gradually
+dispossessing it of its sea-girt strongholds, and its present scarcity
+is probably in the main due to its persecution by its kindred.
+In Britain, indeed, it would appear to be only one of the survivors
+of a more ancient fauna, for in other countries where it is found
+it has been driven inland, and inhabits the higher mountains of
+Europe and North Africa. In the Himalayas a larger form
+occurs, which has been specifically distinguished (<i>P. himalayanus</i>),
+but whether justifiably so may be doubted. The general
+colour is a glossy black, and it has the bill and legs bright red.
+The remaining species (<i>P. alpinus</i>) is altogether a mountaineer,
+and does not affect a sea-shore life. Otherwise it frequents much
+the same kind of localities, but it does not occur in Britain. The
+alpine chough is somewhat smaller than its congener, and is
+easily distinguished by its shorter and bright yellow bill. Remains
+of both have been found in French caverns the deposits in which
+were formed during the &ldquo;Reindeer Age.&rdquo; Commonly placed
+by systematists next to <i>Pyrrhocorax</i> is the Australian genus
+<i>Corcorax</i>, represented by a single species (<i>C. melanorhamphus</i>),
+but this assignment of the bird, which is chiefly a frequenter of
+woodlands, cannot be admitted without hesitation.</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to what may be literally considered crows, our
+attention is mainly directed to the black or carrion-crow (<i>Corvus
+corone</i>) and the grey, hooded or Royston crow (<i>C. cornix</i>).
+Both these inhabit Europe, but their range and the time of their
+appearance are very different. The former is, speaking generally,
+a summer visitant to the south-western part of Europe, and
+the latter occupies the north-eastern portion&mdash;an irregular line
+drawn diagonally from about the Firth of Clyde to the head of
+the Adriatic roughly marking their respective distribution.
+But both are essentially migrants, and hence it follows that
+when the black crow, as summer comes to an end, retires southward,
+the grey crow moves downward, and in many districts
+replaces it during winter. Further than this, it has been incontestably
+proved that along or near the boundary where these
+two birds march they not infrequently interbreed, and it is
+believed that the hybrids, which sometimes wholly resemble one
+or other of the parents and at other times assume an intermediate
+plumage, pair indiscriminately among themselves or
+with the pure stock. Hence it has seemed to many ornithologists
+who have studied the subject, that these two birds, so long
+unhesitatingly regarded as distinct species, are only local races
+of one and the same dimorphic species. No structural difference&mdash;or
+indeed any difference except that of range (already spoken
+of) and colour&mdash;can be detected, and the problem they offer
+is one of which the solution is exceedingly interesting if not
+important to zoologists in general.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Almost omnivorous in their
+diet, there is little edible that comes amiss to them, and, except
+in South America, they are mostly omnipresent. The fish-crow
+of North America (<i>C. ossifragus</i>) demands a few words, since it
+betrays a taste for maritime habits beyond that of other species,
+but the crows of Europe are not averse on occasion to prey cast
+up by the waters. The house-crow of India (<i>C. splendens</i>) is
+not very nearly allied to its European namesakes, from which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span>
+it can be readily distinguished by its smaller size and the lustrous
+tints of its darkest feathers; while its confidence in the human
+race has been so long encouraged by its intercourse with an
+unarmed and inoffensive population that it becomes a plague
+to the European abiding or travelling where it is abundant.
+Hardly a station or camp in British India is free from a crowd
+of feathered followers of this species, ready to dispute with the
+kites and the cooks the very meat at the fire.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> As bearing upon this question may be mentioned the fact that the
+crow of Australia (<i>C. australis</i>) is divisible into two forms or races,
+one having the irides white, the other of a dark colour. It is stated
+that they keep apart and do not intermix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWBERRY,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Crakeberry</span>, the English name for a low-growing
+heath-like shrub, found on heaths and rocks in Scotland,
+Ireland and mountainous parts of England. It is known botanically
+as <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>, and has slender, wiry, spreading
+branches covered with short, narrow, stiff leaves, the margins
+of which are recurved so as to form a hollow cylinder concealing
+the hairy under face of the leaf&mdash;a device to avoid excessive
+loss of water from the leaf under the exposed conditions in which
+the plant grows. The minute flowers are succeeded by black,
+edible, berry-like fruits, one-fourth to one-third of an inch in
+diameter. The plant has a wide distribution, occurring in
+suitable localities throughout the north temperate zone, and on
+the Andes of South America.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:106px; height:231px" src="images/img513a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Welsh Crwth,
+18th century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CROWD,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> <span class="sc">Crouth</span>, <span class="sc">Crowth</span> (Welsh <i>crwth</i>; Fr. <i>crout</i>; Ger.
+<i>Chrotta</i>, <i>Hrotta</i>), a medieval stringed instrument derived from
+the lyre, characterized by a sound-chest having a vaulted back
+and an open space left at each side of the strings to allow the
+hand to pass through in order to stop the strings on the finger-board.
+The Welsh crwth, which survived until the end of the
+18th century, is best represented by a
+specimen of that date preserved in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum, and described
+and illustrated by Carl Engel.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The
+instrument consists of a rectangular
+sound-chest 22 in. long, 9˝ in. wide and
+2 in. deep; the body is scooped out of a
+single block, the flat belly being glued on.
+Right through the sound-chest on each
+side of the finger-board is the characteristic
+open space left for the hand to pass
+through. There are two circular sound-holes;
+the left foot of the flat bridge,
+which lies obliquely across the belly,
+passes through the left sound-hole and rests inside on the back
+of the instrument. Six catgut strings fastened to a tail-piece
+are wound round pegs at the top of the crwth; four of these
+strings lie over the sound-board and bridge, and are set in
+vibration by means of a bow, while the two others, used as drones
+and stretched across the left-hand aperture, are twanged by
+the thumb of the left hand. The shape and shallowness of the
+bridge make it impossible to sound a single string with
+the bow; the arrangement of the strings suggests that they
+were intended to be sounded in pairs. The instrument is
+tuned thus: <img style="width:222px; height:53px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img513b.jpg" alt="" /></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At the beginning of the 19th century, William Bingley<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> heard a
+Welsh peasant playing national airs on a crwth strung as
+follows:&mdash;<img style="width:220px; height:58px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img513c.jpg" alt="" />. Sir John Hawkins<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> relates
+that in his time there was still a Welshman living in Anglesea
+who understood how to play the crwth according to traditional
+usage. Edward Jones<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and Daines Barrington<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> both give an
+account of the Welsh crwth of the 18th century which agrees
+substantially with Engel&rsquo;s; the illustration communicated by
+Daines Barrington shows the strings of the crwth drawn through
+holes at the top, and fastened on the back, as on the Persian rebab
+and other Oriental stringed instruments. On these somewhat scanty
+authentic records of the instrument, several historians of music
+have based an illogical claim that the crwth, or rather chrotta or
+rotta, mentioned by Venantius Fortunatus as a British instrument,
+was the Welsh crwth as it was known in the 18th century, and was
+the earliest bowed instrument, and therefore the ancestor of the
+violin. The lines of Fortunatus, who was bishop of Poictiers during
+the second half of the 6th century, ran thus:&mdash;<a name="fa6j" id="fa6j" href="#ft6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi Barbarus harpa,</p>
+<p class="i05">Graecus Achilliaca, chrotta Britanna canat.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The bow is not mentioned by Fortunatus, and there is no ground
+whatever for believing that the Welsh crwth was played with a bow
+in the 6th century, or indeed for several centuries after. The stringing
+of the Welsh crwth with the two drone strings still twanged,
+the form of the body without incurvations, the flat bridge which
+rendered bowing, even in the most highly developed specimens of
+the 18th century, a difficult task, together with what is known of the
+early history of the chrotta and rotta derived from the lyre and
+cithara and like them twanged by fingers or plectrum, all make the
+claim untenable. Carl Engel was probably the first to expose the
+fallacy in his work on the violin.<a name="fa7j" id="fa7j" href="#ft7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:260px; height:271px" src="images/img513d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">Drawn from a plate in Auguste de Bastard&rsquo;s
+<i>Peintures et ornements de la bible de
+Charles le Chauve</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Early Crwth,
+9th century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>British lexicographers all agree in deriving the words crwth,
+crowd and other forms of the name, from some word meaning a
+bulging protuberant bellying form, while in German the etymology
+of the word <i>Chrotta</i> is given as <i>Chrota</i> or <i>Chreta</i>, the O.H.G. for
+<i>Kröte</i> = toad, <i>Schildkröte</i> = tortoise. This word <i>Chrotta</i> was undoubtedly
+the German equivalent term for the lyre of Hermes,
+having as back a tortoise-shell, <span class="grk" title="chelys">&#967;&#941;&#955;&#965;&#962;</span> in Greek and <i>testudo</i> in Latin.
+Chrotta was also spelt <i>hrotta</i>, and it is easy to see how this became
+rotta. A thoughtful and suggestive treatment of the whole subject
+will be found in Engel&rsquo;s work, to which reference has been made.
+Just as the lyre and cithara, which appeared to be similar to the
+casual observer, and are indeed still confused at the present day,
+were instruments differing essentially in construction<a name="fa8j" id="fa8j" href="#ft8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a>; so there
+were, during the early middle ages, while lyre and cithara were still
+in transition, two types of chrotta or rotta. (1) The rotta or improved
+cithara had a body either rectangular with the corners
+rounded, or guitar-shaped with incurvations, back and sound-board
+being nearly or quite flat, joined as in the cithara by ribs or sides.
+This rotta must be reckoned among the early ancestors of the violin
+before the advent of the bow; it was known both as rotta and
+cithara, and with a neck added it became the guitar-fiddle. (2) The
+tortoise or lyre chrotta consisted of a protuberant, very convex
+back cut out of a block of wood, to which was glued a flat
+sound-board,
+at first like the lyre, without
+intermediary ribs. This instrument
+became the crwth, and
+there was no further development.
+The first step in the
+transition of both lyre and
+cithara was the incorporation
+of arms and cross-bar into the
+body, the same outline being
+preserved; the second step was
+the addition of a finger-board
+against which the strings were
+stopped, thus increasing the
+compass while restricting the
+number of strings to three or
+four; the third step, observed
+only in the rotta-cithara, consisted
+in the addition of a neck,<a name="fa9j" id="fa9j" href="#ft9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+as in the guitar. The crwth,
+crowd, crouth did not undergo
+this third transition even when
+the bow was used to set the
+strings in vibration.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:259px; height:263px" src="images/img514a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Crowd on a 14th-century
+Seal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The earliest representation of the crwth yet discovered dates from
+the Carolingian period. In the miniatures of the Bible of Charles the
+Bald,<a name="fa10j" id="fa10j" href="#ft10j"><span class="sp">10</span></a> in the Bibliothčque Nationale, Paris, one of the musicians of
+King David is seen stopping strings on the finger-board with his left
+hand and plucking them with the right (fig. 2); this crwth has only
+three strings, and may be the crwth <i>trîthant</i> of Wales. A second
+example occurs in the Bible of St Paul,<a name="fa11j" id="fa11j" href="#ft11j"><span class="sp">11</span></a> another of the magnificent
+MSS. prepared for Charles the Bald, and preserved during the middle
+ages in the monastery of St Paul <i>extra muros</i> in Rome (now deposited
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span>
+in that of St Calixtus in Rome). Other representations are in the
+miniatures of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. To Edward Heron-Allen
+(<i>De fidiculis opuscula</i>, viii., 1895) is due the discovery of a
+representation of the Welsh crwth, showing the form still retained in
+the 18th cent. On the seal of Roger Wade (1316) is a crwth
+differing but little from the specimen in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum. The 14th-century instrument
+had four strings instead
+of six, and the foot of the bridge
+does not appear to pass through
+the sound-hole&mdash;a detail which
+may have escaped the notice of
+the artist who cut the seal. The
+original seal lies in the muniment
+room at Berkeley Castle in
+Gloucestershire attached to a
+defeasance of a bond between
+the <i>crowder</i> and his debtor Warren
+de l&rsquo;Isle, and a cast (see fig. 3) is
+preserved at the British Museum.
+The British Museum also possesses
+two interesting MSS. which concern
+the crwth: one of these
+(Add. MS. 14939 ff. 4 and 27)
+contains an extract made by
+Lewis Morris in 1742 from an
+ancient Welsh MS. of &ldquo;Instructions supposed to be wrote for the
+Crowd&rdquo;; the other (Add. MS. 15036 ff. 65<i>b</i> and 66) consists of
+tracings from a 16th-century Welsh MS. copied in 1610 of a
+bagpipe, a harp and a <i>krythe</i>, together with the names of those who
+played the last at the Eisteddfod. The drawing is crude, and shows
+an instrument similar to Roger Wade&rsquo;s crowd, but having three
+strings instead of four.</p>
+
+<p>The genealogical tree of the violin given below shows the relative
+positions of both kinds of rotta and chrotta.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:763px; height:351px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img514b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The Welsh crwth was therefore obviously not an exclusively
+Welsh instrument, but only a late 18th-century survival in Wales of
+an archaic instrument once generally popular in Europe but long
+obsolete. An interesting article on the subject in German by
+J. F. W. Wewertem will be found in <i>Monatshefte für Musik</i> (Berlin,
+1881), Nos. 7-12, p. 151, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Early History of the Violin Family</i> (London, 1883), pp. 24-36.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See <i>A Tour round North Wales</i> (London, 1804), vol. ii. p. 332.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>History of Music</i> (London, 1766), vol. ii. bk. iii. ch. iii., description
+and illustration.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Musical and Poetical Relicks of Welsh Bards</i> (London, 1794),
+illustration of crwth, also reproduced by Carl Engel; see note above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5j" id="ft5j" href="#fa5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Archaeologia</i>, vol. iii. (London, 1775).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6j" id="ft6j" href="#fa6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Venantius Fortunatus, Poëmata, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245; see
+Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologia Sacra</i>, vol. 88.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7j" id="ft7j" href="#fa7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> chapters &ldquo;Crwth,&rdquo; &ldquo;Chrotta,&rdquo; &ldquo;Rotta.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8j" id="ft8j" href="#fa8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>Orchestral Instruments</i>, part ii., &ldquo;The
+Precursors of the Violin Family&rdquo; (London, 1909), pp. 14 to 23, with
+illustrations.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9j" id="ft9j" href="#fa9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See also Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. ch. vii., &ldquo;The Cithara in
+Transition,&rdquo; pp. 111-135 with illustrations.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10j" id="ft10j" href="#fa10j"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See Auguste de Bastard, <i>Peintures et ornements des MSS. de
+France</i>, and <i>Peintures, ornements, &amp;c., de la bible de Charles le Chauve</i>,
+in facsimile (Paris, 1883).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11j" id="ft11j" href="#fa11j"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See J. O. Westwood, <i>Photographic Facsimile of the Bible of St
+Paul</i> (London, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWE, EYRE EVANS<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1799-1868), English journalist and
+historian, was born about the year 1799. He commenced his
+work as a writer for the London newspaper press in connexion
+with the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, and he afterwards became a leading
+contributor to the <i>Examiner</i> and the <i>Daily News</i>. Of the latter
+journal he was principal editor for some time previous to his
+death. The department he specially cultivated was that of
+continental history and foreign politics. He published <i>Lives
+of Foreign Statesmen</i> (1830), <i>The Greek and the Turk</i> (1853),
+and <i>Reigns of Louis XVIII. and Charles X.</i> (1854). These were
+followed by his most important work, the <i>History of France</i>
+(5 vols., 1858-1868). It was founded upon original sources, in
+order to consult which the author resided for a considerable
+time in Paris. He died in London on the 25th of February 1868.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1828-1896), English consular
+official and art critic, son of Eyre Crowe, was born in London on
+the 25th of October 1828. At an early age he showed considerable
+aptitude for painting and entered the studio of Delaroche
+in Paris, where his father was correspondent of the <i>Morning
+Chronicle</i>. During the Crimean War he was the correspondent of
+the <i>Illustrated London News</i>, and during the Austro-Italian War
+represented <i>The Times</i> in Vienna. He was British consul-general
+in Leipzig from 1860 to 1872, and in Düsseldorf from
+1872 to 1880, when he was appointed commercial attaché in
+Berlin, being transferred in a like capacity to Paris in 1882.
+In 1883 he was secretary to the Danube Conference in London;
+in 1889 plenipotentiary at the Samoa Conference in Berlin;
+and in 1890 British envoy at the Telegraph Congress in Paris,
+in which year he was made K.C.M.G. During a sojourn in Italy,
+1846-1847, he cemented a lifelong friendship with the Italian
+critic Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (1820-1897), and together
+they produced several historical works on art of classic importance,
+notably <i>Early Flemish Painters</i> (London, 1857); <i>A New
+History of Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century</i>
+(London, 1864-1871, 5 vols.). In 1895 Crowe published <i>Reminiscences
+of Thirty-Five Years of My Life</i>. He died at Schloss
+Gamburg in Bavaria on the 6th of September 1896.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Crowe and Cavalcaselle&rsquo;s great <i>History of Painting</i> was under
+revision by Crowe up to the time of his death, and then by S. A.
+Strong (d. 1904) and Langton Douglas, who in 1903 brought out
+vols. i. and ii. of Murray&rsquo;s new six-volume edition, the 3rd vol.,
+edited by Langton Douglas, appearing in 1909. A reprint of the
+original edition, brought up to date by annotations by Edward
+Huttons, was published by Dent in 3 vols. in 1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROW INDIANS,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Absarokas</span> (the name for a species of
+hawk), a tribe of North American Indians of Siouan stock.
+They are now settled to the number of some 1800 on a reservation
+in southern Montana to the south of the Yellowstone river.
+Their original range included this
+reservation and extended eastward
+and southward, and no part of the
+country for hundreds of miles around
+was safe from their raids. They
+have ever been known as marauders
+and horse-stealers, and, though
+they have generally been cunning
+enough to avoid open war with the
+whites, they have robbed them whenever
+opportunity served. Physically
+they are tall and athletic, with very
+dark complexions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWLAND,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Croyland</span>, a
+market-town in the S. Kesteven
+or Stamford parliamentary division
+of Lincolnshire, England; in a
+low fen district on the river
+Welland, 8 m. N.E. of Peterborough,
+and 4 m. from Postland station on the March-Spalding
+line of the Great Northern and Great Eastern railways, and
+Peakirk on the Great Northern. Pop. (1901) 2747. A monastery
+was founded here in 716 by King Ćthelbald, in honour of St
+Guthlac of Mercia (d. 714), a young nobleman who became a
+hermit and lived here, and, it was said, had foretold Ćthelbald&rsquo;s
+accession to the throne. The site of St Guthlac&rsquo;s cell, not far
+from the abbey, is known as Anchor (anchorite&rsquo;s) Church Hill.
+After the abbey had suffered from the Danish incursions in 870,
+and had been burnt in that year and in 1091, a fine Norman
+abbey was raised in 1113. Remains of this building appear in
+the ruined nave and tower arch, but the most splendid fragment
+is the west front, of Early English date, with Perpendicular
+restoration. The west tower is principally in this style. The
+north aisle is restored and used as the parish church. Among
+the abbots was Ingulphus (1085-1109), to whom was formerly
+attributed the <i>Historia Monasterii Croylandensis</i>. A curious
+triangular bridge remains, apparently of the 14th century,
+but referred originally to the middle of the 9th century, which
+spanned three streams now covered, and affords three footways
+which meet at an apex in the middle.</p>
+
+<p>The town of Crowland grew up round the abbey. By a
+charter dated 716, Ćthelbald granted the isle of Crowland,
+free from all secular services, to the abbey with a gift of money,
+and leave to build and enclose the town. The privileges thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span>
+obtained were confirmed by numerous royal charters extending
+over a period of nearly 800 years. Under Abbot Ćgelric the
+fens were tilled, the monastery grew rich, and the town increased
+in size, enormous tracts of land being held by the abbey at the
+Domesday Survey. The town was nearly destroyed by fire
+(1469-1476), but the abbey tenants were given money to rebuild
+it. By virtue of his office the abbot had a seat in parliament,
+but the town was never a parliamentary borough. Abbot Ralph
+Mershe in 1257 obtained a grant of a market every Wednesday,
+confirmed by Henry IV. in 1421, but it was afterwards moved
+to Thorney. The annual fair of St Bartholomew, which originally
+lasted twelve days, was first mentioned in Henry III.&rsquo;s confirmatory
+charter of 1227. The dissolution of the monastery in
+1539 was fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered
+under the thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the
+position of an <span class="correction" title="amended from umimportant">unimportant</span> village. The abbey lands were
+granted by Edward VI. to Lord Clinton, from whose family they
+passed in 1671 to the Orby family. The inhabitants formerly
+carried on considerable trade in fish and wild fowl.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Gough, <i>History and Antiquities of Croyland</i> (Bibl. Top. Brit.
+iii. No. 11) (London, 1783); W. G. Searle, <i>Ingulf and the Historia
+Croylandensis</i> (Camb. Antiq. Soc., No. 27); Dugdale, <i>Monasticon</i>,
+ii. 91 (London, 1846; Cambridge, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWLEY, ROBERT<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1518?-1588), English religious and
+social reformer, was born in Gloucestershire, and educated at
+Magdalen College, Oxford, of which he was successively demy
+and fellow. Coming to London, he set up a printing-office in
+Ely Rents, Holborn, where he printed many of his own writings.
+As a typographer, his most notable production was an edition
+of <i>Pierce Plowman</i> in 1550, and some of the earliest Welsh
+printed books came from his press. As an author, his first
+venture seems to have been his &ldquo;Information and Petition
+against the Oppressors of the poor Commons of this realm,&rdquo;
+which internal evidence shows to have been addressed to the
+parliament of 1547. It contains a vigorous plea for a further
+religious reformation, but is more remarkable for its attack on
+the &ldquo;more than Turkish tyranny&rdquo; of the landlords and
+capitalists of that day. While repudiating communism, Crowley
+was a Christian Socialist, and warmly approved the efforts of
+Protector Somerset to stop enclosures. In his <i>Way to Wealth</i>,
+published in 1550, he laments the failure of the Protector&rsquo;s
+policy, and attributes it to the organized resistance of the richer
+classes. In the same year he published (in verse) <i>The Voice of
+the last Trumpet blown by the seventh Angel</i>; it is a rebuke in
+twelve &ldquo;lessons&rdquo; to twelve different classes of people; and
+a similar production was his <i>One-and-Thirty Epigrams</i> (1550).
+These, with <i>Pleasure and Pain</i> (1551), were edited for the Early
+English Text Society in 1872 (Extra Ser. xv.). The dozen or
+more other works which Crowley published are more distinctly
+theological: indeed, the failure of the temporal policy he
+advocated seems to have led Crowley to take orders, and he
+was ordained deacon by Ridley on the 29th of September
+1551. During Mary&rsquo;s reign he was among the exiles at Frankfort.
+At Elizabeth&rsquo;s accession he became a popular preacher, was
+made archdeacon of Hereford in 1559, and prebendary of St
+Paul&rsquo;s in 1563, and was incumbent first of St Peter&rsquo;s the Poor
+in London, and then of St Giles&rsquo; without Cripplegate. He
+refused to minister in the &ldquo;conjuring garments of popery,&rdquo; and
+in 1566 was deprived and imprisoned for resisting the use of the
+surplice by his choir. He stated his case in &ldquo;A brief Discourse
+against the Outward Apparel and Ministering Garments of
+the Popish Church,&rdquo; a tract &ldquo;memorable,&rdquo; says Canon Dixon,
+&ldquo;as the first distinct utterance of Nonconformity.&rdquo; He continued
+to preach occasionally, and in 1576 was presented to the
+living of St Lawrence Jewry. Nor had he abandoned his connexion
+with the book trade, and in 1578 he was admitted a
+freeman of the Stationers&rsquo; Company. He died on the 18th of
+June 1588, and was buried in St Giles&rsquo;. The most important of
+his works not hitherto mentioned is his continuation of Languet
+and Cooper&rsquo;s <i>Epitome of Chronicles</i> (1559).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. M. Cowper&rsquo;s <i>Pref. to the Select Works of Crowley</i> (1872);
+Strype&rsquo;s Works; Gough&rsquo;s <i>General Index to Parker Soc. Publ.</i>;
+Machyn&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>; Macray&rsquo;s <i>Reg. Magdalen College</i>; Newcourt&rsquo;s
+<i>Rep. Eccles. Lond.</i>; Hennessy&rsquo;s <i>Nov. Rep. Eccl.</i> (1898); Le Neve&rsquo;s
+<i>Fasti Eccl. Angl.</i>; Pocock&rsquo;s Burnet; Pollard&rsquo;s <i>England under
+Somerset</i>; R. W. Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Church History</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWN,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> an English silver coin of the value of five shillings,
+hence often used to express the sum of five shillings. It was
+originally of gold and was first coined in the reign of Henry VIII.
+Edward VI. introduced silver crowns and half-crowns, and down
+to the reign of Charles II. crowns and half-crowns and sometimes
+double crowns were struck both in gold and silver. In
+the reign of Edward VI. also was introduced the practice of
+dating coins and marking them with their current value. The
+&ldquo;Oxford crown&rdquo; struck in the reign of Charles I. was designed
+by Rawlins (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: <i>Medieval</i>). Since the reign of
+Charles II. the crown has been struck in silver only. At one
+time during the 19th century it was proposed to abandon the
+issue of the crown, and from 1861 until 1887 none was struck,
+but since the second issue in 1887 it has been freely in circulation
+again.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWN<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> and <b>CORONET</b>, an official or symbolical ornament
+worn on or round the head. The crown (Lat. <i>corona</i>) at first
+had no regal significance. It was a garland, or wreath, of leaves
+or flowers, conferred on the winners in the athletic games. Afterwards
+it was often made of gold, and among the Romans was
+bestowed as a recognition of honourable service performed
+or distinction won, and on occasion it took such a form as to
+correspond with, or indicate the character of, the service
+rendered. The <i>corona obsidionalis</i> was formed of grass and
+flowers plucked on the spot and given to the general who
+conquered a city. The <i>corona civica</i>, made of oak leaves with
+acorns, was bestowed on the soldier who in battle saved the
+life of a Roman citizen. The mural crown (<i>corona muralis</i>) was
+the decoration of the soldier who was the first to scale the walls
+of a besieged city, and was usually a circlet of gold adorned with
+a series of turrets. The naval crown (<i>corona navalis</i>), decorated
+in like manner with a series of miniature prows of ships, was the
+reward of him who gained a notable victory at sea. These latter
+crowns form charges in English heraldry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Many other forms of crown were used by the Romans, as the
+conqueror&rsquo;s triumphal crown of laurel, the myrtle crown, and
+the convivial, bridal, funeral and other crowns. Some of the
+emperors wore crowns on occasion, as Caligula and Domitian,
+at the games, and stellate or spike crowns are depicted on the
+heads of several of the emperors on their coins, but no idea of
+imperial sovereignty was indicated thereby. The Roman people,
+who had accepted imperial rule as a fact, were very jealous of the
+employment of its emblem on the part of their rulers. That
+emblem was the diadem, and although the diadem and crown are
+frequently confused with each other they were quite distinct,
+and it is well to bear this in mind. The diadem, which was of
+eastern origin, was a fillet or band of linen or silk, richly embroidered,
+and was worn tied round the forehead. Selden
+(<i>Titles of Honour</i>, chap. viii. sect. 8) says that the diadem and
+crown &ldquo;have been from ancient times confounded, yet the
+diadem strictly was a very different thing from what a crown
+now is or was, and it was no other then than only a fillet of silk,
+linen, or some such thing.&rdquo; It is desirable to remember the
+distinction, for, although diadem and crown are now used as
+synonymous terms, the two were originally quite distinct. The
+confusion between them has, perhaps, come about from the fact
+that the modern crown seems to be rather an evolution from
+the diadem than the lineal descendant of the older crowns.
+The linen or silk diadem was eventually exchanged for a flexible
+band of gold, which was worn in its place round the forehead.
+The further development of the crown from this was readily
+effected by the addition of an upper row of ornament. Thus
+the medieval and modern crowns may be considered as radiated
+diadems, and so the diadem and crown have become, as it were,
+merged in one another.</p>
+
+<p>Among the historical crowns of Europe, the Iron Crown of
+Lombardy, now preserved at Monza, claims notice. It is a
+band of iron, enclosed in a circlet formed of six plates of gold,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span>
+hinged one to the other, and richly jewelled and enamelled.
+It is regarded with great reverence, owing to a legend that the
+inner band of iron has been hammered out of one of the nails
+of the true cross. The crown is so small, the diameter being
+only 6 in., and the circlet only 2˝ in. in width, that doubts have
+been felt as to whether it was originally intended to be worn
+on the head or was merely meant to be a votive crown. The
+legend as to the iron being that of one of the nails of the cross
+is rejected by Muratori and others, and cannot be traced far
+back. How it arose or how any credence came to be reposed
+in the legend, it is difficult to surmise. Another historical crown
+is that of Charlemagne, preserved at Vienna. It is composed of
+a series of four larger and four smaller plaques of gold, rounded
+at the tops and set together alternately. The larger plaques
+are richly ornamented with emeralds and sapphires, and the
+smaller plaques have each an enamelled figure of Our Lord,
+David, Solomon, and Hezekiah respectively. A jewelled cross
+rises from the large front plaque, and an arch bearing the name
+of the emperor Conrad springs across from the back of this cross
+to the back of the crown.</p>
+
+<p>At Madrid there is preserved the crown of Svintilla, king of
+the Visigoths, 621-631. It is a circlet of thick gold set with
+pearls, sapphires and other stones. It has been given as a
+votive offering at some period to a church, as was often the
+custom. Attached to its upper rim are the chains whereby to
+suspend it, and from the lower rim hang letters of red-coloured
+glass or paste which read +<span class="sc">svintilanvs rex offeret</span>. Two
+other Visigothic crowns are also preserved with it in the
+Armeria Real.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:175px; height:264px" src="images/img516a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;The Papal Tiara
+(without the <i>infulae</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In 1858 a most remarkable discovery was made near Toledo,
+of eight gold crowns of the 7th century, fashioned lavishly with
+barbaric splendour. They are now in the Cluny Museum at
+Paris, having been purchased for Ł4000, the intrinsic value of
+the gold, without reckoning that of the jewels and precious
+stones, being not less than Ł600. The largest and most magnificent
+is the crown of Reccesvinto, king of the Visigoths from
+653 to 675. It is composed of a circlet of pure gold set with
+pearls and precious stones in great profusion, which gives it a
+most sumptuous appearance. It is 9 in. in diameter and more
+than ˝ in. in thickness, the width of the circlet being 4 in. It
+has also been given as a votive offering to a church, and has
+the chains to hang it by attached to the upper rim, while from
+the lower rim depend pearls, sapphires and a series of richly
+jewelled letters 2 in. each in depth, which read +<span class="sc">reccesvinthvs
+rex offeret</span>. The second of these crowns in size
+is generally thought to be that of the queen of Reccesvinto.
+It has no legend, but merely a cross hanging from it. The six
+others are smaller, and are all most richly ornamented. They
+are believed to have been the crowns of Reccesvinto&rsquo;s children.
+From one of them hangs a legend which relates that they were
+an offering to a church, which has been identified with much
+probability as that of Sorbas, a small town in the province of
+Almeria. It has been surmised that in the disturbances which
+soon afterwards followed they were buried out of sight for
+safety, where they were eventually discovered absolutely
+unharmed centuries afterwards. For a detailed description of
+these most remarkable crowns the reader must be referred to
+a paper by the late Mr Albert Way (<i>Archaeological Journal</i>,
+xvi. 253). Mr Way, in the article alluded to, says of the custom
+of offering crowns to churches that frequent notices of the usage
+may be found in the lives of the Roman pontiffs by Anastasius.
+&ldquo;They are usually described as having
+been placed over the altar, and in many
+instances mention is made of jewelled
+crosses of gold appended within such
+crowns as an accessory ornament....
+The crowns suspended in churches
+suggested doubtless the sumptuous
+pensile luminaries, frequently designated
+from a very early period as
+<i>coronae</i>, in which the form of the
+royal circlet was preserved in much
+larger proportions, as exemplified by
+the remarkable <i>corona</i> still to be seen
+suspended in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle
+over the crypt in which the
+body of Charlemagne was deposited.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:283px; height:250px" src="images/img516b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:308px; height:303px" src="images/img516c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">Figs. 2-4 from Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Konversations Lexikon</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Crown of the Holy Roman Empire.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Crown of the German Empire.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:276px; height:316px" src="images/img516d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Crown of the Austrian Empire.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of modern continental crowns the imperial crown of Austria
+(fig. 4) may be mentioned. It is composed of a circlet of gold,
+adorned with precious stones and pearls, heightened with
+fleurs-de-lys, and is raised above the circlet in the form of a cap
+which is opened in the middle, so that the lower part is crescent-shaped;
+across this opening from front to back rises an arched
+fillet, enriched with pearls and surmounted by an orb, on which
+is a cross of pearls.</p>
+
+<p>The papal <i>tiara</i> (a Greek word, of Persian origin, for a form
+of ancient Persian popular head-dress, standing high erect, and
+worn encircled by a diadem by the kings), the triple crown worn
+by the popes, has taken various forms since the 9th century.
+It is important to remember that the tiaras in old Italian pictures
+are inventions of the artists and not copied from actual examples.
+In its present shape, dating substantially from the Renaissance,
+it is a peaked head-covering not unlike a closed mitre (<i>q.v.</i>), round
+which are placed one above the other three circlets or open
+crowns.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Two bands, or <i>infulae</i>, as they are called, hang from
+it as in the case of a mitre. The tiara is the crown of the pope
+as a temporal sovereign (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tiara</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span></p>
+
+<p>Pictorial representations in early manuscripts, and the rude
+effigies on their coins, are not very helpful in deciding as to the
+form of crown worn by the Anglo-Saxon and Danish kings of
+England before the Norman Conquest. In some cases it would
+appear as if the diadem studded with pearls had been worn, and
+in others something more of the character of a crown. We reach
+surer ground after the Conquest, for then the great seals, monumental
+effigies, and coins become more and more serviceable
+in determining the forms the crown took.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:523px; height:94px" src="images/img517a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:518px; height:124px" src="images/img517b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">Royal Crowns. William I. to Henry IV.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:506px; height:149px" src="images/img517c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:418px; height:134px" src="images/img517d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Royal Crowns. Henry V. to Charles I.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The crown of William the Conqueror and his immediate
+successors seems to have been a plain circlet with four uprights,
+which terminated in trefoils (fig. 5), but Henry I. enriched the
+circlet with pearls or gems (fig. 6), and on his great seal the
+trefoils have something of the character of fleurs-de-lys. The
+effigy of Richard I. at Fontevrault shows a development of the
+crown; the trefoil heads are expanded, and are chased and
+jewelled. The crown of John is shown on his effigy at Worcester,
+though unfortunately it is rather badly mutilated. It shows,
+however, that the upper ornament was of fleurons set with
+jewels. Fig. 7 shows generally this development of the crown
+in a restored form. The crown on the effigy of Henry III.
+at Westminster had a beaded row below the circlet, which is
+narrow and plain, and from it rises a series of plain trefoils with
+slightly raised points between them. The tomb was opened in
+1774, and on the king&rsquo;s head was found an imitation crown of
+tin or latten gilt, with trefoils rising from its upper edge. This,
+although only made of base metal for the king&rsquo;s burial, may
+nevertheless be taken as exhibiting the form of the royal crown
+at the time, and it may be usefully compared with that on the
+effigy of the king, which was made in Edward I.&rsquo;s reign (fig. 8).
+Edward I. used a crown of very similar design. In the crown of
+Edward II. we have perhaps the most graceful and elegant
+of all the forms which the English medieval crown assumed
+(fig. 9), and it seems to have continued without any marked
+alteration during the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II.
+The crown on the head of the effigy of Henry IV. at Canterbury
+evidently represents one of great magnificence, both of design
+and ornament. What is perhaps lost of the grace of form of
+the crown of Edward II. is made up for by a profusion of adornment
+and ornamentation unsurpassed at any later period (fig. 10).
+The circlet is much wider and is richly chased and jewelled, and
+from it rise eight large leaves, the intervening spaces being filled
+with fleurs-de-lys of definite outline. It will be noted that this
+crown is, like its predecessors, what is known as an open crown,
+without any arches rising from the circlet, but in the accounts
+of the coronation of Henry IV. by Froissart and Waurin it is
+distinctly stated that the crown was arched in the form of a
+cross. This is the earliest mention of an arched crown, which
+is not represented on the great seal till that of Edward IV. in
+1461. The crown, as shown on Henry IV.&rsquo;s effigy, very probably
+represents the celebrated &ldquo;Harry crown&rdquo; which was afterwards
+broken up and employed as surety for the loan required by
+Henry V. when he was about to embark on his expedition to
+France. Fig. 11 shows the crown of Henry V. The crown of
+Henry VI. seems to have had three arches, and there is the same
+number shown on the crown of Henry VII., which ensigns the
+hawthorn bush badge of that king. The crown of Edward IV.
+(fig. 12) shows two arches, and a crown similarly arched appears
+on the great seal of Richard III. Crowns, both open and arched,
+are represented in sculpture and paintings until the end of the
+reign of Edward IV., and the royal arms are occasionally ensigned
+by an open crown as late as the reign of Henry VIII. The
+crown of Henry VII. on his effigy in Westminster Abbey shows
+a circlet surmounted by four crosses and four fleurs-de-lys
+alternately, and has two arches rising from it. A similar crown
+appears on the great seal of Henry VIII. The crown of Henry
+VII. (fig. 13), which ensigns the royal arms above the south door
+of King&rsquo;s College chapel, Cambridge, has the motto of the order
+of the Garter round the circlet. Fig. 14 shows the form of crown
+used by Edward VI., but a tendency (not shown in the illustration)
+began of flattening the arches of the crown, and on some
+of the coins of Elizabeth the arches are not merely flattened,
+but are depressed in the centre, much after the character of
+the arches of the crown on many of the silver coins of the 19th
+century prior to 1887. The crowns of James I. and Charles I.
+had four arches, springing from the alternate crosses and fleurs-de-lys
+of the circlet (fig. 15). The crown which strangely enough
+surmounts the shield with the arms of the Commonwealth on
+the coins of Oliver Cromwell (as distinguished from those of
+the Commonwealth itself, which have no crown) is a royal crown
+with alternate crosses and fleurs-de-lys round the circlet, and
+is surmounted by three arches, which, though somewhat flattened,
+are not bent. On them rests the orb and cross. The crown
+used by Charles II. (fig. 16) shows the arches depressed in the
+centre, a feature of the royal crown which seems to have been
+continued henceforward till 1887, when the pointed form of the
+arches was resumed, in consonance with an idea that such a
+form indicated an imperial rather than a regal crown, Queen
+Victoria having been proclaimed empress of India in 1877. In
+the foregoing account the changes of the form of the crowns of
+the kings have been briefly noticed. Those crowns were the
+personal crowns, worn by the different kings on various state
+occasions, but they were all crowned before the Commonwealth
+with the ancient crown of St Edward, and the queens consort
+with that of Queen Edith. There were, in fact, two sets of
+regalia, the one used for the coronations and kept at Westminster,
+and the other that used on other occasions by the kings and kept
+in the Tower. The crowns of this latter set were the personal
+crowns made to fit the different wearers, and are those which
+have been briefly described. The crown of St Edward, with
+which the sovereigns were crowned, had a narrow circlet from
+which rose alternately four crosses and four fleurs-de-lys, and
+from the crosses sprang two arches, which at their crossing
+supported an orb and cross. These arches must have been a
+later addition, and possibly were first added for the coronation
+of Henry IV. (<i>vide supra</i>). Queen Edith&rsquo;s crown had a plain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span>
+circlet with, so far as can be determined, four crosses of pearls
+or gems on it, and a large cross patée rising from it in front,
+and arches of jewels or pearls terminating in a large pearl at
+the top. A valuation of these ancient crowns was made at the
+time of the Commonwealth prior to their destruction. From this
+valuation we learn that St Edward&rsquo;s crown was of gold filigree
+or &ldquo;wirework&rdquo; as it is called, and was set with stones, and was
+valued at Ł248. Queen Edith&rsquo;s crown was found to be only of
+silver-gilt, with counterfeit pearls, sapphires and other stones,
+and was only valued at Ł16. At the Restoration an endeavour
+was made to reproduce as well as possible the old crowns and
+regalia according to their ancient form, and a new crown of
+St Edward was made on the lines of the old one for the coronation
+of Charles II. The framework of this crown, bereft of its jewels,
+is in the possession of Lady Amherst of Hackney. The crowns
+of James II., William III. and Anne generally resembled it
+in form (fig. 16). The later crowns of the Georges and William
+IV. are represented in general form in fig. 17. Although the
+marginal note in the coronation order of Queen Victoria indicates
+&ldquo;K. Edward&rsquo;s crown&rdquo; as that with which the late queen was
+to be crowned, it was actually the state or imperial crown worn
+by the sovereign when leaving the church after the ceremony
+that was used. It had been altered for the coronation, and the
+arches were formed of oak leaves (fig. 18). Fig. 19 shows Queen
+Victoria&rsquo;s crown with raised arches and without the inner cap
+of estate, which since the reign of Henry VII. has been degraded
+into forming a lining to the crowns of the sovereigns and the
+coronets of the peers. Fig. 20 shows the coronation crown of
+King Edward VII. The crown of Scotland, preserved with the
+Scottish regalia at Edinburgh, is believed to be composed of the
+original circlet worn by King Robert the Bruce. James V.
+made additions to it in 1535, and in general characteristics it
+much resembles an English crown of that date.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:513px; height:175px" src="images/img518a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">Recent Forms of the English Crown.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:498px; height:272px" src="images/img518b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Coronation Crowns of Queen Victoria and King Edward VII.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The kings of arms in England, Scotland and Ireland wear
+crowns, the ornamentation of which round the upper rim of
+the circlet is composed of a row of acanthus or oak leaves.
+Round the circlet is the singularly inappropriate text from
+Psalm li., &ldquo;<i>Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam
+tuam</i>.&rdquo; The form of these crowns seems to have been settled
+in the reign of Charles II. Before that period they varied at
+different times, according to representations given of them in
+grants of arms, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>This brings us to the crowns of lesser dignity, known for that
+reason as coronets, and worn by the five orders of peers.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:461px; height:95px" src="images/img518c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:190px; height:109px" src="images/img518d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span><br />
+Coronets of Dukes, Marquesses and Earls.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The use of crowns by dukes originated in 1362, when Edward
+III. created his sons Lionel and John dukes of Clarence and
+Lancaster respectively. This was done by investing them with
+a sword, a cap of maintenance or estate, and with a circlet of
+gold set with precious stones, which was imposed on the head.
+Previous to this dukes had been invested at their creation by
+the girding on of a sword only. In 1387 Richard II. created
+Richard de Vere marquess of Dublin, and invested him by
+girding on a sword, and by placing a golden circlet on his head.
+The golden circlet was confined to dukes and marquesses till
+1444, when Henry VI. created Henry Beauchamp, earl of
+Warwick, premier earl, and the letters patent effecting this
+concede that the earl and his heirs shall wear a golden circlet
+on the head on feast days, even in the royal presence. As to
+the form of these circlets we have no clear knowledge. The
+dignity of a viscount was first created by Henry VI. in 1439,
+but nothing is said of any insignia pertaining to that dignity.
+It is believed that a circlet of gold with an upper rim of pearls
+was first conferred on a viscount by James I., who conceded it
+to Robert Cecil, Viscount Cranborne. However, in 1625-1626
+it is definitely recorded that the viscounts carried their coronets
+in their hands in the coronation procession from Westminster
+Hall to the Abbey church. The use of a coronet by the barons
+dates from the coronation of Charles II., and by letters patent
+of the 7th of August
+1661 their coronet is described
+as a circle of gold
+with six pearls on it.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:310px; height:63px" src="images/img518e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Coronets of Viscounts and Barons.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>At the present day
+the coronet of a duke
+(fig. 21) is formed of
+a circlet of gold, from which rise eight strawberry leaves. The
+coronet of a marquess (fig. 22) differs from that of a duke in
+having only four strawberry leaves, the intervening spaces being
+occupied by four low points which are surmounted by pearls.
+The coronet of an earl (fig. 23) differs again by having eight tall
+rays on each of which is set a pearl, the intervening spaces being
+occupied by strawberry leaves one-fourth of the height of the
+rays. The coronet of a viscount (fig. 24) has sixteen small
+pearls fixed to the golden circlet, and the coronet of a baron
+(fig. 25) has six large pearls similarly arranged.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;L. G. Wickham Legg, <i>English Coronation Records</i>
+(London, 1901); <i>The Ancestor</i>, Nos. i. and ii. (London, 1902);
+Stothard, <i>The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain</i> (London, 1817).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. M. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A coloured drawing, done in the first half of the 18th century,
+of the magnificent tiara made by the celebrated goldsmith, Caradosso,
+for Julius II., is in the Print-Room, British Museum. It was
+re-fashioned by Pius VI., but went with other treasure as part of the
+indemnity to Napoleon. The splendid emerald at the summit,
+which was engraved with the arms of Gregory XIII., was restored
+by Napoleon and now adorns another papal tiara at Rome. In this
+drawing the three crowns (a feature introduced at the beginning of
+the 14th century) are represented by three bands of <b>X</b>-shaped
+ornament in enamelled gold.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWN DEBT,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> in English law, a debt due to the crown. By
+various statutes&mdash;the first dating from the reign of Henry VIII.
+(1541)&mdash;the crown has priority for its debts before all other
+creditors. At common law the crown always had a lien on the
+lands and goods of debtors by record, which could be enforced
+even when they had passed into the hands of other persons.
+The difficulty of ascertaining whether lands were subject to a
+crown lien or not was often very great, and a remedy was provided
+by the Judgments Act 1839, and the Crown Suits Act
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span>
+1865. Now by the Land Charges Act 1900, no debt due to the
+crown operates as a charge on land until a writ of execution
+for the purpose of enforcing it has been registered under the
+Land Charges Registration and Searches Act 1888. By the
+Act of 1541 specialty debts were put practically on the same
+footing as debts by record. Simple contract debts due to the
+crown also become specialty debts, and the rights of the crown
+are enforced by a summary process called an <i>extent</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writ</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWNE, JOHN<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1703), British dramatist, was a native
+of Nova Scotia. His father &ldquo;Colonel&rdquo; William Crowne, accompanied
+the earl of Arundel on a diplomatic mission to Vienna
+in 1637, and wrote an account of his journey. He emigrated
+to Nova Scotia where he received a grant of land from Cromwell,
+but the French took possession of his property, and the home
+government did nothing to uphold his rights. When the son
+came to England his poverty compelled him to act as gentleman
+usher to an Independent lady of quality, and his enemies asserted
+that his father had been an Independent minister. He began
+his literary career with a romance, <i>Pandion and Amphigenia,
+or the History of the coy Lady of Thessalia</i> (1665). In 1671 he
+produced a romantic play, <i>Juliana, or the Princess of Poland</i>,
+which has, in spite of its title, no pretensions to rank as an
+historical drama. The earl of Rochester procured for him,
+apparently with the sole object of annoying Dryden by infringing
+on his rights as poet-laureate, a commission to supply a masque
+for performance at court. <i>Calisto</i> gained him the favour of
+Charles II., but Rochester proved a fickle patron, and his favour
+was completely alienated by the success of Crowne&rsquo;s heroic play
+in two parts, <i>The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian</i>
+(1677). This piece contained a thinly disguised satire on the
+Puritan party in the description of the Pharisees, and about
+1683 he produced a distinctly political play, <i>The City Politiques</i>,
+satirizing the Whig party and containing characters which were
+readily recognized as portraits of Titus Oates and others. This
+made him many enemies, and he petitioned the king for a small
+place that would release him from the necessity of writing for
+the stage. The king exacted one more comedy, which should,
+he suggested, <span class="correction" title="amended from he">be</span> based on the <i>No pued esser</i> of Moreto. This
+had already been unsuccessfully adapted, as Crowne discovered
+later, by Sir Thomas St Serfe, but in Crowne&rsquo;s hands it developed
+into <i>Sir Courtly Nice, It Cannot Be</i> (1685), a comedy which kept
+its place as a stock piece for nearly a century. Unfortunately
+Charles II. died before the play was completed, and Crowne was
+disappointed of his reward. He continued to write plays, and
+it is stated that he was still living in 1703, but nothing is known
+of his later life.</p>
+
+<p>Crowne was a fertile writer of plays with an historical setting,
+in which heroic love was, in the fashion of the French romances,
+made the leading motive. The prosaic level of his style saved him
+as a rule from the rant to be found in so many contemporary heroic
+plays, but these pieces are of no particular interest. He was much
+more successful in comedy of the kind that depicts &ldquo;humours.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The History of Charles the Eighth of France, or The Invasion of Naples
+by the French</i> (1672) was dedicated to Rochester. In <i>Timon</i>, generally
+supposed to have been written by the earl, a line from this piece&mdash;&ldquo;whilst
+sporting waves smil&rsquo;d on the rising sun&rdquo;&mdash;was held up to
+ridicule. <i>The Ambitious Statesman, or The Loyal Favourite</i> (1679),
+one of the most extravagant of his heroic efforts, deals with the
+history of Bernard d&rsquo;Armagnac, Constable of France, after the battle
+of Agincourt; <i>Thyestes, A Tragedy</i> (1681), spares none of the
+horrors of the Senecan tragedy, although an incongruous love story
+is interpolated; <i>Darius, King of Persia</i> (1688), <i>Regulus</i> (acted 1692,
+pr. 1694) and <i>Caligula</i> (1698) complete the list of his tragedies. <i>The
+Country Wit: A Comedy</i> (acted 1675, pr. 1693), derived in part from
+Moličre&rsquo;s <i>Le Sicilien, ou l&rsquo;amour peintre</i>, is remembered for the
+leading character, Sir Mannerly Shallow; <i>The English Frier; or
+The Town Sparks</i> (acted 1689, pr. 1690), perhaps suggested by
+Moličre&rsquo;s <i>Tartuffe</i>, ridicules the court Catholics, and in Father
+Finical caricatures Father Petre; and <i>The Married Beau; or The
+Curious Impertinent</i> (1694), is based on the <i>Curioso Impertinente</i> in
+Don Quixote. He also produced a version of Racine&rsquo;s <i>Andromaque</i>,
+an adaptation from Shakespeare&rsquo;s Henry VI., and an unsuccessful
+comedy, <i>Justice Busy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>See <i>The Dramatic Works of John Crowne</i> (4 vols., 1873), edited by
+James Maidment and W. H. Logan for the <i>Dramatists of the
+Restoration</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWN LAND,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> in the United Kingdom, land belonging to the
+crown, the hereditary revenues of which were surrendered to
+parliament in the reign of George III.</p>
+
+<p>In Anglo-Saxon times the property of the king consisted of
+(<i>a</i>) his private estate, (<i>b</i>) the demesne of the crown, comprising
+palaces, &amp;c., and (<i>c</i>) rights over the folkland of the kingdom.
+By the time of the Norman Conquest the three became merged
+into the estate of the crown, that is, land annexed to the crown,
+held by the king as king. The king, also, ceased to hold as a
+private owner,<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but he had full power of disposal by grant of
+the crown lands, which were increased from time to time by
+confiscation, escheat, forfeiture, &amp;c. The history of the crown
+lands to the reign of William III. was one of continuous alienation
+to favourites. Their wholesale distribution by William III.
+necessitated the intervention of parliament, and in the reign of
+Queen Anne an act was passed limiting the right of alienation
+of crown lands to a period of not more than thirty-one years or
+three lives. The revenue from the crown lands was also made
+to constitute part of the civil list. At the beginning of his reign
+George III. surrendered his interest in the crown lands in return
+for a fixed &ldquo;civil list&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). The control and management
+of the crown lands is now regulated by the Crown Lands Act 1829
+and various amending acts. Under these acts their management
+is entrusted to the commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land
+Revenues, who have certain statutory powers as to leasing,
+selling, exchanging, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In theory, also, state lands in the British colonies are supposed
+to be vested in the crown, and they are called crown lands;
+actually, however, the various colonial legislatures have full
+control over them and power of disposal. The term &ldquo;crown-lands,&rdquo;
+in Austria, is applied to the various provinces into which
+that country is divided. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The duchy of Lancaster, which was the private property of
+Henry IV. before he ascended the throne, was assured to him and
+his heirs by a special act of parliament. In the first year of Henry
+VII. it was united to the crown, but as a separate property.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWN POINT,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a village of Essex county, New York, U.S.A.,
+in a township of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. of Albany
+and about 10 m. N. of Ticonderoga, on the W. shore of Lake
+Champlain. Pop. of the township (1890) 3135; (1900) 2112;
+(1905) 1890; (1910) 1690; of the village, about 1000. The
+village is served by the Delaware &amp; Hudson Railway and by the
+Champlain Canal. Among the manufactures are lumber and
+woodenware. Graphite has been found in the western part of
+the township, and spar is mined. In 1609 Champlain fought
+near here the engagement with the Iroquois Indians which
+marked the beginning of the long enmity between the Five (later
+Six) Nations and the French. Subsequently Dutch and English
+traders trafficked in the vicinity, the latter maintaining here
+for many years a regular trading-post. In 1731 the French built
+here Fort Frédéric, the first military post at Crown Point,
+and the place was subsequently for many years of considerable
+strategic importance, owing to its situation on Lake Champlain,
+which with Lake George furnished a comparatively easy route
+from Canada to New York. Twice during the French and Indian
+War, in 1755 and again in 1756, English and colonial expeditions
+were sent against it in vain; it remained in French hands until
+1759, when, after Lord Jeffrey Amherst&rsquo;s occupation of Ticonderoga,
+the garrison joined that of the latter place and retreated
+to Canada. Crown Point was then occupied by Amherst, who
+during the winter of 1759-1760 began the construction, about
+a quarter of a mile from the old Fort Frédéric, of a large fort,
+which was garrisoned but was never completed; the ruins of this
+fort (not of Fort Frédéric) still remain. At the outbreak of the
+War of Independence, on the 11th of May 1775, the fort, whose
+garrison then consisted of only a dozen men, was captured by
+Colonel Seth Warner and a force of &ldquo;Green Mountain Boys,&rdquo;
+sent from Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen; and it remained in
+American hands save for a brief period in 1777, when it was
+occupied by a detachment of Burgoyne&rsquo;s invading army.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1809?-1891), African missionary-bishop,
+was born at Ochugu in the Yoruba country,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span>
+West Africa, and was sold into slavery in 1821. Next year
+he was rescued, with many other captives, by H.M. ship
+&ldquo;Myrmidon,&rdquo; and was landed at Sierra Leone. Educated
+there in a missionary school, he was baptized on the 11th of
+December 1825. In time he became a teacher at Furah Bay,
+and afterwards an energetic missionary on the Niger. He came
+to England in 1842, entered the Church Missionary College at
+Islington, and in June 1843 was ordained by Bishop Blomfield.
+Returning to Africa, he laboured with great success amongst
+his own people and afterwards at Abeokuta. Here he devoted
+himself to the preparation of school-books, and the translation
+of the Bible and Prayer-Book into Yoruba and other dialects.
+He also established a trade in cotton, and improved the native
+agriculture. In 1857 he commenced the third expedition up
+the Niger, and after labouring with varied success, returned
+to England and was consecrated, on St Peter&rsquo;s Day 1864, first
+bishop of the Niger territories. Before long a commencement
+was made of the missions to the delta of the Niger, and between
+1866 and 1884 congregations of Christians were formed at
+Bonny, Brass and New Calabar, but the progress made was slow
+and subject to many impediments. In 1888 the tide of persecution
+turned, and several chiefs embraced Christianity, and on
+Crowther&rsquo;s return from another visit to England, the large
+iron church known as &ldquo;St Stephen&rsquo;s cathedral&rdquo; was opened.
+Crowther died of paralysis on the 31st of December 1891, having
+displayed as a missionary for many years untiring industry,
+great practical wisdom, and deep piety.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROYDON,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
+of Surrey, England, suburban to London, 10 m. S. of London
+Bridge. Pop. (1891) 102,695; (1901) 133,895. The borough
+embraces a great residential district. Several railway stations
+give it communication with all parts of the metropolis, the
+principal railways serving it being the London, Brighton &amp;
+South Coast and the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham. It stands near
+the sources of the river Wandle, under Banstead Downs, and
+is a place of great antiquity. The original site, farther west
+than the present town, is mentioned in Domesday Book. The
+derivation indicated is from the O. Fr. <i>croie dune</i>, chalk hill.
+The supposition that here was the Roman station of <i>Noviomagus</i>
+is rejected. The site is remarkable for the number of springs
+which issue from the soil. One of these, called the &ldquo;Bourne,&rdquo;
+bursts forth a short way above the town at irregular intervals
+of one to ten years or more; and after running a torrent for
+two or three months, as quickly vanishes. Until its course was
+diverted it caused destructive floods. This phenomenon seems
+to arise from rains which, falling on the chalk hills, sink into the
+porous soil and reappear after a time from crevices at lower
+levels. The manor of Croydon was presented by William the
+Conqueror to Archbishop Lanfranc, who is believed to have
+founded the archiepiscopal palace there, which was the occasional
+residence of his successors till about 1750, and of which the
+chapel and hall remain. Addington Park, 3˝ m. from Croydon,
+was purchased for the residence, in 1807, of the archbishop of
+Canterbury, but was sold in consequence of Archbishop Temple&rsquo;s
+decision to reside at the palace, Canterbury. The neighbouring
+church, which is Norman and Early English, contains several
+memorials of archbishops. Near the park a group of tumuli
+and a circular encampment are seen. Croydon is a suffragan
+bishopric in the diocese of Canterbury. The parish church of
+St John the Baptist appears to have been built in the 14th and
+15th centuries, but to have contained remains of an older
+building. The church was restored or rebuilt in the 16th century,
+and again restored by Sir Gilbert Scott in 1857-1859. It was
+destroyed by fire, with the exception of the tower, on the 5th
+of January 1867, and was at once rebuilt by Scott on the old
+lines. In 1596 Archbishop Whitgift founded the hospital or
+almshouse which bears his name, and remains in its picturesque
+brick buildings surrounding two quadrangles. His grammar
+school was housed in new buildings in 1871, and is a flourishing
+day school. The principal public building of Croydon is that
+erected by the corporation for municipal business; it included
+court-rooms and the public library. At Addiscombe in the
+neighbourhood was formerly a mansion dating from 1702, and
+acquired by the East India Company in 1809 for a Military
+College, which on the abolition of the Company became the
+Royal Military College for the East Indian Army, and was closed
+in 1862. Croydon was formed into a municipal borough in
+1883, a parliamentary borough, returning one member, in 1885,
+and a county borough in 1888. The corporation consists of a
+mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 9012 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROZAT, PIERRE<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1661-1740), French art collector, was
+born at Toulouse, one of a family who were prominent French
+financiers and collectors. He became treasurer to the king in
+Paris, and gradually acquired a magnificent collection of pictures
+and <i>objets d&rsquo;art</i>. Between 1729 and 1742 a finely illustrated work
+was published in two volumes, known as the <i>Cabinet Crozat</i>,
+including the finest pictures in French collections. Most of
+his own treasures descended to his nephews, Louis François
+(d. 1750), Joseph Antoine (d. 1750), and Louis Antoine (d. 1770),
+and were augmented by them, being dispersed after their deaths;
+the collection of Louis Antoine Crozat went to St Petersburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROZET ISLANDS,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> an uninhabited group in the Indian
+Ocean, in 46°-47° S. and 51° E. They are mountainous, with
+summits from 4000 to 5000 ft. high, and are disposed in two
+divisions&mdash;Penguin or Inaccessible, Hog, Possession and East
+Islands; and the Twelve Apostles. Like Kerguelen, and other
+clusters in these southern waters, they appear to be of igneous
+formation; but owing to the bleak climate and their inaccessible
+character they are seldom visited, and have never been explored
+since their discovery in 1772 by Marion-Dufresne, after one of
+whose officers they are named. Possession, the highest, has a
+snowy peak said to exceed 5000 ft. Hog Island takes its name
+from the animals which were here let loose by an English captain
+many years ago, but have since disappeared. Rabbits burrow in
+the heaps of scoria on the slopes of the mountains.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROZIER, WILLIAM<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1855-&emsp;&emsp;), American artillerist and
+inventor, born at Carrollton, Carroll county, Ohio, on the 19th
+of February 1855, was the son of Robert Crozier (1827-1895),
+chief justice of Kansas in 1863-1866, and a United States senator
+from that state from December 1873 to February 1874. He
+graduated at West Point in 1876, was appointed a 2nd lieutenant
+in the 4th Artillery, and served on the Western frontier for three
+years against the Sioux and Bannock Indians. From 1879 to
+1884 he was instructor in mathematics at West Point, and was
+superintendent of the Watertown (Massachusetts) Arsenal from
+1884 to 1887. In 1888 he was sent by the war department to
+study recent developments in artillery in Europe, and upon his
+return he was placed in full charge of the construction of gun
+carriages for the army, and with General Adelbert R. Buffington
+(1837-&emsp;&emsp;), the chief of ordnance, he invented the Buffington-Crozier
+disappearing gun carriage (1896). He also invented a
+wire-wound gun, and perfected many appliances connected with
+heavy and field ordnance. In 1890 he attained the rank of
+captain. During the Spanish-American War he was inspector-general
+for the Atlantic and Gulf coast defences. In 1899 he
+was one of the American delegates to the Peace Conference
+at the Hague. He later served in the Philippine Islands on the
+staffs of Generals John C. Bates and Theodore Schwan, and in
+1900 was chief of ordnance on the staff of General A. R. Chaffee
+during the Pekin Relief Expedition. In November 1901 he
+was appointed brigadier-general and succeeded General Buffington
+as chief of ordnance of the United States army. His <i>Notes
+on the Construction of Ordnance</i>, published by the war department,
+are used as text-books in the schools for officers, and he
+is also the author of other important publications on military
+subjects.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROZIER,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or pastoral staff, one of the insignia of a bishop,
+and probably derived from the <i>lituus</i> of the Roman augurs. It
+is crook-headed, and borne by bishops and archbishops alike
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pastoral Staff</a></span>). The word &ldquo;crozier&rdquo; or &ldquo;crosier&rdquo; represents
+the O. Fr. <i>crocier</i>, Med. Lat. <i>crociarius</i>, the bearer of the
+episcopal crook (Med. Lat. <i>crocea</i>, <i>croccia</i>, &amp;c., Fr. <i>croc</i>). The
+English representative of <i>crocea</i> was <i>crose</i>, later <i>crosse</i>, which,
+becoming confused with &ldquo;cross&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), was replaced by &ldquo;crozier-staff&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span>
+or &ldquo;crozier&rsquo;s staff,&rdquo; and then, at the beginning of the
+16th century, by &ldquo;crozier&rdquo; (see J. T. Taylor, <i>Archaeologia</i>, Iii.,
+&ldquo;On the Use of the Terms Crosier, Pastoral Staff and Cross&rdquo;).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUCIAL<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>crux</i>, a cross), that which has the form of
+a cross, as the &ldquo;crucial ligaments&rdquo; of the knee-joint, which
+cross each other, connecting the femur and the tibia. From
+Francis Bacon&rsquo;s expression <i>instantia crucis</i> (taken, as he says,
+from the finger-post or <i>crux</i> at cross-roads) for a phenomenon
+which decides between two causes which have each similar
+analogies in its favour, comes the use of &ldquo;crucial&rdquo; for that which
+decides between two alternatives, hence, generally, as a synonym
+for &ldquo;critical.&rdquo; The word is also used, with a reference to the use
+of a &ldquo;crucible,&rdquo; of something which tests and tries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUCIFERAE,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> or Crucifer family, a natural order of flowering
+plants, which derives its name from the cruciform arrangement
+of the four petals of the flower. It is an order of herbaceous
+plants, many of which, such as wallflower, stock, mustard,
+cabbage, radish and others, are well-known garden or field-plants.
+Many of the plants are annuals; among these are some of the
+commonest weeds of cultivation, shepherd&rsquo;s purse (<i>Capsella
+Bursa-pastoris</i>), charlock (<i>Brassica Sinapis</i>), and such common
+plants as hedge mustard (<i>Sisymbrium officinale</i>), Jack-by-the-hedge
+(<i>S. Alliaria</i> or <i>Alliaria officinalis</i>). Others are biennials
+producing a number of leaves on a very short stem in the first
+year, and in the second sending up a flowering shoot at the
+expense of the nourishment stored in the thick tap-root during
+the previous season. Under cultivation this root becomes much
+enlarged, as in turnip, swede and others. Wallflower (<i>Cheiranthus
+Cheiri</i>) (fig. 1) is a perennial. The leaves when borne on an
+elongated stem are arranged alternately and have no stipules.
+The flowers are arranged in racemes without bracts; during the
+life of the flower its stalk continues to grow so that the open
+flowers of an inflorescence stand on a level (that is, are
+corymbose). The flowers are regular, with four free sepals
+arranged in two pairs at right angles, four petals arranged crosswise
+in one series, and two sets of stamens, an outer with two
+members and an inner with four, in two pairs placed in the
+middle line of the flower and at right angles to the outer series.
+The four inner stamens are longer than the two outer; and the
+stamens are hence collectively described as tetradynamous.
+The pistil, which is above the rest of the members of the flower,
+consists of two carpels joined at their edges to form the ovary,
+which becomes two-celled by subsequent ingrowth of a septum
+from these united edges; a row of ovules springs from each
+edge. The fruit is a pod or siliqua splitting by two valves from
+below upwards and leaving the placentas with the seeds attached
+to the <i>replum</i> or framework of the septum. The seeds are filled
+with the large embryo, the two cotyledons of which are variously
+folded. In germination the cotyledons come above ground and
+form the first green leaves of the plant.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:479px" src="images/img521a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Wallflower (<i>Cheiranthus Cheiri</i>), reduced. 1, Flower in
+vertical section. 2, Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower in
+<i>Barbarea</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:384px; height:282px" src="images/img521b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;<i>Cruciferae.</i> Floral<br />
+Diagram (<i>Brassica</i>).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;<i>Cardamine pratensis.</i><br />
+Flower with Perianth removed.<br />
+(After Baillon.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:426px; height:326px" src="images/img521c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Cruciferous Fruits. (After Baillon.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, <i>Cheiranthus Cheiri.</i></p>
+<p>B, <i>Lepidium sativum.</i></p>
+<p>C, <i>Capsella Bursa-pastoris.</i></p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>D, <i>Lunaria biennis</i>, showing the septum after the carpels have fallen away.</p>
+<p>E, <i>Crambe maritima.</i></p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:227px; height:153px" src="images/img521d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Seeds of <i>Cruciferae</i> cut
+across to show the radicle and
+cotyledons. (After Baillon.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">A, <i>Cheiranthus Cheiri.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">B, <i>Sisymbrium Alliaria.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">Figures 2-5 are from Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch
+der Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Pollination is effected by aid of insects. The petals are generally
+white or yellow, more rarely lilac or some other colour, and
+between the bases of the stamens are honey-glands. Some or
+all of the anthers become twisted so that insects in probing for
+honey will touch the anthers with one side of their head and
+the capitate stigma with the
+other. Owing, however, to
+the close proximity of stigma
+and anthers, very slight irregularity
+in the movements
+of the visiting insect will
+cause self-pollination, which
+may also occur by the dropping
+of pollen from the
+anthers of the larger stamens
+on to the stigma.</p>
+
+<p>Cruciferae is a large order
+containing nearly 200 genera
+and about 1200 species. It
+has a world-wide distribution,
+but finds its chief development in the temperate and frigid zones,
+especially of the northern hemisphere, and as Alpine plants. In
+the subdivision of the order into tribes use is made of differences
+in the form of the fruit and the manner of folding of the embryo.
+When the fruit is several times longer than broad it is known as a
+siliqua, as in stock or wallflower; when about as long as broad,
+a silicula, as in shepherd&rsquo;s purse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:272px; height:453px" src="images/img522.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Honesty (<i>Lunaria biennis</i>),
+showing Flower and Fruit. Reduced.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The order is well represented in Britain&mdash;among others
+by <i>Nasturtium</i> (<i>N. officinale</i>, water-cress), <i>Arabis</i> (rock-cress),
+<i>Cardamine</i> (bitter-cress), <i>Sisymbrium</i> (hedge mustard, &amp;c.;
+<i>S. Irio</i> is London rocket,
+so-called because it sprang
+up after the fire of 1666),
+<i>Brassica</i> (cabbage and mustard),
+<i>Diplotaxis</i> (rocket),
+<i>Cochlearia</i> (scurvy-grass),
+<i>Capsella</i> (shepherd&rsquo;s purse),
+<i>Lepidium</i> (cress), <i>Thlaspi</i>
+(penny-cress), <i>Cakile</i> (sea
+rocket), <i>Raphanus</i> (radish),
+and others. Of economic
+importance are species of
+<i>Brassica</i>, including mustard
+(<i>B. nigra</i>), white
+mustard, used when young
+in salads (<i>B. alba</i>), cabbage
+(<i>q.v.</i>) and its numerous
+forms derived from <i>B. oleracea</i>,
+turnip (<i>B. campestris</i>),
+and swede (<i>B. Napus</i>),
+<i>Raphanus sativus</i> (radish),
+<i>Cochlearia Armoracia</i>
+(horse-radish), <i>Nasturtium
+officinale</i> (water-cress),
+<i>Lepidium sativum</i> (garden
+cress). <i>Isatis</i> affords a blue
+dye, woad. Many of the genera are known as ornamental garden
+plants; such are <i>Cheiranthus</i> (wallflower), <i>Matthiola</i> (stock),
+<i>Iberis</i> (candy-tuft), <i>Alyssum</i> (Alison), <i>Hesperis</i> (dame&rsquo;s violet),
+Lunaria (honesty) (fig. 6), <i>Aubrietia</i> and others.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUDEN, ALEXANDER<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1701-1770), author of the well-known
+concordance (<i>q.v.</i>) to the English Bible, was born at Aberdeen
+on the 31st of May 1701. He was educated at the grammar
+school, Aberdeen, and studied at Marischal College, intending
+to enter the ministry. He took the degree of master of arts, but
+soon after began to show signs of insanity owing to a disappointment
+in love. After a term of confinement he recovered and
+removed to London. In 1722 he had an engagement as private
+tutor to the son of a country squire living at Eton Hall, Southgate,
+and also held a similar post at Ware. Years afterwards,
+in an application for the title of bookseller to the queen, he
+stated that he had been for some years corrector for the press in
+Wild Court. This probably refers to this time. In 1729 he was
+employed by the 10th earl of Derby as a reader and secretary,
+but was discharged on the 7th of July for his ignorance of French
+pronunciation. He then lodged in a house in Soho frequented
+exclusively by Frenchmen, and took lessons in the language
+in the hope of getting back his post with the earl, but when he
+went to Knowsley in Lancashire, the earl would not see him.
+He returned to London and opened a bookseller&rsquo;s shop in the
+Royal Exchange. In April 1735 he obtained the title of bookseller
+to the queen by recommendation of the lord mayor and
+most of the Whig aldermen. The post was an unremunerative
+sinecure. In 1737 he finished his concordance, which, he says,
+was the work of several years. It was presented to the queen
+on the 3rd of November 1737, a fortnight before her death.</p>
+
+<p>Although Cruden&rsquo;s biblical labours have made his name a
+household word among English-speaking people, he was disappointed
+in his hopes of immediate profit, and his mind again
+became unhinged. In spite of his earnest and self-denying piety,
+and his exceptional intellectual powers, he developed idiosyncrasies,
+and his life was marred by a harmless but ridiculous
+egotism, which so nearly bordered on insanity that his friends
+sometimes thought it necessary to have him confined. He paid
+unwelcome addresses to a widow, and was confined in a madhouse
+in Bethnal Green. On his release he published a pamphlet
+dedicated to Lord H. (probably Harrington, secretary of
+state) entitled <i>The London Citizen exceedingly injured, or a
+British Inquisition Displayed</i>. He also published an account of
+his trial, dedicated to the king. In December 1740 he writes to
+Sir H. Sloane saying he has been employed since July as Latin
+usher in a boarding-school at Enfield. He then found work as
+a proof-reader, and several editions of Greek and Latin classics
+are said to have owed their accuracy to his care. He superintended
+the printing of one of Matthew Henry&rsquo;s commentaries,
+and in 1750 printed a small <i>Compendium of the Holy Bible</i> (an
+abstract of the contents of each chapter), and also reprinted a
+larger edition of the <i>Concordance</i>.</p>
+
+<p>About this time he adopted the title of &ldquo;Alexander the
+Corrector,&rdquo; and assumed the office of correcting the morals of
+the nation, especially with regard to swearing and Sunday
+observance. For this office he believed himself divinely commissioned,
+but he petitioned parliament for a formal appointment
+in this capacity. In April 1755 he printed a letter to the
+speaker and other members of the House of Commons, and about
+the same time an &ldquo;Address to the King and Parliament.&rdquo; He
+was in the habit of carrying a sponge, with which he effaced all
+inscriptions which he thought contrary to good morals. In
+September 1753, through being involved in a street brawl, he
+was confined in an asylum in Chelsea for seventeen days at the
+instance of his sister, Mrs Wild. He brought an unsuccessful
+action against his friends, and seriously proposed that they
+should go into confinement as an atonement. He published
+an account of this second restraint in &ldquo;The Adventures of
+Alexander the Corrector.&rdquo; He made attempts to present to
+the king in person an account of his trial, and to obtain the honour
+of knighthood, one of his predicted honours. In 1754 he was
+nominated as parliamentary candidate for the city of London,
+but did not go to the poll. In 1755 he paid unwelcome addresses
+to the daughter of Sir Thomas Abney, of Newington (1640-1722),
+and then published his letters and the history of his repulse
+in the third part of his &ldquo;Adventures.&rdquo; In June and July 1755
+he visited Oxford and Cambridge. He was treated with the
+respect due to his learning by officials and residents in both
+universities, but experienced some boisterous fooling at the
+hands of the undergraduates. At Cambridge he was knighted
+with mock ceremonies. There he appointed &ldquo;deputy correctors&rdquo;
+to represent him in the university. He also visited
+Eton, Windsor, Tonbridge and Westminster schools, where he
+appointed four boys to be his deputies. (An <i>Admonition to
+Cambridge</i> is preserved among letters from J. Neville of
+Emmanuel to Dr Cox Macro, in the British Museum.) <i>The
+Corrector&rsquo;s Earnest Address to the Inhabitants of Great Britain</i>,
+published in 1756, was occasioned by the earthquake at Lisbon.
+In 1762 he saved an ignorant seaman, Richard Potter, from the
+gallows, and in 1763 published a pamphlet recording the history
+of the case. Against John Wilkes, whom he hated, he wrote a
+small pamphlet, and used to delete with his sponge the number
+45 wherever he found it, this being the offensive number of the
+<i>North Briton</i>. In 1769 he lectured in Aberdeen as &ldquo;Corrector,&rdquo;
+and distributed copies of the fourth commandment and various
+religious tracts. The wit that made his eccentricities palatable
+is illustrated by the story of how he gave to a conceited young
+minister whose appearance displeased him <i>A Mother&rsquo;s Catechism
+dedicated to the young and ignorant</i>. The <i>Scripture Dictionary</i>, compiled
+about this time, was printed in Aberdeen in two volumes
+shortly after his death. Alexander Chalmers, who in his boyhood
+heard Cruden lecture in Aberdeen and wrote his biography, says
+that a verbal index to Milton, which accompanied the edition of
+Thomas Newton, bishop of Bristol, in 1769, was Cruden&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p>The second edition of the Bible <i>Concordance</i> was published in
+1761, and presented to the king in person on the 21st of December.
+The third appeared in 1769. Both contain a pleasing portrait
+of the author. He is said to have gained Ł800 by these two
+editions. He returned to London from Aberdeen, and died
+suddenly while praying in his lodgings in Camden Passage,
+Islington, on the 1st of November 1770. He was buried in the
+ground of a Protestant dissenting congregation in Dead Man&rsquo;s
+Place, Southwark. He bequeathed a portion of his savings for
+a Ł5 bursary at Aberdeen, which preserves his name on the list
+of benefactors of the university.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUDEN,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a village and parish on the E. coast of Aberdeenshire,
+Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901) 3444. It is situated at
+the head of Cruden Bay, 29ž m. N.N.E. of Aberdeen by the
+Great North of Scotland railway company&rsquo;s branch line from
+Ellon to Boddam. The golf-course of 18 holes is one of the best
+in Scotland, and there is a sandy beach, with good bathing.
+There is some good fishing at Port Erroll, also called Ward of
+Cruden. Prehistoric remains have been found in the parish,
+and near Ardendraught, not far from the shore, Malcolm II.
+is said to have defeated Canute in 1014. The Water of Cruden,
+which rises a few miles to the west, flows through the village into
+the North Sea. Slains Castle, a seat of the earl of Erroll, lies
+to the north of Cruden, but must not be confounded with the
+old castle of Slains, about 5 m. to the south-west, near the point
+where, according to tradition, the &ldquo;St Catherine&rdquo; of the Spanish
+Armada foundered in 1588. The Bullers of Buchan are within
+2 m. walk of Cruden.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUELTY<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (through the O. Fr. <i>crualté</i>, mod. <i>cruauté</i>, from
+the Lat. <i>crudelitas</i>), the intentional infliction of pain or suffering.
+It is only necessary to deal here with the legal relations involved.
+Statutory provision for the prevention of cruelty to those who
+are unable to protect themselves has been particularly marked
+in the 19th century. The increase of legislation for the protection
+of children, lunatics and animals is a proof of the growing
+humanitarianism of the age. There was at one time a tendency
+among jurists to question whether, for instance, the prevention
+of cruelty to animals was not a recognition of a certain quasi-right
+in animals, or whether it was merely that such exhibitions
+as bull- and bear-baiting, cock-fights, &amp;c., were demoralizing to
+the public generally. The true fact seems to be that the first
+introduction of such legislation was undoubtedly due to the
+desire for the promotion of humanity, but that the principle,
+for the recognition of which the time was not yet ripe, had to
+be excused in the eyes of the public by the plea that cruelty had
+a demoralizing effect upon spectators (see A. V. Dicey, <i>Law
+and Opinion in England</i>, p. 188; T. E. Holland, <i>Jurisprudence</i>,
+10th ed., p. 372).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cruelty to Animals.</i>&mdash;The English common law has never
+taken cognizance of the commission of acts of cruelty upon
+animals, and direct legislation upon the subject, dating from
+the 19th century, was due in a great measure to public agitation,
+supported by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
+to Animals (founded in 1824). Various acts were passed in 1822
+(known as Martin&rsquo;s Act), 1835 and 1837, and these were amended
+and consolidated by the Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and 1854,
+which, with the Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900,
+are the main acts upon the subject. There are also, in addition,
+many other acts that impose certain liabilities in respect of
+animals and indirectly prevent cruelty. The Cruelty to Animals
+Acts 1849 and 1854 render liable to prosecution and fine practically
+any act of cruelty to an animal; such acts as dubbing a
+cock, cropping the ears of a dog or dishorning cattle, are offences.
+The latter practice, however, is allowed both in Scotland and
+Ireland, the courts having held that the advantages to be
+obtained from dishorning outweigh the pain caused by the
+operation. The word &ldquo;animal&rdquo; is defined as meaning &ldquo;any
+domestic animal&rdquo; of whatever kind or species, and whether
+a quadruped or not. The act of 1849 also forbids bull- and bear-baiting,
+or fighting between any kinds of animals; requires
+the provision of food and water to animals impounded; lays
+down regulations as to the treatment of animals sent for
+slaughter, and imposes a penalty for improperly conveying
+animals. The Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900
+extends to wild animals in captivity that protection which the
+acts of 1849 and 1854 conferred on domestic animals, making
+exception of any act done or any omission in the preparation
+of animals for the food of man or for sport. The word &ldquo;animal&rdquo;
+in the act includes bird, beast, fish or reptile. The Dogs Act
+1865 rendered owners of dogs liable for injuries to cattle and
+sheep; the Dogs Act 1906 extended the owner&rsquo;s liability for
+injury done to any cattle by a dog, and further, where a dog
+is proved to have injured cattle or chased sheep it may be treated
+as a dangerous dog and must be kept under proper control or be
+destroyed. The Drugging of Animals Act 1876 imposes a penalty
+on giving poisonous drugs to any domestic animal unlawfully.
+The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed for the purpose of
+regulating the practice of vivisection (<i>q.v.</i>). The Ground Game
+Act 1880, prohibits night shooting, or the use of spring traps
+above ground or poison. The Injured Animals Act 1907
+enables police constables to cause any animal when mortally or
+seriously injured to be slaughtered. The Diseases of Animals
+Act 1894 and orders under it are for the purpose of securing
+animals from unnecessary suffering, as well as from disease.
+Finally, the Wild Birds Protection Acts 1880 to 1904, with various
+game acts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Game Laws</a></span>), extend the protection of the law
+to wild birds. The acts establish a close time for wild birds
+and impose penalties for shooting or taking them within that
+time; prohibit the exposing or offering for sale within certain
+dates any wild bird recently killed or taken unless bought or
+received from some person residing out of the United Kingdom;
+the taking or destroying of wild birds&rsquo; eggs, the setting of pole
+traps, and the taking of a wild bird by means of a hook or other
+similar instrument.</p>
+
+<p>For the law relating to the prevention of cruelty to children see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children, Law Relating to</a></span>; for cruelty in the sense of such
+conduct as entitles a husband or wife to judicial separation
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divorce</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1792-1878), English artist,
+caricaturist and illustrator, was born in London on the 27th of
+September 1792. By natural disposition and collateral circumstances
+he may be accepted as the type of the born humoristic
+artist predestined for this special form of art. His grandfather
+had taken up the arts, and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, followed
+the painter&rsquo;s profession. Amidst these surroundings the children
+were born and brought up, their first playthings the materials
+of the arts their father practised. George followed the family
+traditions with amazing facility, easily surpassing his compeers
+as an etcher. When the father died, about 1811, George, still
+in his teens, was already a successful and popular artist. All
+his acquisitions were native gifts, and of home-growth; outside
+training, or the serious apprenticeship to art, were dispensed
+with, under the necessity of working for immediate profit. This
+lack of academic training the artist at times found cause to
+regret, and at some intervals he made exertions to cultivate
+the knowledge obtainable by studying from the antique and
+drawing from life at the schools. From boyhood he was accustomed
+to turn his artistic talents to ready account, disposing
+of designs and etchings to the printsellers, and helping his father
+in forwarding his plates. Before he was twenty his spirited style
+and talent had secured popular recognition; the contemporary
+of Gillray, Rowlandson, Alken, Heath, Dighton, and the established
+caricaturists of that generation, he developed great proficiency
+as an etcher. Gillray&rsquo;s matured and trained skill had
+some influence upon his executive powers, and when the older
+caricaturist passed away in 1815, George Cruikshank had already
+taken his place as a satirist. Prolific and dexterous beyond his
+competitors, for a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and
+Radicals with fine impartiality. Satirical capital came to him
+from every public event,&mdash;wars abroad, the enemies of England
+(for he was always fervidly patriotic), the camp, the court, the
+senate, the Church; low life, high life; the humours of the
+people, the follies of the great. In this wonderful gallery the
+student may grasp the popular side of most questions which for
+the time being engaged public attention. George Cruikshank&rsquo;s
+technical and manipulative skill as an etcher was such that
+Ruskin and the best judges have placed his productions in the
+foremost rank; in this respect his works have been compared
+favourably with the masterpieces of etching. He died at 263
+Hampstead Road on the 1st of February 1878. His remains
+rest in St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>A vast number of Cruikshank&rsquo;s spirited cartoons were published
+as separate caricatures, all coloured by hand; others
+formed series, or were contributed to satirical magazines, the
+<i>Satirist</i>, <i>Town Talk</i>, <i>The Scourge</i> (1811-1816) and the like
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span>
+ephemeral publications. In conjunction with William Hone&rsquo;s
+scathing tracts, G. Cruikshank produced political satires to
+illustrate the series of facetiae and miscellanies, like <i>The Political
+House that Jack Built</i> (1819).</p>
+
+<p>Of a more genially humoristic order are his well-known book
+illustrations, now so deservedly esteemed for their inimitable fun
+and frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible,
+in which he excelled. Early in this series came <i>The Humorist</i>
+(1819-1821) and <i>Life in Paris</i> (1822). The well-known series of
+<i>Life in London</i>, conjointly produced by the brothers I. R. and
+G. Cruikshank, has enjoyed a prolonged reputation, and is still
+sought after by collectors. Grimm&rsquo;s <i>Collection of German Popular
+Stories</i> (1824-1826), in two series, with 22 inimitable etchings,
+are in themselves sufficient to account for G. Cruikshank&rsquo;s
+reputation. To the first fourteen volumes (1837-1843) of
+<i>Bentley&rsquo;s Miscellany</i> Cruikshank contributed 126 of his best
+plates, etched on steel, including the famous illustrations to
+<i>Oliver Twist</i>, <i>Jack Sheppard</i>, <i>Guy Fawkes</i> and <i>The Ingoldsby
+Legends</i>. For W. Harrison Ainsworth, Cruikshank illustrated
+<i>Rookwood</i> (1836) and <i>The Tower of London</i> (1840); the first six
+volumes of <i>Ainsworth&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (1842-1844) were illustrated
+by him with several of his finest suites of etchings. For C.
+Lever&rsquo;s <i>Arthur O&rsquo;Leary</i> he supplied 10 full-page etchings
+(1844), and 20 spirited graphic etchings for Maxwell&rsquo;s lurid
+<i>History of the Irish Rebellion in 1798</i> (1845). Of his own
+speculations, mention must be made of <i>George Cruikshank&rsquo;s
+Omnibus</i> (1841) and <i>George Cruikshank&rsquo;s Table Book</i> (1845),
+as well as his <i>Comic Almanack</i> (1835-1853). <i>The Life of Sir
+John Falstaff</i> contained 20 full-page etchings (1857-1858).
+These are a few leading items amongst the thousands of illustrations
+emanating from that fertile imagination. As an enthusiastic
+teetotal advocate, G. Cruikshank produced a long series of
+pictures and illustrations, pictorial pamphlets and tracts; the
+best known of these are <i>The Bottle</i>, 8 plates (1847), with its
+sequel, <i>The Drunkard&rsquo;s Children</i>, 8 plates (1848), with the
+ambitious work, <i>The Worship of Bacchus</i>, published by subscription
+after the artist&rsquo;s oil painting, now in the National
+Gallery, London, to which it was presented by his numerous
+admirers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Cruikshank&rsquo;s Water-Colours</i>, with introduction by Joseph
+Grego (London, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUNDEN, JOHN<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (d. 1828), English architectural and
+mobiliary designer. Most of his early inspiration was drawn
+from Chippendale and his school, but he fell later under the
+influence of a bastard classicism. He produced a very large
+number of designs which were published in numerous volumes;
+among the most ambitious were ornamental centres for ceilings
+in which he introduced cupids with bows and arrows, Fame
+sounding her trumpet, and such like motives. Sport and natural
+history supplied him with many other themes, and one of his
+ceilings is a hunting scene representing a &ldquo;kill.&rdquo; His principal
+works were <i>Designs for Ceilings</i>; <i>Convenient and Ornamental
+Architecture</i>; <i>The Carpenter&rsquo;s Companion for Chinese Railings,
+Gates</i>, &amp;c. (1770); <i>The Joiner and Cabinet-maker&rsquo;s Darling</i>, or
+<i>Sixty Designs for Gothic, Chinese, Mosaic and Ornamental Frets</i>
+(1765); and <i>The Chimney Piece Maker&rsquo;s Daily Assistant</i> (1776).
+Much of his work was either absurd or valueless.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUSADES,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> the name given to the series of wars for delivering
+the Holy Land from the Mahommedans, so-called from the
+cross worn as a badge by the crusaders. By analogy the term
+&ldquo;crusade&rdquo; is also given to any campaign undertaken in the
+same spirit.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Meaning of the Crusades.</i>&mdash;The Crusades may be
+regarded partly as the <i>decumanus fluctus</i> in the surge of religious
+revival, which had begun in western Europe during the 10th,
+and had mounted high during the 11th century; partly as a
+chapter, and a most important chapter, in the history of the
+interaction of East and West. Contemporaries regarded them
+in the former of these two aspects, as &ldquo;holy wars&rdquo; and &ldquo;pilgrims&rsquo;
+progresses&rdquo; towards Christ&rsquo;s Sepulchre; the reflective
+eye of history must perhaps regard them more exclusively from
+the latter point of view. Considered as holy wars the Crusades
+must be interpreted by the ideas of an age which was dominated
+by the spirit of otherworldliness, and accordingly ruled by the
+clerical power which represented the other world. They are a
+<i>novum salutis genus</i>&mdash;a new path to Heaven, to tread which
+counted &ldquo;for full and complete satisfaction&rdquo; <i>pro omni poenitentia</i>
+and gave &ldquo;forgiveness of sins&rdquo; (<i>peccaminum remissio</i>)<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>; they
+are, again, the &ldquo;foreign policy&rdquo; of the papacy, directing its
+faithful subjects to the great war of Christianity against the
+infidel. As such a <i>novum salutis genus</i>, the Crusades connect
+themselves with the history of the penitentiary system; as the
+foreign policy of the Church they belong to that clerical purification
+and direction of feudal society and its instincts, which
+appears in the institution of &ldquo;God&rsquo;s Truce&rdquo; and in chivalry
+itself. The penitentiary system, according to which the priest
+enforced a code of moral law in the confessional by the sanction
+of penance&mdash;penance which must be performed as a condition
+of admission to the sacrament of the Eucharist&mdash;had been
+from early times a great instrument in the civilization of the
+raw Germanic races. Penance might consist in fasting; it
+might consist in flagellation; it might consist in pilgrimage.
+The penitentiary pilgrimage, which seems to have been practised
+as early as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, was twice blessed; not only was it an act
+of atonement in itself, like fasting and flagellation; it also gained
+for the pilgrim the merit of having stood on holy ground. Under
+the influence of the Cluniac revival, which began in the 10th
+century, pilgrimages became increasingly frequent; and the
+goal of pilgrimage was often Jerusalem. Pilgrims who were
+travelling to Jerusalem joined themselves in companies for
+security, and marched under arms; the pilgrims of 1064, who
+were headed by the archbishop of Mainz, numbered some
+7000 men. When the First Crusade finally came, what was
+it but a penitentiary pilgrimage under arms&mdash;with the one
+additional object of conquering the goal of pilgrimage? That
+the Pilgrims&rsquo; Progress should thus have turned into a Holy War
+is a fact readily explicable, when we turn to consider the attempts
+made by the Church, during the 11th century, to purify, or at
+any rate to direct, the feudal instinct for private war (<i>Fehde</i>).
+Since the close of the 10th century diocesan councils in France
+had been busily acting as legislatures, and enacting &ldquo;forms of
+peace&rdquo; for the maintenance of God&rsquo;s Peace or Truce (<i>Pax Dei</i>
+or <i>Treuga Dei</i>). In each diocese there had arisen a judicature
+(<i>judices pacis</i>) to decide when the form had been broken; and
+an executive, or <i>communitas pacis</i>, had been formed to enforce
+the decisions of the judicature. But it was an easier thing to
+consecrate the fighting instinct than to curb it; and the institution
+of chivalry represents such a clerical consecration, for ideal
+ends and noble purposes, of the martial impulses which the
+Church had hitherto endeavoured to check. In the same way
+the Crusades themselves may be regarded as a stage in the
+clerical reformation of the fighting laymen. As chivalry directed
+the layman to defend what was right, so the preaching of the
+Crusades directed him to attack what was wrong&mdash;the possession
+by &ldquo;infidels&rdquo; of the Sepulchre of Christ. The Crusades are the
+offensive side of chivalry: chivalry is their parent&mdash;as it is also
+their child. The knight who joined the Crusades might thus
+still indulge the bellicose side of his genius&mdash;under the aegis and
+at the bidding of the Church; and in so doing he would also
+attain what the spiritual side of his nature ardently sought&mdash;a
+perfect salvation and remission of sins. He might butcher all
+day, till he waded ankle-deep in blood, and then at nightfall
+kneel, sobbing for very joy, at the altar of the Sepulchre&mdash;for
+was he not red from the winepress of the Lord? One can
+readily understand the popularity of the Crusades, when one
+reflects that they permitted men to get to the other world by
+fighting hard on earth, and allowed them to gain the fruits of
+asceticism by the ways of hedonism. Nor was the Church merely
+able, through the Crusades, to direct the martial instincts of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span>
+a feudal society; it was also able to pursue the object of its
+own immediate policy, and to attempt the universal diffusion of
+Christianity, even at the edge of the sword, over the whole of
+the known world.</p>
+
+<p>Thus was renewed, on a greater scale, that ancient feud of
+East and West, which has never died. For a thousand years,
+from the Hegira in 622 to the siege of Vienna in 1683, the peril
+of a Mahommedan conquest of Europe was almost continually
+present. From this point of view, the Crusades appear as a
+reaction of the West against the pressure of the East&mdash;a reaction
+which carried the West into the East, and founded a Latin and
+Christian kingdom on the shores of Asia. They protected Europe
+from the new revival of Mahommedanism under the Turks;
+they gave it a time of rest in which the Western civilization of
+the middle ages developed. But the relation of East and West
+during the Crusades was not merely hostile or negative. The
+Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was the meeting-place of two
+civilizations: on its soil the East learned from the West, and&mdash;perhaps
+still more&mdash;the West learned from the East. The
+culture developed in the West during the 13th century was not
+only permitted to develop by the protection of the Crusades,
+it grew upon materials which the Crusades enabled it to import
+from the East. Yet the debt of Europe to the Crusades in this
+last respect has perhaps been unduly emphasized. Sicily was
+still more the meeting-place of East and West than the kingdom
+of Jerusalem; and the Arabs of Spain gave more to the culture
+of Europe than the Arabs of Syria.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Historical Causes of the Crusades.</i>&mdash;Within fifteen years
+of the Hegira Jerusalem fell before the arms of Omar (637),
+and it continued to remain in the hands of Mahommedan
+rulers till the end of the First Crusade. For centuries, however, a
+lively intercourse was maintained between the Latin Church in
+Jerusalem, which the clemency of the Arab conquerors tolerated,
+and the Christians of the West. Charlemagne in particular was
+closely connected with Jerusalem: the patriarch sent him the
+keys of the city and a standard in 800; and in 807 Harun
+al-Rashid recognized this symbolical cession, and acknowledged
+Charlemagne as protector of Jerusalem and owner of the church
+of the Sepulchre. Charlemagne founded a hospital and a library
+in the Holy City; and later legend, when it made him the first
+of crusaders and the conqueror of the Holy Land, was not
+without some basis of fact. The connexion lasted during the
+9th century; kings like Alfred of England and Louis of Germany
+sent contributions to Jerusalem, while the Church of Jerusalem
+acquired estates in the West. During the 10th century this
+intercourse still continued; but in the 11th century interruptions
+began to come. The fanaticism of the caliph Hakim destroyed
+the church of the Sepulchre and ended the Frankish protectorate
+(1010); and the patronage of the Holy Places, a source of strife
+between the Greek and the Latin Churches as late as the beginning
+of the Crimean War, passed to the Byzantine empire in
+1021. This latter change in itself made pilgrimages from the
+West increasingly difficult: the Byzantines, especially after
+the schism of 1054, did not seek to smooth the way of the
+pilgrim, and Victor II. had to complain to the empress Theodora
+of the exactions practised by her officials. But still worse for
+the Latins was the capture of Jerusalem by the Seljukian Turks
+in 1071. Without being intolerant, the Turks were a rougher
+and ruder race than the Arabs of Egypt whom they displaced;
+while the wars between the Fatimites of Egypt and the Abbasids
+of Bagdad, whose cause was represented by the Seljuks, made
+Syria (one of the natural battle-grounds of history) into a
+troubled and unquiet region. The native Christians suffered;
+the pilgrims of the West found their way made still more difficult,
+and that at a time when greater numbers than ever were thronging
+to the East. Western Christians could not but feel hampered
+and checked in their natural movement towards the fountain-head
+of their religion, and it was natural that they should
+ultimately endeavour to clear the way. In much the same way,
+at a later date and in a lesser sphere, the closing of the trade-routes
+by the advance of the Ottoman Turks led traders to
+endeavour to find new channels, and issued in the rounding of
+the Cape of Good Hope and the discovery of America. Nor,
+indeed, must it be forgotten that the search for new and more
+direct connexions with the routes of Oriental trade is one of the
+motives underlying the Crusades themselves, and leading to
+what may be called the 13th-century discovery of Asia.</p>
+
+<p>It was thus natural, for these reasons, that the conquest of
+the Holy Land should gradually become an object for the
+ambition of Western Christianity&mdash;an object which the papacy,
+eager to realize its dream of a universal Church subject to its
+sway, would naturally cherish and attempt to advance. Two
+causes combined to make this object still more natural and
+more definite. On the one hand, the reconquest of lost territories
+from the Mahommedans by Christian powers had been proceeding
+steadily for more than a hundred years before the First Crusade;
+on the other hand, the position of the Eastern empire after 1071
+was a clear and definite summons to the Christian West, and
+proved, in the event, the immediate occasion of the holy war.
+As early as 970 the recovery of the territories lost to Mahommedanism
+in the East had been begun by emperors like Nicephoras
+Phocas and John Zimisces: they had pushed their
+conquests, if only for a time, as far as Antioch and Edessa, and
+the temporary occupation of Jerusalem is attributed to the East
+Roman arms. At the opposite end of the Mediterranean, in
+Spain, the Omayyad caliphate was verging to its fall: the long
+Spanish crusade against the Moor had begun; and in 1018
+Roger de Toeni was already leading Normans into Catalonia to
+the aid of the native Spaniard. In the centre of the Mediterranean
+the fight between Christian and Mahommedan had been
+long, but was finally inclining in favour of the Christian. The
+Arabs had begun the conquest of Sicily from the East Roman
+empire in 827, and they had attacked the mainland of Italy as
+early as 840. The popes had put themselves at the head of
+Italian resistance: in 848 Leo IV. is already promising a sure
+and certain hope of salvation to those who die in defence of the
+cross; and by 916, with the capture of the Arab fortress on the
+Garigliano, Italy was safe. Then came the reconquest of the
+Mediterranean islands near Italy. The Pisans conquered
+Sardinia at the instigation of Benedict VIII. about 1016;
+and, in a thirty years&rsquo; war which lasted from 1060 to 1090, the
+Normans, under a banner blessed by Pope Alexander II.,
+wrested Sicily from the Arabs. The Norman conquest of Sicily
+may with justice be called a crusade before the Crusades;
+and it cannot but have given some impulse to that later
+attempt to wrest Syria from the Mahommedans, in which the
+virtual leader was Bohemund, a scion of the same house which
+had conquered Sicily. But while the Christians of the West
+were thus winning fresh ground from the Mahommedans, in
+the course of the 11th century, the East Roman empire had now
+to bear the brunt of a Mahommedan revival under the Seljuks&mdash;a
+revival which, while it crushed for a time the Greeks, only
+acted as a new incentive to the Latins to carry their arms to
+the East. The Seljukian Turks, first the mercenaries and then
+the masters of the caliph, had given new life to the decadent
+caliphate of Bagdad. Under the rule of their sultans, who
+assumed the rôle of mayors of the palace in Bagdad about the
+middle of the 11th century, they pushed westwards towards
+the caliphate of Egypt and the East Roman empire. While
+they wrested Jerusalem from the former (1071), in the same year
+they inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern emperor at
+Manzikert. The result of the defeat was the loss of almost the
+whole of Asia Minor; the dominions of the Turks extended to
+the sea of Marmora. An appeal for assistance, such as was often
+to be heard again in succeeding centuries, was sent by Michael
+VII. of Constantinople to Gregory VII. in 1073. Gregory
+listened to the appeal; he projected&mdash;not, indeed, as has often
+been said, a crusade,<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> but a great expedition, which should recover
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span>
+Asia Minor for the Eastern empire, in return for a union of the
+Eastern with the Western Church. In 1074 Gregory actually
+assembled a considerable army; but his disagreement with
+Robert Guiscard, followed by the outbreak of the war of investitures,
+hindered the realization of his plans, and the only
+result was a precedent and a suggestion for the events of 1095.
+The appeal of Michael VII. was re-echoed by Alexius Comnenus
+himself. Brave and sage as he was, he could hardly cope at one
+and the same time with the hostility of the Normans on the west,
+of the Petchenegs (Patzinaks) on the north, and of the Seljuks
+on the east and south. Already in 1087 and 1088 he had appealed
+to Baldwin of Flanders, verbally and by letter,<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> for troops;
+and Baldwin had answered the appeal. The same appeal was
+made, more than once, to Urban II.; and the answer was the
+First Crusade. The First Crusade was not, indeed, what Alexius
+had asked or expected to receive. He had appealed for reinforcements
+to recover Asia Minor; he received hundreds of
+thousands of troops, independent of him, and intending to
+conquer Jerusalem for themselves, though they might incidentally
+recover Asia Minor for the Eastern empire on their way.
+Alexius may almost be compared to a magician, who has uttered
+a charm to summon a ministering spirit, and is surrounded on the
+instant by legions of demons. In truth the appeal of Alexius
+had set free forces in the West which were independent of, and
+even ultimately hostile to, the interests of the Eastern empire.</p>
+
+<p>The primary force, which thus transmuted an appeal for
+reinforcements into a holy war for the conquest of Palestine,
+was the Church. The creative thought of the middle ages is
+clerical thought. It is the Church which creates the Carolingian
+empire, because the clergy thinks in terms of empire. It is
+the Church which creates the First Crusade, because the clergy
+believes in penitentiary pilgrimages, and the war against the
+Seljuks can be turned into a pilgrimage to the Sepulchre;
+because, again, it wishes to direct the fighting instinct of the
+laity, and the consecrating name of Jerusalem provides an
+unimpeachable channel; above all, because the papacy desires
+a perfect and universal Church, and a perfect and universal
+Church must rule in the Holy Land. But it would be a mistake
+to regard the Crusades (as it would be a mistake to regard the
+Carolingian empire) as a <i>pure</i> creation of the Church, or as <i>merely</i>
+due to the policy of a theocracy directing men to the holy war
+which is the only war possible for a theocracy. It would be
+almost truer, though only half the truth, to say that the clergy
+gave the name of Crusade to sanctify interests and ambitions
+which, while set on other ends than those of the Church, happened
+to coincide in their choice of means. There was, for instance, the
+ambition of the adventurer prince, the younger son, eager to
+carve a principality in the far East, of whom Bohemund is the
+type; there was the interest of Italian towns, anxious to acquire
+the products of the East more directly and cheaply, by erecting
+their own emporia in the eastern Mediterranean. The former
+was the driving force which made the First Crusade successful,
+where later Crusades, without its stimulus, for the most part
+failed; the latter was the one staunch ally which alone enabled
+Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. to create the kingdom of Jerusalem.
+So far as the Crusades led to permanent material results in the
+East, they did so in virtue of these two forces. Unregulated
+enthusiasm might of itself have achieved little or nothing;
+enthusiasm caught and guided by the astute Norman, and the
+no less astute Venetian or Genoese, could not but achieve
+tangible results. The principality or the emporium, it is true,
+would supply motives to the prince and the merchant only;
+and it may be urged that to the mass of the crusaders the religious
+motive was all in all. In this way we may return to the view
+that the First Crusade, at any rate, was <i>un fait ecclésiastique</i>.
+It is indeed true that to thousands the hope of acquiring spiritual
+merit must have been a great motive; it is also true, as the
+records of crusading sermons show, that there was a strong
+element of &ldquo;revivalism&rdquo; in the Crusades, and that thousands were
+hurried into taking the cross by a gust of that uncontrollable
+enthusiasm which is excited by revivalist meetings to-day.
+But it must also be admitted that there were motives of this
+world to attract the masses to the Crusades. Famine and pestilence
+at home drove men to emigrate hopefully to the golden
+East. In 1094 there was pestilence from Flanders to Bohemia:
+in 1095 there was famine in Lorraine. <i>Francigenis occidentalibus
+facile persuaderi poterat sua rura relinquere; nam Gallias per
+annos aliquot nunc seditio civilis, nunc fames, nunc mortalitas
+nimis afflixerat.</i><a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> No wonder that a stream of emigration set
+towards the East, such as would in modern times flow towards
+a newly discovered gold-field&mdash;a stream carrying in its turbid
+waters much refuse, tramps and bankrupts, camp-followers
+and hucksters, fugitive monks and escaped villeins, and marked
+by the same motley grouping, the same fever of life, the same
+alternations of affluence and beggary, which mark the rush for
+a gold-field to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the forces set in movement by Urban II., when,
+after holding a synod at Piacenza (March, 1095), and receiving
+there fresh appeals from Alexius, he moved to Clermont, in the
+S.E. of France, and there on the 26th of November delivered
+the great speech which was followed by the First Crusade. In
+this speech he appealed, indeed, for help for the Greeks, <i>auxilio
+... saepe acclamato indigis</i> (Fulcher i. c. i.); but the gist
+of his speech was the need of Jerusalem. Let the truce of God
+be observed at home; and let the arms of Christians be directed
+to the winning of Jerusalem in an expedition which should
+count for full and complete penance. Like Gregory, Urban had
+thus sought for aid for the Eastern empire; unlike Gregory,
+who had only mentioned the Holy Sepulchre in a single letter,
+and then casually, he had struck the note of Jerusalem. The
+instant cries of <i>Deus vult</i> which answered the note showed that
+Urban had struck aright. Thousands at once took the cross;
+the first was Bishop Adhemar of Puy, whom Urban named his
+legate and made leader of the First Crusade (for the holy war,
+according to Urban&rsquo;s original conception, must needs be led
+by a clerk). Fixing the 15th of August 1096 as the time for
+the departure of the crusaders, and Constantinople as the general
+rendezvous, Urban returned from France to Italy. It is noticeable
+that it was on French soil that the seed had been sown.<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+Preached on French soil by a pope of French descent, the
+Crusades began&mdash;and they continued&mdash;as essentially a French
+(or perhaps better Norman-French) enterprise; and the kingdom
+which they established in the East was essentially a French
+kingdom, in its speech and its customs, its virtues and its vices.
+It was natural that France should be the home of the Crusades.
+She was already the home of the Cluniac movement, the centre
+from which radiated the truce of God, the chosen place of
+chivalry; she could supply a host of feudal nobles, somewhat
+loosely tied to their place in society, and ready to break loose
+for a great enterprise; she had suffered from battle and murder,
+pestilence and famine, from which any escape was welcome.
+To the Normans particularly the Crusades had an intimate
+appeal. They appealed to the old Norse instinct for wandering&mdash;an
+instinct which, as it had long before sent the Norseman
+eastward to find his El Dorado of Micklegarth, could now find
+a natural outlet in the expedition to Jerusalem: they appealed
+to the Norman religiosity, which had made them a people of
+pilgrims, the allies of the papacy, and, in England and Sicily,
+crusaders before the Crusades: finally, they appealed to that
+desire to gain fresh territory, upon which Malaterra remarks
+as characteristic of Norman princes.<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> No wonder, then, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span>
+the crusading armies were recruited in France, or that they
+were led by men of the stock of the d&rsquo;Hautevilles. Meanwhile
+newly-conquered England had its own problems to solve; and
+Germany, torn by civil war, and not naturally quick to kindle,
+could only deride the &ldquo;delirium&rdquo; of the crusader.<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Course of the First Crusade.</i>&mdash;The First Crusade falls naturally
+into two parts. One of these may be called the Crusade of
+the people: the other may be termed the Crusade of the princes.
+Of these the people&rsquo;s Crusade&mdash;prior in order of time, if only
+secondary in point of importance&mdash;may naturally be studied
+first. The sermon of Urban II. at Clermont became the staple
+for wandering preachers, among whom Peter the Hermit distinguished
+himself by his fiery zeal.<a name="fa8m" id="fa8m" href="#ft8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Riding on an ass from
+place to place through France and along the Rhine, he carried
+away by his eloquence thousands of the poor. Some three or
+four months before the term fixed by Urban II., in April and
+May 1096, five divisions of <i>pauperes</i> had already collected.
+Three of these, led by Fulcher of Orleans, Gottschalk and
+William the Carpenter respectively, failed to reach even Constantinople.
+The armies of Fulcher and Gottschalk were
+destroyed by the Hungarians in just revenge for their excesses
+(June); the third, after joining in a wild <i>Judenhetze</i> in the towns
+of the valley of the Rhine, during which some 10,000 Jews
+perished as the first-fruits of crusading zeal, was scattered to
+the winds in Hungary (August). Two other divisions, however,
+reached Constantinople in safety. The first of these, under
+Walter the Penniless, passed through Hungary in May, and
+reached Constantinople, where it halted to wait for the Hermit,
+in the middle of July. The second, led by Peter himself, passed
+safely through Hungary, but suffered severely in Bulgaria, and
+only attained Constantinople with sadly diminished numbers
+at the end of July. These two divisions (which in spite of good
+treatment by Alexius began to commit excesses against the
+Greeks) united and crossed the Bosporus in August, Peter
+himself remaining in Constantinople. By the end of October
+they had perished utterly at the hands of the Seljuks; a heap
+of whitening bones also remained to testify to the later crusaders,
+when they passed in the spring of 1097, of the fate of the people&rsquo;s
+Crusade.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the knights had already begun to assemble in
+March 1096. In small bands, and by divers ways, they streamed
+gradually southward and eastward, in a steady flow, throughout
+1096. But three large divisions, under three considerable
+leaders, were pre-eminent among the rest. Godfrey of Bouillon,
+with his brother Baldwin, led the crusaders of Lorraine along
+&ldquo;the road of Charles the Great,&rdquo; through Hungary, to Constantinople,
+where he arrived on the 23rd of December.
+Raymund of Toulouse (the first prince to join the crusading
+movement) along with Bishop Adhemar, the papal commissary,
+led the Provençals down the coast of Illyria, and then due east
+to Constantinople, arriving towards the end of April 1097.
+Bohemund of Otranto, the destined leader of the Crusade, with
+his nephew Tancred, led a fine force of Normans by sea to
+Durazzo, and thence by land to Constantinople, which he reached
+about the same time as Raymund. To the same great rendezvous
+other leaders also gathered, some of higher rank than Godfrey
+or Raymund or Bohemund, but none destined to exercise an
+equal influence on the fate of the Crusade. Hugh of Vermandois,
+younger brother of Philip I. of France, had reached Constantinople
+in November 1096, in a species of honourable captivity,
+and had done Alexius homage; Robert of Normandy and
+Stephen of Blois, to whom Urban II. had given St Peter&rsquo;s banner
+at Lucca, only arrived&mdash;the last of the crusaders&mdash;in May 1097
+(their original companion in arms, Count Robert of Flanders,
+having left them to winter at Bari, and crossed to Constantinople
+before the end of 1096).</p>
+
+<p>Thus was gathered at Constantinople, in the spring of
+1097, a great host, which Fulcher computes at 600,000 men
+(I. c. iv.), Urban II. at 300,000, and which was probably some
+150,000 strong.<a name="fa9m" id="fa9m" href="#ft9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Before we follow this host into Asia, we may
+pause to inquire into the various factors which would determine
+its course, or condition its activity. On the Western side,
+and among the crusaders themselves, there were two factors
+of importance, already mentioned above&mdash;the aims of the
+adventurer prince, and the interests of the Italian merchant;
+while on the Eastern side there are again two&mdash;the policy of
+the Greeks, and the condition of the Mahommedan East. We
+have already seen that among the princes who joined the First
+Crusade there were some who were rather <i>politiques</i> than <i>dévots</i>,
+and who aimed at the acquisition of temporal profit as well as
+of spiritual merit. Of these the type&mdash;and, it may almost be
+said, the inspirer of the rest&mdash;was Bohemund. From the first
+he had an Eastern principality in his mind&rsquo;s eye; and if we
+may judge from the follower of Bohemund who wrote the <i>Gesta
+Francorum</i>, there had already been some talk at Constantinople
+of Antioch as the seat of this principality. Bohemund&rsquo;s policy
+seems to have inspired Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey of
+Bouillon to emulation; on the one hand he strove to thwart
+the endeavours of Tancred, the nephew of Bohemund, to begin
+the foundation of the Eastern principality for his uncle by
+conquering Cilicia, and, on the other, he founded a principality
+for himself in Edessa. Raymond of Provence, the third and
+last of the great <i>politiques</i> of the First Crusade, was, like Baldwin,
+envious of Bohemund; and jealousy drove him first to attempt
+to wrest Antioch from Bohemund, and then to found a principality
+of Tripoli to the south of Antioch, which would check
+the growth of his power. The political motives of these three
+princes, and the interaction of their different policies, was thus
+a great factor in determining the course and the results of the
+First Crusade. The influence of the Italian towns did not make
+itself greatly felt till after the end of the First Crusade, when it
+made possible the foundation of a kingdom in Jerusalem, in
+addition to the three principalities established by Bohemund,
+Baldwin and Raymond; but during the course of the Crusade
+itself the Italian ships which hugged the shores of Syria were able
+to supply the crusaders with provisions and munition of war,
+and to render help in the sieges of Antioch and Jerusalem.<a name="fa10m" id="fa10m" href="#ft10m"><span class="sp">10</span></a>
+Sea-power had thus some influence in determining the victory
+of the crusaders.</p>
+
+<p>In the East the conditions were, on the whole, favourable
+to the crusaders. The one difficulty&mdash;and it was serious&mdash;was
+the attitude adopted by Alexius. Confronted by crusaders
+where he had asked for auxiliaries, Alexius had two alternative
+policies presented to his choice. He might, in the first place,
+have frankly admitted that the crusaders were independent
+allies, and treating them as equals, he might have waged war
+in concert with them, and divided the conquests achieved in the
+war. A boundary line might have been drawn somewhere to
+the N.W. of Antioch; and the crusaders might have been left
+to acquire what they could to the south and east of that line.
+Unhappily, clinging to the conviction that all the lands which
+the crusaders would traverse were the &ldquo;lost provinces&rdquo; of his
+empire, he induced the crusaders to do him homage, so that,
+whatever they conquered, they would conquer in his name,
+and whatever they held, they would hold by his grant and as his
+vassals. Thus Hugh of Vermandois became the man of Alexius
+in November 1096; Godfrey of Bouillon was induced, not without
+difficulty, to do homage in January 1097; and in April and
+May the other leaders, including Bohemund and the obstinate
+Raymond himself, followed his example. The policy of Alexius
+was destined to produce evil results, both for the Eastern empire
+and for the crusading movement. The West had already its
+grievances against the East: the Greek emperors had taken
+advantage of their protectorate of the Holy Places to lay charges
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span>
+on the pilgrims, against which the Papacy had already been
+forced to remonstrate; nor were the Italian towns, with the
+exception of favoured Venice, disposed to be friendly to the
+great monopolist city of Constantinople. The old dissension
+of the Eastern and Western Churches had blazed out afresh in
+1054; and the policy of Alexius only added new rancours to
+an old grudge, which culminated in the Latin conquest of
+Constantinople in 1204. On the other hand, the success of the
+crusading movement was imperilled, both now and afterwards,
+by the jealousy of the Comneni. Always hostile to the principality,
+which Bohemund established in spite of his oath, they
+helped by their hostility to cause the loss of Edessa in 1144, and
+thus to hasten the disintegration of the Latin kingdom of
+Jerusalem. Yet one must remember, in justice to Alexius,
+the gravity of the problem by which he was confronted; nor
+was the conduct of the crusaders themselves such that he could
+readily make them his brethren in arms.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of Asia Minor and Syria in 1097 was almost
+altogether such as to favour the success of the crusaders. The
+Seljukian sultans had only achieved a military occupation of
+the country which they had conquered. There were Seljukian
+garrisons in towns like Nicaea and Antioch, ready to offer an
+obstinate resistance to the crusaders; and here and there in the
+country there were Seljukian armies, either cantoned or nomadic.
+But the inhabitants of the towns were often hostile to the
+garrisons, and over wide tracts of country there were no forces
+at all. Accordingly, when the crusaders had captured the town
+at Nicaea, and defeated the Seljukian field-army at Dorylaeum
+their way lay clear before them through Asia Minor. Not only
+so, but they could count, at the very least, on a benevolent
+neutrality from the native population; while from the Armenian
+principalities in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which survived unsubdued
+in the general deluge of Seljukian conquest, they could expect
+active assistance (the hope of which will explain the north-easterly
+line of march which they followed after leaving Heraclea).
+But the purely military character of the Seljukian occupation
+helped the crusaders in yet another way. Strong generals were
+needed in the separate divisions of the empire, and these, as
+has always been the case in Eastern empires, made themselves
+independent in their spheres of command, because there was
+no organization to keep them together under a single control.
+On the death of Malik Shah, the last of the great Seljukian
+emperors (1092), the empire dissolved. A new sultan, Barkiy&#257;roq
+or Barkiarok, ruled in Bagdad (1094-1104); but in Asia
+Minor Kilij Arslan held sway as the independent sultan of Konia
+(Iconium), while the whole of Syria was also practically independent.
+Not only was Syria thus weakened by being detached
+from the body of the Seljukian empire; it was divided by
+dissensions within, and assailed by the Fatimite caliph of Egypt
+from without. In 1095 two brothers, Ridwan and Dekak, ruled
+in Aleppo and Damascus respectively; but they were at war
+with one another, and Yagi-sian, the ruler of Antioch, was a
+party to their dissensions. Ridwan and Yagi-sian were only
+stopped in an attack on Damascus by news of the approach
+of the crusaders, which led the latter to throw himself hastily
+into Antioch, in the autumn of 1097. Meanwhile the Fatimites
+were not slow to take advantage of these dissensions. A great
+religious difference divided the Fatimite caliph of Cairo, the
+head of the Shiite sect, from the Abbasid caliph of Bagdad,
+who was the head of the Sunnites. The difference may be
+compared to the dissension between the Greek and the Latin
+Churches; but it had perhaps more of the nature of a political
+difference. In any case, it hampered the Mahommedans as
+much as the jealousy between Alexius and the Latins hampered
+the progress of the Crusade. The crusading princes were well
+enough aware of the gulf which divided the caliph of Cairo from
+the Sunnite princes of Syria; and they sought by envoys to
+put themselves into connexion with him, hoping by his aid to
+gain Jerusalem (which was then ruled for the Turks by Sokman,
+the son of the amir Ortok).<a name="fa11m" id="fa11m" href="#ft11m"><span class="sp">11</span></a> But the caliph preferred to act for
+himself, and took advantage of the wars of the Syrian princes,
+and of the terror inspired by the advance of the crusaders to
+conquer Jerusalem (August 1098). But though the leaders of
+the First Crusade did not succeed in utilizing the dissensions
+of the Mahommedans as fully as they desired, it still remains
+true that these dissensions very largely explain their success.
+It was the disunion of the Syrian amirs, and the division between
+the Abbasids and the Fatimites, that made possible the conquest
+of the Holy City and the foundation of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
+When a power arose in Mosul, about 1130, which was able to
+unify Syria&mdash;when, again, in the hands of Saladin, unified Syria
+was in turn united to Egypt&mdash;the cause of Latin Christianity
+in the East was doomed.</p>
+
+<p>We are now in a position to follow the history of the First
+Crusade. By the beginning of May 1097 the crusaders were
+crossing the Bosporus, and entering the dominions of Kilij
+Arslan. Their first operation was the siege of Nicaea, defended
+by a Seljuk garrison, but eventually captured, with the aid of
+Alexius, after a month&rsquo;s siege (June 18). Alexius took possession
+of the town; and though he rewarded the crusading princes
+richly, some discontent was excited by his action. After the
+capture of Nicaea, the field-army of Kilij Arslan had to be met.
+In a long and obstinate encounter, it was defeated at Dorylaeum
+(July 1); and the crusaders marched unmolested in a south-easterly
+direction to Heraclea. Here Tancred, followed by
+Baldwin, turned into Cilicia, and began to take possession of the
+Cilician towns, and especially of Tarsus&mdash;thus beginning, it
+would seem, the creation of the Norman principality of Antioch.
+The main army turned to the N.E., in the direction of Caesarea
+(in order to bring itself into touch with the Armenian princes
+of this district), and then marched southward again to Antioch.
+At Marash, half way between Caesarea and Antioch, Baldwin,
+who had meanwhile wrested Tarsus from Tancred, rejoined the
+ranks; but he soon left the main body again, and struck eastward
+towards Edessa, to found a principality there. At the end
+of October the crusaders came into position before Antioch,
+which was held by Yagi-sian, and began the siege of the city,
+which lasted from October 21, 1097, to June 3, 1098. The
+great figure in the siege was naturally Bohemund (who had also
+been the hero of Dorylaeum). He repelled attempts at relief
+made by Dekak (Dec. 31, 1097) and Ridwan (Feb. 9, 1098);
+he put the besiegers in touch with the Genoese ships lying in the
+harbour of St Simeon, the port of Antioch (March 1098)&mdash;a
+move which at once served to remedy the want of provisions
+from which the crusaders suffered, and secured materials for
+the building of castles, with which Bohemund sought&mdash;in the
+Norman fashion&mdash;to overawe the besieged city. But it was
+finally by the treachery of one of Yagi-sian&rsquo;s commanders,
+the amir Firuz, that Bohemund was able to effect its capture.
+The other leaders had, however, to promise him possession of the
+city, before he would bring his negotiations with Firuz to a
+conclusion; and the matter was so long protracted that an army
+of relief under Kerbogha of Mosul was only at a distance of three
+days&rsquo; march, when the city was taken (June 3, 1098). The
+besiegers were no sooner in the city, than they were besieged
+in their turn by Kerbogha; and the twenty-five days which
+followed were the worst period of stress and strain which the
+crusaders had to encounter. Under the pressure of this strain
+&ldquo;spiritualistic&rdquo; phenomena began to appear. It was in the
+ranks of the Provençals, where the religiosity of Count Raymund
+seems to have extended to his followers, that these phenomena
+appeared; and they culminated in the discovery of the Holy
+Lance, which had pierced the side of the Saviour. The excitement
+communicated itself to the whole army; and the nervous
+strength which it gave enabled the crusaders to meet and defeat
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span>
+Kerbogha in the open (June 28), but not before many of their
+number, including even Count Stephen of Blois, had deserted
+and fled.</p>
+
+<p>With the discovery of the Lance, which became as it were a
+Provençal asset, Count Raymund assumes a new importance.
+Mingled with the religiosity of his nature there was much
+obstinacy and self-seeking; and when Kerbogha was finally
+repelled, he began to dispute the possession of Antioch with
+Bohemund, pleading in excuse his oath to Alexius. The struggle
+lasted for some months, and helped to delay the further progress
+of the crusaders. Raymund, indeed, left Antioch in November,
+and moved S.E. to Marra; but his men still held two positions
+in Antioch, from which they were not dislodged by Bohemund
+till January 1099. Expelled from Antioch, the obstinate
+Raymund endeavoured to recompense himself in the south
+(where indeed he subsequently created the county of Tripoli);
+and from February to May 1099 he occupied himself with the
+siege of Arca, to the N.E. of Tripoli. It was during the siege of
+Arca that Peter Bartholomew, to whom the vision of the Holy
+Lance had first appeared, was subjected, with no definite result,
+to the ordeal of fire&mdash;the hard-headed Normans doubting the
+genuine character of any Provençal vision, the more when, as
+in this case, it turned to the political advantage of the Provençals.
+The siege was long protracted; the mass of the pilgrims were
+anxious to proceed to Jerusalem, and, as the altered tone of the
+author of the <i>Gesta</i> sufficiently indicates, thoroughly weary of
+the obstinate political bickerings of Raymund and Bohemund.
+Here Godfrey of Bouillon finally came to the front, and placing
+himself at the head of the discontented pilgrims, he forced
+Raymund to accept the offers of the amir of Tripoli, to desist
+from the siege, and to march to Jerusalem (in the middle
+of May 1099). Bohemund remained in Antioch: the other
+leaders pressed forward, and following the coast route,
+arrived before Jerusalem in the beginning of June. After a
+little more than a month&rsquo;s siege, the city was finally captured
+(July 15). The slaughter was terrible; the blood of the
+conquered ran down the streets, until men splashed in blood
+as they rode. At nightfall, &ldquo;sobbing for excess of joy,&rdquo; the
+crusaders came to the Sepulchre from their treading of the
+winepress, and put their blood-stained hands together in
+prayer. So, on that day of July, the First Crusade came
+to an end.</p>
+
+<p>It remained to determine the future government of Jerusalem;
+and here the eternal problem of the relations of Church and
+State emerged. It might seem natural that the Holy City,
+conquered in a holy war by an army of which the pope had
+made a churchman, Bishop Adhemar, the leader, should be left
+to the government of the Church. But Adhemar had died in
+August 1098 (whence, in large part, the confusion and bickerings
+which followed in the end of 1098 and the beginning of 1099);
+nor were there any churchmen left of sufficient dignity or weight
+to secure the triumph of the ecclesiastical cause. In the meeting
+of the crusaders on the 22nd of July, some few voices were raised
+in support of the view that a &ldquo;spiritual vicar&rdquo; should first be
+chosen in the place of the late patriarch of Jerusalem (who had
+just died in Cyprus), before the election of any lay ruler was
+taken in hand. But the voices were not heard; and the princes
+proceeded at once to elect a lay ruler. Raymund of Provence
+refused to accept their nomination, nominally on the pious
+ground that he did not wish to reign where Christ had suffered
+on the cross; though one may suspect that the establishment
+of a principality in Tripoli&mdash;in which he had been interrupted
+by the pressure of the pilgrims&mdash;was still the first object of his
+ambition. The refusal of Raymund meant the choice of Godfrey
+of Bouillon, who had, as we have seen, become prominent since
+the siege of Arca; and Godfrey accordingly became&mdash;not king,
+but &ldquo;advocate of the Holy Sepulchre,&rdquo; while a few days afterwards
+Arnulf, the chaplain of Robert of Normandy, and one of
+the sceptics in the matter of the Holy Lance, became &ldquo;vicar&rdquo;
+of the vacant patriarchate. Godfrey&rsquo;s first business was to repel
+an Egyptian attack, which he accomplished successfully at
+Ascalon, with the aid of the other crusaders (August 12). At
+the end of August the other crusaders returned,<a name="fa12m" id="fa12m" href="#ft12m"><span class="sp">12</span></a> and Godfrey
+was left with a small army of 2000 men, and the support of
+Tancred, now prince of Galilee, to rule in some four isolated
+districts&mdash;Jaffa, Jerusalem, Ramlah and Haifa. At the end of
+the year came Bohemund and Godfrey&rsquo;s brother Baldwin (now
+count of Edessa) on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The result of
+Bohemund&rsquo;s visit was new trouble for Godfrey. Bohemund
+procured the election of Dagobert, the archbishop of Pisa, to
+the vacant patriarchate, disliking Arnulf, and perhaps hoping
+to find in the new patriarch a political supporter. Bohemund
+and Godfrey together became Dagobert&rsquo;s vassals; and in the
+spring Godfrey even seems to have entered into an agreement
+with the patriarch to cede Jerusalem and Jaffa into his hands,
+in the event of acquiring other lands or towns, especially Cairo,
+or dying without direct heirs. When Godfrey died in July 1100
+(after successful forays against the Mahommedans which took
+him as far as Damascus), it might seem as if a theocracy were
+after all to be established in Jerusalem, in spite of the events
+of 1099.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem under the First Three
+Kings</i>,<a name="fa13m" id="fa13m" href="#ft13m"><span class="sp">13</span></a> <i>1100-1143.</i>&mdash;The theocracy, however, was not destined
+to be established. Godfrey had died without direct heirs;
+but in far Edessa there was his brother Baldwin, ready to take
+his place. Dagobert had at first consented to the dying Godfrey&rsquo;s
+wish that Baldwin should be his successor; but when Godfrey
+died he saw an opportunity too precious to be missed, and
+opposed Baldwin, counting on the support of Bohemund, to
+whom he sent an appeal for assistance.<a name="fa14m" id="fa14m" href="#ft14m"><span class="sp">14</span></a> But a party in
+Jerusalem, headed by the late &ldquo;vicar&rdquo; Arnulf, opposed itself
+to the hierarchical pretensions of Dagobert and the Norman
+influence by which they were backed; and this party, representing
+the Lotharingian laity, carried the day. Baldwin was
+summoned from Edessa; and when he arrived, towards the end
+of the year, he was crowned king by Dagobert himself. Thus
+was founded, on Christmas day 1100, the Latin kingdom of
+Jerusalem; and thus was the possibility of a theocracy finally
+annihilated. A feudal kingdom of Frankish seigneurs was to be
+planted on the soil of Palestine, instead of a <i>dominium temporale</i>
+of the patriarch like that of the pope in central Italy. Nor were
+any great difficulties with the Church to hamper the growth of
+this kingdom. For two years, indeed, a struggle raged between
+Baldwin I. and Dagobert: Baldwin accused the patriarch of
+treachery, and attempted to force him to contribute to the defence
+of the kingdom. But in 1102 the struggle ceased with the
+deposition of the patriarch and the victory of the king; and
+though it was renewed for a time by the patriarch Stephen in
+the reign of Baldwin II. (1128-1130), the new struggle was of
+short duration, and was soon ended by Stephen&rsquo;s death.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of a kingdom in Jerusalem in 1100 was
+a blow, not only to the Church but to the Normans of Antioch.
+At the end of 1099 any contemporary observer must have
+believed that the capital of Latin Christianity in the East was
+destined to be Antioch. Antioch lay in one of the most fertile
+regions of the East; Bohemund was almost, if not quite, the
+greatest genius of his generation; and when he visited Jerusalem
+at the end of 1099, he led an army of 25,000 men&mdash;and those
+men, at any rate in large part, Normans. What could Godfrey
+avail against such a force? Yet the principality of Godfrey
+was destined to higher things than that of Bohemund.
+Jerusalem, like Rome, had the shadow of a mighty name to
+lend prestige to its ruler; and as residence in Rome was one
+great reason of the strength of the medieval papacy, so was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span>
+residence in Jerusalem a reason for the ultimate supremacy of
+the Lotharingian kings. Jerusalem attracted the flow of pilgrims
+from the West as Antioch never could; and though the great
+majority of the pilgrims were only birds of passage, there were
+always many who stayed in the East. There was thus a steady
+immigration into the kingdom, to strengthen its armies and
+recruit with new blood the vigour of its inhabitants. Still more
+important perhaps was the fact that the ports of the kingdom
+attracted the Italian towns; and it was therefore to the kingdom
+that they lent the strength of their armies and the skill of their
+siege-artillery&mdash;in return, it is true, for concessions of privileges
+so considerable as to weaken the resources of the kingdom
+they helped to create. While Jerusalem possessed these advantages,
+Antioch was not without its defects. It had to meet&mdash;or
+perhaps it would be more true to say, it brought upon itself&mdash;the
+hostility of strong Mahommedan powers in the vicinity.
+As early as 1100 Bohemund was captured in battle by Danishmend
+of Sivas; and it was his captivity, depriving the patriarch
+as it did of Norman assistance, which allowed the uncontested
+accession of Baldwin I. Again, in 1104, the Normans, while
+attempting to capture Harran, were badly defeated on the river
+Balikh, near Rakka; and this defeat may be said to have been
+fatal to the chance of a great Norman principality.<a name="fa15m" id="fa15m" href="#ft15m"><span class="sp">15</span></a> But the
+hostility of Alexius, aided and abetted by the jealousy of Raymund
+of Toulouse, was almost equally fatal. Alexius claimed
+Antioch; was it not the old possession of his empire, and had
+not Bohemund done him homage? Raymund was ready to
+defend the claims of Alexius; was not Bohemund a successful
+rival? Thus it came about that Alexius and Raymund became
+allies; and by the aid of Alexius Raymund established, from
+1102 onwards, the principality which, with the capture of
+Tripoli in 1109, became the principality of Tripoli, and barred
+the advance of Antioch to the south. Meanwhile the armies of
+Alexius not only prevented any farther advance to the N.W., but
+conquered the Cilician towns (1104). No wonder that Bohemund
+flung himself in revenge on the Eastern empire in 1108&mdash;only,
+however, to meet with a humiliating defeat at Durazzo.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it was that Baldwin waxed while Bohemund waned. The
+growth of Baldwin&rsquo;s kingdom, as it was suggested above, owed
+more to the interests of Italian traders than it did to crusading
+zeal. In 1100, indeed, it might appear that a new Crusade from
+the West, which the capture of Antioch in 1098 had begun, and
+the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 had finally set in motion, was
+destined to achieve great things for the nascent kingdom.
+Thousands had joined this new Crusade, which should deal the
+final blow to Mahommedanism: among the rest came the first
+of the troubadours, William IX., Count of Poitiers, to gather
+copy for his muse, and even some, like Stephen of Blois and
+Hugh of Vermandois, who had joined the First Crusade, but
+had failed to reach Jerusalem. The new crusaders cherished
+high plans; they would free Bohemund and capture Bagdad.
+But each of the three sections of their army was routed in turn
+in Asia Minor by the princes of Sivas, Aleppo and Harran, in the
+middle of 1101; and only a few escaped to report the crushing
+disaster. Baldwin I. had thus no assistance to expect from
+the West, save that of the Italian towns. From an early
+date Italian ships had followed the crusaders. There were
+Genoese ships in St Simeon&rsquo;s harbour in the spring of 1098
+and at Jaffa in 1099; in 1099 Dagobert, the archbishop of Pisa,
+led a fleet from his city to the Holy Land; and in 1100 there
+came to Jaffa a Venetian fleet of 200 sail, whose leaders promised
+Venetian assistance in return for freedom from tolls and a third of
+each town they helped to conquer. But it was the Genoese who
+helped Baldwin I. most. The Venetians already enjoyed, since
+1080, a favoured position in Constantinople, and had the less
+reason to find a new emporium in the East; while Pisa connected
+itself, through Dagobert, with Antioch<a name="fa16m" id="fa16m" href="#ft16m"><span class="sp">16</span></a> rather than with
+Jerusalem, and was further, in 1111, invested by Alexius with
+privileges, which made an outlet in the Holy Land no longer
+necessary. But the Genoese, who had helped with provisions
+and siege-tackle in the capture of Antioch and of Jerusalem,
+had both a stronger claim on the crusaders, and a greater interest
+in acquiring an eastern emporium. An alliance was accordingly
+struck in 1101 (Fulcher II. c. vii.), by which the Genoese
+promised their assistance, in return for a third of all booty,
+a quarter in each town captured, and a grant of freedom from
+tolls. In this way Baldwin I. was able to take Arsuf and Caesarea
+in 1101 and Acre in 1104. But Genoese aid was given to others
+beside Baldwin (it enabled Raymund to capture Byblus in 1104,
+and his successor, William, to win Tripoli in 1109); while, on
+the other hand, Baldwin enjoyed other aid besides that of the
+Genoese. In 1110, for example, he was enabled to capture
+Sidon by the aid of Sigurd of Norway, the Jorsalafari, who came
+to the Holy Land with a fleet of 55 ships, starting in 1107, and
+in a three years&rsquo; &ldquo;wandering,&rdquo; after the old Norse fashion,
+fighting the Moors in Spain, and fraternizing with the Normans
+in Sicily. At a later date, in the reign of Baldwin II., Venice also
+gave her aid to the kings of Jerusalem. Irritated by the concessions
+made by Alexius to the Pisans in 1111, and furious at
+the revocation of her own privileges by John Comnenus in 1118,
+the republic naturally sought a new outlet in the Holy Land.
+A Venetian fleet of 120 sail came in 1123, and after aiding in the
+repulse of an attack, which the Egyptians had taken advantage
+of Baldwin II.&rsquo;s captivity to deliver, they helped the regent
+Eustace to capture Tyre (1124), in return for considerable
+privileges&mdash;freedom from toils throughout the kingdom, a
+quarter in Jerusalem, baths and ovens in Acre, and in Tyre one-third
+of the city and its suburbs, with their own court of justice
+and their own church. After thus gaining a new footing in Tyre,
+the Venetians could afford to attack the islands of the Aegean
+as they returned, in revenge for the loss of their privileges in
+Constantinople; but the hostility between Venice and the
+Eastern empire was soon afterwards appeased, when John
+Comnenus restored the old privileges of the Venetians. The
+Venetians, however, maintained their position in Palestine;
+and their quarters remained, along with those of the Genoese,
+as privileged commercial franchises in an otherwise feudal state.</p>
+
+<p>In this way the kingdom of Jerusalem expanded until it came
+to embrace a territory stretching along the coast from Beirut
+(captured in 1110<a name="fa17m" id="fa17m" href="#ft17m"><span class="sp">17</span></a>) to el-Arish on the confines of Egypt&mdash;a
+territory whose strength lay not in Judaea, like the ancient
+kingdom of David, but, somewhat paradoxically (though
+commercial motives explain the paradox), in Phoenicia and the
+land of the Philistines. With all its length, the territory had
+but little breadth: towards the north it was bounded by the
+amirate of Damascus; in the centre, it spread little, if at all,
+beyond the Jordan; and it was only in the south that it had
+any real extension. Here there were two considerable annexes.
+To the south of the Dead Sea stretched a tongue of land, reaching
+to Aila, at the head of the eastern arm of the Red Sea. This had
+been won by Baldwin I., by way of revenge for the attacks of
+the Egyptians on his kingdom; and here, as early as 1116, he
+had built the fort of Monreal, half way between Aila and the
+Dead Sea. To the east of the Dead Sea, again, lay a second
+strip of territory, in which the great fortress was Krak (Kerak)
+of the Desert, planted somewhere about 1140 by the royal butler,
+Paganus, in the reign of Fulk of Jerusalem. These extensions
+in the south and east had also, it is easy to see, a commercial
+motive. They gave the kingdom a connexion of its own with
+the Red Sea and its shipping; and they enabled the Franks to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span>
+control the routes of the caravans, especially the route from
+Damascus to Egypt and the Red Sea. Thus, it would appear,
+the whole of the expansion of the Latin kingdom (which may be
+said to have attained its height in 1131, at the death of
+Baldwin II.) may be shown to have been dictated, at any rate
+in large part, by economic motives; and thus, too, it would
+seem that two of the most powerful motives which sway the
+mind of man&mdash;the religious motive and the desire for gain&mdash;conspired
+to elevate the kingdom of Jerusalem (at once the
+country of Christ, and a natural centre of trade) to a position of
+supremacy in Latin Syria. During this process of growth the
+kingdom stood in relation to two sects of powers&mdash;the three
+Frankish principalities in northern Syria, and the Mahommedan
+powers both of the Euphrates and the Nile&mdash;whose action
+affected its growth and character.</p>
+
+<p>Of the three Frankish principalities, Edessa, founded in 1098
+by Baldwin I. himself, was a natural fief of Jerusalem. Baldwin
+de Burgh, the future Baldwin II., ruled in Edessa as the vassal
+of Baldwin I. from 1100 to 1118; and thereafter the county
+was held in succession by the two Joscelins of Tell-bashir until
+the conquest of Edessa by Zengi in 1144. Lying to the east of
+the Euphrates, at once in close contact with the Armenians, and
+in near proximity to the great route of trade which came up the
+Euphrates to Rakka, and thence diverged to Antioch and
+Damascus, the county of Edessa had an eventful if brief life.
+The county of Tripoli, the second of these principalities, had
+also come under the aegis of Jerusalem at an early date.
+Founded by Raymund of Toulouse, between 1102 and 1105, with
+the favour of Alexius and the alliance of the Genoese, it did not
+acquire its capital of Tripoli till 1109. Even before the conquest
+of Tripoli, there had been dissensions between William, the
+nephew and successor of Raymund, and Bertrand, Raymund&rsquo;s
+eldest son, which it had needed the interference of Baldwin I.
+to compose; and it was only by the aid of the king that the
+town of Tripoli had been taken. At an early date therefore
+the county of Tripoli had already come under the influence of
+the kingdom. Meanwhile the principality of Antioch, ruled by
+Tancred, after the departure of Bohemund (1104-1112), and
+then by Roger his kinsman (1112-1119), was, during the reign
+of Baldwin I., busily engaged in disputes both with its Christian
+neighbours at Edessa and Tripoli, and with the Mahommedan
+princes of Mardin and Mosul. On the death of Roger in 1119,
+the principality came under the regency of Baldwin II. of
+Jerusalem, until 1126, when Bohemund II. came of age. Bohemund
+had married a daughter of Baldwin; and on his death in
+1130 Baldwin II. had once more become the guardian of Antioch.
+From his reign therefore Antioch may be regarded as a dependency
+of Jerusalem; and thus the end of Baldwin&rsquo;s reign (1131) may
+be said to mark the time when the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem
+stands complete, with its own boundaries stretching from Beirut
+in the north to el-Arish and Aila in the south, and with the
+three Frankish powers of the north admitting its suzerainty.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin power thus established and organized in the East
+had to face in the north a number of Mahommedan amirs, in the
+south the caliph of Egypt. The disunion between the Mahommedans
+of northern Syria and the Fatimites of Egypt, and the
+political disintegration of the former, were both favourable
+to the success of the Franks; but they had nevertheless to
+maintain their ground vigorously both in the north and the south
+against almost incessant attacks. The hostility of the decadent
+caliphate of Cairo was the less dangerous; and though Baldwin I.
+had at the beginning of his reign to meet annual attacks from
+Egypt, by the end he had pushed his power to the Red Sea, and
+in the very year of his death (1118) he had penetrated along the
+north coast of Egypt as far as Farama (Pelusium). The plan of
+conquering Egypt had indeed presented itself to the Franks
+from the first, as it continued to attract them to the end; and
+it is significant that Godfrey himself, in 1100, promised Jerusalem
+to the patriarch, &ldquo;as soon as he should have conquered some
+other great city, and especially Cairo.&rdquo; But the real menace to
+the Latin kingdom lay in northern Syria; and here a power
+was eventually destined to rise, which outstripped the kings of
+Jerusalem in the race for Cairo, and then&mdash;with the northern and
+southern boundaries of Jerusalem in its control&mdash;was able to
+crush the kingdom as it were between the two arms of a vice.
+Until 1127, however, the Mahommedans of northern Syria were
+disunited among themselves. The beginning of the 12th century
+was the age of the atabegs (regents or stadtholders). The
+atabegs formed a number of dynasties, which displaced the
+descendants of the Seljukian amirs in their various principalities.
+These dynasties were founded by emancipated mamelukes,
+who had held high office at court and in camp under powerful
+amirs, and who, on their death, first became stadtholders for
+their descendants, and then usurped the throne of their masters.
+There was an atabeg dynasty in Damascus founded by Tughtigin
+(1103-1128): there was another to the N.E., that of the Ortokids,
+represented by Sokman, who established himself at Kaifa in
+Diarbekr about 1101, and by his brother Ilghazi, who received
+Mardin from Sokman about 1108, and added to it Aleppo in 1117.<a name="fa18m" id="fa18m" href="#ft18m"><span class="sp">18</span></a>
+But the greatest of the atabegs were those of Mosul on the Tigris&mdash;Maudud,
+who died in 1113; Aksunkur, his successor; and
+finally, greatest of all, Zengi himself, who ruled in Mosul from
+1127 onwards.</p>
+
+<p>Before the accession of Zengi, there had been constant fighting,
+which had led, however, to no definite result, between the
+various Mahommedan princes and the Franks of northern Syria.
+The constant pressure of Tancred of Antioch and Baldwin de
+Burgh of Edessa led to a series of retaliations between 1110 and
+1115; Edessa was attacked in 1110, 1111, 1112 and 1114; and
+in 1113 Maudud of Mosul had even penetrated as far as the
+vicinity of Acre and Jerusalem.<a name="fa19m" id="fa19m" href="#ft19m"><span class="sp">19</span></a> But the dissensions of the
+Mahommedans made their attacks unavailing; in 1115, for
+instance, we find Antioch actually aided by Ilghazi and Tughtigin
+against Aksunkur of Mosul. Again, in the reign of Baldwin II.,
+there was steady fighting in the north; Roger of Antioch was
+defeated by Ilghazi at Balat in 1119, and Baldwin II. himself
+was captured by Balak, the successor of Ilghazi, in 1123, but
+on the whole the Franks held the upper hand. Baldwin conquered
+part of the territory of Aleppo (in 1121 and the following
+years), and extorted a tribute from Damascus (1126). But
+when Zengi established himself in Mosul in 1127, the tide
+gradually began to turn. He created for himself a great and
+united principality, comprising not only Mosul, but also Aleppo,<a name="fa20m" id="fa20m" href="#ft20m"><span class="sp">20</span></a>
+Harran, Nisibin and other districts; and in 1130, Alice, the
+widow of Bohemund II., sought his alliance in order to maintain
+herself in power at Antioch. In the beginning of the reign of
+Fulk of Jerusalem (1131-1143) the progress of Zengi was steady.
+He conquered in 1135 several fortresses in the east of the principality
+of Antioch, and in this year and the next pressed the
+count of Tripoli hard; while in 1137 he defeated Fulk at Barin,
+and forced the king to capitulate and surrender the town. If
+Fulk had been left alone to wage the struggle against Zengi, and
+if Zengi had enjoyed a clear field against the Franks, the fall
+of the kingdom of Jerusalem might have come far sooner than
+it did.<a name="fa21m" id="fa21m" href="#ft21m"><span class="sp">21</span></a> But there were two powers which aided Fulk, and
+impeded the progress of Zengi&mdash;the amirate of Damascus and
+the emperors of Constantinople. The position of Damascus
+is a position of crucial importance from 1130 to 1154. Lying
+between Mosul and Jerusalem, and important both strategically
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span>
+and from its position on the great route of commerce from the
+Euphrates to Egypt, Damascus became the arbiter of Syrian
+politics. During the greater part of the period between 1130
+and 1154 the policy of Damascus was guided by the vizier Muin-eddin
+Anar, who ruled on behalf of the descendants of the atabeg
+Tughtigin. He saw the importance of finding an ally against
+the ambition of Zengi, who had already attacked Damascus
+in 1130. The natural ally was Jerusalem. As early as 1133 the
+alliance of the two powers had been concluded; and in 1140
+the alliance was solemnly renewed between Fulk and the vizier.
+Henceforth this alliance was a dominant factor in politics.
+One of the great mistakes made by the Franks was the breach
+of the alliance in 1147&mdash;a breach which was widened by the
+attack directed against Damascus during the Second Crusade;
+and the conquest of Damascus by Nureddin in 1154 was ultimately
+fatal to the Latin kingdom, removing as it did the one
+possible ally of the Franks, and opening the way to Egypt
+for the atabegs of Mosul.</p>
+
+<p>The alliance of the emperors of Constantinople was of far more
+dubious value to the kings of Jerusalem. We have already seen
+that it was the theory of the Eastern emperors&mdash;a theory which
+logically followed from the homage of the crusaders to Alexius&mdash;that
+the conquests of the crusaders belonged to their empire,
+and were held by the crusading princes as fiefs. We have seen
+that the action of Bohemund at Antioch was the negation of
+this theory, and that Alexius in consequence helped Raymund
+to establish himself in Tripoli as a thorn in the side of Bohemund,
+and sent an army and a fleet which wrested from the Normans
+the towns of Cilicia (1104). The defeat of Bohemund at Durazzo
+in 1108 had resulted in a treaty, which made Antioch a fief of
+Alexius; but Tancred (who in 1107 had recovered Cilicia from
+the Greeks) refused to fulfil the terms of the treaty, and Alexius
+(who attempted&mdash;but in vain&mdash;to induce Baldwin I. to join an
+alliance against Tancred in 1112) was forced to leave Antioch
+independent. Thus, although Alexius had been able, in the
+wake of the crusading armies, to recover a large belt of land
+round the whole coast of Asia Minor,&mdash;the interior remaining
+subject to the sultans of Konia (Iconium) and the princes of
+Sivas,&mdash;he left the territories to the east of the western boundary
+of Cilicia in the hands of the Latins when he died in 1118. Not
+for 20 years after his death did the Eastern empire make any
+attempt to gain Cilicia or wrest homage from Antioch. But in
+1137 John Comnenus appeared, instigated by the opportunity
+of dissensions in Antioch, and received its long-denied homage,
+as well as that of Tripoli; while in the following year he entered
+into hostilities with Zengi, without, however, achieving any
+considerable result. In 1142 he returned again, anxious to
+create a principality in Cilicia and Antioch for his younger son
+Manuel. The people of Antioch refused to submit; a projected
+visit to Jerusalem, during which John was to unite with Fulk in
+a great alliance against the Moslem, fell through; and in the
+spring of 1143 the emperor died in Cilicia, with nothing accomplished.
+On the whole, the interference of the Comneni, if it
+checked Zengi for the moment in 1138, may be said to have
+ultimately weakened and distracted the Franks, and to have
+helped to cause the loss of Edessa (1144), which marks the
+turning-point in the history of the kingdom of Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Organization of the Kingdom.</i>&mdash;Before we turn to describe
+the Second Crusade, which the loss of Edessa provoked, and to
+trace the fall of the kingdom, which the Second Crusade rather
+hastened than hindered, we may pause at this point to consider
+the organization of the Frankish colonies in Syria. The first
+question which arises is that of the relation of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem to the three counties or principalities of Antioch,
+Tripoli and Edessa, which acknowledged their dependence upon
+it. The degree of this dependence was always a matter of
+dispute. The rights of the king of Jerusalem chiefly appear when
+there is a vacancy or a minority in one of the principalities, or
+when there is dissension either inside one of the principalities
+or between two of the princes. On the death of one of the princes
+without heirs of full age, the kings of Jerusalem were entitled
+to act as regents, as Baldwin II. did twice at Antioch, in 1119
+and 1130; but the kings regarded this right of regency as a
+burden rather than a privilege, and it is indeed characteristic
+of the relation of the king to the three princes, that it imposes
+upon him duties without any corresponding rights. It is his
+duty to act as regent; it is his duty to compose the dissensions
+in the principality of Antioch, and to repress the violences of
+the prince towards his patriarch (1154); it is his duty to reconcile
+Antioch with Edessa, when the two fall to fighting. The princes
+on their side acted independently: if they joined the king with
+their armies, it was as equals doing a favour; and they sometimes
+refused to join until they were coerced. They made their
+own treaties with the Mahommedans, or attacked them in spite of
+the king&rsquo;s treaties; they dated their documents by the year of
+their own reign, and they had each their separate laws or assizes.
+There was, in a word, co-ordination rather than subordination; nor
+did the kings ever attempt to embark on a policy of centralization.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of the king to his own barons within his immediate
+kingdom of Jerusalem is not unlike the relation of the king to
+the three princes. In Norman England the king insisted on his
+rights; in Frankish Jerusalem the barons insisted on his duties.
+The circumstances of the foundation of the kingdom explain
+its characteristics. As the crusaders advanced to Jerusalem,
+says Raymund of Agiles (c. xxxiii.), it was their rule that the
+first-comer had the right to each castle or town, provided that
+he hoisted his standard and planted a garrison there. The feudal
+nobility was thus the first to establish itself, and the king only
+came after its institution&mdash;the reverse of Norman England,
+where the king first conquered the country, and then plotted
+it out among his nobles. The predominance of the nobility in
+this way became as characteristic of feudalism in the Latin
+kingdom of Jerusalem as the supremacy of the crown was of
+contemporary feudalism in England; and that predominance
+expressed itself in the position and powers of the high court, in
+which the ultimate sovereignty resided. The kingdom of
+Jerusalem consisted of a society of peers, in which the king might
+be <i>primus</i>, but in which he was none the less subject to a punctilious
+law, regulating his position equally with that of every
+member of the society. In such a society the election of the
+head by the members may seem natural; and in the case of
+Godfrey and the first two Baldwins this was the case. But the
+conception of the equality of the king and his peers in the long
+run led to hereditary monarchy; for if the king held his kingdom
+as a fief, like other nobles, the laws of descent which applied to a
+fief applied to the kingdom, and those laws demanded heredity.
+Yet the high court, which decided all problems of descent,
+would naturally intervene if a problem of descent arose,
+as it frequently did, in the kingdom; and thus the barons had
+the right of deciding between different claimants, and also of
+formally &ldquo;approving&rdquo; each new successor to the throne. The
+conception of the kingdom as a fief not only subjected it to the
+jurisdiction of the high court; it involved the more disastrous
+result that the kingdom, like other fiefs, might be carried by an
+heiress to her husband; and the proximate causes of the collapse
+of the kingdom in 1187 depend on this fact and the dissensions
+which it occasioned.</p>
+
+<p>Thus conceived as the holder of a great fief, the king had only
+the rights of <i>suzerain</i> over the four great baronies and the twelve
+minor fiefs of his kingdom. He had not those rights of sovereign
+which the Norman kings of England inherited from their Anglo-Saxon
+predecessors, or the Capetian kings of France from the
+Carolings; nor was he able therefore to come into direct touch
+with each of his subjects, which William I., in virtue of his
+sovereign rights, was able to attain by the Salisbury oath of 1086.
+Amalric I. indeed, by his <i>assise sur la ligčce</i>, attempted to reach
+the vassals of his vassals; he admitted arričre-vassaux to the
+<i>haute cour</i>, and encouraged them to carry their cases to it in the
+first instance. But this is the only attempt at that policy of
+<i>immédiatisation</i> which in contemporary England was carried to
+far greater lengths; and even this attempt was unsuccessful.
+No alliance was actually formed between the king and the mesne
+nobility against the immediate baronage. The body of the
+tenants-in-chief continued to limit the power of the crown:
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span>
+their consent was necessary to legislation, and grants of fiefs
+could not be made without their permission. Nor was the crown
+only limited in this way. The <i>duties</i> of the king towards his
+tenants are prominent in the <i>assises</i>. The king&rsquo;s oath to his men
+binds him to respect and maintain their rights, which are as
+prominent as are his duties; and if the men feel that the royal
+oath has not been kept, they may lawfully refuse military service
+(<i>gager le roi</i>), and may even rise in authorized and legal rebellion.
+The system of military service and the organization of justice
+corresponded to the part which the monarchy was thus constrained
+to play. The vassal was bound to pay military service,
+not, as in western Europe, for a limited period of forty days,
+but for the whole year&mdash;the Holy Land being, as it were, in a
+perpetual state of siege. On the other hand, the vassal was not
+bound to render service, unless he were <i>paid</i> for his service;
+and it was only famine, or Saracen devastation, which freed the
+king from the obligation of paying his men. The king was also
+bound to insure the horses of his men by a system called the
+<i>restor</i>: if a vassal lost his horse otherwise than by his own
+fault, it must be replaced by the treasury (which was termed,
+as it also was in Norman Sicily, the <i>secretum</i>).<a name="fa22m" id="fa22m" href="#ft22m"><span class="sp">22</span></a> But the king
+had another force in addition to the feudal levy&mdash;a paid force of
+<i>soudoyers</i>,<a name="fa23m" id="fa23m" href="#ft23m"><span class="sp">23</span></a> holding fiefs, not of land, but of pay (<i>fiefs de soudée</i>).
+Along with this paid cavalry went another branch of the army,
+the Turcopuli, a body of light cavalry, recruited from the Syrians
+and Mahommedans, and using the tactics of the Arabs; while
+an infantry was found among the Armenians, the best soldiers
+of the East, and the Maronites, who furnished the kingdom with
+archers. To all these various forces must be added the knights
+and native levies of the great orders, whose masters were practically
+independent sovereigns like the princes of Antioch and
+Tripoli;<a name="fa24m" id="fa24m" href="#ft24m"><span class="sp">24</span></a> and with these the total levy of the kingdom may be
+reckoned at some 25,000 men. But the strength of the kingdom
+lay less perhaps in the army than in the magnificent fortresses
+which the nobility, and especially the two orders, had built;
+and the most visible relic of the crusades to-day is the towering
+ruins of a fortress like Krak (Kerak) des Chevaliers, the fortress
+of the Knights of St John in the principality of Tripoli. These
+fortresses, garrisoned not by the king, as in Norman England,
+but by their possessors, would only strengthen the power of the
+feudatories, and help to dissipate the kingdom into a number
+of local units.</p>
+
+<p>In the organization of its system of justice the kingdom showed
+its most characteristic features. Two great central courts sat
+in Jerusalem to do justice&mdash;the high court of the nobles, and
+the court of burgesses for the rest of the Franks. (1) The high
+court was the supreme source of justice for the military class;
+and in its composition and procedure the same limitation of the
+crown, which appears in regard to military service, is again
+evident. The high court is not a <i>curia regis</i>, but a <i>curia baronum</i>,
+in which the theory of <i>judicium parium</i> is fully realized. If the
+king presides in the court, the motive of its action is none the
+less the preservation of the rights of the nobles, and not, as in
+England, the extension of the rights of the crown. It is a court of
+the king&rsquo;s peers: it tries cases of dispute between the king and
+his peers&mdash;with regard, for instance, to military service&mdash;and
+it settles the descent of the title of king. (2) The court of
+burgesses was almost equally sovereign within its sphere. While
+the body of the noblesse formed the high court, the court of the
+burgesses was composed of twelve legists (probably named by
+the king) under the presidency of the <i>vicomte</i>&mdash;a knight also
+named by the king, who was a great financial as well as a judicial
+officer. The province of the court included all acts and contracts
+between burgesses, and extended to criminal cases in which
+burgesses were involved. Like the high court, the court of
+burgesses had also its assizes<a name="fa25m" id="fa25m" href="#ft25m"><span class="sp">25</span></a>&mdash;a body of unwritten legal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span>
+custom. The independent position of the burgesses, who thus
+assumed a position of equality by the side of the feudal class, is
+one of the peculiarities of the kingdom of Jerusalem. It may
+be explained by reference to the peculiar conditions of the
+kingdom. Burgesses and nobles, however different in status,
+were both of the same Frankish stock, and both occupied the
+same superior position with regard to the native Syrians. The
+commercial motive, again, had been one of the great motives
+of the crusade; and the class which was impelled by that motive
+would be both large and, in view of the quality of the Eastern
+goods in which it dealt, exceptionally prosperous. Finally,
+when one remembers how, during the First Crusade, the <i>pedites</i>
+had marched side by side with the <i>principes</i>, and how, from the
+beginning of 1099, they had practically risen in revolt against
+the selfish ambitions of princes like Count Raymund, it becomes
+easy to understand the independent position which the burgesses
+assumed in the organization of the kingdom. Burgesses could
+buy and possess property in towns, which knights were forbidden
+to acquire; and though they could not intermarry with the
+feudal classes, it was easy and regular for a burgess to thrive
+to knighthood. Like the nobles, again, the burgesses had the
+right of confirming royal grants and of taking part in legislation;
+and they may be said to have formed&mdash;socially, politically and
+judicially&mdash;an independent and powerful estate. Yet (with the
+exception of Antioch, Tripoli and Acre in the course of the 13th
+century) the Frankish towns never developed a communal
+government: the domain of their development was private law
+and commercial life.</p>
+
+<p>Locally, the consideration of the system of justice administered
+in the kingdom involves some account of three things&mdash;the
+organization of the fiefs, the position of the Italian traders in
+their quarters, and the privileges of the Church. Each fief was
+organized like the kingdom. In each there was a court for the
+noblesse, and a court (or courts) for the bourgeoisie. There were
+some thirty-seven <i>cours de bourgeoisie</i> (several of the fiefs having
+more than one), each of which was under the presidency of a
+<i>vicomte</i>, while all were independent of the court of burgesses at
+Jerusalem. Of the feudal courts there were some twenty-two.
+Each of these followed the procedure and the law of the high
+court; but each was independent of the high court, and formed
+a sovereign court without any appeal. On the other hand, the
+revolution wrought by Amalric I. in the status of the <i>arričre-vassaux</i>,
+which made them members of the high court, allowed
+them to carry their cases to Jerusalem in the first instance, if
+they desired. Apart from this, the characteristic of seignorial
+justice is its independence and its freedom from the central
+court; though, when we reflect that the central court is a court
+of seigneurs, this characteristic is seen to be the logical result
+of the whole system. Midway between the seignorial <i>cours de
+bourgeoisie</i> and the privileged jurisdictions of the Italian quarter,
+there were two kinds of courts of a commercial character&mdash;the
+<i>cours de la fonde</i> in towns where trade was busy, and the <i>cours
+de la chaîne</i> in the sea-ports. The former courts, under their
+bailiffs, gradually absorbed the separate courts which the Syrians
+had at first been permitted to enjoy under their own <i>reďs</i>; and
+the bailiff with his 6 assessors (4 Syrians and 2 Franks) thus
+came to judge both commercial cases and cases in which Syrians
+were involved. The <i>cours de la chaîne</i>, whose institution is
+assigned to Amalric I. (1162-1174), had a civil jurisdiction in
+admiralty cases, and, like the <i>cours de la fonde</i>, they were composed
+of a bailiff and his assessors. Distinct from all these
+courts, if similar in its sphere, is the court which the Italian
+quarter generally enjoyed in each town under its own consuls&mdash;a
+court privileged to try all but the graver cases, like murder,
+theft and forgery. The court was part of the general immunity
+which made these quarters <i>imperia in imperio</i>: their exemptions
+from tolls and from financial contributions is parallel to their
+judicial privileges. Regulated by their mother-town, both
+in their trade and their government, these Italian quarters
+outlasted the collapse of the kingdom, and continued to exist
+under Mahommedan rulers. The Church had its separate courts,
+as in the West; but their province was perhaps greater than
+elsewhere. The church courts could not indeed decide cases of
+perjury; but, on the other hand, they tried all matters in which
+clerical property was concerned, and all cases of dispute between
+husband and wife. In other spheres the immunities and exemptions
+of the Church offered a far more serious problem, and
+especially in the sphere of finance. Perhaps the supreme defect
+of the kingdom of Jerusalem was its want of any financial basis.
+It is true that the king had a revenue, collected by the vicomte
+and paid into the <i>secretum</i> or treasury&mdash;a revenue composed of
+tolls on the caravans and customs from the ports, of the profits
+of monopolies and the proceeds of justice, of poll-taxes on Jews
+and Mahommedans, and of the tributes paid by Mahommedan
+powers. But his expenditure was large: he had to pay his
+feudatories; and he had to provide fiefs in money and kind to
+those who had not fiefs of land. The contributions sent to the
+Holy Land by the monarchs of western Europe, as commutations
+in lieu of personal participation in crusades, might help; the
+fatal policy of razzias against the neighbouring Mahommedan
+powers might procure temporary resources; but what was really
+necessary was a wide measure of native taxation, such as was
+once, and once only, attempted in 1183. To any such measure
+the privileges of the Italian quarters, and still more those of the
+Church, were inimical. In spite of provisions somewhat parallel
+to those of the English statute of mortmain, the clergy continued
+to acquire fresh lands at the same time that they refused to
+contribute to the defence of the kingdom, and rigorously exacted
+the full quota of tithe from every source which they could tap,
+and even from booty captured in war. The richest proprietor
+in the Holy Land,<a name="fa26m" id="fa26m" href="#ft26m"><span class="sp">26</span></a> but practically immune from any charges
+on its property, the Church helped, unconsciously, to ruin the
+kingdom which it should have supported above all others. It
+refused to throw its weight into the scale, and to strengthen
+the hands of the king against an over-mighty nobility. On the
+other hand, it must be admitted that the Church did not, after
+the first struggle between Dagobert and Baldwin I., actively
+oppose by any hierarchical pretensions the authority of the
+crown. The assizes may speak of patriarch and king as conjoint
+seigneurs in Jerusalem; but as a matter of fact the king could
+secure the nomination of his own patriarch, and after Dagobert
+the patriarchs are, with the temporary exception of Stephen
+in 1128, the confidants and supporters of the kings. It was the
+two great orders of the Templars and the Hospitallers which
+were, in reality, most dangerous to the kingdom. Honeycombed
+as it was by immunities&mdash;of seigneurs, of Italian quarters, of
+the clergy&mdash;the kingdom was most seriously impaired by these
+overweening immunists, who, half-lay and half-clerical, took
+advantage of their ambiguous position to escape from the duties
+of either character. They built up great estates, especially in the
+principality of Tripoli; they quarrelled with one another, until
+their dissensions prevented any vigorous action; they struggled
+against the claims of the clergy to tithes and to rights of jurisdiction;
+they negotiated with the Mahommedans as separate
+powers; they conducted themselves towards the kings as
+independent sovereigns. Yet their aid was as necessary as their
+influence was noxious. Continually recruited from the West,
+they retained the vigour which the native Franks of Palestine
+gradually lost; and their corporate strength gave a weight to
+their arms which made them indispensable.</p>
+
+<p>In describing the organization of the kingdom, we have also
+been describing the causes of its fall. It fell because it had
+not the financial or political strength to survive. &ldquo;Les vices du
+gouvernement avaient été plus puissants que les vertus des
+gouvernants.&rdquo; But the vices were not only vices of the government:
+they were also vices, partly inevitable, partly moral,
+in the governing race itself. The climate was no doubt
+responsible for much. The Franks of northern Europe attempted
+to live a life that suited a northern climate under a southern sun.
+They rode incessantly to battle over burning sands, in full armour&mdash;chain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span>
+mail, long shield and heavy casque&mdash;as if they were on
+their native French soil. The ruling population was already
+spread too thin for the work which it had to do; and exhausted
+by its efforts, it gradually became extinct. A constant immigration
+from the West, bringing new blood and recruiting the stock,
+could alone have maintained its vigour; and such immigration
+never came. Little driblets of men might indeed be added to
+the numbers of the Franks; but the great bodies of crusaders
+either perished in Asia Minor, as in 1101 and 1147, or found
+themselves thwarted and distrusted by the native Franks. It
+was indeed one of the misfortunes of the kingdom that its
+inhabitants could never welcome the reinforcements which
+came to their aid.<a name="fa27m" id="fa27m" href="#ft27m"><span class="sp">27</span></a> The barons suspected the crusaders of
+ulterior motives, and of designing to get new principalities for
+themselves. In any case the native Frank, accustomed to
+commercial intercourse and diplomatic negotiations with the
+Mahommedans, could hardly share the unreasoning passion to
+make a dash for the &ldquo;infidel.&rdquo; As with the barons, so with the
+burgesses: they profited too much by their intercourse with
+the Mahommedans to abandon readily the way of peaceful
+commerce, and they were far more ready to hinder than to help
+any martial enterprise. Left to itself, the native population
+lost physical and moral vigour. The barons alternated between
+the extravagances of Western chivalry and the attractions of
+Eastern luxury: they returned from the field to divans with
+frescoed walls and floors of mosaic, Persian rugs and embroidered
+silk hangings. Their houses, at any rate those in the towns,
+had thus the characteristics of Moorish villas; and in them they
+lived a Moorish life. Their sideboards were covered with the
+copper and silver work of Eastern smiths and the confectioneries
+of Damascus. They dressed in flowing robes of silk, and their
+women wore oriental gauzes covered with sequins. Into these
+divans where figures of this kind moved to the music of Saracen
+instruments, there entered an inevitable voluptuousness and
+corruption of manners. The hardships of war and the excesses
+of peace shortened the lives of the men; the kingdom of Jerusalem
+had eleven kings within a century. While the men
+died, the women, living in comparative indolence, lived longer
+lives. They became regents to their young children; and the
+experience of all medieval minorities reiterates the lesson&mdash;woe
+to the land where the king is a child and the regent a woman.
+Still worse was the frequent remarriage of widowed princesses
+and heiresses. By the assizes of the high court, the widow, on
+the death of her husband, took half of the estate for herself, and
+half in guardianship for her children. <i>Liberae ire cum terra</i>,
+widows carried their estates or titles to three or four husbands;
+and as in 15th-century England, the influence of the heiress was
+fatal to the peace of the country. At Antioch, for instance, after
+the death of Bohemund II. in 1130, his widow Alice headed a
+party in favour of the marriage of the heiress Constance to
+Manuel of Constantinople, and did not scruple to enter into
+negotiations with Zengi of Mosul. Her policy failed; and
+Constance successively married Raymund of Antioch and
+Raynald of Chatillon. The result was the renewed enmity of
+the Greek empire, while the French adventurers who won the
+prize ruined the prospects of the Franks by their conduct. In
+the kingdom matters were almost worse. There was hardly any
+regular succession to the throne; and Jerusalem, as Stubbs
+writes, &ldquo;suffered from the weakness of hereditary right and
+the jealousies of the elective system&rdquo; at one and the same time.
+With the frequent remarriages of the heiresses of the kingdom,
+relationships grew confused and family quarrels frequent;
+and when Sibylla carried the crown to Guy de Lusignan, a newcomer
+disliked by all the relatives of the crown, she sealed the
+fate of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>It may be doubted&mdash;though it seems a harsh verdict to pass
+on a kingdom founded by religious zeal on holy soil&mdash;whether
+the kingdom possessed that moral basis which alone can give a
+right of survival to any institution or organization. The crusading
+states had been founded by adventurers who thirsted for
+gain; and the primitive appetite did not lose its edge with the
+progress of time. We cannot be certain, indeed, how far the
+Frankish lords oppressed their Syrian tenants: the stories of
+such oppression have been discredited; while if we may trust
+the evidence of a Mahommedan traveller, Ibn Jubair, the lot
+of the Mahommedan who lived on Frankish manors was better
+than it had been under their native lords.<a name="fa28m" id="fa28m" href="#ft28m"><span class="sp">28</span></a> But the habits of
+the Franks were none the less habits of lawless greed: they
+swooped down from their castles, as Raynald of Chatillon did
+from Krak of the Desert, to capture Saracens and hold them to
+ransom or to plunder caravans. The lust of unlawful gain had
+infected the Frankish blood, as it seems to have infected England
+during the Hundred Years&rsquo; War; and in either case nemesis
+infallibly came. The Moslems might have endured a state of
+&ldquo;infidels&rdquo;; they could not endure a state of brigands.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The History of the Kingdom and the Crusades from the
+Loss of Edessa in 1144 to the Fall of Jerusalem in 1187.</i>&mdash;The
+years 1143-1144 are in many ways the turning point in the
+history of the Latin East. In 1143 began the reign of the first
+native king;<a name="fa29m" id="fa29m" href="#ft29m"><span class="sp">29</span></a> and about this date may be placed the final
+organization of the kingdom, witnessed by the completion of its
+body of customary law. At the same date, however, the decline
+of the kingdom also begins; the fall of Edessa is the beginning
+of the end. In 1143 John Comnenus and Fulk had just died,
+and Zengi, seeing his way clear, threw himself on the great
+Christian outpost, against which the tides of Mahommedan
+attack had so often vainly surged, and finally entered on Christmas
+Day 1144. Two years later Zengi died; but he left an able
+successor in his son, Nureddin, and an attempt to recover
+Edessa was successfully repelled in November 1146. Not only
+so, but in the spring of 1147 the Franks were unwise enough to
+allow the hope of gaining two small towns to induce them to
+break the vital alliance with Damascus. Thus, in itself, the
+position of affairs in the Holy Land in 1147 was certainly
+ominous; and the kingdom might well seem dependent for its
+safety on such aid as it might receive from the West.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1145 news had come from Antioch to Eugenius III.
+of the fall of Edessa, and at the end of the year he had sent
+an encyclical to France&mdash;the natural soil, as we have seen, of
+crusading zeal. The response was instantaneous: the king of
+France himself, who bore on his conscience the burden of an
+unpunished massacre by his troops at Vitry in 1142,<a name="fa30m" id="fa30m" href="#ft30m"><span class="sp">30</span></a> took
+the crusading vow on the Christmas day of 1145. But the
+greatest success was attained when St Bernard&mdash;no great
+believer in pilgrimages, and naturally disposed to doubt the
+policy of a second Crusade&mdash;was induced by the pope to become
+the preacher of the new movement. To the crusading king of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span>
+France St Bernard added the king of Germany, when, in Christmas
+week of 1146, he induced Conrad III. to take the vow by
+his sermon in the cathedral of Spires. Thus was begun the
+Second Crusade,<a name="fa31m" id="fa31m" href="#ft31m"><span class="sp">31</span></a> under auspices still more favourable than
+those which attended the beginning of the First, seeing that
+kings now took the place of knights, while the new crusaders
+would no longer be penetrating into the wilds, but would find
+a friendly basis of operations ready to their hands in Frankish
+Syria. But the more favourable the auspices, the greater proved
+the failure. Already at the final meeting at Étampes, in 1147,
+difficulties arose. Manuel Comnenus demanded that all conquests
+made by the crusaders should be his fiefs; and the
+question was debated whether the crusaders should follow the
+land route through Hungary, along the old road of Charlemagne,
+or should go by sea to the Holy Land. In this question the
+envoys of Manuel and of Roger of Sicily, who were engaged in
+hostilities with one another, took opposite sides. Conrad, related
+by marriage to Manuel, decided in favour of the land route, which
+Manuel desired because it brought the Crusade more under his
+direction, and because, if the route by sea were followed, Roger
+of Sicily might be able to divert the crusading ships against
+Constantinople. As it was, a struggle raged between Roger
+and Manuel during the whole progress of the Crusade, which
+greatly contributed towards its failure, preventing, as it did,
+any assistance from the Eastern empire. Nor was there any
+real unity among the crusaders themselves. The crusaders of
+northern Germany never went to the Holy Land at all; they
+were allowed the crusaders&rsquo; privileges for attacking the Wends
+to the east of the Elbe&mdash;a fact which at once attests the cleavage
+between northern and southern Germany (intensified of late
+years by the war of investitures), and anticipates the age of the
+Teutonic knights and their long Crusade on the Baltic. The
+crusaders of the Low Countries and of England took the sea
+route, and attacked and captured Lisbon on their way, thus
+helping to found the kingdom of Portugal, and achieving the one
+real success which was gained by the Second Crusade.<a name="fa32m" id="fa32m" href="#ft32m"><span class="sp">32</span></a> Among
+the great army of crusaders who actually marched to Jerusalem
+there was little real unity. Conrad and Louis VII. started
+separately, and at different times, in order to avoid dissensions
+between their armies; and when they reached Asia Minor (after
+encountering some difficulties in Greek territory) they still
+acted separately. Eager to win the first spoils, the German
+crusaders, who were in advance of the French, attempted a raid
+into the sultanate of Iconium; but after a stern fight at Dorylaeum
+they were forced to retreat (October 1147), and for the
+most part perished by the way. Louis VII., who now appeared,
+was induced by this failure to take the long and circuitous route
+by the west coast of Asia Minor; but even so he had lost the
+majority of his troops when he reached the Holy Land in 1148.
+Here he joined Conrad (who had come by sea from Constantinople)
+and Baldwin III., and after some deliberation the three
+sovereigns resolved to attack Damascus. The attack was
+impolitic: Damascus was the one ally which could help the
+Franks to stem the advance of Nureddin. It proved as futile
+as it was impolitic; for the vizier of Damascus, Muin-eddin-Anar,
+was able to sow dissension between the native Franks
+and the crusaders; and by bribes and promises of tribute he
+succeeded in inducing the former to make the siege an absolute
+failure, at the end of only four days (July 28th, 1148). The
+Second Crusade now collapsed. Conrad returned to Constantinople
+in the autumn of 1148, and Louis VII. returned by sea
+to France in the spring of 1149. The only effects of this great
+movement were effects prejudicial to the ends towards which
+it was directed. The position of the Franks in the Holy Land
+was not improved by the attack on Damascus; while the
+ignominious failure of a Crusade led by two kings brought the
+whole crusading movement into discredit in western Europe,
+and it was utterly in vain that Suger and St Bernard attempted
+to gather a fresh Crusade in 1150.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the failure of the Second Crusade was the renewal
+of Nureddin&rsquo;s attacks. The rest of the county of Edessa,
+including Tell-bashir on the west, was now conquered (1150);
+while Raymund of Antioch was defeated and killed (in 1149),
+and several towns in the east of his principality were captured.
+Baldwin III. attempted to make head against these troubles,
+partly by renewing the old alliance with Damascus, partly by
+drawing closer to Manuel of Constantinople. For the next
+twenty years, during the reigns of Baldwin and his brother
+Amalric I., there is indeed a close connexion between the kingdom
+of Jerusalem and the East Roman empire. Baldwin and Amalric
+both married into the Comnenian house, while Manuel married
+Mary of Antioch, the daughter of Raymund. In the north
+Manuel enjoyed the homage of Antioch, which his father had
+gained in 1137, and the nominal possession of Tell-bashir, which
+had been ceded to him by Baldwin III.: in the south he joined
+with Amalric I. in the attempt to acquire Egypt (1168-1171). In
+this way he acquired a certain ascendancy over the Latin kings:
+Baldwin III. rode behind him at Antioch in 1159 without any
+of the insignia of royalty, and in an inscription at Bethlehem of
+1172 Amalric I. had the name of the emperor written above his
+own.<a name="fa33m" id="fa33m" href="#ft33m"><span class="sp">33</span></a> The patronage of Constantinople, to which Jerusalem
+was thus practically surrendered, contributed to some slight
+extent in maintaining the kingdom against Nureddin. But
+there were dissensions within, both between Baldwin and his
+mother, Melisinda, who sought to protract her regency unduly,
+and between contending parties in Antioch, where the hand of
+Constance, Raymund&rsquo;s widow, was a desirable prize<a name="fa34m" id="fa34m" href="#ft34m"><span class="sp">34</span></a>; while
+from without the horns of the crescent were slowly closing in on
+the kingdom. Nureddin pursued in his policy the tactics which
+the Mahommedans used against the Franks in battle: he sought
+to envelop their territories on every side. In 1154 fell Damascus,
+and the crescent closed perceptibly in the north: the most
+valuable ally of the kingdom was lost, and the way seemed clear
+from Aleppo (the peculiar seat of Nureddin&rsquo;s power) into Egypt.
+On the other hand, in 1153 Baldwin III. had taken Ascalon,
+which for fifty years had mocked the efforts of successive kings,
+and by this stroke he might appear to have closed for Nureddin
+the route to Egypt, and to have opened a path for its conquest
+by the Franks. For the future, events hinged on the situation
+of affairs in Egypt, and in Egypt the fate of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem was finally decided (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>, &ldquo;Mahommedan
+Period&rdquo;). There was a race for the possession of the
+country between Nureddin&rsquo;s lieutenant Sh&#299;rg&#363;h or Sh&#299;rk&#363;h and
+Amalric I., the brother and successor of Baldwin III.; and in
+the race Sh&#299;rk&#363;h proved the winner.</p>
+
+<p>Since the days of Godfrey and Baldwin I., Egypt had been a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span>
+goal of Latin ambition, and the capture of Ascalon must obviously
+have given form and strength to the projects for its conquest.
+Plans of attack were sketched: routes were traced: distances
+were measured; and finally in 1163 there came the impulse
+from within which turned these plans into action. The Shiite
+caliphs of Egypt were by this time the playthings of contending
+viziers, as the Sunnite caliphs of Bagdad had long been the
+puppets of Turkish sultans or amirs; and in 1164 Amalric I.
+and Nureddin were fighting in Egypt in support of two rival
+viziers, Dirgham and Shawar. For Nureddin the fight meant
+the acquisition of an heretical country for the true faith of the
+Sunnite, and the final enveloping of the Latin kingdom:<a name="fa35m" id="fa35m" href="#ft35m"><span class="sp">35</span></a> for
+Amalric it meant the escape from Nureddin&rsquo;s net, and a more
+direct and lucrative contact with Eastern trade. Into the
+vicissitudes of the fight it is not necessary here to enter; but in
+the issue Nureddin won, in spite of the support which Manuel
+gave to Amalric. Nureddin&rsquo;s Kurdish lieutenant, Sh&#299;rg&#363;h,
+succeeded in establishing in power the vizier whom he favoured,
+and finally in becoming vizier himself (January 1169); and when
+he died, his nephew Saladin (Sala-ed-din) succeeded to his
+position (March 1169), and made himself, on the death of the
+caliph in 1171, sole ruler in Egypt. Thus the Shiite caliphate
+became extinct: in the mosques of Cairo the name of the caliph
+of Bagdad was now used; and the long-disunited Mahommedans
+at last faced the Christians as a solid body. But nevertheless
+the kingdom of Jerusalem continued almost unmenaced, and
+practically undiminished, for the next sixteen years. If a
+religious union had been effected between Egypt and northern
+Syria, political disunion still remained; and the Franks were
+safe as long as it lasted. Saladin acted as the peer of Nureddin
+rather than as his subject; and the jealousy between the two
+kept both inactive till the death of Nureddin in 1174. Nureddin
+only left a minor in his place: Amalric, who died in the same
+year, left a son (Baldwin IV.) who was not only a minor but also
+a leper; and thus the stage seemed cleared for Saladin. He
+was confronted, however, by Raymund, count of Tripoli, the
+one man of ability among the decadent Franks, who acted as
+guardian of the kingdom; while he was also occupied in trying
+to win for himself the Syrian possessions of Nureddin. The task
+engaged his attention for nine years. Damascus he acquired as
+early as 1174; but Raymund supported the heir of Nureddin
+in his capital at Aleppo, and it was not until 1183 that Saladin
+entered the city, and finally brought Egypt and northern Syria
+under a single rule.</p>
+
+<p>The hour of peril for the Latin kingdom had now at last struck.
+It had done little to prepare itself for that hour. Repeated
+appeals had been sent to the West from the beginning of the
+Egyptian affair (1163) onwards; while in 1184-1185 a great
+mission, on which the patriarch of Jerusalem and the masters
+of the Templars and the Hospitallers were all present, came to
+France and England, and offered the crown of Jerusalem to
+Philip Augustus and Henry II. in turn, in order to secure their
+presence in the Holy Land.<a name="fa36m" id="fa36m" href="#ft36m"><span class="sp">36</span></a> The only result of these appeals
+was the rise of a regular system of taxation in France and
+England, <i>ad sustentationem Jerosolimitanae terrae</i>, which starts
+about 1185 (though there had already been isolated taxes in
+1147 and 1166), and which has been described as the beginning
+of modern taxation. In the East itself, with the exception of
+the tax of 1183,<a name="fa37m" id="fa37m" href="#ft37m"><span class="sp">37</span></a> nothing was done that was good, and two
+things were done which were evil. Sibylla married her second
+husband, Guy de Lusignan, in 1180&mdash;a marriage destined to be
+the cause of many dissensions; for Sibylla, the eldest daughter
+of Amalric I., carried to her husband&mdash;a French adventurer&mdash;a
+presumptive title to the crown, which would never be admitted
+without dispute. In 1186 Guy eventually became king, after
+the death of Baldwin V. (Sibylla&rsquo;s son by her first marriage);
+but his coronation was in violation of the promise given to
+Raymund of Tripoli (that in the event of the death of Baldwin V.
+without issue the succession should be determined by the pope,
+the emperor and the kings of France and England), and Guy,
+with a weak title, was unable to exercise any real control over
+the kingdom. At this point another French adventurer, who
+had already made himself somewhat of a name in Antioch, gave
+the final blow to the kingdom. Raynald of Chatillon, the
+second husband of Constance of Antioch, after languishing in
+captivity from 1159 to 1176, had been granted the seignory of
+Krak, to the east and south of the Dead Sea. From this point
+of vantage he began depredations on the Red Sea (1182), building
+a fleet, and seeking to attack Medina and Mecca&mdash;a policy which
+may be interpreted either as mere buccaneering, or as a calculated
+attempt to deal a blow at Mahommedanism in its very centre.
+Driven from the Red Sea by Saladin, he turned from buccaneering
+to brigandage, and infested the great trade-route from Damascus
+to Egypt, which passed close by his seignory. In 1186 he
+attacked a caravan in which the sister of Saladin was travelling,
+thus violating a four years&rsquo; truce, which, after some two years&rsquo;
+skirmishing, Saladin and Raymund of Tripoli had made in the
+previous year owing to the general prevalence of famine.<a name="fa38m" id="fa38m" href="#ft38m"><span class="sp">38</span></a> The
+coronation of one French adventurer and the conduct of another,
+whom the first was unable to control, meant the ruin of the
+kingdom; and Saladin at last delivered in full force his long-deferred
+attack. The Crusade was now at last answered by the
+counter-Crusade&mdash;the <i>jihad</i>; for though for many years past
+Saladin had, in his attempt to acquire all the inheritance of
+Nureddin, left Palestine unmenaced and intact, his ultimate aim
+was always the holy war and the recovery of Jerusalem. The
+acquisition of Aleppo could only make that supreme object more
+readily attainable; and so Saladin had spent his time in acquiring
+Aleppo, but only in order that he might ultimately &ldquo;attain the
+goal of his desires, and set the mosque of Asha free, to which Allah
+once led in the night his servant Mahomet.&rdquo; Thus it was on a
+kingdom of crusaders who had lost the crusading spirit that a
+new Crusade swept down; and Saladin&rsquo;s army in 1187 had the
+spirit and the fire of the Latin crusaders of 1099. The tables
+were turned; and fighting on their own soil for the recovery of
+what was to them too a holy place, the Mahommedans easily
+carried the day. At Tiberias a little squadron of the brethren
+of the two Orders went down before Saladin&rsquo;s cavalry in May;
+at Hattin the levy <i>en masse</i> of the kingdom, some 20,000 strong,
+foolishly marching over a sandy plain under the heat of a July
+sun, was utterly defeated; and after a fortnight&rsquo;s siege Jerusalem
+capitulated (October 2nd, 1187). In the kingdom itself nothing
+was left to the Latins by the end of 1189 except the city of Tyre;
+and to the north of the kingdom they only held Antioch and
+Tripoli, with the Hospitallers&rsquo; fortress at Margat. The fingers
+of the clock had been pushed back; once more things were as
+they had been at the time of the First Crusade; once more the
+West must arm itself for the holy war and the recovery of
+Jerusalem&mdash;but now it must face a united Mahommedan world,
+where in 1096 it had found political and religious dissension,
+and it must attempt its vastly heavier task without the morning
+freshness of a new religious impulse, and with something of the
+weariness of a hundred years of struggle upon its shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>The Forty Years&rsquo; Crusade for the Recovery of Jerusalem,
+1189-1229.</i>&mdash;The forty years from 1189 to 1229 form a period
+of incessant crusading, occupied by Crusades of every kind.
+There are the Third, Fifth and Sixth Crusades against the
+&ldquo;infidel&rdquo; Mahommedans encamped in the Holy Land; there
+is the Albigensian Crusade against the heretic Cathars; there
+is the Fourth Crusade, directed in the issue against the schismatic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span>
+Greeks; lastly, there are the Crusades waged by the papacy
+against revolted Christians&mdash;John of England and Frederick II.
+Our concern lies with the first kind of Crusade, and with the
+other three only so far as they bear on the first, and as they
+illustrate the immense widening which the term &ldquo;Crusade&rdquo;
+now underwent&mdash;a widening accompanied by its inevitable
+corollary of shallowness of motive and degradation of impulse.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Third Crusade, 1189-1192.</i>&mdash;Conrad of Montferrat was,
+as much as any one man, responsible for the Third Crusade.
+Compelled to leave the court of Constantinople, which he had
+been serving, he had sailed for the Holy Land and reached Tyre
+about three weeks after the battle of Hattin. He had saved
+Tyre; and from it he sent his appeals to the West. Not the least
+effective of these appeals was a great poster which he had
+circulated in Europe, and which represented the Holy Sepulchre
+denied by the horses of the Mahommedans. Meanwhile the
+papacy, as soon as the news reached Rome, despatched encyclicals
+throughout Europe; and soon a new Crusade was in full swing.
+But the Third Crusade, unlike the First, does not spring from
+the papacy, which was passing through one of its epochs of
+depression; it springs from the lay power, which, represented
+by the three strong monarchies of Germany, England and
+France, was at this time dominant in Europe. In Germany it
+was the solemn national diet of Mainz (Easter 1188) which
+&ldquo;swore the expedition&rdquo; to the Holy Land; in France and
+England the agreement of the two kings decided upon a joint
+Crusade. The very means which Philip Augustus and Henry II.
+took, in order to further the Crusade, show its lay aspect. A
+scheme of taxation&mdash;the Saladin tithe&mdash;was imposed on all who
+did not take the cross; and this taxation, while on the one hand
+it drove many to take the cross in order to escape its incidence,
+on the other hand provided a necessary financial basis for military
+operations.<a name="fa39m" id="fa39m" href="#ft39m"><span class="sp">39</span></a> The lay basis of the Third Crusade made it, in one
+sense, the greatest of all Crusades, in which all the three great
+monarchs of western Europe participated; but it also made it
+a failure, for the kings of France and England, changing <i>caelum</i>,
+<i>non animum</i>, carried their political rivalries into the movement,
+in which it had been agreed that they should be sunk. Spiritually,
+therefore, the Third Crusade is inferior to the First, however
+imposing it may be in its material aspects. Yet it must be
+admitted that the idea of a spiritual regeneration accompanied
+the crusading movement of 1188. Europe had sinned in the
+face of God; otherwise Jerusalem would never have fallen;
+and the idea of a spiritual reform from within, as the necessary
+corollary and accompaniment of the expedition of Christianity
+without, breathes in some of the papal letters, just as, during
+the conciliar movement, the <i>causa reformationis</i> was blended
+with the <i>causa unionis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We may conceive of the Third Crusade under the figure of
+a number of converging lines, all seeking to reach a common
+centre. That centre is Acre. The siege of Acre, as arduous and
+heroic in many of its episodes as the siege of Troy, had been
+begun in the summer of 1189 by Guy de Lusignan, who, captured
+by Saladin at the battle of Hattin, and released on parole, had
+at once broken his word and returned to the attack. The army
+which was besieging Acre was soon joined by various contingents;
+for Acre, after all, was the vital point, and its capture would
+open the way to Jerusalem. Two of these contingents alone
+concern us here&mdash;the German and the Anglo-French. Frederick
+I. of Germany, using a diplomacy which corresponds to the
+lay character of the Third Crusade, had sought to prepare his
+way by embassies to the king of Hungary, the Eastern emperor
+and the sultan of Iconium. Starting from Regensburg in May
+1189, the German army marched quietly through Hungary; but
+difficulties arose, as they had arisen in 1147, as soon as the
+frontiers of the Eastern empire were reached. The emperor
+Isaac Angelus had not only the old grudge of all Eastern
+emperors against the &ldquo;upstart&rdquo; emperor of the West; he had
+also allied himself with Saladin, in order to acquire for his
+empire the patronage of the Holy Places and religious supremacy
+in the Levant. The difficulties between Frederick and Isaac
+Angelus became acute: in November 1189 Frederick wrote
+to his son Henry, asking him to induce the pope to preach a
+Crusade against the schismatic Greeks. But terms were at last
+arranged, and by the end of March 1190 the Germans had all
+crossed to the shores of Asia Minor. Taking a route midway
+between the eastern route of the crusaders of 1097 and the
+<span class="correction" title="amended from westerh">western</span> route of Louis VII. in 1148, Frederick marched by
+Philadelphia and Iconium, not without dust and heat, until he
+reached the river Salof, in Armenian territory. Here, with the
+burden of the day now past, the fine old crusader&mdash;he had joined
+before in the Second Crusade, forty years ago&mdash;perished by
+accident in the river; and of all his fine army only a thousand
+men won their way through, under his son, Frederick of Swabia,
+to join the ranks before Acre (October 1190). The Anglo-French
+detachment achieved a far greater immediate success. War had
+indeed disturbed the original agreement of Gisors between
+Philip Augustus and Henry II., but a new agreement was made
+between Henry&rsquo;s successor, Richard I., and the French king at
+Nonancourt (December 1189), by which the two monarchs were
+to meet at Vezelay next year, and then follow the sea route to the
+Holy Land together. They met, and by different routes they
+both reached Sicily, where they wintered together (1190-1191).
+The enforced inactivity of a whole winter was the mother of
+disputes and bad blood; and when Philip sailed for the Holy
+Land, at the end of March 1191, the failure of the Crusade was
+already decided. Richard soon followed; but while Philip
+sailed straight for Acre, Richard occupied himself by the way
+in conquering Cyprus&mdash;partly out of knight-errantry, and in
+order to avenge an insult offered to his betrothed wife Berengaria
+by the despot of the island, partly perhaps out of policy, and
+in order to provide a basis of supplies and of operations for the
+armies attempting to recover Palestine. In any case, he is the
+founder of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus (for he afterwards sold
+his new acquisition to Guy de Lusignan, who established a
+dynasty in the island); and thereby he made possible the
+survival of the institutions and assizes of Jerusalem, which
+were continued in Cyprus until it was conquered by the Ottoman
+Turks. From Cyprus Richard sailed to Acre, arriving on the
+8th of June, and in little more than a month he was able, in
+virtue of the large reinforcements he brought, and in spite of
+dissensions in the Christian camp which he helped to foment,
+to bring the two years&rsquo; siege to a successful issue (July 12th,
+1191). It was indeed time; the privations of the besiegers
+during the previous winter had been terrible; and the position
+of affairs had only been made worse by the dissensions between
+Guy de Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, who had begun to
+claim the crown in return for his services, and had, on the death
+of Sibylla, the wife of Guy, reinforced his claim by a marriage
+with her younger sister, Isabella. In these dissensions it was
+inevitable that Philip Augustus and Richard I., already discordant,
+should take contrary sides; and while Richard naturally
+sided with Guy de Lusignan, who came from his own county
+of Poitou, Philip as naturally sided with Conrad. At the end
+of July it was decided that Guy should remain king for his life,
+and Conrad should be his successor; but as three days afterwards
+Philip Augustus began his return to France (pleading
+ill-health, but in reality eager to gain possession of Flanders),
+the settlement availed little for the success of the Crusade.
+Richard stayed in the Holy Land for another year, during which
+he won a battle at Arsuf and refortified Jaffa. But far more
+important than any hostilities are the negotiations which, for
+the whole year, Richard conducted with Saladin. They show
+the lay aspect of the Third Crusade; they anticipate the Crusade
+of Frederick II.&mdash;for Richard was attempting to secure
+the same concessions which Frederick secured by the same
+means which he used. They show again the closer approximation
+and better understanding with the Mahommedans,
+which marks this Crusade. Nothing is more striking in these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span>
+respects than Richard&rsquo;s proposal that Saladin&rsquo;s brother should
+marry his own sister Johanna and receive Jerusalem and the
+contiguous towns on the coast. In the event, a peace was made
+for three years (September 2nd, 1192), by which Lydda and
+Ramlah were to be equally divided, Ascalon was to be destroyed,
+and small bodies of crusaders were to be allowed to visit the
+Holy Sepulchre. Meanwhile Conrad of Montferrat, at the very
+instant when his superior ability had finally forced Richard to
+recognize him as king, had been assassinated (April 1192):
+Guy de Lusignan had bought Cyprus from Richard, and had
+sailed away to establish himself there;<a name="fa40m" id="fa40m" href="#ft40m"><span class="sp">40</span></a> and Henry of
+Champagne, Richard&rsquo;s nephew, had been called to the throne of
+Jerusalem, and had given himself a title by marrying Conrad&rsquo;s
+widow, Isabella. In this condition Richard left the Holy Land,
+when he began his eventful return, in October 1192. The
+Crusade had failed&mdash;failed because a leaderless army, torn by
+political dissensions and fighting on a foreign soil, could not
+succeed against forces united by religious zeal under the banner
+of a leader like Saladin. Yet it had at any rate saved for the
+Christians the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli,
+and some of the coast towns of the kingdom;<a name="fa41m" id="fa41m" href="#ft41m"><span class="sp">41</span></a> and if it had
+failed to accomplish its object, it had left behind, none the less,
+many important results. The difficulties which had arisen
+between Isaac Angelus and Frederick Barbarossa contain the
+germs of the Fourth Crusade; the negotiations between Richard
+and Saladin contain the germs of the Sixth. National rivalries
+had been accentuated and national differences brought into
+prominence by the meeting of the nations in a common enterprise;
+while, on the other hand, Mahommedans and Christians
+had fraternized as they had never done before during the progress
+of a Crusade. But what the Third Crusade showed most clearly
+was that the crusading movement was being lost to the papacy,
+and becoming part of the demesne of the secular state&mdash;organized
+by the state on its own basis of taxation, and conducted by the
+state according to its own method of negotiation. This after all
+is the great change; and even the genius of an Innocent III.
+&ldquo;could not make undone what had once been done.&rdquo; On the
+contrary, the thing once done would go further; and the state
+would take up the name of Crusade in order to cover, and under
+such cover to achieve, its own objects and ambitions, as in the
+future it was destined again and again to do.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204.</i>&mdash;The history of the Fourth
+Crusade is a history of the predominance of the lay motive, of
+the attempt of the papacy to escape from that predominance,
+and to establish its old direction of the Crusade, and of the
+complete failure of its attempt. Until the accession of Innocent
+III. in 1198 the lay motive was supreme; and its representative
+was Henry VI.&mdash;the greatest politician of his day, and in many
+ways the greatest emperor since Charlemagne. In 1195 Amalric,
+the brother of Guy de Lusignan, and his successor in Cyprus,
+sought the title of king from Henry and did homage; and at
+the same time Leo of Lesser Armenia, in order to escape from
+dependence on the Eastern empire, took the same course. Henry
+thus gained a basis in the Levant; while the death of Saladin
+in 1193, followed by a civil war between his brother, Malik-al-Adil,
+and his sons for the possession of his dominions, weakened
+the position of the Mahommedans. As emperor, Henry was
+eager to resume the imperial Crusade which had been stopped
+by his father&rsquo;s death; while both as Frederick&rsquo;s successor and
+as heir to the Norman kings of Sicily, who had again and again
+waged war against the Eastern empire, he had an account to
+settle with the rulers of Constantinople. The project of a
+Crusade and of an attack on Constantinople wove themselves
+into a single thread, in a way which very definitely anticipates
+the Fourth Crusade of 1202-1204. In 1195 Henry took the
+cross; some time before, he had already sent to Isaac Angelus
+to demand compensation for the injuries done to Frederick I.,
+along with the cession of all territories ever conquered by the
+Norman kings of Sicily, and a fleet to co-operate with the new
+Crusade. In the same year, however, Isaac was dethroned by
+his brother, Alexius III.; but Henry married Isaac&rsquo;s daughter
+Irene to his brother, Philip of Swabia, and thus attempted to
+give the Hohenstaufen a new title and a valid claim against the
+usurper Alexius. Thus armed he pushed forward the preparations
+for the Crusade in Germany&mdash;a Crusade whose first object
+would have been an attack on Alexius III.; but in the middle
+of his preparations he died in Sicily in the autumn of 1197, and
+the Crusade collapsed. Some results were, however, achieved
+by a body of German crusaders which had sailed in advance of
+Henry; by its influence Amalric of Cyprus succeeded Henry of
+Champagne, who died in 1197, as king of Jerusalem, and a vassal
+of the emperor thus became ruler in the Holy Land; while
+the Teutonic order, which had begun as a hospital during the
+siege of Acre (1190-1191), now received its organization. Some
+of the coast towns, too, were recovered by the German crusaders,
+especially Beirut; and in 1198 the new king Amalric II. was
+able to make a truce with Malik-al-Adil for the next five years.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The true heir of Henry VI.,&rdquo; Ranke has said, &ldquo;is Innocent
+III.,&rdquo; and nowhere is this more true than in respect of the
+crusading movement. Throughout the course of his crowded
+and magnificent pontificate, Innocent III. made the Crusade his
+ultimate object, and attempted to bring it back to its old religious
+basis and under its old papal direction. By the spring of 1200,
+owing to Innocent&rsquo;s exertions, a new Crusade was in full progress,
+especially in France, where Fulk of Neuilly played the part once
+played by Peter the Hermit. Like the First Crusade, the Fourth
+Crusade also&mdash;in its personnel, but not its direction&mdash;was a
+French enterprise; and its leading members were French
+feudatories like Theobald of Champagne (who was chosen leader
+of the Crusade), Baldwin of Flanders (the future emperor of
+Constantinople), and the count of Blois. The objective, which
+these three original chiefs of the Fourth Crusade proposed to
+themselves, was Egypt.<a name="fa42m" id="fa42m" href="#ft42m"><span class="sp">42</span></a> Since 1163 the importance of acquiring
+Egypt had, as we have seen, been definitely understood, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span>
+in the summer of 1192 Richard I. had been advised by his
+counsellors that Cairo and not Jerusalem was the true point of
+attack; while in 1200 there was the additional reason for
+preferring an attack on Egypt, that the truce in the Holy Land
+between Amalric II. and Malik-al-Adil had still three years to
+run. It is Egypt therefore&mdash;to which, it must be remembered,
+the centre of Mahommedan power had now been virtually
+shifted, and to which motives of trade impelled the Italian
+towns (since from it they could easily reach the Red Sea, and
+the commerce of the Indian Ocean)&mdash;it is Egypt which is henceforth
+the normal goal of the Crusades. This is one of the
+many facts which differentiate the Crusades of the 13th from
+those of the preceding century. But, with Syria in the hands
+of the Mahommedans, the attack on Egypt must necessarily
+be directed by sea; and thus the Crusade henceforth becomes&mdash;what
+the Third Crusade, here as elsewhere the turning-point in
+crusading history, had already in part been&mdash;a maritime enterprise.
+Accordingly, early in 1201, envoys from each of the three
+chiefs of the Fourth Crusade (among whom was Villehardouin,
+the historian of the Crusade) came to Venice to negotiate for
+a passage to Egypt. An agreement was made between the doge
+and the envoys, by which transport and active help were to be
+given by Venice in return for 85,000 marks and the cession of
+half of the conquests made by the crusaders. But the Fourth
+Crusade was not to be plain sailing to Egypt. It became involved
+in a maelstrom of conflicting political motives, by which it was
+swept to Constantinople. Here we must distinguish between
+cause and occasion. There were three great causes which made
+for an attack on Constantinople by the West. There was first
+of all the old crusading grudge against the Eastern empire, and
+its fatal policy of regarding the whole of the Levant as its lost
+provinces, to be restored as soon as conquered, or at any rate held
+in fee, by the Western crusaders&mdash;a policy which led the Eastern
+emperors either to give niggardly aid or to pursue obstructive
+tactics, and caused them to be blamed for the failure of the
+Crusades in 1101, and 1149, and in 1190. It is significant of the
+final result of these things that already in 1147 Roger of Sicily,
+engaged in war with Manuel, had proposed the sea-route for
+the Second Crusade, perhaps with some intention of diverting
+it against Constantinople; and in the winter of 1189-1190
+Barbarossa, as we have seen, had actually thought and spoken
+of an attack on Constantinople. In the second place, there was
+the commercial grudge of Venice, which had only been given
+large privileges by the Eastern empire to desire still larger,
+and had, moreover, been annoyed not only by alterations
+or revocations of those privileges, such as the usurper
+Alexius III. had but recently attempted, but also by the
+temporary destruction of their colony in Constantinople in 1171.
+Lastly, and perhaps most of all, there is the old Norman blood-feud
+with Constantinople, as old as the old Norse seeking for
+Micklegarth, and keen and deadly ever since the Norman
+conquest of the Greek themes in South Italy (1041 onwards).
+The heirs of the Norman kings were the Hohenstaufen; and
+we have already seen Henry VI. planning a Crusade which
+would primarily have been directed against Constantinople.
+It is this Hohenstaufen policy which becomes the primary
+occasion of the diversion of the Fourth Crusade. Philip of
+Swabia, engaged in a struggle with the papacy, found Innocent
+III. planning a Guelph Crusade, which should be under the
+direction of the church; and to this Guelph project he opposed
+the Ghibelline plan of Henry VI., with such success that he
+transmuted the Fourth Crusade into a political expedition against
+Constantinople. To such a policy of transmutation he was
+urged by two things. On the one hand, the death of the count
+of Champagne (May 1201) had induced the crusaders to elect
+as their leader Boniface of Montferrat, the brother of Conrad;
+and Boniface was the cousin of Philip, and interested in Constantinople,
+where not only Conrad, but another brother as well,
+had served, and suffered for their service at the hands of their
+masters. On the other hand Alexius, the son of the dethroned
+Isaac Angelus, was related to Philip through his marriage with
+Irene; and Alexius had escaped to the German court to urge
+the restoration of his father. On Christmas day 1201, Philip,
+Alexius and Boniface all met at Hagenau<a name="fa43m" id="fa43m" href="#ft43m"><span class="sp">43</span></a> and formulated
+(one may suppose) a plan for the diversion of the Crusade.
+Events played into their hands. When the crusaders gathered
+at Venice in the autumn of 1202, it was found impossible to get
+together the 85,000 marks promised to Venice. The Venetians&mdash;already,
+perhaps, indoctrinated in the Hohenstaufen plan&mdash;indicated
+to the leaders a way of meeting the difficulty: they
+had only to lend their services to the republic for certain ends
+which it desired to compass, and the debt was settled. The
+conquest of Zara, a port on the Adriatic claimed by the Venetians
+from the king of Hungary, was the only object overtly mentioned;
+but the idea of the expedition to Constantinople was in the
+air, and the crusaders knew what was ultimately expected.
+It took time and effort to bring them round to the diversion:
+the pope&mdash;naturally enough&mdash;set his face sternly against the
+project, the more as the usurper, Alexius III., was in negotiation
+with him in order to win his support against the Hohenstaufen,
+and Innocent hoped to find, as Alexius promised, a support and
+a reinforcement for the Crusade in an alliance with the Greek
+empire. But they came round none the less, in spite of Innocent&rsquo;s
+renewed prohibitions. In November 1202 Zara was taken;
+and at Zara the fatal decision was made. The young Alexius
+joined the army; and in spite of the opposition of stern crusaders
+like Simon de Montfort, who sailed away ultimately to Palestine,
+he succeeded by large promises in inducing the army to follow
+in his train to Constantinople. By the middle of July 1203
+Constantinople was reached, the usurper was in flight, and Isaac
+Angelus was restored to his throne. But when the time came
+for Alexius to fulfil his promises, the difficulty which had arisen
+at Venice in the autumn of 1202 repeated itself. Alexius&rsquo;s
+resources were insufficient, and he had to beg the crusaders to
+wait at Constantinople for a year in order that he might have
+time. They waited; but the closer contact of a prolonged
+stay only brought into fuller play the essential antipathy of the
+Greek and the Latin. Continual friction developed at last into
+the open fire of war; and in March 1204 the crusaders resolved
+to storm Constantinople, and to divide among themselves the
+Eastern empire. In April Constantinople was captured; in
+May Baldwin of Flanders became the first Latin emperor of
+Constantinople. Venice had her own reward; a Venetian,
+Thomas Morosini, became patriarch; and the doge of Venice
+added &ldquo;a quarter and a half&rdquo; of the Eastern empire&mdash;chiefly
+the coasts and the islands&mdash;to the sphere of his sway. If
+Venetian cupidity had not originally deflected the Crusade (and
+it was the view of contemporary writers that Venice had committed
+her first treason against Christianity by diverting the
+Crusade from Egypt in order to get commercial concessions
+from Malik-al-Adil,<a name="fa44m" id="fa44m" href="#ft44m"><span class="sp">44</span></a>) yet it had at any rate profited exceedingly
+from that deflection; and the Hohenstaufen and their protégé
+Alexius only reaped dust and ashes. For, however Ghibelline
+might be the original intention, the result was not commensurate
+with the subtlety of the design, and the power of the pope was
+rather increased than diminished by the event of the Crusade.
+The crusaders appealed to Innocent to ratify the subjugation of
+a schismatic people, and the union of the Eastern and Western
+Churches; and Innocent, dazzled by the magic of the <i>fait
+accompli</i>, not unwillingly acquiesced. He might soothe himself
+by reflecting that the basis for the Crusade, which he had hoped
+to find in Alexius III., was still more securely offered by Baldwin;
+he could not but feel with pride that he had become &ldquo;as it were
+pope and apostolicus of a second world.&rdquo; Yet the result of the
+Fourth Crusade was on the whole disastrous both for the papacy
+and for the crusading movement. The pope had been forced to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span>
+see the helm of the Crusades wrenched from his grasp; and the
+Albigensian Crusade against the heretics of southern France
+was soon afterwards to show that the example could be followed,
+and that the land-hunger of the north French baronage could
+exploit a Crusade as successfully as ever did Hohenstaufen
+policy leagued with Venetian cupidity. The Crusade lost its
+<i>élan</i> when it became a move in a political game. If the Third
+Crusade had been directed by the lay power towards the true
+spiritual end of all Crusades, the Fourth was directed by the lay
+power to its own lay ends; and the political and commercial
+motives, winch were deeply implicit even in the First Crusade,
+had now become dominantly explicit. In a simpler and more
+immediate sense, the capture of Constantinople was detrimental
+to the movement from which it sprang. The precarious empire
+which had been founded in 1204 drained away all the vigorous
+adventurers of the West for its support for many years to come,
+and the Holy Land was starved to feed a land less holy, but
+equally greedy of men.<a name="fa45m" id="fa45m" href="#ft45m"><span class="sp">45</span></a> No basis for the Crusades was ever to
+be found in the Latin empire of the East; and Innocent, after
+vainly hoping for the new Crusade which was to emerge from
+Constantinople, was by 1208 compelled to return to the old idea
+of a Crusade proceeding simply and immediately from the West
+to the East.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fifth Crusade, 1218-1221.</i>&mdash;The glow and the glamour of
+the Crusades disappear save for the pathetic sunset splendours
+of St Louis, as Dandolo dies, and gallant Villehardouin drops
+his pen. But before St Louis sailed for Damietta there intervened
+the miserable failure of one Crusade, and the secular and
+diplomatic success of another. The Fifth Crusade is the last
+which is started in that pontificate of Crusades&mdash;the pontificate
+of Innocent III. It owed its origin to his feverish zeal for the
+recovery of Jerusalem, rather than to any pressing need in the
+Holy Land. Here there reigned, during the forty years of the
+loss of Jerusalem, an almost unbroken peace. Malik-al-Adil,
+the brother of Saladin, had by 1200 succeeded to his brother&rsquo;s
+possessions not only in Egypt but also in Syria, and he granted
+the Christians a series of truces (1198-1203, 1204-1210, 1211-1217).
+While the Holy Land was thus at peace, crusaders were
+also being drawn elsewhere by the needs of the Latin empire of
+Constantinople, or the attractions of the Albigensian Crusade.<a name="fa46m" id="fa46m" href="#ft46m"><span class="sp">46</span></a>
+But Innocent could never consent to forget Jerusalem, as long
+as his right hand retained its cunning. The pathos of the
+Children&rsquo;s Crusade of 1212 only nerved him to fresh efforts.
+A shepherd boy named Stephen had appeared in France, and
+had induced thousands to follow his guidance: with his
+boyish army he rode on a wagon southward to Marseilles,
+promising to lead his followers dry-shod through the seas. In
+Germany a child from Cologne, named Nicolas, gathered some
+20,000 young crusaders by the like promises, and led them into
+Italy. Stephen&rsquo;s army was kidnapped by slave-dealers and
+sold into Egypt; while Nicolas&rsquo;s expedition left nothing behind
+it but an after-echo in the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin.
+But for Innocent these outbursts of the revivalist element,
+which always accompanied the Crusades, had their moral:
+&ldquo;the very children put us to shame,&rdquo; he wrote; &ldquo;while we sleep
+they go forth gladly to conquer the Holy Land.&rdquo; In the fourth
+Lateran council of 1215 Innocent found his opportunity to
+rekindle the flickering fires. Before this great gathering of all
+Christian Europe he proclaimed a Crusade for the year 1217,
+and in common deliberation it was resolved that a truce of God
+should reign for the next four years, while for the same time all
+trade with the Levant should cease. Here were two things
+attempted&mdash;neither, indeed, for the first time<a name="fa47m" id="fa47m" href="#ft47m"><span class="sp">47</span></a>&mdash;which 14th
+century pamphleteers on the subject of the Crusades unanimously
+advocate as the necessary conditions of success; there was to be
+peace in Europe and a commercial war with Egypt. This
+statesmanlike beginning of a Crusade, preached, as no Crusade
+had ever been preached before, in a general council of all Europe,
+presaged well for its success. In Germany (where Frederick II.
+himself took the cross in this same year) a large body of crusaders
+gathered together: in 1217 the south-east sent the duke of
+Austria and the king of Hungary to the Holy Land; while in
+1218 an army from the north-west joined at Acre the forces of
+the previous year. Egypt had already been indicated by Innocent
+III. in 1215 as the goal of attack, and it was accordingly resolved
+to begin the Crusade by the siege of Damietta, on the eastern
+delta of the Nile. The original leader of the Crusade was John
+of Brienne, king of Jerusalem (who had succeeded Amalric II.,
+marrying Maria, the daughter of Amalric&rsquo;s wife Isabella by her
+former husband, Conrad of Montferrat); but after the end of
+1218 the cardinal legate Pelagius, fortified by papal letters,
+claimed the command. In spite of dissensions between the
+cardinal and the king, and in spite of the offers of Malik-al-Kamil
+(who succeeded Malik-al-Adil at the end of 1218), the crusaders
+finally carried the siege to a successful conclusion by the end of
+1219. The capture of Damietta was a considerable feat of arms,
+but nothing was done to clinch the advantage which had been
+won, and the whole of the year 1220 was spent by the crusaders
+in Damietta, partly in consolidating their immediate position,
+and partly in waiting for the arrival of Frederick II., who had
+promised to appear in 1221. In 1221 Hermann of Salza, the
+master of the Teutonic order, along with the duke of Bavaria,
+appeared in the camp before Damietta; and as it seemed useless
+to wait any longer for Frederick II.,<a name="fa48m" id="fa48m" href="#ft48m"><span class="sp">48</span></a> the cardinal, in spite of
+the opposition of King John, gave the signal for the march on
+Cairo. The army reached a fortress erected by the sultan in
+1219 (afterwards, from 1221, the town of Mansura), and encamped
+there at the end of July. Here the sultan reiterated terms which
+he had already offered several times before&mdash;the cession of most
+of the kingdom of Jerusalem, the surrender of the cross (captured
+by Saladin in 1187), and the restoration of all prisoners. King
+John urged the acceptance of these terms. The legate insisted
+on a large indemnity in addition: the negotiations failed, and
+the sultan prepared for war. The crusaders were driven back
+towards Damietta; and at the end of August 1221 Pelagius
+had to make a treaty with Malik-al-Kamil, by which he gained
+a free retreat and the surrender of the Holy Cross at the price
+of the restoration of Damietta. The treaty was to last for eight
+years, and could only be broken on the coming of a king or
+emperor to the East. In pursuance of its terms the crusaders
+evacuated Egypt, and the Fifth Crusade was at an end. It is
+difficult to decide whether to blame the legate or the emperor
+more for its failure. If Frederick had only come in person, a
+single month of his presence might have meant everything:
+if Pelagius had only listened to King John, the sultan was ready
+to concede practically everything which was at issue. Unhappily
+Frederick preferred to put his Sicilian house in order, and the
+legate preferred to listen to the Italians, who had their own
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span>
+commercial reasons for wishing to establish a strong position
+in Egypt, and to the Templars and Hospitallers, who did not
+feel satisfied by the terms offered by the sultan, because he wished
+to retain in his hands the two fortresses of Krak and Monreal.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Sixth Crusade</i> (1228-1229) succeeded as signally as the
+Fifth Crusade had failed; but the circumstances under which it
+took place and the means by which it was conducted made its
+success still more disastrous than the failure of 1221. The last
+Crusade had, after all, been under papal control: if Richard I.
+had directed the Third Crusade, and the policy of the Hohenstaufen
+and the Venetians had directed the Fourth, it was a papal
+legate who had steered the Fifth to its ultimate fate. The
+Crusade of Frederick II. in 1228-1229 finds its analogy in the
+projected Crusade of Henry VI.; it is essentially lay. It is
+unique in the annals of the Crusades. Alone of all Crusades
+(though the Fourth Crusade offers some analogy) it was not
+blessed but cursed by the papacy: alone of all the Crusades
+it was conducted without a single act of hostility against the
+Mahommedan. St Louis, the true type of the religious crusader,
+once said that a layman ought only to argue with a blasphemer
+against Christian law by running his sword into the bowels of
+the blasphemer as far as it would go:<a name="fa49m" id="fa49m" href="#ft49m"><span class="sp">49</span></a> Frederick II. talked
+amicably with all unbelievers, if one may trust Arabic accounts,
+and he achieved by mere negotiation the recovery of Jerusalem,
+for which men had vainly striven with the sword for the forty
+years since 1187. It was in 1215 that the leader of this strange
+Crusade had first taken the vow; it was twelve years afterwards
+when he finally attempted to carry the vow into effective execution.
+Again and again he had excused himself to the pope, and
+been excused by the pope, because the exigencies of his policy
+in Germany or Sicily tied his hands. After the failure of the
+Fifth Crusade&mdash;for which these delays were in part responsible&mdash;Honorius
+III. had attempted to bind him more intimately to
+the Holy Land by arranging a marriage with Isabella, the
+daughter of John of Brienne, and the heiress of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem. In 1225 Frederick married Isabella, and immediately
+after the marriage he assumed the title of king in right of his
+wife, and exacted homage from the vassals of the kingdom.<a name="fa50m" id="fa50m" href="#ft50m"><span class="sp">50</span></a>
+It was thus as king of Jerusalem that Frederick began his
+Crusade in the autumn of 1227. Scarcely, however, had he sailed
+from Brindisi when he fell sick of a fever which had been raging
+for some time among the ranks of his army, while they waited
+for the crossing. He sailed back to Otranto in order to recover
+his health, but the new pope, Gregory IX., launched in hot anger
+the bolt of excommunication, in the belief that Frederick was
+malingering once more. None the less the emperor sailed on
+his Crusade in the summer of 1228, affording to astonished
+Europe the spectacle of an excommunicated crusader, and
+leaving his territories to be invaded by papal soldiers, whom
+Gregory IX. professed to regard as crusaders against a non-Christian
+king, and for whom he accordingly levied a tithe from
+the churches of Europe. The paradox of Frederick&rsquo;s Crusade
+is indeed astonishing. Here was a crusader against whom a
+Crusade was proclaimed in his own territories; and when he
+arrived in the Holy Land he found little obedience and many
+insults from all but his own immediate followers. Yet by
+adroit use of his powers of diplomacy, and by playing upon the
+dissensions which raged between the descendants of Saladin&rsquo;s
+brother (Malik-al-Adil), he was able, without striking a blow,
+to conclude a treaty with the sultan of Egypt which gave him all
+that Richard I. had vainly attempted to secure by arduous
+fighting and patient negotiations. By the treaty of the 18th of
+February 1229, which was to last for ten years, the sultan
+conceded to Frederick, in addition to the coast towns already
+in the possession of the Christians, Nazareth, Bethlehem and
+Jerusalem, with a strip of territory connecting Jerusalem with
+the port of Acre. As king of Jerusalem Frederick was now able
+to enter his capital: as one under excommunication, he had to
+see an interdict immediately fall on the city, and it was with his
+own hands&mdash;for no churchman could perform the office&mdash;that
+he had to take his crown from the altar of the church of the
+Sepulchre, and crown himself king of his new kingdom. He
+stayed in the Holy Land little more than a month after his
+coronation; and leaving in May he soon overcame the papal
+armies in Italy, and secured absolution from Gregory IX.
+(August 1229). By his treaty with the sultan he had secured
+for Christianity the last fifteen years of its possession of Jerusalem
+(1229-1244): no man since Frederick II. has ever recovered
+the holy places for the religion which holds them most holy.
+Yet the church might ask, with some justice, whether the means
+he had used were excused by the end which he had attained. After
+all, there was nothing of the holy war about the Sixth Crusade:
+there was simply huckstering, as in an Eastern bazaar, between
+a free-thinking, semi-oriental king of Sicily and an Egyptian
+sultan. It was indeed in the spirit of a king of Sicily, and not
+in the spirit&mdash;though it was in the rôle&mdash;of a king of Jerusalem,
+that Frederick had acted. It was from his Sicilian predecessors,
+who had made trade treaties with Egypt, that he had learned
+to make even the Crusade a matter of treaty. The Norman line
+of Sicilian kings might be extinct; their policy lived after them
+in their Hohenstaufen successors, and that policy, as it had
+helped to divert the Fourth Crusade to the old Norman objective
+of Constantinople, helped still more to give the Sixth Crusade
+its secular, diplomatic, non-religious aspect.</p>
+
+<p>Forty years of struggle ended in fifteen years&rsquo; possession of
+Jerusalem. During those fifteen years the kingdom of Jerusalem
+was agitated by a struggle between the native barons,
+championing the principle that sovereignty resided in the
+collective baronage, and taking their stand on the assizes, and
+Frederick II., claiming sovereignty for himself, and opposing
+to the assizes the feudal law of Sicily. It is a struggle between
+the king and the <i>haute cour</i>: it is a struggle between the aristocratic
+feudalism of the Franks and the monarchical feudalism
+of the Normans. Already in Cyprus, in the summer of 1228,
+Frederick II. had insisted on the right of wardship which he
+enjoyed as overlord of the island,<a name="fa51m" id="fa51m" href="#ft51m"><span class="sp">51</span></a> and he had appointed a
+commission of five barons to exercise his rights. In 1229 this
+commission was overthrown by John of Ibelin, lord of Beirut,
+against whom it had taken proceedings. John of Beirut, like
+many of the Cypriot barons, was also a baron of the kingdom
+of Jerusalem; and resistance in the one kingdom could only
+produce difficulties in the other. Difficulties quickly arose when
+Frederick, in 1231, sent Marshal Richard to Syria as his legate.
+This in itself was a serious matter; according to the assizes,
+the barons maintained, the king must either personally reside
+in the kingdom, or, in the event of his absence, be replaced by a
+regency. The position became more difficult, when the legate
+took steps against John of Beirut without any authorization
+from the high court. A gild was formed at Acre&mdash;the gild of
+St Adrian&mdash;which, if nominally religious in its origin, soon came
+to represent the political opposition to Frederick, as was
+significantly proved by its reception of the rebellious John of
+Beirut as a member (1232). The opposition was successful: by
+1233 Frederick had lost all hold on Cyprus, and only retained
+Tyre in his own kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1236 he had to
+promise to recognize fully the laws of the kingdom: and when,
+in 1239, he was again excommunicated by Gregory IX., and a
+new quarrel of papacy and empire began, he soon lost the last
+vestiges of his power. Till 1243 the party of Frederick had been
+successful in retaining Tyre, and the baronial demand for a
+regency had remained without effect; but in that year the
+opposition, headed by the great family of Ibelin, succeeded,
+under cover of asserting the rights of Alice of Cyprus to the
+regency, in securing possession of Tyre, and the kingdom of
+Jerusalem thus fell back into the power of the baronage. The
+very next year (1244) Jerusalem was finally and for ever lost.
+Its loss was the natural corollary of these dissensions. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span>
+treaty of Frederick with Malik-al-Kamil (d. 1238) had now
+expired, and new succours and new measures were needed for
+the Holy Land. Theobald of Champagne had taken the cross
+as early as 1230, and 1239 he sailed to Acre in spite of the
+express prohibition of the pope, who, having quarrelled with
+Frederick II., was eager to divert any succour from Jerusalem
+itself, so long as Jerusalem belonged to his enemy. Theobald
+was followed (1240-1241) by Richard of Cornwall, the brother
+of Henry III., who, like his predecessor, had to sail in the teeth
+of papal prohibitions; but neither of the two achieved any
+permanent result, except the fortification of Ascalon. It was,
+however, by their own folly that the Franks lost Jerusalem in
+1244. They consented to ally themselves with the ruler of
+Damascus against the sultan of Egypt; but in the battle of
+Gaza they were deserted by their allies and heavily defeated
+by Bibars, the Egyptian general and future Mameluke sultan
+of Egypt. Jerusalem, which had already been plundered and
+destroyed earlier in the year by Chorasmians (Khwarizmians),
+was the prize of victory, and Ascalon also fell in 1247.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>The Crusades of St Louis.</i>&mdash;As the loss of Jerusalem in
+1187 produced the Third Crusade, so its loss in 1244 produced
+the Seventh: as the preaching of the Fifth Crusade had taken
+place in the Lateran council of 1215, so that of the Seventh
+Crusade began in the council of Lyons of 1245. But the preaching
+of the Crusade by Innocent IV. at Lyons was a curious thing.
+On the one hand he repeated the provisions of the Fourth Lateran
+council on behalf of the Crusade to the Holy Land; on the other
+hand he preached a Crusade against Frederick II., and promised
+to all who would join the full benefits of absolution and remission
+of sins. While the papacy thus bent its energies to the destruction
+of the Crusades in their genuine sense, and preferred to use
+for its own political objects what was meant for Jerusalem, a
+layman took up the derelict cause with all the religious zeal
+which any pope had ever displayed. Paradoxically enough, it
+was now the turn for the papacy to exploit the name of Crusade
+for political ends, as the laity had done before; and it was left
+to the laity to champion the spiritual meaning of the Crusade
+even against the papacy.<a name="fa52m" id="fa52m" href="#ft52m"><span class="sp">52</span></a> It was at the end of the year in which
+Jerusalem had fallen that St Louis had taken the cross, and by
+all the means in his power he attempted to ensure the success
+of his projected Crusade. He sought to mediate, though with
+no success, between the pope and the emperor; he descended
+to a whimsical piety, and took his courtiers by guile in distributing
+to them, at Christmas, clothing on which a cross had been
+secretly stitched. He started in 1248 with a gallant company,
+which contained his three brothers and the sieur de Joinville,
+his biographer; and after wintering in Cyprus he directed his
+army in the spring of 1249 against Egypt. The objective was
+unexpected: it may have been chosen by St Louis, because he
+knew how seriously the power of the sultan was undermined
+by the Mamelukes, who were in
+the very next year to depose the
+Ayyubite dynasty, which had
+reigned since 1171, and to substitute
+one of their number as
+sultan. Damietta was taken without
+a blow, and the march for Cairo
+was begun, as it had been begun
+by the legate Pelagius in 1221.
+Again the invading army halted
+before Mansura (December 1249);
+again it had to retreat. The
+retreat became a rout. St Louis was captured, and a treaty
+was made by which he had to consent to evacuate Damietta
+and pay a ransom of 800,000 pieces of gold. Eventually
+St Louis was released on surrendering Damietta and paying
+one-half of his ransom, and by the middle of May 1230 he
+reached Acre, having abandoned the Egyptian expedition.
+For the next four years he stayed in the Holy Land, seeking to
+do what he could for the establishing of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
+He was able to do but little. The struggle of papacy and empire
+paralysed Europe, and even in France itself there were few ready
+to answer the calls for help which St Louis sent home from Acre.
+The one answer was the Shepherds&rsquo; Crusade, or Crusade of the
+Pastoureaux&mdash;&ldquo;a religious Jacquerie,&rdquo; as it has been called by
+Dean Milman. It had some of the features of the Children&rsquo;s
+Crusade of 1212. That, too, had begun with a shepherd boy:
+the leader of the Pastoureaux, like the leader of the children,
+promised to lead his followers dry-shod through the seas; and
+tradition even said that this leader, &ldquo;the master of Hungary,&rdquo;
+as he was called, was the Stephen of the Children&rsquo;s Crusade.
+But the anti-clerical feeling and action of the Shepherds was
+new and ominous; and moved by its enormities the government
+suppressed the new movement ruthlessly. None came to the aid
+of St Louis; and in 1254, on the death of his mother Blanche,
+the regent, he had to return to France.</p>
+
+<p>The final collapse of the kingdom of Jerusalem had been
+really determined by the battle of Gaza in 1244, and by the
+deposition of the Ayyubite dynasty by the Mamelukes. The
+Ayyubites had always been, on the whole, chivalrous and
+tolerant: Saladin and his successors, Malik-al-Adil and Malik-al-Kamil,
+had none of them shown an implacable enmity to the
+Christians. The Mamelukes, who are analogous to the janissaries
+of the Ottoman Turks, were made of sterner and more fanatical
+stuff; and Bibars, the greatest of these Mamelukes, who had
+commanded at Gaza in 1244, had been one of the leaders in 1250,
+and was destined to become sultan in 1260, was the sternest
+and most fanatical of them all. The Christians were, however,
+able to maintain a footing in Syria for forty years after St Louis&rsquo;
+departure, not by reason of their own strength, but owing to two
+powers which checked the advance of the Mamelukes. The first
+of these was Damascus. The kingdom of Jerusalem, as we have
+seen, had profited by the alliance of Damascus as early as 1130,
+when the fear of the atabegs of Mosul had first drawn the two
+together; and when Damascus had been acquired by the rule
+of Mosul, the hostility between the house of Nureddin in
+Damascus and Saladin in Egypt had still for a time preserved
+the kingdom (from 1171 onwards). Saladin had united Egypt
+and Damascus; but after his death dissensions broke out among
+the members of his family,<a name="fa53m" id="fa53m" href="#ft53m"><span class="sp">53</span></a> which more than once led to wars
+between Damascus and Cairo. It has already been noticed that
+such a war between the sons of Malik-al-Adil accounts in large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span>
+measure for the success of the Sixth Crusade; and it has been
+seen that the battle of Gaza was an act in the long drama of
+strife between Egypt and northern Syria. The revolution in
+Egypt in 1250 separated Damascus from Cairo more trenchantly
+than they had ever been separated since 1171: while a Mameluke
+ruled in Cairo, Malik-al-N&#257;sir of Aleppo was elected as sultan
+by the emirs of Damascus. But an entirely new and far more
+important factor in the affairs of the Levant was the extension
+of the empire of the Mongols during the 13th century. That
+empire had been founded by Jenghiz Khan in the first quarter
+of the century; it stretched from Peking on the east to the
+Euphrates and the Dnieper on the west. Two things gave the
+Mongols an influence on the history of the Holy Land and the
+fate of the Crusades. In the first place, the south-western
+division of the empire, comprising Persia and Armenia, and
+governed about 1250 by the Khan Hulaku or Hulagu, was
+inevitably brought into relations, which were naturally hostile,
+with the Mahommedan powers of Syria and Egypt. In the
+second place, the Mongols of the 13th century were not as yet,
+in any great numbers, Mahommedans; the official religion was
+&ldquo;Shamanism,&rdquo; but in the Mongol army there were many
+Christians, the results of early Nestorian missions to the far East.
+This last fact in particular caused western Europe to dream of
+an alliance with the great khan &ldquo;Prester John,&rdquo; who should
+aid in the reconquest of Jerusalem and the final conversion to
+Christianity of the whole continent of Asia. The Crusades thus
+widen out, towards their close, into a general scheme for the
+christianization of all the known world.<a name="fa54m" id="fa54m" href="#ft54m"><span class="sp">54</span></a> About 1220 James of
+Vitry was already hoping that 4000 knights would, with the
+assistance of the Mongols, recover Jerusalem; but it is in 1245
+that the first definite sign of an alliance with the Mongols appears.
+In that year Innocent IV. sent a Franciscan friar, Joannes de
+Piano Carpini, to the Mongols of southern Russia, and despatched
+a Dominican mission to Persia. Nothing came of either of these
+missions; but through them Europe first began to know the
+interior of Asia, for Carpini was conducted by the Mongols as far
+as Karakorum, the capital of the great khan, on the borders
+of China. Again in 1252 St Louis (who had already begun to
+negotiate with the Mongols in the winter of 1248-1249) sent the
+friar William of Rubruquis to the court of the great khan; but
+again nothing came of the mission save an increase of geographical
+knowledge. It was in the year 1260 when it first
+seemed likely that any results definitely affecting the course of
+the Crusades would flow from the action of the Mongols. In
+that year Hulagu, the khan of Persia, invaded Syria and captured
+Damascus. His general, a Christian named Kitboga, marched
+southwards to attack the Mamelukes of Egypt, but he was
+beaten by Bibars (who in the same year became sultan of Egypt),
+and Damascus fell into the hands of the Mamelukes. Once more,
+in spite of Mongol intervention, Damascus and Cairo were united,
+as they had been united in the hands of Saladin; once more
+they were united in the hands of a devout Mahommedan, who
+was resolved to extirpate the Christians from Syria.</p>
+
+<p>While these things were taking place around them, the
+Christians of the kingdom of Jerusalem only hastened their
+own fall by internal dissensions which repeated the history of
+the period preceding 1187. In part the war of Guelph and
+Ghibelline fought itself out in the East; and while one party
+demanded a regency, as in 1243, another argued for the recognition
+of Conrad, the son of Frederick II., as king. In part, again,
+a commercial war raged between Venice and Genoa, which
+attracted into its orbit all the various feuds and animosities of
+the Levant (1257). Beaten in the war, the Genoese avenged
+themselves for their defeat by an alliance with the Palaeologi,
+which led to the loss of Constantinople by the Latins (1261),
+and to the collapse of the Latin empire after sixty years of
+infirm and precarious existence. On a kingdom thus divided
+against itself, and deprived of allies, the arm of Bibars soon fell
+with crushing weight. The sultan, who had risen from a Mongolian
+slave to become a second Saladin, and who combined the
+physique and audacity of a Danton with the tenacity and
+religiosity of a Philip II., dealt blow after blow to the Franks of
+the East. In 1265 fell Caesarea and Arsuf; in 1268 Antioch
+was taken, and the principality of Bohemund and Tancred ceased
+to exist.<a name="fa55m" id="fa55m" href="#ft55m"><span class="sp">55</span></a> In the years which followed on the loss of Antioch
+several attempts were made in the West to meet the progress of
+the new conqueror. In 1269 James the Conqueror of Aragon,
+at the bidding of the pope, turned from the long Spanish Crusade
+to a Crusade in the East in order to atone for his offences against
+the law matrimonial. An opportune storm, however, gave the
+king an excuse for returning home, as Frederick II. had done
+in 1227; and though his followers reached Acre, they hardly
+dared venture outside its walls, and returned home promptly
+in the beginning of 1270. More serious were the plans and the
+attempts of Charles of Anjou and Louis IX., in which the
+Crusades may be said to have finally ended, save for sundry
+disjointed epilogues in the 14th and 15th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Charles of Anjou had succeeded, as a result of the long
+&ldquo;crusade&rdquo; waged by the papacy against the Hohenstaufen from
+the council of Lyons to the battle of Tagliacozzo (1245-1268),
+in establishing himself in the kingdom of Sicily. With the
+kingdom of Frederick II. and Henry VI. he also took over their
+policy&mdash;the &ldquo;forward&rdquo; policy in the East which had also been
+followed by the old Norman kings. On the one hand he aimed
+at the conquest of Constantinople as Henry VI. had done before;
+and by the treaty of Viterbo of 1267 he secured from the last
+Latin emperor of the East, Baldwin II., a right of eventual
+succession. On the other hand, like Frederick II., he aimed at
+uniting the kingdom of Jerusalem with that of Sicily; and
+here, too, he was able to provide himself with a title. On the
+death of Conradin, Hugh of Cyprus had been recognized in the
+East as king of Jerusalem (1269); but his pretensions were
+opposed by Mary of Antioch, a granddaughter of Amalric II.,
+who was prepared to bequeath her claims to Charles of Anjou,
+and was therefore naturally supported by him. But the policy
+of Charles, which thus prepared the way for a Crusade similar
+to those of 1197 and 1202, was crossed by that of his brother
+Louis IX. Already in 1267 St Louis had taken the cross a
+second time, moved by the news of Bibars&rsquo; conquests; and
+though the French baronage, including even Joinville himself,
+refused to follow the lead of their king, Prince Edward of England
+imitated his example. Louis had been led to think that the
+bey of Tunis might be converted, and in that hope he resolved
+to begin this eighth and last of the Crusades by an expedition
+to Tunis. Charles, as anxious to attack Constantinople as he
+was reluctant to attack Tunis, with which Sicily had long had
+commercial relations, was forced to abandon his own plans
+and to join in those of his brother.<a name="fa56m" id="fa56m" href="#ft56m"><span class="sp">56</span></a> St Louis had barely landed
+in Tunis when he sickened and died, murmuring &ldquo;Jerusalem,
+Jerusalem&rdquo; (August 1270); but Charles, who appeared immediately
+after his brother&rsquo;s death, was able to conduct the Crusade
+to a successful conclusion. Negotiating in the spirit of a
+Frederick II., and acting not as a Crusader but as a king of
+Sicily, he not only wrested a large indemnity from the bey for
+himself and the new king of France, but also secured a large
+annual tribute for his Sicilian exchequer. So ended the Eighth
+Crusade&mdash;much as the Sixth had done&mdash;to the profound disgust
+of many of the crusaders, including Prince Edward of England,
+who only arrived on the eve of the conclusion of the treaty.
+Baulked of any opportunity of joining in the main Crusade,
+Edward, after wintering in Sicily, conducted a Crusade of his
+own to Acre in the spring of 1271. For over a year he stayed in
+the Holy Land, making little sallies from Acre, and negotiating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span>
+with the Mongols, but achieving no permanent results. He
+returned home at the end of 1272, the last of the western
+crusaders; and thus all the attempts of St Louis and Charles
+of Anjou, of James of Aragon and Edward of England left Bibars
+still in possession of all his conquests.</p>
+
+<p>Two projects of Crusades were started before the final expulsion
+of the Latins from Syria. In 1274, at the council of Lyons,
+Gregory X., who had been the companion of Edward in the
+Holy Land, preached the Crusade to an assembly which contained
+envoys from the Mongol khan and Michael Palaeologus
+as well as from many western princes. All the princes of western
+Europe took the cross; not only so, but Gregory was successful
+in uniting the Eastern and Western churches for the moment,
+and in securing for the new Crusade the aid of the Palaeologi,
+now thoroughly alarmed by the plans of Charles of Anjou. Thus
+was a papal Crusade begun, backed by an alliance with Constantinople,
+and thus were the plans of Charles of Anjou temporarily
+thwarted. But in 1276 Gregory X. died, and all his
+plans died with him; there was to be no union of the monarchs
+of the West with the emperor of the East in a common Crusade.
+Charles was able to resume his plans. In 1277 Mary of Antioch
+ceded to him her claims, and he was able to establish himself
+in Acre; in 1278 he took possession of the principality of Achaea.
+With these bases at his disposal he began to prepare a new
+Crusade, to be directed primarily (like that of Henry VI. in
+1197, and like his own projected Crusade of 1270) against
+Constantinople. Once more his plans were crossed finally and
+fatally: the Sicilian Vespers, and the coronation of Peter of
+Aragon as Sicilian king (1282), gave him troubles at home which
+occupied him for the rest of his days. This was the last serious
+attempt at a Crusade on behalf of the dying kingdom of Jerusalem
+which was made in the West; and its collapse was quickly
+followed by the final extinction of the kingdom. A precarious
+peace had reigned in the Holy Land since 1272, when Bibars
+had granted a truce of ten years; but the fall of the great power
+of Charles of Anjou set free Kal&#257;&lsquo;&#363;n the successor of Bibars&rsquo; son
+(who reigned little more than two years), to complete the work
+of the great sultan. In 1289 Kal&#257;&lsquo;&#363;n took Tripoli, and the
+county of Tripoli was extinguished; in 1290 he died while
+preparing to besiege Acre, which was captured after a brave
+defence by his son and successor Kh&#257;lil in 1291. Thus the
+kingdom of Jerusalem came to an end. The Franks evacuated
+Syria altogether, leaving behind them only the ruins of their
+castles to bear witness, to this very day, of the Crusades they had
+waged and the kingdom they had founded and lost.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>The Ghost of the Crusades.</i>&mdash;The loss of Acre failed to
+stimulate the powers of Europe to any new effort. France,
+always the natural home of the Crusades, was too fully occupied,
+first by war with England and then by a struggle with the
+papacy, to turn her energies towards the East. But it is often
+the case that theory develops as practice fails; and as the
+theory of the Holy Roman Empire was never more vigorous than
+in the days of its decrepitude, so it was with the Crusades.
+Particularly in the first quarter of the 14th century, writers
+were busy in explaining the causes of the failures of past Crusades,
+and in laying down the lines along which a new Crusade must
+proceed. Several causes are recognized by these writers as
+accounting for the failure of the Crusades. Some of them lay
+the blame on the papacy; and it is true that the papacy had
+contributed towards the decay of the Crusades when it had
+allowed its own particular interests to overbear the general
+welfare of Christianity, and had dignified with the name and the
+benefits of a Crusade its own political war against the Hohenstaufen.
+Others again find in the princes of Europe the authors
+of the ruin of the Crusades; they too had preferred their own
+national or dynastic interests to the cause of a common Christianity.
+They had indeed, as has been already noticed, done
+even more; they had used the name of Crusade, from the days
+of Henry VI. onwards, as a cover and an excuse for secular
+ambitions of their own; and in this way they had certainly
+helped, in very large measure, to discourage the old religious
+zeal for the Holy War. Other writers, again, blame the commercial
+cupidity of the Italian towns; of what avail, they asked
+with no little justice, was the Crusade, when Venice and Genoa
+destroyed the naval bases necessary for its success by their
+internecine quarrels in the Levant (as in 1257), or&mdash;still worse&mdash;entered
+into commercial treaties with the common enemy
+against whom the Crusades were directed? On the very eve
+of the Fifth Crusade, Venice had concluded a commercial treaty
+with Malik-al-Kamil of Egypt; just before the fall of Acre the
+Genoese, the king of Aragon and the king of Sicily had all
+concluded advantageous treaties with the sultan Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n. A
+fourth cause, on which many writers dwelt, particularly at the
+time when the suppression of the Templars was in question,
+was the dissensions between the two orders of Templars and
+Hospitallers, and the selfish policy of merely pursuing their own
+interest which was followed by both in common. But one might
+enumerate <i>ad infinitum</i> the causes of the failure of the Crusades.
+It is simplest, as it is truest, to say that the Crusades did not fail&mdash;they
+simply ceased; and they ceased because they were no
+longer in joint with the times. The moral character of Europe
+in 1300 was no longer the moral character of Europe in 1100;
+and the Crusades, which had been the active and objective
+embodiment of the other worldly Europe of 1100, were alien to the
+secular, legal, scholastic Europe of 1300. While Edward I. was
+seeking to found a united kingdom in Great Britain; while the
+Habsburgs were entrenching themselves in Austria; above all,
+while Philippe le Bel and his legists were consolidating the French
+monarchy on an absolutist basis, there could be little thought
+of the holy war. These were hard-headed men of affairs&mdash;men
+who would not lightly embark on joyous ventures, or seek for
+an ideal San Grail; nor were the popes, doomed to the
+Babylonian captivity for seventy long years at Avignon, able
+to call down the spark from on high which should consume all
+earthly ambitions in one great act of sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>But it is long before the death of any institution is recognized;
+and it was inevitable that men should busy themselves in trying
+to rekindle the dead embers into new life. Pierre Dubois, in a
+pamphlet &ldquo;<i>De recuperatione Sanctae Terrae</i>,&rdquo; addressed to
+Edward I. in 1307, advocates a general council of Europe to
+maintain peace and prevent the dissensions which&mdash;as, for
+instance, in 1192&mdash;had helped to cause the failure of past
+Crusades. Along with this advocacy of internationalism goes
+a plea for the disendowment of the Church, in order to provide
+an adequate financial basis for the future Crusade. Other
+proposals, made by men well acquainted with the East, are more
+definitely practical and less political in their intention. A
+blockade of Egypt by an international fleet, an alliance with
+the Mongols, the union of the two great orders&mdash;these are the
+three staple heads of these proposals. Something, indeed, was
+attempted, if little was actually done, under each of these three
+heads. The plan of an international fleet to coerce the Mahommedan
+is even to this day ineffective; but the Hospitallers,
+who acquired a new basis by the conquest of Rhodes in 1310,
+used their fleet to enforce a partial and, on the whole, ineffective
+blockade of the coast of the Levant. The union of the two
+orders, already suggested at the council of Lyons in 1245, was
+nominally achieved by the council of Vienne in 1311; but
+the so-called &ldquo;union&rdquo; was in reality the suppression of the
+Templars, and the confiscation of all their resources by the
+cupidity of Philippe le Bel. The alliance with the Mongols
+remained, from the first to the last, something of a chimera;
+and the last visionary hope vanished when the Mongols finally
+embraced Mahommedanism, as, by the end of the 14th century,
+they had almost universally done.</p>
+
+<p>Isolated enterprises somewhat of the character of a Crusade,
+but hardly serious enough to be dignified by that name, recur
+during the 14th century. The French kings are all crusaders&mdash;in
+name&mdash;until the beginning of the Hundred Years&rsquo; War;
+but the only crusader who ever carried war in Palestine and
+sought to shake the hold of the Mamelukes on the Holy Land
+was Peter I., king of Cyprus from 1359 to 1369. Peter founded
+the order of the Sword for the delivery of Jerusalem; and
+instigated by his chancellor, P. de Mézičres (one of the last of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span>
+the theorists who speculated and wrote on the Crusades), he
+attempted to revive the old crusading spirit throughout the west
+of Europe. The mission which he undertook with his chancellor
+for this purpose (1362-1365) only produced a crop of promises
+or excuses from sovereigns like Edward III. or the Emperor
+Charles IV.; and Peter was forced to begin the Crusade with
+such volunteers as he could collect for himself. In the autumn
+of 1365 he sacked Alexandria; in 1367 he ravaged the coast of
+Syria, and inflicted serious damages on the sultan of Egypt.
+But in 1369 he was assassinated, and the last romantic figure of
+the Crusades died, leaving only the legacy of his memory to his
+chancellor de Mézičres, who for nearly forty years longer continued
+to be the preacher of the Crusades to Europe, advocating&mdash;what
+always continued to be the &ldquo;dream of the old pilgrim&rdquo;&mdash;a
+new order of knights of the Passion of Christ for the recovery
+and defence of Jerusalem. De Mézičres was the last to advocate
+seriously, as Peter I. was the last to attempt, a Crusade after
+the old fashion&mdash;an offensive war against Egypt for the recovery
+of the Holy Sepulchre.<a name="fa57m" id="fa57m" href="#ft57m"><span class="sp">57</span></a> From 1350 onwards the Crusade
+assumes a new aspect; it becomes defensive, and it is directed
+against the Ottoman Turks, a tribe of Turcomans who had
+established themselves in the sultanate of Iconium at the end
+of the 13th century, during the confusion and displacement of
+peoples which attended the Mongol invasions. As early as 1308
+the Ottoman Turks had begun to settle in Europe; by 1350 they
+had organized their terrible army of janissaries. They threatened
+at once the débris of the old Latin empire in Greece and the
+archipelago, and the relics of the Byzantine empire round
+Constantinople; they menaced the Hospitallers in Rhodes and
+the Lusignans in Cyprus. It was natural that the popes should
+endeavour to form a coalition between the various Christian
+powers which were threatened by the Turks; and Venice,
+anxious to preserve her possessions in the Aegean, zealously
+seconded their efforts. In 1344 a Crusade, in which Venice,
+the Cypriots, and the Hospitallers all joined, ended in the
+conquest of Smyrna; in 1345 another Crusade, led by Humbert,
+dauphin of Vienne, ended in failure. The Turks continued
+their progress; in 1363 they captured Philippopolis, and in 1365
+they entered Adrianople; the whole Balkan peninsula was
+threatened, and even Hungary itself seemed doomed. Already
+in 1365 Urban VI. sought to unite the king of Hungary and the
+king of Cyprus in a common Crusade against the Turks; but
+it was not till 1396 that an attempt was at last made to supplement
+by a land Crusade the naval Crusades of 1344 and 1345.
+Master of Servia and of Bulgaria, as well as of Asia Minor, the
+sultan Bayezid was now threatening Constantinople itself. To
+arrest his progress, a Crusade, preached by Boniface IX.,
+led by John the Fearless of Burgundy, and joined chiefly by
+French knights, was directed down the valley of the Danube
+into the Balkans; but the old faults stigmatized by de Mézičres,
+<i>divisio</i> and <i>propria voluntas</i>, were the ruin of the crusading army,
+and at the battle of Nicopolis it was signally defeated. Not the
+Western Crusades but an Eastern rival, Timur (Tamerlane),
+king of Transoxiana and conqueror of southern Russia and India,
+was destined to arrest the progress of Bayezid; and from the
+battle of Angora (1402) till the days of Murad II. (1422) the
+Ottoman power was paralysed. Under Murad, however, it
+rose to its old height. To meet the new danger a new union of
+the churches of the East and the West was attempted. As in
+1074 Gregory VII. had dreamed of such a union, to be followed
+by a joint attack of East and West on the Seljuks, so in 1439,
+at the council of Florence, a new union of the two churches was
+again attempted and temporarily secured, in order that a united
+Christendom might face the new Turkish danger.<a name="fa58m" id="fa58m" href="#ft58m"><span class="sp">58</span></a> The logical
+result of the union was the Crusade of 1443. An army of cosmopolitan
+adventurers, led by the Cardinal Caesarini, joined the
+forces of Wladislaus of Poland and John Hunyadi of Transylvania,
+and succeeded in forcing on Murad II. a truce of ten years
+at Szegedin in 1444. But the crusaders broke the truce, to
+which Caesarini had never consented; and, attempting to better
+what was already good enough, they were defeated at Varna.
+Here the last Crusade ended; and nine years afterwards, in
+1453, Mahommed II., the successor of Murad, captured Constantinople.
+It was in vain that the popes sought to gather
+a new Crusade for its recovery; Pius II., who had vowed to
+join the crusade in person, only reached Ancona in 1464 to find
+the crusaders deserting and to die. Yet the ghost of the Crusades
+still lingered. It became a convention of diplomacy, designed
+to cover any particularly sharp piece of policy which needed
+some excuse; and the treaty of Granada, formed between
+Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Aragon for the partition of Naples
+in 1500, was excused as a thing necessary in the interests of
+the Crusades. In a more noble fashion the Crusade survived in
+the minds of the navigators; &ldquo;Vasco da Gama, Christopher
+Columbus, Albuquerque, and many others dreamed, and not
+insincerely, that they were labouring for the deliverance of the
+Holy Land, and they bore the Cross on their breasts.&rdquo;<a name="fa59m" id="fa59m" href="#ft59m"><span class="sp">59</span></a> &ldquo;Don
+Henrique&rsquo;s scheme,&rdquo; it has been said, &ldquo;represents the final
+effort of the crusading spirit; and the naval campaigns against
+the Moslem in the Indian seas, in which it culminated, forty
+years after Don Henrique&rsquo;s death, may be described as the last
+Crusade.&rdquo;<a name="fa60m" id="fa60m" href="#ft60m"><span class="sp">60</span></a></p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Results of the Crusades.</i>&mdash;In one vital respect the result
+of the Crusades may be written down as failure. They ended,
+not in the occupation of the East by the Christian West, but
+in the conquest of the West by the Mahommedan East. The
+Crusades began with the Seljukian Turk planted at Nicaea;
+they ended with the Ottoman Turk entrenched by the Danube.
+Nothing is more striking in history than the recession of Christianity
+in the East after the 13th century. In the 13th century
+the whole of Europe was Christian; part of Asia Minor still
+belonged to Greek Christianity, and there was a Christian
+kingdom in Palestine. Nor was this all. A wide missionary
+activity had begun in the 13th century&mdash;an activity which was
+the product of the Crusades and the contact with the Moslem
+which they brought, but which yet helped to check the Crusades,
+substituting as it did peaceful and spiritual conquests of souls
+for the violence and materialism of even a Holy War. The
+Eastern mission had been begun by St Francis, who had visited
+and attempted to convert the sultan of Egypt during the Fifth
+Crusade (1220); within a hundred years the little seed had grown
+into a great tree. A great field for missionary enterprise opened
+itself in the Mongol empire, in which, as has already been mentioned,
+there were many Christians to be found; and by 1350
+this field had been so well worked that Christian missions and
+Christian bishops were established from Persia to Peking, and
+from the Dnieper to Tibet itself. But a Mahommedan reaction
+came, thanks in large measure to the zeal of Timur; and central
+Asia was lost to Christianity. Everywhere in the 15th century,
+in Europe and in Asia, the crescent was victorious over the
+cross; and Crusade and mission, whether one regards them as
+complementary or inimical, perished together.<a name="fa61m" id="fa61m" href="#ft61m"><span class="sp">61</span></a></p>
+
+<p>But the history of the Crusades must be viewed rather as a
+chapter in the history of civilization in the West itself, than as
+an extension of Western dominion or religion to the East. It
+is a chapter very difficult to write, for while on the one hand an
+ingenious and speculative historian may refer to the influence
+of the Crusades almost everything which was thought or done
+between 1100 and 1300, a cautious writer who seeks to find
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span>
+documentary evidence for every assertion may be rather inclined
+to attribute to that influence little or nothing.<a name="fa62m" id="fa62m" href="#ft62m"><span class="sp">62</span></a> The dissolution of
+feudalism, the development of towns, the growth of scholasticism,
+all these and much more have been ascribed to the Crusades,
+when in truth they were concomitants rather than results, or
+at any rate, if in part the results of the Crusades, were in far
+larger part the results of other things. At most, therefore, it
+may be admitted that the Crusades <i>contributed</i> to the dissolution
+of feudalism by putting property on the market and disturbing
+the validity of titles; that they aided the development of towns
+by vastly increasing the volume of trade; and that they
+furthered the growth of scholasticism by bringing the West
+into contact with the mind of the East. If we seek the peculiar
+and definite results of the Crusades, we must turn to narrower
+issues. In the first place, the Crusades represent the attempt
+of a feudal system, bound under the law of primogeniture to
+dispose of its younger sons. They are attempts at feudal
+colonization; and as such they resulted in a number of colonies&mdash;the
+kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingdom of Cyprus, the Latin
+empire of Constantinople. They resulted too in a number of
+&ldquo;chartered companies&rdquo;&mdash;that is to say, the three military
+orders, which, beginning as charitable <span class="correction" title="amended from socities">societies</span>, developed into
+military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into
+chartered companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable
+territories. In the second place, as has already been noticed,
+the Crusades represent the attempt of Western commerce to find
+new and more easy routes to the wealth of the East; and in this
+respect they led to various results. On the one hand they led
+to the establishment of emporia in the East&mdash;for instance, Acre,
+and after the fall of Acre Famagusta, both in their day great
+centres of Levantine trade. On the other hand, the commodities
+which poured into Venice and Genoa from the East had to find
+a route for their diffusion through Europe. The great route
+was that which led from Venice over the Brenner and up the
+Rhine to Bruges; and this route became the long red line of
+municipal development, along which&mdash;in Lombardy, Germany
+and Flanders&mdash;the great towns of the middle ages sprang to life.
+Partly as a result of this trade, ever pushing its way farther east,
+and partly as a result of the Asiatic missions, which were themselves
+an accompaniment and effect of the Crusades, a third
+great result of the Crusades came to light in the 13th century&mdash;the
+discovery of the interior of Asia, and an immense accession
+to the sphere of geography. When one remembers that missionaries
+like Piano Carpini, and traders like the Venetian Polos,
+either penetrated by land from Acre to Peking, or circumnavigated
+southern Asia from Basra to Canton, one realizes that
+there was, about 1300, a discovery of Asia as new and tremendous
+as the discovery of America by Columbus two centuries later.
+At the same time the old knowledge of nearer Asia was immensely
+deepened. It has already been noticed how military reconnaissances
+of the routes to Egypt came to be made; but more
+important were the guide-books, of which a great number were
+written to guide the pilgrims from one sacred spot of Bible
+history to another. There were medieval Baedekers in abundance
+for the use of the annual flow of tourists, who were carried every
+Easter by the vessels of the Italian towns or of the Orders to
+visit the Holy Land and to bathe in Jordan, to gather palms,
+and to see the miracle of fire at the Sepulchre.</p>
+
+<p>Colonization, trade, geography&mdash;these then are three things
+closely connected with the history of the Crusades. The
+development of the art of war, and the growth of a systematic
+taxation, are two debts which medieval Europe also owed to the
+Crusades. Partly by contact with the Byzantines, partly by
+conflict with the Mahommedans, the Franks learned new methods
+both of building and of attacking fortifications. The concentric
+castle, with its rings of walls, began to displace the old keep and
+bailey with their single wall, as the crusaders brought back
+news from the East.<a name="fa63m" id="fa63m" href="#ft63m"><span class="sp">63</span></a> The art of the sapper and miner, the use
+of siege instruments like the mangonel, and the employment of
+various &ldquo;fires&rdquo; as missiles, were all known among the Mahommedans;
+and in all these respects the Franks learned from their
+enemies. The common use of armorial bearings, and the practice
+of the tournament, may be Oriental in their origin; the latter
+has its affinities with the equestrian exercises of the Jerid, and
+the former, though of prehistoric antiquity, may have received
+a new impulse from contact with the Arabs. The military
+development which sprang from the Crusades is thus largely
+a matter of borrowing; the financial development is independent
+and indigenous in the West. As early as 1147 Louis VII. had
+imposed a tax in the interests of the Crusades; and that tax
+had been repeated by Louis, and imitated by Henry II. in 1166,
+while it had been still further extended in the Saladin tithe of
+1188. The taxation of 1166 is important as the first to fall on
+&ldquo;moveables&rdquo;; the whole scheme of taxation may be regarded
+as the beginning of a modern system of taxation. But it was not
+only to the lay power that the Crusades gave an excuse for
+taxation; the papacy also profited. Tithes for the Crusades
+were first imposed on the clergy by Innocent III. at the Lateran
+council of 1215; and clerical taxation was thus part of the whole
+statesmanlike project of the Fifth Crusade as it was sketched by
+the great pope. Henceforth tithes for the Crusades are regular;
+under Gregory IX. they become a great part of the papal resources
+in the Crusade against the Hohenstaufen; and in the 16th
+century they are still a normal part of the government of the
+Church.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:820px; height:678px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img548.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">In many other ways the Europe over which the Crusades had
+passed was different from the Europe of the 11th century. In
+the first place, many political changes had been wrought, largely
+under its influence. Always in large part French, the Crusades
+had on the whole contributed to exalt the prestige of France,
+until it stood at the end of the 13th century the most considerable
+power in Europe. It was France which had colonized the Levant;
+it was the French tongue which was used in the Levant; and
+the results of the ancient and continuous connexion with the
+East are still to be traced to-day. Of the other great powers of
+Europe, England and Germany had been little changed by the
+Crusades, save that Germany had been extended towards the
+East by the conquests of the Teutonic Order; but the Eastern
+empire had been profoundly modified, and the papacy had
+suffered a great change. The Eastern empire had been for a
+time annihilated by the movement which in 1095 it had helped to
+evoke; and if it rose from its ashes in 1261 for two centuries
+of renewed life, it was never more than the shadow of its old self,
+with little hold on Asia Minor and less on Greece and the Archipelago,
+which the Latins still continued to occupy until they were
+finally conquered by the Ottoman Turks. The papacy, on the
+other hand, had grown as a result of the Crusades. Popes had
+preached them; popes had financed them; popes had sent their
+legates to lead them. Through them the popes had deposed
+the emperors of the West from their headship of the world,
+partly because through the Crusades the popes were able to
+direct the common Christianity of Europe in a foreign policy
+of their own without consultation with the emperor, partly
+because in the 13th century they were ultimately able to direct
+the Crusade itself against the empire. Yet while they had
+magnified, the Crusades had also corrupted the papacy. They
+became an instrument in its hands which it used to its own
+undoing. It cried Crusade when there was no Crusade; and
+the long Crusade against the Hohenstaufen, if it gave the papacy
+an apparent victory, only served in the long run to lower its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span>
+prestige in the eyes of Europe. When we turn from the sphere
+of politics to the history of civilization and culture, we find the
+effects of the Crusades as deeply impressed, if not so definitely
+marked. The Crusades had sprung from the policy of a theocratic
+government counting on the motive of otherworldliness;
+they had helped in their course to overthrow that motive, and
+with it the government which it had made possible. In part
+they had provided a field in which the layman could prove that
+he too was a priest; in part they had brought the West into a
+living and continuous contact with a new faith and a new
+civilization. They had torn men loose from the ancestral
+custom of home to walk in new ways and see new things and hear
+new thoughts; and some broadening of view, some lessening
+in the intensity of the old one-sidedness, was the inevitable
+result. It is not so much that the West came into contact with
+a particular civilization in the East, or borrowed from that
+civilization; it is simply that the West came into contact with
+something unlike itself, yet in many ways as high as, if not higher
+than, itself. The spirit of <i>Nathan der Weise</i> may not have been
+exactly the spirit engendered by the Crusades; and yet it is
+not without reason that Lessing stages the fable which teaches
+toleration in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. In any case the
+accusations made against the Templars at the time of their
+suppression prove that there was, at any rate in the ranks of
+those who knew the East, too little of absolute orthodoxy.
+While a new spirit which compares and tolerates thus sprang
+from the Crusades, the large sphere of new knowledge and
+experience which they gave brought new material at once
+for scientific thought and poetic imagination. Not only was
+geography more studied; the Crusades gave a great impulse
+to the writing of history, and produced, besides innumerable
+other works, the greatest historical work of the middle ages&mdash;the
+<i>Historia transmarina</i> of William of Tyre. Mathematics
+received an impulse, largely, it is true, from the Arabs of Spain,
+but also from the East; Leonardo Fibonacci, the first Christian
+algebraist, had travelled in Syria and Egypt. The study of
+Oriental languages began in connexion with the Christian
+missions of the East; Raymond Lull, the indefatigable
+missionary, induced the council of Vienne to decide on the
+creation of six schools of Oriental languages in Europe (1311).
+But the new field of poetic literature afforded by the Crusades
+is still more striking than this development of science. New
+poems in abundance dealt with the history of the Crusades,
+either in a faithful narrative, like that of the <i>Chanson</i> of Ambroise,
+which narrates the Third Crusade, or in a free and poetical
+spirit, such as breathes in the <i>Chanson d&rsquo;Antioche</i>. Nor was this
+all. The Crusades afforded new details which might be inserted
+into old matters, and a new spirit which might be infused into
+old subjects; and a crusading complexion thus came to be put
+upon old tales like those of Arthur and Charlemagne. By the
+side of these greater things it may seem little, and yet, just
+because it is little, it is all the more significant that the Crusades
+should have familiarized Europe with new plants, new fruits,
+new manufactures, new colours, and new fashions in dress.
+Sugar and maize; lemons, apricots and melons; cotton, muslin
+and damask; lilac and purple (azure and gules are words derived
+from the Arabic); the use of powder and of glass mirrors, and
+also of the rosary itself&mdash;all these things came to Europe from
+the East and as a result of the Crusades. To this day there are
+many Arabic words in the vocabulary of the languages of western
+Europe which are a standing witness of the Crusades&mdash;words
+relating to trade and seafaring, like tariff and corvette, or words
+for musical instruments, like lute or the Elizabethan word
+&ldquo;naker.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF JERUSALEM</p>
+
+<div class="center"><img style="width:840px; height:558px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img549.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">When all is said, the Crusades remain a wonderful and perpetually
+astonishing act in the great drama of human life. They
+touched the summits of daring and devotion, if they also sank
+into the deep abysms of shame. Motives of self-interest may
+have lurked in them&mdash;otherworldly motives of buying salvation
+for a little price, or worldly motives of achieving riches and
+acquiring lands. Yet it would be treason to the majesty of
+man&rsquo;s incessant struggle towards an ideal good, if one were to
+deny that in and through the Crusades men strove for righteousness&rsquo;
+sake to extend the kingdom of God upon earth. Therefore
+the tears and the blood that were shed were not unavailing;
+the heroism and the chivalry were not wasted. Humanity is
+the richer for the memory of those millions of men, who followed
+the pillar of cloud and fire in the sure and certain hope of an
+eternal reward. The ages were not dark in which Christianity
+could gather itself together in a common cause, and carry the
+flag of its faith to the grave of its Redeemer; nor can we but
+give thanks for their memory, even if for us religion is of the
+spirit, and Jerusalem in the heart of every man who believes in
+Christ.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;In dealing with the literature of the Crusades, it is
+perhaps better, though ideally less scientific, to begin with chronicles
+and narratives rather than with documents. One of the results of
+the Crusades, as has just been suggested above, was a great increase
+in the writing of history. Crusaders themselves kept diaries or
+<i>itineraria</i>; while home-keeping ecclesiastics in the West&mdash;monks
+like Robert of Reims, abbots like Guibert of Nogent, archbishops
+like Balderich of Dol&mdash;found a fertile subject for their pens in the
+history of the Crusades. The history of a series of actions like the
+Crusades must primarily be based on these accounts, and more
+particularly on the former: narratives must precede documents
+where one is dealing, not with the continuous life of an organized
+kingdom, but with a number of enterprises&mdash;especially when those
+enterprises have been, as in this case, excellently narrated by
+contemporary writers.</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Chronicles and Narratives of the Crusades</i>&mdash;(1) Collections.
+The authorities for the Crusades have been collected in Bongars,
+<i>Gesta Dei per Francos</i> (Hanover, 1611) (incomplete); Michaud,
+<i>Bibliothčque des croisades</i> (Paris, 1829) (containing translations of
+select passages in the authorities); the <i>Recueil des historiens des
+croisades</i>, published by the Académie des Inscriptions (Paris, 1841
+onwards) (the best general collection, containing many of the
+Latin, Greek, Arabic and Armenian authorities, and also the text of
+the assizes; but sometimes poorly edited and still incomplete); and
+the publications of the Société de l&rsquo;Orient Latin (founded in 1875),
+especially the <i>Archives</i>, of which two volumes were published in
+1881 and 1884, and the volumes of the <i>Revue</i>, published yearly from
+1893 to 1902, and containing not only new texts, but articles and
+reviews of books which are of great service. (2) Particular authorities.
+The Crusades&mdash;a movement which engaged all Europe and brought
+the East into contact with the West&mdash;must necessarily be studied
+not only in the Latin authorities of Europe and of Palestine, but also
+in Byzantine, Armenian and Arabic writers. There are thus some
+four or five different points of view to be considered.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>First Crusade</i>, far more than any other, became the theme of
+a multitude of writings, whose different degrees of value it is all-important
+to distinguish. Until about 1840 the authority followed
+for its history was naturally the great work of William of Tyre.
+For the First Crusade William had followed Albert of Aix; and he
+had consequently depicted Peter the Hermit as the prime mover
+in the Crusade. But about 1840 Ranke suggested, and von Sybel
+in his <i>Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzüges</i> proved, that Albert of Aix was
+<i>not</i> a good authority, and that consequently William of Tyre must
+be set aside for the history of the First Crusade, and other and more
+contemporary authorities used. In writing his account of the First
+Crusade, von Sybel accordingly based himself on the three contemporary
+Western authorities&mdash;the <i>Gesta Francorum</i>, Raymond of
+Agiles, and Fulcher. His view of the value of Albert of Aix, and his
+account of the First Crusade, have been generally followed (Kugler
+alone having attempted, to some extent, to rehabilitate Albert of
+Aix); and thus von Sybel&rsquo;s work may be said to mark a revolution
+in the history of the First Crusade, when its legendary features were
+stripped away, and its real progress was first properly discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Taking the Western authorities for the First Crusade separately,
+one may divide them, in the light of von Sybel&rsquo;s work, into four
+kinds&mdash;the accounts of eye-witnesses; later compilations based on
+these accounts; semi-legendary and legendary narratives; and
+lastly, in a class by itself, the &ldquo;History&rdquo; of William of Tyre, who
+is rather a scientific historian than a chronicler.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The three chief eye-witnesses are the anonymous author of the
+<i>Gesta Francorum</i>, Raymund of Agiles, and Fulcher. The anonymous
+author of the <i>Gesta</i> (see Hagenmeyer&rsquo;s edition, Heidelberg, 1890)
+was a Norman of South Italy, who followed Bohemund, and accordingly
+depicts the progress of the First Crusade from a Norman point
+of view. He was a layman, marching and fighting in the ranks;
+and thus he is additionally valuable as representing the opinion of
+the ordinary crusader. Finally he was an eye-witness throughout,
+and absolutely contemporary, in the sense that he wrote his account
+of each great event practically at the time of the event. He is
+the primary authority for the First Crusade. Raymund of Agiles, a
+Provençal clerk and a follower of Raymund of Toulouse, writes his
+<i>Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem</i> from the Provençal
+point of view. He gives an ecclesiastic&rsquo;s account of the First Crusade,
+and is specially full on the spiritualistic phenomena which accompanied
+and followed the finding of the Holy Lance. His book might
+almost be called the &ldquo;Visions of Peter Bartholomew and others,&rdquo;
+and it is written in the plain matter-of-fact manner of Defoe&rsquo;s
+narratives. He too was an eye-witness throughout, and thoroughly
+honest; and his account ranks second to the <i>Gesta</i>. Fulcher of
+Chartres originally followed Robert of Normandy, but in October
+1097 he joined Baldwin of Lorraine in his expedition to Edessa,
+and afterwards followed his fortunes. His <i>Historia Hierosolymitana</i>,
+which extends to 1127, and embraces not only the history of the First
+Crusade, but also that of the foundation of the kingdom of Jerusalem,
+is written on the whole from a Lotharingian point of view, and is
+thus a natural complement to the accounts of the Anonymus and
+Raymund. His account of the First Crusade itself is poor (he was
+absent at Edessa during its course), but otherwise he is an excellent
+authority. A kindly old pedant, Fulcher interlards his history with
+much discourse on geography, zoology and sacred history. Besides
+these three chief eye-witnesses we may also mention the <i>Annales
+Genuenses</i> by the Genoese consul Caffarus,<a name="fa64m" id="fa64m" href="#ft64m"><span class="sp">64</span></a> and the <i>Annales Pisani</i>
+of Bernardus Marago, useful as giving the mercantile and Italian
+side of the Crusade; the <i>Hierosolymita</i> of Ekkehard, the German
+abbot of Aura, who first came to Jerusalem about 1101 (partly based
+on the <i>Gesta</i>, but also of independent value: see Hagenmeyer&rsquo;s
+edition, Tübingen, 1877); and Raoul of Caen&rsquo;s <i>Gesta Tancredi</i>,
+composed on the basis of information supplied by Tancred himself.
+The last two works, if not actually the works of eye-witnesses, are
+at any rate first-hand, and belong to the category of primary writers
+rather than to that of later compilations. Finally, to contemporary
+writers we may add contemporary letters, especially those written
+by Stephen of Blois and Anselm of Ribemont, and the three letters
+sent to the West by the crusading princes during the First Crusade
+(see Hagenmeyer, <i>Epistulae et Chartae</i>, &amp;c., Innsbruck, 1901).<a name="fa65m" id="fa65m" href="#ft65m"><span class="sp">65</span></a></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The later compilations are chiefly based on the <i>Gesta</i>, whose
+uncouth style many writers set themselves to mend. In the first
+place, there is the <i>Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere</i> of Tudebod,
+which according to Besly, writing in 1641, is the original from
+which the <i>Gesta</i> was a mere plagiarism&mdash;an absolute inversion of the
+truth, as von Sybel first proved two centuries later. Secondly,
+besides the plagiarist Tudebod, there are the artistic <i>rédacteurs</i> of
+the <i>Gesta</i>, who confess their indebtedness, but plead the bad style of
+their original&mdash;Guibert of Nogent, Balderich of Dol, Robert of Reims
+(all <i>c.</i> 1120-1130), and Fulco, the author of a Virgilian poem on the
+Crusades, continued by Gilo (<i>ob. c.</i> 1142). Of these, the monk Robert
+was more popular in the middle ages than either the pompous abbot
+Guibert or the quiet garden-loving archbishop of Dol.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The growth of a legend, or perhaps better, a saga of the First
+Crusade began, according to von Sybel, even during the Crusade
+itself. The basis of this growth is partly the story-telling instinct
+innate in all men, which loves to heighten an effect, sharpen a point
+or increase a contrast&mdash;the instinct which breathes in Icelandic
+sagas like that of <i>Burnt Njal</i>; partly the instinct of idolization,
+if it may be so called, which leads to the perversion into impossible
+greatness of an approved character, and has created, in this instance,
+the legendary figures of Peter the Hermit and Godfrey of Bouillon
+(<i>qq.v.</i>); partly the religious impulse, which counted nothing wonderful
+in a holy war, and imported miraculous elements even into the
+sober pages of the <i>Gesta</i>. These instincts and impulses would be at
+work already among the soldiers during the Crusade, producing a
+saga all the more readily, as there were poets in the camp; for we
+know that a certain Richard, who joined the First Crusade, sang
+its exploits in verse, while still more famous is the princely troubadour,
+William of Aquitaine, who joined the Crusade of 1100. If we are
+to follow von Sybel rather than Kugler, this saga of the First
+Crusade found one of its earliest expressions (<i>c.</i> 1120) in the prose
+work of Albert of Aix (<i>Historia Hierosolymitana</i>)&mdash;genuine saga in its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span>
+inconsistencies, its errors of chronology and topography, its poetical
+colour, and its living descriptions of battles. Kugler, however,
+regards Albert as a copyist, somewhat in the manner of Tudebod,
+of an unknown writer of value, who belonged to the Lotharingian
+ranks during the Crusade, and settled in the kingdom of Jerusalem
+afterwards (see Kugler, <i>Albert von Aachen</i>, Stuttgart, 1885).<a name="fa66m" id="fa66m" href="#ft66m"><span class="sp">66</span></a> In
+the <i>Chanson des chétifs</i> and the <i>Chanson d&rsquo;Antioche</i> the legend of the
+Crusades more certainly finds its expression. The former, composed
+at Antioch about 1130, contained an idolization of the Hermit:
+the latter is a poem written about 1180 by Graindor of Douai, who
+used as his basis the verses of the crusader Richard (see the edition
+of P. Paris, 1848). It shows the growth of the legend that Graindor
+regards the vision of the Hermit as responsible for the Crusade,
+and makes the Crusade led by him precede, and indeed occasion by
+its failure, the meeting at Clermont (which is dated in May instead
+of November). Into the legendary overgrowth of the First Crusade
+we cannot here enter any further<a name="fa67m" id="fa67m" href="#ft67m"><span class="sp">67</span></a>; but it is perhaps worth while
+to mention that the French legend of the Third Crusade equally
+perverted the truth, making Richard I. return home in disgrace,
+while Philip Augustus stays, captures Damascus and mortally
+wounds Saladin (cf. G. Paris, <i>L&rsquo;Estoire de la guerre sainte</i>, Paris,
+1897; Introduction).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) William of Tyre is the scientific historian and rationalizer,
+weaving into a harmonious account, which was followed by historians
+for centuries, the sober accounts of eye-witnesses and the
+picturesque details of the saga&mdash;with somewhat of a bias towards
+the latter in regard to the First Crusade. He was a native of Palestine,
+born about 1130, and educated in the West. On his return he
+was happy in winning the good opinion of Amalric I.; he was made
+first canon and then archdeacon of Tyre, and tutor of the future
+Baldwin IV. (1170); while on Baldwin&rsquo;s accession he became
+chancellor of the kingdom and archbishop of Tyre (1174-1175).
+He was a man often employed on missions and negotiations, and as
+chancellor he had in his care the archives of the kingdom. His
+temper was naturally that of a trimmer; and he had thus many
+qualifications for the writing of well-informed and unbiassed history.
+He knew Greek and Arabic; and he was well acquainted with the
+affairs of Constantinople, to which he went at least twice on political
+business, and with the history of the Mahommedan powers, on which
+he had written a work (now lost) at the command of Amalric. It was
+Amalric also who set him to write the history of the Crusades which
+we still possess (in twenty-two books, with a fragment of a twenty-third)&mdash;the
+<i>Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum</i>. He
+wrote the book at different times between 1170 and 1183, when it
+abruptly ends, and its author as abruptly disappears from sight.
+The book falls into two parts, the first (books i.-xv.) derivative, the
+second (books xvi.-xxiii.) original. In the second part he had his
+own knowledge of events and the information of his contemporaries
+as his source: in the first he used the same authorities which we
+still possess&mdash;the <i>Gesta</i>, Fulcher, and Albert of Aix&mdash;in somewhat
+of an eclectic spirit, choosing now here, now there, according as he
+could best weave a pleasant narrative, but not according to any real
+critical principle. His book thus begins to be a real authority only
+from the date of the Second Crusade onwards; but the perfection
+of his form (for he is one of the greatest stylists of the middle ages)
+and the prestige of his position conspired to make his book the one
+authority for the whole history of the first century of the Crusades.
+Nor was he (apart from his reception of legendary elements into his
+narrative) unworthy of the honour in which he was held; for he is
+really a great historian, in the form of his matter and in his conception
+of his subject&mdash;diligent, impartial, well-informed and interesting, if
+somewhat rhetorical in style and vague in chronology.</p>
+
+<p>[During the middle ages his work was current in a French translation,
+known as the <i>Chronique d&rsquo;outre-mer</i>, or the <i>Livre</i> or <i>Roman
+d&rsquo;Éracles</i> (so called from the reference at the beginning to the
+emperor Heraclius). This translation also contained a continuation
+by various hands down to 1277; while besides the continuation
+embedded in the <i>Livre d&rsquo;Éracles</i>, there are separate continuations,
+of the nature of independent works, by Ernoul and Bernard the
+Treasurer. These latter cover the period from 1183 to 1228; and
+of the two Ernoul&rsquo;s account seems primary, while that of Bernard
+is in large part a mere copy of Ernoul. But the whole subject of
+the continuators of William of Tyre is dubious.]</p>
+
+<p>To the Western authorities for the First Crusade must be added
+the Eastern&mdash;Byzantine, Arabic and Armenian. Of these the
+Byzantine authority, the <i>Alexiad</i> of Anna Comnena, is most important,
+partly from the position of the authoress, partly from the
+many points of contact between the Byzantine empire and the
+crusaders. Anna&rsquo;s narrative both furnishes a useful corrective of
+the prejudiced Western accounts of Alexius, and serves to bring
+Bohemund forward into his proper prominence. The Armenian
+view of the First Crusade and of Baldwin&rsquo;s principality of Edessa is
+presented in the <i>Armenian Chronicle</i> of Matthew of Edessa. There
+is little in Arabic bearing on the First Crusade: the Arabic authorities
+only begin to be of value with the rise of the atabegs of Mosul (<i>c.</i>
+1127). But Kemal-ud-din&rsquo;s <i>History of Aleppo</i> (composed in the
+13th century) contains some details on the history of the First
+Crusade; and the <i>Vie d&rsquo;Ous&#257;ma</i> (the autobiography of a sheik at
+Caesarea in northern Syria, edited and paraphrased by Derenbourg
+in the <i>Publications de l&rsquo;École des langues orientales vivantes</i>) presents
+the point of view of an Arab whose life covered the first century of
+the Crusades (1095-1188).</p>
+
+<p>For the <i>Second Crusade</i> the primary authority in the West is the
+work of Odo de Deuil, <i>De profectione Ludovici VII regis Francorum
+in Orientem</i>. Odo was a monk attached by Suger to Louis VII.
+during the Second Crusade; and he wrote home to Suger during
+the Crusade seven short letters, afterwards pieced together in a single
+work. The <i>Gesta Friderici Primi</i> of Otto of Freising (who joined in
+the Second Crusade) gives some details from the German point of
+view (i. c. 44 sqq.). The former is supplemented by the letters of
+Louis VII. to Suger; the latter by the letters of Conrad III. to
+Wibald, abbot of Stablo and Corvey. The Byzantine point of view
+is presented in the <span class="grk" title="&rsquo;Epitomę">&#7960;&#960;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#942;</span> of Cinnamus, the private secretary of
+Manuel, who continued the <i>Alexiad</i> of Anna Comnena in a work
+describing the reigns of John and Manuel. It is from the Second
+Crusade that William of Tyre, representing the attitude of the
+Franks of Jerusalem, begins to be a primary authority; while on the
+Mahommedan side a considerable authority emerges in Ibn Ath&#299;r.
+His history of the Atabegs was written about 1200, and it presents
+in a light favourable to Zengi and Nureddin, but unfavourable to
+Saladin (who thrust Nureddin&rsquo;s descendants aside), the history of
+the great Mahommedan power which finally crushed the kingdom of
+Jerusalem.<a name="fa68m" id="fa68m" href="#ft68m"><span class="sp">68</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Side by side with Beha-ud-d&#299;n&rsquo;s life of Saladin, Ibn Ath&#299;r&rsquo;s work
+is the most considerable historical record written by the Arabs.
+Generally speaking the Arabic writings are late in point of date,
+and cold and jejune in style; while it must also be remembered
+that they are set religious works written to defend Islam. On the
+other hand they are generally written by men of affairs&mdash;governors,
+secretaries or ambassadors; and a fatalistic temper leads their
+authors to a certain impartial recording of everything, good or evil,
+which seems of moment.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Third Crusade</i> was narrated in the West from very different
+points of view by Anglo-Norman, French and German authorities.
+The primary Anglo-Norman authority is the <i>Carmen Ambrosii</i>, or,
+as it is called by M. Gaston Paris, <i>L&rsquo;Estoire de la guerre sainte</i>. This
+is an octosyllabic poem in French verse, written by Ambroise, a
+Norman <i>trouvčre</i> who followed Richard I. to the Holy Land. The
+poem first came to be known by scholars about 1873, and has been
+edited by M. Gaston Paris (Paris, 1897). The <i>Itinerarium Peregrinorum</i>,
+a work in ornate Latin prose, is (except for the first book) a
+translation of the <i>Carmen</i> masquerading under the guise of an independent
+work. There seems no doubt that it is a piece of plagiary,
+and that its writer, Richard, &ldquo;canon of the Holy Trinity&rdquo; in
+London, stands to the <i>Carmen</i> as Tudebod to the <i>Gesta</i>, or Albert of
+Aix to his supposed original. The Third Crusade is also described
+from the English point of view by all contemporary writers of
+history in England, <i>e.g.</i> Ralph of Coggeshall, who used information
+gained from crusaders, and William of Newburgh, who had access
+to a work by Richard I.&rsquo;s chaplain Anselm, which is now lost.<a name="fa69m" id="fa69m" href="#ft69m"><span class="sp">69</span></a>
+The French side is presented in Rigord&rsquo;s <i>Gesta Philippi Augusti</i>
+and in the <i>Gesta</i> (an abridgment and continuation of Rigord) and the
+<i>Philippeis</i> of William the Breton. The two French writers represent
+Richard as a faithless vassal: in the German writers&mdash;Tagino, dean
+of Passau, who wrote a <i>Descriptio</i> of Barbarossa&rsquo;s Crusade (1189-1190);
+and Ansbert, an Austrian clerk, who wrote <i>De expeditione
+Friderici Imperatoris</i> (1187-1196)&mdash;Richard appears rather as a
+monster of pride and arrogance. From the Arabic point of view the
+life of Richard&rsquo;s rival, Saladin, is described by Beha-ud-din, a high
+official under Saladin, who writes a panegyric on his master, somewhat
+confused in chronology and partial in its sympathies, but
+nevertheless of great value. The various continuations of William
+of Tyre above mentioned represent the opinion of the native Franks
+(which is hostile to Richard I.); while in Nicetas, who wrote a history
+of the Eastern empire from 1118 to 1206, we have a Byzantine
+authority who, as Professor Bury remarks, &ldquo;differs from Anna and
+Cinnamus in his tone towards the crusaders, to whom he is surprisingly
+fair.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For the <i>Fourth Crusade</i> the primary authority is Villehardouin&rsquo;s
+<i>La Conquęte de Constantinople</i>, an official apology for the diversion
+of the Crusade written by one of its leaders, and concealing the
+arcana under an appearance of frank naďveté. His work is usefully
+supplemented by the narrative (<i>La Prise de Constantinople</i>) of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span>
+Robert de Clary, a knight from Picardy, who presents the non-official
+view of the Crusade, as it appeared to an ordinary soldier.
+The <span class="grk" title="Chronikon tôn en Rhomania">&#967;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7952;&#957; &#8172;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#957;&#943;&#8115;</span> (composed in Greek verse some time
+after 1300, apparently by an author of mixed Frankish and Greek
+parentage, and translated into French at an early date under the
+title &ldquo;The Book of the Conquest of Constantinople and the Empire
+of Rumania&rdquo;) narrates in a prologue the events of the Fourth (as
+indeed also of the First) Crusade. The <i>Chronicle of the Morea</i> (as
+this work is generally called) is written from the Frankish point of
+view, in spite of its Greek verse; and the Byzantine point of view
+must be sought in Nicetas.<a name="fa70m" id="fa70m" href="#ft70m"><span class="sp">70</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The history of the later Crusades, from the Fifth to the Eighth,
+enters into the continuations of William of Tyre above mentioned;
+while the <i>Historia orientalis</i> of Jacques de Vitry, who had taken part
+in the Fifth Crusade, and died in 1240, embraces the history of
+events till 1218 (the third book being a later addition). The <i>Secreta
+fidelium Crucis</i> of Marino Sanudo, a history of the Crusades written
+by a Venetian noble between 1306 and 1321, is also of value, particularly
+for the Crusade of Frederick II. The minor authorities for the
+Fifth Crusade have been collected by Röhricht, in the publications
+of the Société de l&rsquo;Orient Latin for 1879 and 1882; the ten valuable
+letters of Oliver, bishop of Paderborn, and the <i>Historia Damiettina</i>,
+based on these letters, have also been edited by Röhricht in the
+<i>Westdeutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kunst</i> (1891). The Sixth
+Crusade, that of Frederick II., is described in the chronicle of
+Richard of San Germano, a notary of the emperor, and in other
+Western authorities, <i>e.g.</i> Roger of Wendover. For the Crusades of
+St Louis the chief authorities are Joinville&rsquo;s life of his master (whom
+he accompanied to Egypt on the Seventh Crusade), and de Nangis&rsquo;
+<i>Gesta Ludovici regis</i>. Several works were written on the capture of
+Acre in 1291, especially the <i>Excidium urbis Acconensis</i>, a treatise
+which emerges to throw light, after many years of darkness, on the
+last hours of the kingdom. The Oriental point of view for the 13th
+century appears in Jelaleddin&rsquo;s history of the Ayyubite sultans of
+Egypt, written towards the end of the 13th century; in Maqrizi&rsquo;s
+history of Egypt, written in the middle of the 15th century; and
+in the compendium of the history of the human race by Abulfeda
+(&dagger;1332); while the omniscient Abulfaragius (whom Rey calls the
+Eastern St Thomas) wrote, in the latter half of the 13th century, a
+chronicle of universal history in Syriac, which he also issued, in an
+Arabic recension, as a <i>Compendious History of the Dynasties</i>.</p>
+
+<p>II. The documents bearing on the history of the Crusades and the
+Latin kingdom of Jerusalem are various. Under the head of charters
+come the <i>Regesta regni Hierosolymitani</i>, published by Röhricht,
+Innsbruck, 1893 (with an Additamentum in 1904); the <i>Cartulaire
+générale des Hospitaliers</i>, by Delaville Leroulx (Paris, 1894 onwards);
+and the <i>Cartulaire de l&rsquo;église du St Sépulcre</i>, by de Rozičre (Paris,
+1849). Under the head of laws come the assizes of the Kingdom,
+edited by Beugnot in the <i>Recueil des historiens des croisades</i>; and
+the assizes of Antioch, printed at Venice in 1876. G. Schlumberger
+has written on the coins and seals of the Latin East in various
+publications; while Rey has written an <i>Étude sur les monuments
+de l&rsquo;architecture militaire</i> (Paris, 1871). The genealogy of the Levant
+is given in <i>Le Livre des lignages d&rsquo;outre-mer</i> (published along with
+the assizes).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliographies.</span>&mdash;The best modern account of the original
+authorities for the Crusades is that of A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources de
+l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>, vols. ii. and iii. W. Wattenbach&rsquo;s <i>Deutschlands
+Geschichtsquellen</i> gives an account of Albert of Aix (vol. ii., ed. 1894,
+pp. 170-180) and of Ekkehard of Aura (<i>ibid.</i> pp. 189-198). Von
+Sybel&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzüges</i> contains a full study of the
+authorities for the First Crusade; while the prefaces to Hagenmeyer&rsquo;s
+editions of the <i>Gesta</i> and of Ekkehard are also valuable. Gaston
+Dodu, in the work mentioned below, begins by a brief account of
+the original authorities, which is chiefly of value so far as it deals
+with William of Tyre and the history of the assizes; and H. Prutz
+has also a short account of some of the historians of the Crusades
+(<i>Kulturgeschichte</i>, pp. 453-469). Finally reference may be made to
+the works of Kugler and Klimke above mentioned, and to J. F.
+Michaud&rsquo;s <i>Bibliographie des croisades</i> (Paris, 1822).</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Writers.</i>&mdash;The various works of R. Röhricht present the
+soundest, if not the brightest, account of the Crusades. There is a
+<i>Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs</i> (Innsbruck, 1901), a <i>Geschichte des
+Königreichs Jerusalem</i> (<i>ibid.</i> 1898) and a <i>Geschichte der Kreuzzüge in
+Umris</i> (<i>ibid.</i> 1898). For the First Crusade von Sybel&rsquo;s work and
+Chalandon&rsquo;s <i>Alexis I<span class="sp">er</span> Comnčne</i> may also be mentioned; for the
+Fourth A. Luchaire&rsquo;s volume on <i>Innocent III: La Question d&rsquo;Orient</i>;
+while for the whole of the Crusades Norden&rsquo;s <i>Papstum und Byzanz</i>
+is of value. B. Kugler&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Kreuzzüge</i> (in Oncken&rsquo;s
+series) still remains a suggestive and valuable work; and L. Bréhier&rsquo;s
+<i>L&rsquo;Église et l&rsquo;orient au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1907) contains not only an
+up-to-date account of the Crusades, but also a full and useful bibliography,
+which should be consulted for fuller information. On
+points of chronology, and on the relations between the crusaders and
+their Mahommedan neighbours, W. B. Stevenson&rsquo;s <i>The Crusaders in
+the East</i> (Cambridge, 1907) is very valuable. On the constitutional and
+social history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem Dodu&rsquo;s <i>Histoire des
+institutions du royaume latin de Jérusalem</i> is very useful; E. G. Rey&rsquo;s
+<i>Les Colonies franques en Syrie</i> contains many interesting details;
+and Prutz&rsquo;s <i>Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzüge</i> contains both an account
+of the Latin East and an attempt to sketch the effects of the Crusades
+on the progress of civilization. The works of Gmelin and J. Delaville-Leroulx
+on the Templars and Hospitallers respectively are
+worth consulting; while for Eastern affairs the English reader
+may be referred to G. Lestrange&rsquo;s <i>Palestine under the Moslem</i>, and to
+Stanley Lane-Poole&rsquo;s <i>Life of Saladin</i> and his <i>Mahommedan Dynasties</i>
+(the latter a valuable work of reference).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Br.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Fulcher of Chartres, 1, i. For what follows, with regard to the
+Church&rsquo;s conversion of <i>guerra</i> into the Holy War, cf. especially the
+passage&mdash;&ldquo;Procedant contra infideles ad pugnam jam incipi dignam
+... qui abusive <i>privatum certamen</i> contra fideles consuescebant
+distendere quondam.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Tradition credits a pope still earlier than Gregory VII. with
+the idea of a crusade. Silvester II. is said to have preached a general
+expedition for the recovery of Jerusalem; and the same preaching is
+attributed to Sergius IV. in 1011. But the supposed letter of
+Silvester is a later forgery; and in 1000 the way of the Christian to
+Jerusalem was still free and open.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The comte de Riant impugned the authenticity of Alexius&rsquo; letter
+to the count of Flanders. It is very probable that the versions of
+this letter which we possess, and which are to be found only in later
+writings like Guibert de Nogent, are apocryphal; Alexius can hardly
+have held out the bait of the beauty of Greek women, or have written
+that he preferred to fall under the yoke of the Latins rather than
+that of the Turks. But it is also probable that these apocryphal
+versions are based on a genuine original.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Ekkehard, <i>Chronica</i>, p. 213.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The <i>Chanson de Roland</i>, which cannot be posterior to the First
+Crusade&mdash;for the poem never alludes to it&mdash;already contains the
+idea of the Holy War against Islam. The idea of the crusade had
+thus already ripened in French poetry, before Urban preached his
+sermon.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Book i. c. iii. (in Muratori, <i>S.R.I.</i>, v. 550).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Ekkehard, <i>Chronica</i>, 214.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8m" id="ft8m" href="#fa8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Later legend ascribed the origin of the First Crusade to the
+preaching of Peter the Hermit. The legend has been followed by
+modern historians; but in point of fact Peter is a figure of secondary
+importance.(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peter the Hermit</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9m" id="ft9m" href="#fa9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Godfrey&rsquo;s army numbered some 30,000 infantry and 10,000
+cavalry (Röhricht, <i>Erst. Kreuzz.</i> 61): Urban II. reckons Bohemund&rsquo;s
+knights as 7000 in number (<i>ibid.</i> 71, n. 7).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10m" id="ft10m" href="#fa10m"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The Genoese had been invited by Urban II. in September 1096
+&ldquo;to go with their gallies to Eastern parts in order to set free the path
+to the Lord&rsquo;s Sepulchre.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11m" id="ft11m" href="#fa11m"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Thus already on the First Crusade the path of negotiation
+is attempted simultaneously with the Holy War. On the Third
+Crusade, and above all on the Sixth, this path was still more seriously
+attempted. It is interesting, too, to notice the part which the laity
+already plays in directing the course of the Crusade. From the first
+the Crusade, however clerical in its conception, was largely secular
+in its conduct; and thus, somewhat paradoxically, a religious
+enterprise aided the growth of the secular motive, and contributed
+to the escape of the laity from that tendency towards a papal
+theocracy, which was evident in the pontificate of Gregory VII.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12m" id="ft12m" href="#fa12m"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Before he left, Raymund had played in Jerusalem the same part
+of dog in the manger which he had also played at Antioch, and had
+given Godfrey considerable trouble. See the articles, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Godfrey of
+Bouillon</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Raymund of Toulouse</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13m" id="ft13m" href="#fa13m"><span class="fn">13</span></a> For an account of the kings of Jerusalem see the articles on the
+five <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baldwins</a></span>, on the two <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amalrics</a></span>, on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fulk</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John of Brienne</a></span>
+and on the <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lusignan</a></span> (family).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14m" id="ft14m" href="#fa14m"><span class="fn">14</span></a> The genuineness of the letter (on which, by the way, depends the
+story of Godfrey&rsquo;s agreement with Dagobert) has been impeached
+by Prutz and Kugler, and doubted by Röhricht. It is accepted by
+von Sybel and Hagenmeyer.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15m" id="ft15m" href="#fa15m"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Yet the north always continued to be more populous than the
+south; and the Latins maintained themselves in Antioch and
+Tripoli a century after the loss of Jerusalem. The land was richer
+in the north: it was protected by its connexion with Cyprus and
+Armenia: it was more remote from Egypt&mdash;the basis of Mahommedan
+power from the reign of Saladin onwards.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16m" id="ft16m" href="#fa16m"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Pisa naturally connected itself with Antioch, because Antioch
+was hostile to Constantinople, and Pisa cherished the same hostility,
+since Alexius I. had in 1080 given preferential treatment to Venice,
+the enemy of Pisa.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17m" id="ft17m" href="#fa17m"><span class="fn">17</span></a> This is the year in which the kingdom may be regarded as
+definitely founded. The period of conquest practically ends at this
+date, though isolated gains were afterwards made. The year 1110
+is additionally important by reason of the accession of Maudud al
+Mosul, which marks the beginning of a Moslem reaction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18m" id="ft18m" href="#fa18m"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Ilghazi died in 1122. His successor was Balak, who ruled from
+1122 to 1124, and succeeded in capturing in 1123 Baldwin II. of
+Jerusalem. The union of Mardin and Aleppo under the sway of
+these two amirs, connecting as it did Mesopotamia with Syria,
+marks an important stage in the revival of Mahommedan power
+(Stevenson, <i>Crusades in the East</i>, p. 109).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19m" id="ft19m" href="#fa19m"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Maudud (the brother of the sultan Mahommed) may be regarded
+as the first to begin the <i>jihad</i>, or counter-crusade, and his attack
+expedition of 1113, which carried him so far into the heart of
+Palestine, may be considered as the first act of the <i>jihad</i> (Stevenson,
+op. cit. pp. 87, 96).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20m" id="ft20m" href="#fa20m"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Aleppo had passed from the rule of Timurtash (son of Ilghazi
+and successor of Balak) into the possession of Aksunkur, 1125.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21m" id="ft21m" href="#fa21m"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Stevenson, however, believes that Zengi was <i>not</i> animated by
+the idea of recovering Jerusalem. He thinks that his principal aim
+was simply the formation of a compact Mahommedan state, which
+was, indeed, in the issue destined to be the instrument of the <i>jihad</i>,
+but was not so intended by Zengi (op. cit. pp. 123-124).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22m" id="ft22m" href="#fa22m"><span class="fn">22</span></a> There are certain connexions and analogies between the kingdom
+of Sicily and that of Jerusalem during the twelfth century. In either
+case there is an importation of Western feudalism into a country
+originally possessed of Byzantine institutions, but affected by an
+Arabic occupation. The subject deserves investigation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23m" id="ft23m" href="#fa23m"><span class="fn">23</span></a> The holders of fiefs (<i>sodeers</i>) both held fiefs of land and received
+pay; the paid force of <i>soudoyers</i> only received pay. An instance
+of the latter is furnished by John of Margat, a vassal of the seignory
+of Arsuf. He has 200 bezants along with a quantity of wheat,
+barley, lentils and oil; and in return he must march with four horses
+(Rey, <i>Les Colonies franques en Syrie</i>, p. 24).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24m" id="ft24m" href="#fa24m"><span class="fn">24</span></a> For the history of the orders see the articles on the <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Templars</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">St John of Jerusalem, Knights of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Knights</a></span>, and the <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic
+Order</a></span>. The Templars were founded about the year 1118 by a
+Burgundian knight, Hugh de Paganis; the Hospitallers sprang
+from a foundation in Jerusalem erected by merchants of Amalfi
+before the First Crusade, and were reorganized under Gerard le Puy,
+master until 1120. The Teutonic knights date from the Third Crusade.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25m" id="ft25m" href="#fa25m"><span class="fn">25</span></a> As was noticed above, there were apparently separate assizes
+for the three principalities, in addition to the assizes of the kingdom.
+The assizes of Antioch have been discovered and published. The
+assizes of the kingdom itself are twofold&mdash;the assizes of the high
+court and the assizes of the court of burgesses. (1) The assizes of the
+high court are preserved for us in works by legists&mdash;John of Ibelin,
+Philip of Novara and Geoffrey of Tort&mdash;composed in the 13th
+century. We possess, in other words, <i>law-books</i> (like Bracton&rsquo;s
+treatise <i>De legibus</i>), but not <i>laws</i>&mdash;and law-books made after
+the loss of the kingdom to which the laws belonged. There are two
+vexed questions with regard to these law-books. (<i>a</i>) The first concerns
+the origin and character of the laws which the law-books profess
+to expound. According to the story of the legists who wrote these
+books&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> John of Ibelin&mdash;the laws of the kingdom were laid down
+by Godfrey, who is thus regarded as the great <span class="grk" title="nomothetęs">&#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#952;&#941;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> of the
+kingdom. These laws (progressively modified, it is admitted) were
+kept in Jerusalem, under the name of &ldquo;Letters of the Sepulchre,&rdquo;
+until 1187. In that year they were lost; and the legists tell us
+that they are attempting to reconstruct <i>par oir dire</i> the gist of the
+lost archetype. The story of the legists is now generally rejected.
+Godfrey never legislated: the customs of the kingdom gradually
+grew, and were gradually defined, especially under kings like Baldwin
+III. and Amalric I. If there was thus only a customary and unwritten
+law (and William of Tyre definitely speaks of a <i>jus consuetudinarium</i>
+under Baldwin III., <i>quo regnum regebatur</i>), then the
+&ldquo;Letters of the Sepulchre&rdquo; are a myth&mdash;or rather, if they ever
+existed, they existed not as a code of written law, but, perhaps, as a
+register of fiefs, like the Sicilian <i>Defetarii</i>. Thus the story of the
+legists shrinks down to the regular myth of the primitive legislator,
+used to give an air of respectability to law-books, which really record
+an unwritten custom. The fact is that until the 13th century the
+Franks lived <i>consuetudinibus antiquis et jure non scripto</i>. They
+preferred an unwritten law, as Prutz suggests, partly because it
+suited the barristers (who often belonged to the baronage, for the
+Frankish nobles were &ldquo;great pleaders in court and out of court&rdquo;),
+and partly because the high court was left unbound so long as there
+was no written code. In the 13th century it became necessary for
+the legists to codify, as it were, the unwritten law, because the
+upheavals of the times necessitated the fixing of some rules in writing,
+and especially because it was necessary to oppose a definite custom
+of the kingdom to Frederick II., who sought, as king of Jerusalem,
+to take advantage of the want of a written law, to substitute his own
+conceptions of law in the teeth of the high court. (<i>b</i>) The second
+difficulty concerns the text of the law-books themselves. The text
+of Ibelin became a <i>textus receptus</i>&mdash;but it also became overlaid by
+glosses, for it was used as authoritative in the kingdom of Cyprus
+after the loss of the kingdom of Jerusalem, and it needed expounding.
+Recensions and revisions were twice made, in 1368 and 1531; but
+how far the true Ibelin was recovered, and what additions or alterations
+were made at these two dates, we cannot tell. We can only say
+that we have the text of Ibelin which was used in Cyprus in the later
+middle ages. At the same time, if our text is thus late, it must be
+remembered that its content gives us the earliest and purest exposition
+of French feudalism, and describes for us the organization
+of a kingdom, where all rights and duties were connected with the
+fief, and the monarch was only a suzerain of feudatories. (2) The
+assizes of the court of burgesses became the basis of a treatise at
+an earlier date than the assizes of the high court. The date of the
+redaction (which was probably made by some learned burgess) may
+well have been the reign of Baldwin III., as Kugler suggests: he
+was the first native king, and a king learned in the law; but Beugnot
+would refer the assizes to the years immediately preceding Saladin&rsquo;s
+capture of Jerusalem. These assizes do not, of course, appear in
+Ibelin, who was only concerned with the feudal law of the high court.
+They were used, like the assizes of the high court, in Cyprus; and,
+like the other assizes, they were made the subject of investigation
+in 1531, with the object of discovering a good text. The law which
+is expounded in these assizes is a mixture of Frankish law with the
+Graeco-Roman law of the Eastern empire which prevailed among the
+native population of Syria.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to both assizes, it is most important to bear in mind
+that we possess not laws, but law-books or custumals&mdash;records made
+by lawyers for their fellows of what they conceived to be the law,
+and supported by legal arguments and citations of cases. But, as
+Prutz remarks, Philip of Novara <i>lehrt nicht die Wissenschaft des
+Rechts, sondern die des Unrechts</i>: he does not explain the law so
+much as the ways of getting round it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26m" id="ft26m" href="#fa26m"><span class="fn">26</span></a> For instance, the abbey of Mount Sion had large possessions,
+not only in the Holy Land (at Ascalon, Jaffa, Acre, Tyre, Caesarea
+and Tarsus), but also in Sicily, Calabria, Lombardy, Spain and
+France (at Orleans, Bourges and Poitiers).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27m" id="ft27m" href="#fa27m"><span class="fn">27</span></a> One must remember that these reinforcements would often
+consist of desperate characters. It was one of the misfortunes of
+Palestine that it served as a Botany Bay, to which the criminals
+of the West were transported for penance. The natives, already
+prone to the immorality which must infect a mixed population
+living under a hot sun, the immorality which still infects a place like
+Aden, were not improved by the addition of convicts.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28m" id="ft28m" href="#fa28m"><span class="fn">28</span></a> The manorial system in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was
+a continuation of the village system as it had existed under the Arabs.
+In each village (<i>casale)</i> the <i>rustici</i> were grouped in families (<i>foci</i>):
+the tenants paid from ź to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> of the crop, besides a poll-tax and
+labour-dues. The villages were mostly inhabited by Syrians: it
+was rarely that Franks settled down as tillers of the soil. Prutz
+regards the manorial system as oppressive. Absentee landlords, he
+thinks, rack-rented the soil (p. 167), while the &ldquo;inhuman severity&rdquo;
+of their treatment of villeins led to a progressive decay of agriculture,
+destroyed the economic basis of the Latin kingdom, and led the
+natives to welcome the invasion of Saladin (pp. 327-331).</p>
+
+<p>The French writers Rey and Dodu are more kind to the Franks;
+and the testimony of contemporary Arabic writers, who seem
+favourably impressed by the treatment of their subjects by the
+Franks, bears out their view, while the tone of the assizes is admittedly
+favourable to the Syrians. One must not forget that there
+was a brisk native manufacture of carpets, pottery, ironwork,
+gold-work and soap; or that the Syrians of the towns had a definite
+legal position.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29m" id="ft29m" href="#fa29m"><span class="fn">29</span></a> After 1143 one may therefore speak of the period of the Epigoni&mdash;the
+native Franks, ready to view the Moslems as joint occupants of
+Syria, and to imitate the dress and habits of their neighbours.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30m" id="ft30m" href="#fa30m"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Doubt has been cast on the view that a troubled conscience drove
+Louis to take the cross; and his action has been ascribed to simple
+religious zeal (cf. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, iii. 12).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31m" id="ft31m" href="#fa31m"><span class="fn">31</span></a> We speak of First, Second and Third Crusades, but, more
+exactly, the Crusades were one continuous process. Scarcely a year
+passed in which new bands did not come to the Holy Land. We
+have already noticed the great if disastrous Crusade of 1100-1101,
+and the Venetian Crusade of 1123-1124; and we may also refer to
+the Crusade of Henry the Lion in 1172, and to that of Edward I. in
+1271-1272&mdash;all famous Crusades, which are not reckoned in the
+usual numbering. Crusades appear to have been dignified by
+numbers when they followed some crushing disaster&mdash;the loss of
+Edessa in 1144, or the fall of Jerusalem in 1187&mdash;and were led by
+kings and emperors; or when, like the Fourth and Fifth Crusades,
+they achieved some conspicuous success or failure. But it is important
+to bear in mind the continuity of the Crusades&mdash;the constant
+flow of new forces eastward and back again westward; for this
+alone explains why the Crusades formed a great epoch in civilization,
+familiarizing, as they did, the West with the East.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32m" id="ft32m" href="#fa32m"><span class="fn">32</span></a> This body of crusaders ultimately reached the Holy Land,
+where it joined Conrad (who had lost his own original forces), and
+helped in the fruitless siege of Damascus. The services which it
+rendered to Portugal were repeated by later crusaders. Crusaders
+from the Low Countries, England and the Scandinavian north took
+the coast route round western Europe; and it was natural that,
+landing for provisions and water, they should be asked, and should
+consent, to lend their aid to the natives against the Moors. Such aid
+is recorded to have been given on the Third and the Fifth Crusades.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33m" id="ft33m" href="#fa33m"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Manuel was an ambitious sovereign, apparently aiming at a
+world-monarchy, such as was afterwards attempted from the other
+side by Henry VI. As Henry VI. had designs on Constantinople
+and the Eastern empire, so Manuel cherished the ambition of acquiring
+Italy and the Western empire, and he negotiated with Alexander
+III. to that end in 1167 and 1169: cf. the life of Alexander III. in
+Muratori, <i>S. R. I.</i> iii. 460.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34m" id="ft34m" href="#fa34m"><span class="fn">34</span></a> The prize was won by Raynald of Chatillon (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35m" id="ft35m" href="#fa35m"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Nureddin, unlike his father, was definitely animated by a religious
+motive: he fought first and foremost against the Latins (and not,
+like his father, against Moslem states), and he did so as a matter of
+religious duty.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36m" id="ft36m" href="#fa36m"><span class="fn">36</span></a> Henry II., as an Angevin, was the natural heir of the kingdom
+of Jerusalem on the extinction of the line descended from Fulk of
+Anjou. This explains the part played by Richard I. in deciding
+the question of the succession during the Third Crusade.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft37m" id="ft37m" href="#fa37m"><span class="fn">37</span></a> The taxation levied in the West was also attempted in the East,
+and in 1183 a universal tax was levied in the kingdom of Jerusalem,
+at the rate of 1% on movables and 2% on rents and revenues.
+Cf. Dr A. Cartellieri, <i>Philipp II. August</i>, ii. pp. 3-18 and p. 85.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft38m" id="ft38m" href="#fa38m"><span class="fn">38</span></a> Stevenson argues (op. cit. p. 240) that this truce was already
+practically dissolved before Raynald struck, and that Raynald&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;action may reasonably be viewed as the practical outcome of the
+feeling of a party.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft39m" id="ft39m" href="#fa39m"><span class="fn">39</span></a> The &ldquo;economic&rdquo; motive for taking the cross was strengthened
+by the papal regulations in favour of debtors who joined the Crusade.
+Thousands must have joined the Third Crusade in order to escape
+paying either their taxes or the interest on their debts; and the
+atmosphere of the gold-digger&rsquo;s camp (or of the cave of Adullam)
+must have begun more than ever to characterize the crusading armies.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft40m" id="ft40m" href="#fa40m"><span class="fn">40</span></a> The Crusades in their course established a number of new states
+or kingdoms. The First Crusade established the kingdom of Jerusalem
+(1100); the Third, the kingdom of Cyprus (1195); the
+Fourth, the Latin empire of Constantinople (1204); while the long
+Crusade of the Teutonic knights on the coast of the Baltic led to the
+rise of a new state east of the Vistula. The kingdom of Lesser
+Armenia, established in 1195, may also be regarded as a result of
+the Crusades. The history of the kingdom of Jerusalem is part of
+the history of the Crusades: the history of the other kingdoms or
+states touches the history of the Crusades less vitally. But the
+history of Cyprus is particularly important&mdash;and for two reasons.
+In the first place, Cyprus was a natural and excellent basis of operations;
+it sent provisions to the crusaders in 1191, and again at the
+siege of Damietta in 1219, while its advantages as a strategic basis
+were proved by the exploits of Peter of Cyprus in the 14th century.
+In the second place, as the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem fell, its
+institutions and assizes were transplanted bodily to Cyprus, where
+they survived until the island was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.
+But the monarchy was stronger in Cyprus than in Jerusalem: the
+fiefs were distributed by the monarch, and were smaller in extent;
+while the feudatories had neither the collective powers of the haute
+cour of Jerusalem, nor the individual privileges (such as jurisdiction
+over the bourgeoisie), which had been enjoyed by the feudatories
+of the old kingdom. Till 1489 the kingdom of Cyprus survived as an
+independent monarchy, and its capital, Famagusta, was an important
+centre of trade after the loss of the coast-towns in the kingdom of
+Jerusalem. In 1489 it was acquired by Venice, which claimed the
+island on the death of the last king, having adopted his widow (a
+Venetian lady named Catarina Cornaro) as a daughter of the republic.
+On the history of Cyprus, see Stubbs, <i>Lectures on Medieval and
+Modern History</i>, 156-208. The history of the kingdom of Armenia is
+closely connected with that of Cyprus. The Armenians in the
+south-east of Asia Minor borrowed feudal institutions from the Franks
+and the feudal vocabulary itself. The kingdom was involved in a
+struggle with Antioch in the early part of the 13th century. Later,
+it allied itself with the Mongols and fought against the Mamelukes,
+to whom, however, it finally succumbed in 1375.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft41m" id="ft41m" href="#fa41m"><span class="fn">41</span></a> The kingdom of Jerusalem is thus from 1192 to its final fall a
+strip of coast, to which it is the object of kings and crusaders to
+annex Jerusalem and a line of communication connecting it with
+the coast. This was practically the aim of Richard I.&rsquo;s negotiations;
+and this was what Frederick II. for a time secured.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft42m" id="ft42m" href="#fa42m"><span class="fn">42</span></a> M. Luchaire, in the volume of his biography of Innocent III.
+called <i>La Question d&rsquo;Orient</i>, shows how, in spite of the pope, the
+Fourth Crusade was in its very beginnings a lay enterprise. The
+crusading barons of France chose their own leader, and determined
+their own route, without consulting Innocent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft43m" id="ft43m" href="#fa43m"><span class="fn">43</span></a> As a matter of fact, there is some doubt whether Alexius arrived
+in Germany before the spring of 1202. But there seems to be little
+doubt of Philip&rsquo;s complicity in the diversion of the Fourth Crusade
+to Constantinople (cf. M. Luchaire, <i>La Question d&rsquo;Orient</i>, pp. 84-86).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft44m" id="ft44m" href="#fa44m"><span class="fn">44</span></a> It is true that in 1208 Venice received commercial concessions
+from the court of Cairo. But this <i>ex post facto</i> argument is the sole
+proof of this view; and it is quite insufficient to prove the accusation.
+Venice is <i>not</i> the primary agent in the deflection of the Fourth
+Crusade.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft45m" id="ft45m" href="#fa45m"><span class="fn">45</span></a> Already under Innocent III. the benefits of the Crusade were
+promised to those who went to the assistance of the Latin empire
+of the East.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft46m" id="ft46m" href="#fa46m"><span class="fn">46</span></a> In 1208 Innocent excommunicated Raymund VI. of Toulouse on
+account of the murder of a papal legate who was attempting to
+suppress Manichaeism, and offered all Catholics the right to occupy
+and guard his territories. Thus was begun the First Crusade against
+heresy. Raymund at once submitted to the pope, but the Crusade
+continued none the less, because, as Luchaire says, &ldquo;the baronage
+of the north and centre of France had finished their preparations,&rdquo;
+and were resolved to annex the rich lands of the south. In this way
+land-hunger exploited the Albigensian, as political and commercial
+motives had helped to exploit the Fourth Crusade; and in the
+former, as in the latter, Innocent had reluctantly to consent to the
+results of the secular motives which had infected a spiritual enterprise.
+The Albigensian Crusades, however, belong to French history;
+and it can only be noted here that their ultimate result was the
+absorption of the fertile lands, and the extinction of the peculiar
+civilization, of southern France by the northern monarchy. (See the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albigenses</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft47m" id="ft47m" href="#fa47m"><span class="fn">47</span></a> A canon of the third Lateran council (1179) forbade traffic with
+the Saracens in munitions of war; and this canon had been renewed
+by Innocent in the beginning of his pontificate.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft48m" id="ft48m" href="#fa48m"><span class="fn">48</span></a> He had promised the pope, at his coronation in 1220, to begin
+his Crusade in August 1221. But he declared himself exhausted by
+the expenses of his coronation; and Honorius III. consented to
+defer his Crusade until March 1222. The letter of the pope informing
+Pelagius of this delay is dated the 20th of June: it would probably
+reach his hands <i>after</i> his departure from Damietta; and thus the
+Cardinal gave the signal for the march, when, as he thought, the
+emperor&rsquo;s coming was imminent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft49m" id="ft49m" href="#fa49m"><span class="fn">49</span></a> Joinville, ch. x.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft50m" id="ft50m" href="#fa50m"><span class="fn">50</span></a> John of Brienne had only ruled in right of his wife Mary. On
+her death (1212) John might be regarded as only ruling &ldquo;by the
+courtesy of the kingdom&rdquo; until her daughter Isabella was married,
+when the husband would succeed. That, at any rate, was the view
+Frederick II. took.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft51m" id="ft51m" href="#fa51m"><span class="fn">51</span></a> Amalric I. of Cyprus had done homage to Henry VI., from
+whom he had received the title of king (1195).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft52m" id="ft52m" href="#fa52m"><span class="fn">52</span></a> It may be argued that the Crusade
+against a revolted Christian like
+Frederick II. was not misplaced, and
+that the pope had a true sense of
+religious values when he attacked
+Frederick. The answer is partly that
+men like St Louis <i>did</i> think that the
+Crusade was misplaced, and partly
+that Frederick was really attacked <i>not</i>
+as a revolted Christian, but as the
+would-be unifier of Italy, the enemy
+of the states of the church.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft53m" id="ft53m" href="#fa53m"><span class="fn">53</span></a> The following table of the Ayyubite rulers serves to illustrate the text:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:777px; height:383px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img543.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><a name="ft54m" id="ft54m" href="#fa54m"><span class="fn">54</span></a> Though Europe indulged in dreams of Mongol aid, the eventual
+results of the extension of the Mongol Empire were prejudicial to
+the Latin East. The sultans of Egypt were stirred to fresh activity
+by the attacks of the Mongols; and as Syria became the battleground
+of the two, the Latin principalities of Syria were fated to fall
+as the prize of victory to one or other of the combatants.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft55m" id="ft55m" href="#fa55m"><span class="fn">55</span></a> Of the four Latin principalities of the East, Edessa was the first
+to fall, being extinguished between 1144 and 1150. Antioch fell
+in 1268; Tripoli in 1289; and the kingdom itself may be said to
+end with the capture of Acre, 1291.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft56m" id="ft56m" href="#fa56m"><span class="fn">56</span></a> Michael Palaeologus had actually appealed to Louis IX. against
+Charles of Anjou, who in 1270 had actively begun preparations for
+the attack on Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft57m" id="ft57m" href="#fa57m"><span class="fn">57</span></a> The dream of a Crusade to Jerusalem survived de Mézičres; a
+society which read &ldquo;romaunts&rdquo; of the Crusades, could not but
+dream the dream. Henry V., whose father had fought with the
+Teutonic knights on the Baltic, dreamed of a voyage to Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft58m" id="ft58m" href="#fa58m"><span class="fn">58</span></a> The union of 1274, conceded by the Palaeologi at the council of
+Lyons in order to defeat the plans of Charles of Anjou, had only been
+temporary.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft59m" id="ft59m" href="#fa59m"><span class="fn">59</span></a> Bréhier, <i>L&rsquo;Église el l&rsquo;Orient</i>, p. 347.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft60m" id="ft60m" href="#fa60m"><span class="fn">60</span></a> <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, i. 11. It is perhaps worth remarking
+that something of the old crusading spirit seems still to linger
+in the movement of Russia towards Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft61m" id="ft61m" href="#fa61m"><span class="fn">61</span></a> While from this point of view the Crusades appear as a failure,
+it must not be forgotten that elsewhere than in the East Crusades
+did attain some success. A Crusade won for Christianity the coast
+of the eastern Baltic (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic Order</a></span>); and the centuries
+of the Spanish Crusade ended in the conquest of the whole of Spain
+for Christianity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft62m" id="ft62m" href="#fa62m"><span class="fn">62</span></a> Authors like Heeren (<i>Versuch einer Entwickelung der Folgen der
+Kreuzzüge</i>) and Michaud (in the last volume of his <i>Histoire des
+croisades</i>) fall into the error of assigning all things to the Crusades.
+Even Prutz, in his <i>Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzüge</i>, over-estimates
+the influence of the Crusades as a chapter in the history of civilization.
+He depreciates unduly the Western civilization of the early middle
+ages, and exalts the civilization of the Arabs; and starting from
+these two premises, he concludes that modern civilization is the
+offspring of the Crusades, which first brought East and West together.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft63m" id="ft63m" href="#fa63m"><span class="fn">63</span></a> It is difficult to decide how far Arabic models influenced ecclesiastical
+architecture in the West as a result of the Crusades. Greater
+freedom of moulding and the use of trefoil and cinquefoil may be,
+but need not be, explained in this way. The pointed arch owes
+nothing to the Arabs; it is already used in England in early Norman
+work. Generally, one may say that Western architecture is independent
+of the East.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft64m" id="ft64m" href="#fa64m"><span class="fn">64</span></a> His somewhat legendary treatise, <i>De liberatione civitatum
+Orientis</i>, was only composed about 1155.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft65m" id="ft65m" href="#fa65m"><span class="fn">65</span></a> There is also an <i>Inventaire critique</i> of these letters by the comte
+de Riant (Paris, 1880).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft66m" id="ft66m" href="#fa66m"><span class="fn">66</span></a> Von Sybel&rsquo;s view must be modified by that of Kugler, to which a
+scholar like Hagenmeyer has to some extent given his adhesion (cf.
+his edition of the <i>Gesta</i>, pp. 62-68). Hagenmeyer inclines to believe
+in an original author, distinct from Albert the copyist; and he
+thinks that this original author (whether or no he was present during
+the Crusade) used the <i>Gesta</i> and also Fulcher, though he had probably
+also &ldquo;<i>eigene Notizen und Aufzeichnungen</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft67m" id="ft67m" href="#fa67m"><span class="fn">67</span></a> See Pigonneau, <i>Le Cycle de la croisade</i>, &amp;c. (Paris, 1877); and
+Hagenmeyer, <i>Peter der Eremite</i> (Leipzig, 1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft68m" id="ft68m" href="#fa68m"><span class="fn">68</span></a> On the bibliography of the Second Crusade see Kugler, <i>Studien
+zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzüges</i> (Stuttgart, 1866).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft69m" id="ft69m" href="#fa69m"><span class="fn">69</span></a> Of these writers see Archer&rsquo;s <i>Crusade of Richard I.</i>, Appendix
+(in Nutt&rsquo;s series of Histories from Contemporary Writers).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft70m" id="ft70m" href="#fa70m"><span class="fn">70</span></a> The bibliography of the Fourth Crusade is discussed in Klimke,
+<i>Die Quellen zur Geschichte des vierten Kreuzzüges</i> (Breslau, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1795-1865), Swedish
+historian, early became famous both as a political and a
+historical writer. His first important work was a <i>History of
+the Early Years of the Life of King Gustavus IV. Adolphus</i>,
+which was followed by a series of monographs and by some
+politico-historical novels, of which <i>The House of Holstein-Gottorp
+in Sweden</i> is considered the best. He obtained a great influence
+over King Charles XIV. (Bernadotte), who during the years 1830-1833
+gave him his fullest confidence, and sanctioned the official
+character of Crusenstolpe&rsquo;s newspaper <i>Fäderneslandet</i>. In the
+last-mentioned year, however, the historian suddenly became
+the king&rsquo;s bitterest enemy, and used his acrid pen on all occasions
+in attacking him. In 1838 he was condemned, for one of these
+angry utterances, to be imprisoned three years in the castle of
+Waxholm. He continued his literary labours until his death
+in 1865. Few Swedish writers have wielded so pure and so
+incisive a style as Crusenstolpe, but his historical work is vitiated
+by political and personal bias.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1715-1775), German philosopher
+and theologian, was born on the 10th of January 1715
+at Lenau near Merseburg in Saxony. He was educated at
+Leipzig, and became professor of theology there in 1750, and
+principal of the university in 1773. He died on the 18th of
+October 1775. Crusius first came into notice as an opponent
+of the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff from the standpoint of
+religious orthodoxy. He attacked it mainly on the score of the
+moral evils that must flow from any system of determinism, and
+exerted himself in particular to vindicate the freedom of the will.
+The most important works of this period of his life are <i>Entwurf
+der nothwendigen Vernunftwahrheiten</i> (1745), and <i>Weg zur
+Gewissheit und Zuverlässigkeit der menschlichen Erkenntniss</i>
+(1747). Though diffusely written, and neither brilliant nor
+profound, Crusius&rsquo; philosophical books had a great but short-lived
+popularity. His criticism of Wolff, which is generally
+based on sound sense, had much influence upon Kant at the
+time when his system was forming; and his ethical doctrines
+are mentioned with respect in the <i>Kritik of Practical Reason</i>.
+Crusius&rsquo;s later life was devoted to theology. In this capacity his
+sincere piety and amiable character gained him great influence,
+and he led the party in the university which became known as
+the &ldquo;Crusianer&rdquo; as opposed to the &ldquo;Ernestianer,&rdquo; the followers
+of J. A. Ernesti. The two professors adopted opposite methods
+of exegesis. Ernesti wished to subject the Scripture to the same
+laws of exposition as are applied to other ancient books;
+Crusius held firmly to orthodox ecclesiastical tradition. Crusius&rsquo;s
+chief theological works are <i>Hypomnemata ad theologiam propheticam</i>
+(1764-1778), and <i>Kurzer Entwurf der Moraltheologie</i>
+(1772-1773). He sets his face against innovation in such matters
+as the accepted authorship of canonical writings, verbal inspiration,
+and the treatment of persons and events in the Old
+Testament as types of the New. His views, unscholarly and
+uncritical as they seem to us now, have had influence on later
+evangelical students of the Old Testament, such as E. W.
+Hengstenberg and F. Delitzsch.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is a full notice of Crusius in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine
+Encyclopädie</i>. Consult also J. E. Erdmann&rsquo;s <i>History of Philosophy</i>;
+A. Marquardt, <i>Kant und Crusius</i>; and art. in Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. St.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUSTACEA,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a very large division of the animal kingdom,
+comprising the familiar crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps and
+prawns, the sandhoppers and woodlice, the strangely modified
+barnacles and the minute water-fleas. Besides these the group
+also includes a multitude of related forms which, from their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span>
+aquatic habits and generally inconspicuous size, and from the
+fact that they are commonly neither edible nor noxious, are
+little known except to naturalists and are undistinguished by
+any popular names. Collectively, they are ranked as one of the
+classes forming the sub-phylum <span class="sc">Arthropoda</span>, and their distinguishing
+characters are discussed under that heading. It will
+be sufficient here to define them as Arthropoda for the most part
+of aquatic habits, having typically two pairs of antenniform
+appendages in front of the mouth and at least three pairs of
+post-oral limbs acting as jaws.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact, however, the range of structural variation
+within the group is so wide, and the modifications due to parasitism
+and other causes are so profound, that it is almost impossible
+to frame a definition which shall be applicable to all the members
+of the class. In certain parasites, for instance, the adults have
+lost every trace not only of Crustacean but even of Arthropodous
+structure, and the only clue to their zoological position is that
+afforded by the study of their development. In point of size
+also the Crustacea vary within very wide limits. Certain water-fleas
+(Cladocera) fall short of one-hundredth of an inch in total
+length; the giant Japanese crab (<i>Macrocheira</i>) can span over
+10 ft. between its outstretched claws.</p>
+
+<p>The habits of the Crustacea are no less diversified than their
+structure. Most of them inhabit the sea, but representatives
+of all the chief groups are found in fresh water (though the
+Cirripedia have hardly gained a footing there), and this is the
+chief home of the primitive Phyllopoda. A terrestrial habitat
+is less common, but the widely-distributed land Isopoda or
+woodlice and the land-crabs of tropical regions have solved the
+problem of adaptation to a subaërial life.</p>
+
+<p>Swimming is perhaps the commonest mode of locomotion,
+but numerous forms have taken to creeping or walking, and
+the robber-crab (<i>Birgus latro</i>) of the Indo-Pacific islands even
+climbs palm-trees. None has the power of flight, though certain
+pelagic Copepoda are said to leap from the surface of the sea
+like flying-fish. Apart from the numerous parasitic forms, the
+only Crustacea which have adopted a strictly sedentary habit
+of life are the Cirripedia, and here, as elsewhere, profound
+modifications of structure have resulted, leading ultimately to
+a partial assumption of the radial type of symmetry which is so
+often associated with a sedentary life.</p>
+
+<p>Many, perhaps the majority, of the Crustacea are omnivorous or
+carrion-feeders, but many are actively predatory in their habits,
+and are provided with more or less complex and efficient instruments
+for capturing their prey, and there are also many plant-eaters.
+Besides the sedentary Cirripedia, numbers of the
+smaller forms, especially among the Entomostraca, subsist on
+floating particles of organic matter swept within reach of the
+jaws by the movements of the other limbs.</p>
+
+<p>Symbiotic association with other animals, in varying degrees
+of interdependence, is frequent. Sometimes the one partner
+affords the other merely a convenient means of transport, as in
+the case of the barnacles which grow on, or of the gulf-weed
+crab which clings to, the carapace of marine turtles. From this
+we may pass through various grades of &ldquo;commensalism,&rdquo; like
+that of the hermit-crab with its protective anemones, to the
+cases of actual parasitism. The parasitic habit is most common
+among the Copepoda and Isopoda, where it leads to complex
+modifications of structure and life-history. Perhaps the most
+complete degeneration is found in the Rhizocephala, which are
+parasitic on other Crustacea. In these the adult consists of a
+simple saccular body containing the reproductive organs and
+attached by root-like filaments which ramify throughout the
+body of the host and serve for the absorption of nourishment
+(fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p>Many of the larger species of Crustacea are used as food by
+man, the most valuable being the lobster, which is caught in
+large quantities on both sides of the North Atlantic. Perhaps
+the most important of all Crustacea, however, with respect to
+the part which they play in the economy of nature, are the
+minute pelagic Copepoda, of which incalculable myriads form
+an important constituent of the &ldquo;plankton&rdquo; in all the seas of
+the globe. It is on the plankton that a great part of the higher
+animal life of the sea ultimately depends for food. The Copepoda
+live upon the diatoms and other important microscopic vegetable
+life at the surface of the sea, and in their turn serve as food for
+fishes and other larger forms and thus, indirectly, for man
+himself.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:181px" src="images/img553a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">A, Group of <i>Peltogaster socialis</i> on the abdomen of a small hermit-crab;
+in one of them the fasciculately ramified roots, <i>r</i>, in the liver
+of the crab are shown (Fritz Müller).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">B, Young of <i>Sacculina purpurea</i> with its roots. (Fritz Müller.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Historical Sketch.</i>&mdash;In common with most branches of natural
+history, the science of Carcinology may be traced back to its
+beginnings in the writings of Aristotle. It received additions
+of varying importance at the hands of medieval and later
+naturalists, and first began to assume systematic form under the
+influence of Linnaeus. The application of the morphological
+method to the Crustacea may perhaps be dated from the work
+of J. C. Fabricius towards the end of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>In the first quarter of the 19th century important advances
+in classification were made by P. A. Latreille, W. E. Leach and
+others, and J. Vaughan Thompson demonstrated the existence
+of metamorphosis in the development of the higher Crustacea.
+A new epoch may be said to begin with H. Milne-Edwards&rsquo;
+classical <i>Histoire naturelle des crustacés</i> (1834-1840). It is
+noteworthy that even at this late date the Cirripedia (Thyrostraca)
+were still excluded from the Crustacea, though Darwin&rsquo;s
+Monograph (1851-1854) was soon to make them known with a
+wealth of anatomical and systematic detail such as was available,
+at that time, for few other groups of Crustacea. About the
+same period three authors call for special mention, W. de Haan,
+J. D. Dana and H. Kröyer. The new impulse given to biological
+research by the publication of the <i>Origin of Species</i> bore fruit
+in Fritz Müller&rsquo;s <i>Für Darwin</i>, in which an attempt was made to
+reconstruct the phylogenetic history of the class. The same line
+of work was followed in the long series of important memoirs
+from the pen of K. F. W. Claus, and noteworthy contributions
+were made, among many others, by A. Dohrn, Ray Lankester
+and Huxley. In more recent years the long and constantly
+increasing list of writers on Crustacea contains no name more
+honoured than that of the veteran G. O. Sars of Christiania.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Morphology.</i></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:164px; height:120px" src="images/img553b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Abdominal
+Somite of a Lobster, separated
+and viewed from
+in front. <i>t</i>, tergum; <i>s</i>,
+sternum; <i>pl</i>, pleuron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>External Structure: Body.</i>&mdash;As in all Arthropoda the body consists
+of a series of segments or somites which may be free or more or
+less coalesced together. In its simplest form the exoskeleton of a
+typical somite is a ring of chitin defined from the rings in front and
+behind by areas of thinner integument forming moveable joints,
+and having a pair of appendages articulated
+to its ventral surface on either side
+of the middle line. Frequently, however,
+this exoskeletal somite may be differentiated
+into various regions. A dorsal
+and a ventral plate are often distinguished,
+known respectively as the tergum and the
+sternum, and the tergum may overhang
+the insertion of the limb on each side as
+a free plate called the pleuron. The name
+epimeron is sometimes applied to what is
+here called the pleuron, but the word has
+been used in widely different senses
+and it seems better to abandon it. The
+typical form of a somite is well seen,
+for example, in the segments which make up the abdomen or
+&ldquo;tail&rdquo; of a lobster or crayfish (fig. 2). The posterior terminal
+segment of the body, on which the opening of the anus is situated,
+never bears appendages. The nature of this segment, which is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span>
+known as the &ldquo;anal segment&rdquo; or telson (fig. 3, <i>T</i>), has been much
+discussed, some authorities holding that it is a true somite, homologous
+with those which precede it. Others have regarded it as representing
+the fusion of a number of somites, and others again as
+a &ldquo;median appendage&rdquo; or as a pair of appendages fused. Its
+morphological nature, however, is clearly shown by its development.
+In the larval development of the more primitive Crustacea, the
+number of somites, at first small, increases by the successive appearance
+of new somites between the last-formed somite and the terminal
+region which bears the anus. The &ldquo;growing point&rdquo; of the trunk is,
+in fact, situated in front of this region, and, when the full number
+of somites has been reached, the unsegmented part remaining forms
+the telson of the adult.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:592px" src="images/img554a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;The Separated Somites and Appendages of the Common
+Lobster (<i>Homarus gammarus</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>C</i>, carapace covering the cephalothorax.</p>
+<p><i>Ab</i>, abdominal somites.</p>
+<p><i>T</i>, telson, having the uropods or appendages of the last abdominal
+ somite spread out on either side of it, forming the &ldquo;tail-fan.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, labrum, or upper lip.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, metastoma, or lower lip.</p>
+<p>1, eyes.</p>
+<p>2, antennule (the arrow points to the opening of the so-called auditory organ).</p>
+<p>3, antenna.</p>
+<p>4, mandible.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>5, maxillula (or first maxilla).</p>
+<p>6, maxilla (second maxilla).</p>
+<p>7-9, first, second and third maxillipeds.</p>
+<p><i>ex</i>, exopodite.</p>
+<p><i>ep</i>, epipodite.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, gill.</p>
+<p>10, sixth thoracic limb (second walking-leg) of female.</p>
+<p>11, last thoracic limb of male. In 10 and 11 the arrows indicate the genital apertures.</p>
+<p>13, sterna of the thoracic somites, from within.</p>
+<p>14, third abdominal somite, with appendages or &ldquo;swimmerets.&rdquo;</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In no Crustacean, however, do all the somites of the body remain
+distinct. Coalescence, or suppression of segmentation (&ldquo;lipomerism&rdquo;),
+may involve more or less extensive regions. This is
+especially the case in the anterior part of the body, where, in correlation
+with the &ldquo;adaptational shifting of the oral aperture&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>), a varying number of somites unite to form the
+&ldquo;cephalon&rdquo; or head. Apart from the possible existence of an ocular
+somite corresponding to the eyes (the morphological nature of which
+is discussed below), the smallest number of head-somites so united
+in any Crustacean is five. Even where a large number of the somites
+have fused, there is generally a marked change in the character of
+the appendages after the fifth pair, and since the integumental fold
+which forms the carapace seems to originate from this point, it is
+usual to take the fifth somite as the morphological limit of the
+cephalon throughout the class. It is quite probable, however, that
+in the primitive ancestors of existing Crustacea a still smaller
+number of somites formed the head. The three pairs of appendages
+present in the &ldquo;nauplius&rdquo; larva show certain peculiarities of
+structure and development which seem to place them in a different
+category from the other limbs, and there is some ground for regarding
+the three corresponding somites as constituting a &ldquo;primary
+cephalon.&rdquo; For practical purposes, however, it is convenient to
+include the two following somites also as cephalic.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:449px; height:292px" src="images/img554b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Diagram of an Amphipod. (After Spence Bate and
+Westwood.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>C</i>, cephalon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Th</i>, thorax. (Only seven of the
+eight thoracic somites are
+visible, the first being fused
+with the cephalon.)</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>Ab</i>, abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>The numbers appended to the
+somites do not correspond to the
+enumeration adopted in the text.
+21 is the telson.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">A remarkable feature found only in the Stomatopoda is the
+reappearance of segmentation in the anterior part of the cephalic
+region. Whether the movably articulated segments which bear the
+eye-stalks and the antennules in this aberrant group correspond to
+the primitive head somites or not, their distinctness is certainly a
+secondarily acquired character, for it is not found in the larvae,
+nor in any of the more primitive groups of Malacostraca.</p>
+
+<p>The body proper is usually divisible into two regions to which
+the names <i>thorax</i> and <i>abdomen</i> are applied. Throughout the whole
+of the Malacostraca the thorax consists of eight and the abdomen of
+six somites (fig. 4), and the two regions are sharply distinguished by
+the character of their appendages. In the various groups of the
+Entomostraca, on the other hand, the terms thorax and abdomen,
+though conveniently employed for purposes of systematic description,
+do not imply any homology with the regions so named in the Malacostraca.
+Sometimes they are applied, as in the Copepoda, to the
+limb-bearing and limbless regions of the trunk, while in other cases,
+as in the Phyllopoda, they denote, respectively, the regions in front
+of and behind the genital apertures.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:436px; height:299px" src="images/img554c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Phyllopoda and Phyllocarida.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1, <i>Ceratiocaris papilio</i>, U. Silurian,
+Lanark.</p>
+
+<p>2, <i>Nebalia bipes</i>(one side of
+carapace removed).</p>
+
+<p>3, <i>Lepidurus Angassi</i>: a, dorsal
+aspect; b, ventral aspect of
+head showing the labrum and
+mouth-parts.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>4, larva of <i>Apus cancriformis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5, <i>Branchipus stagnalis</i>: <i>a</i>, adult
+female;<i> b</i>, first larval stage
+(Nauplius); <i>c</i>, second larval
+stage.</p>
+
+<p>6, Nauplius of <i>Artemia salina</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">A character which recurs in the most diverse groups of the Crustacea,
+and which is probably to be regarded as a primitive attribute
+of the class, is the possession of a carapace or shell, arising as a dorsal
+fold of the integument from the posterior margin of the head-region.
+In its most primitive form, as seen in the <i>Apodidae</i> (fig. 5, 3) and in
+<i>Nebalia</i> (fig. 5, 2), this shell-fold remains free from the trunk, which
+it envelops more or less completely. It may assume the form of a
+bivalve shell entirely enclosing the body and limbs, as in many
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span>
+Phyllopoda (fig. 6) and in the Ostracoda. In the Cirripedia it forms
+a fleshy &ldquo;mantle&rdquo; strengthened by shelly plates or valves which
+may assume a very complex structure. In many cases, however,
+the shell-fold coalesces with some of the succeeding somites. In
+the Decapoda (fig. 3), this coalescence affects only the dorsal region
+of the thoracic somites, and the lateral portions of the carapace
+overhang on each side, enclosing a pair of chambers within which
+lie the gills. The arrangement is similar in Schizopoda and Stomatopoda
+(fig. 7), except that the coalescence does not usually involve
+the posterior thoracic somites, several of which remain free, though
+they may be overlapped by the carapace.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:421px; height:229px" src="images/img555a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Morse&rsquo;s <i>Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<i>Estheria</i>, sp.; <i>D</i> from Dubuque, Iowa; (<i>e</i>) the eye.
+<i>L</i> from Lynn, Massachusetts (nat. size). <i>S</i> presents a highly
+magnified section of one of the valves to show the successive moults.
+<i>B</i> an enlarged portion of the edge of the shell along the back,
+showing the overlap of each growth.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the Isopoda and Amphipoda, where, as a rule, all the thoracic
+somites except the first are distinct (fig. 4), there seems at first sight
+to be no shell-fold. A comparison with the related Tanaidacea
+(fig. 8) and Cumacea (or Sympoda), however, leads to the conclusion
+that the coalescence of the first thoracic somite with the cephalon
+really involves a vestigial shell-fold, and, indeed, traces of this are
+said to be observed in the embryonic development of some Isopoda.
+It seems likely that a similar explanation is to be applied to the
+coalescence of one or two trunk-somites with the head in the Copepoda,
+and, if this be so, the only Crustacea remaining in which no
+trace of a shell-fold is found in the adult are the Anostracous Phyllopoda
+such as Branchipus (fig. 5, 5).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:218px; height:438px" src="images/img555b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;<i>Squilla mantis</i>
+(Stomatopoda), showing the
+last four thoracic (leg-bearing)
+somites free from the
+carapace.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>General Morphology of Appendages.</i>&mdash;Amid the great variety of
+forms assumed by the appendages of the Crustacea, it is possible to
+trace, more or less plainly, the modifications of a fundamental type
+consisting of a peduncle, the protopodite, bearing two branches, the
+endopodite and exopodite. This simple biramous form is shown
+in the swimming-feet of the Copepoda
+and Branchiura, the &ldquo;cirri&rdquo; of the
+Cirripedia, and the abdominal appendages
+of the Malacostraca (fig. 3, 14).
+It is also found in the earliest and
+most primitive form of larva, known
+as the <i>Nauplius</i>. As a rule the protopodite
+is composed of two segments,
+though one may be reduced or suppressed
+and occasionally three may
+be present. In many cases, one of
+the branches, generally the endopodite,
+is more strongly developed than the
+other. Thus, in the thoracic limbs of
+the Malacostraca, the endopodite
+generally forms a walking-leg while
+the exopodite becomes a swimming-branch
+or may disappear altogether.
+Very often the basal segment of the
+protopodite bears, on the outer side,
+a lamellar appendage (more rarely,
+two), the epipodite, which may function
+as a gill. In the appendages near the
+mouth one or both of the protopodal
+segments may bear inwardly-turned
+processes, assisting in mastication and
+known as gnathobases. The frequent
+occurrence of epipodites and gnathobases
+tends to show that the primitive
+type of appendage was more complex
+than the simple biramous limb, and
+some authorities have regarded the
+leaf-like appendages of the Phyllopoda
+as nearer the original form from
+which the various modifications found in other groups have been
+derived. In a Phyllopod such as <i>Apus</i> the limbs of the trunk
+consist of a flattened, unsegmented or obscurely segmented axis or
+corm having a series of lobes or processes known as endites and
+exites on its inner and outer margins respectively. In all the
+Phyllopoda the number of endites is six, and the proximal one is
+more or less distinctly specialized as a gnathobase, working against
+its fellow of the opposite side in seizing food and transferring it to
+the mouth. The Phyllopoda are the only Crustacea in which distinct
+and functional gnathobasic processes are found on appendages far
+removed from the mouth. The two distal endites are regarded as
+corresponding to the endopodite and exopodite of the higher Crustacea,
+the axis or corm of the Phyllopod limb representing the
+protopodite. The number of exites is less constant, but, in <i>Apus</i>,
+two are present, the proximal branchial in function and the distal
+forming a stiffer plate which probably aids in swimming. It is not
+altogether easy to recognize the homologies of the endites and exites
+even within the order Phyllopoda, and the identification of the two
+distal endites as corresponding to the endopodite and exopodite
+of higher Crustacea is not free from difficulty. It is highly probable,
+however, that the biramous limb is a simplification of a more complex
+primitive type, to which the Phyllopod limb is a more or less
+close approximation.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:407px; height:133px" src="images/img555c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;<i>Tanais dubius</i> (?) Kr. &#9792;, showing the orifice of entrance
+(<i>x</i>) into the cavity overarched by the carapace in which an appendage
+of the maxilliped (<i>f</i>) plays. On four feet (<i>i, k, l, m</i>) are the
+rudiments of the lamellae which subsequently form the brood-cavity.
+(Fritz Müller.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:283px; height:181px" src="images/img555d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i>, <i>Balanus</i> (young), side
+view with cirri protruded. <i>B</i>, Upper
+surface of same; valves closed. <i>C</i>,
+Highly magnified view of one of the
+cirri. (Morse.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The modifications which this original type undergoes are usually
+more or less plainly correlated with the functions which the appendages
+have to discharge. Thus, when acting as swimming organs, the
+appendages, or their rami, are more or less flattened, or oar-like,
+and often have the margins fringed with long plumose hairs. When
+used for walking, one of the rami, usually the inner, is stout and
+cylindrical, terminating in a claw, and having the segments united
+by definite hinge-joints. The jaws have the gnathobasic endites
+developed at the expense of the rest of the limb, the endopodite
+and exopodite persisting only as sensory &ldquo;palps&rdquo; or disappearing
+altogether. When specialized as bearers of sensory (olfactory
+or tactile) organs, the rami are generally elongated, many-jointed and
+flagelliform. This modification is usually only found in the antennules
+and antennae, but it may exceptionally be found in the
+appendages of the trunk, as, for instance, in the thoracic legs of
+some Decapods (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Mastigocheirus</i>). Very often one or other of the
+appendages may be modified for prehension, the seizing of prey or
+the holding of a mate. In this case, the claw-like terminal segment
+may be simply flexed against the preceding in the same way as the
+blade of a penknife shuts up against the handle. The penultimate
+segment is often broadened, so that the terminal claw shuts against
+a transverse edge (fig. 4), or, finally, the penultimate segment may be
+produced into a thumb-like process opposed to the movable terminal
+segment or finger, forming a perfect chela or forceps, as, for instance,
+in the large claws of a crab
+or lobster. This chelate
+condition may be assumed
+by almost any of the appendages,
+and sometimes it
+appears in different appendages
+in closely related
+forms, so that no very
+great phylogenetic importance
+can in most cases be
+attached to it. A peculiar
+modification is found in the
+trunk-limbs of the Cirripedia
+(fig. 9), in which both
+rami are multiarticulate
+and filiform and fringed
+with long bristles. When
+protruded from the opening
+of the shell these &ldquo;cirri&rdquo;
+are spread out to form a casting-net for the capture of minute
+floating prey.</p>
+
+<p>Gills or branchiae may be developed by parts of an appendage
+becoming thin-walled and vascular and either expanded into a thin
+lamella or ramified. Some of the special modifications of branchiae
+are referred to below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Special Morphology of Appendages.</i>&mdash;In many Crustacea the eyes
+are borne on stalks which are movably articulated with the head
+and which may be divided into two or three segments. The view is
+commonly held that these eye-stalks are really limbs, homologous
+with the other appendages. In spite of much discussion, however,
+it cannot be said that this point has been finally settled. The evidence
+of embryology is decidedly against the view that the eye-stalks
+are limbs. They are absent in the earliest and most primitive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span>
+larval forms (nauplius), and appear only late in the course of development,
+after many of the trunk-limbs are fully formed. In the
+development of the Phyllopod <i>Branchipus</i>, the eyes are at first
+sessile, and the lateral lobes of the head on which they are set grow
+out and become movably articulated, forming the peduncles. The
+most important evidence in favour of their appendicular nature is
+afforded by the phenomena of regeneration. When the eye-stalk is
+removed from a living lobster or prawn, it is found that under certain
+conditions a many-jointed appendage like the flagellum of an
+antennule or antenna may grow in its place. It is open to question,
+however, how far the evidence from such &ldquo;heteromorphic regeneration&rdquo;
+can be regarded as conclusive on the points of homology.
+The fact that in certain rare cases among insects a leg may apparently
+be replaced by a wing tends to show that under exceptional
+conditions similar forms may be assumed by non-homologous
+parts.</p>
+
+<p>The antennules (or first antennae) are almost universally regarded
+as true appendages, though they differ from all the other appendages
+in the fact that they are always innervated from the &ldquo;brain&rdquo; (or
+preoral ganglia), and that they are uniramous in the nauplius larva
+and in all the Entomostracan orders. As regards their innervation
+an apparent exception is found in the case of <i>Apus</i>, where the nerves
+to the antennules arise, behind the brain, from the oesophageal
+commissures, but this is, no doubt, a secondary condition, and the
+nerve-fibres have been traced forwards to centres within the brain.
+In the Malacostraca, the antennules are often biramous, but there is
+considerable doubt as to whether the two branches represent the
+endopodite and exopodite of the other limbs, and three branches
+are found in the Stomatopoda and in some Caridea. In the great
+majority of Crustacea the antennules are purely sensory in function
+and carry numerous &ldquo;olfactory&rdquo; hairs. They may, however, be
+natatory as in many Ostracoda and Copepoda, or prehensile, as in
+some Copepoda. The most peculiar modification, perhaps, is that
+found in the Cirripedia (Thyrostraca), in the larvae of which the
+antennules develop into organs of attachment, bearing the openings
+of the cement-glands, and becoming, in the adult, involved in the
+attachment of the animal to its support.</p>
+
+<p>The antennae (second antennae) are of special interest on account
+of the clear evidence that, although preoral in position in all adult
+Crustacea, they were originally postoral appendages. In the nauplius
+larva they lie rather at the sides than in front of the mouth, and
+their basal portion carries a hook-like masticatory process which
+assists the similar processes of the mandibles in seizing food. In the
+primitive Phyllopoda, and less distinctly in some other orders, the
+nerves supplying the antennae arise, not from the brain, but from
+the circum-oesophageal commissures, and even in those cases where
+the nerves and the ganglia in which they are rooted have been moved
+forwards to the brain, the transverse commissure of the ganglia
+can still be traced, running behind the oesophagus.</p>
+
+<p>The functions of the antennae are more varied than is the case
+with the antennules. In many Entomostraca (Phyllopoda, Cladocera,
+Ostracoda, Copepoda) they are important, and sometimes the
+only, organs of locomotion. In some male Phyllopoda they form
+complex &ldquo;claspers&rdquo; for holding the female. They are frequently
+organs of attachment in parasitic Copepoda, and they may be
+completely pediform in the Ostracoda. In the Malacostraca they are
+chiefly sensory, the endopodite forming a long flagellum, while the
+exopodite may form a lamellar &ldquo;scale,&rdquo; probably useful as a balancer
+in swimming, or may disappear altogether. A very curious function
+sometimes discharged by the antennules or antennae of Decapods
+is that of forming a respiratory siphon in sand-burrowing species.</p>
+
+<p>The mandibles, like the antennae, have, in the nauplius, the form
+of biramous swimming limbs, with a masticatory process originating
+from the proximal part of the protopodite. This form is retained,
+with little alteration in some adult Copepoda, where the biramous
+&ldquo;palp&rdquo; still aids in locomotion. A somewhat similar structure is
+found also in some Ostracoda. In most cases, however, the palp
+loses its exopodite and it often disappears altogether, while the coxal
+segment forms the body of the mandible, with a masticatory edge
+variously armed with teeth and spines. In a few Ostracoda, by a
+rare exception, the masticatory process is reduced or suppressed,
+and the palp alone remains, forming a pediform appendage used in
+locomotion as well as in the prehension of food. In parasitic blood-sucking
+forms the mandibles often have the shape of piercing
+stylets, and are enclosed in a tubular proboscis formed by the union
+of the upper lip (labrum) with the lower lip (hypostome or paragnatha).</p>
+
+<p>The maxillulae and maxillae (or, as they are often termed, first
+and second maxillae) are nearly always flattened leaf-like appendages,
+having gnathobasic lobes or endites borne by the segments of the
+protopodite. The endopodite, when present, is unsegmented or
+composed of few segments and forms the &ldquo;palp,&rdquo; and outwardly-directed
+lobes representing the exopodite and epipodites may also be
+present. These limbs undergo great modification in the different
+groups. The maxillulae are sometimes closely connected with the
+&ldquo;paragnatha&rdquo; or lobes of the lower lip, when these are present,
+and it has been suggested that the paragnatha are really the basal
+endites which have become partly separated from the rest of the
+appendage.</p>
+
+<p>The limbs of the post-cephalic series show little differentiation
+among themselves in many Entomostraca. In the Phyllopoda they
+are for the most part all alike, though one or two of the anterior
+pairs may be specialized as sensory (<i>Apus</i>) or grasping (<i>Estheriidae</i>)
+organs. In the Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) the six pairs of biramous
+cirriform limbs differ only slightly from each other, and in many
+Copepoda this is also the case. In other Entomostraca considerable
+differentiation may take place, but the series is never divided into
+definite &ldquo;tagmata&rdquo; or groups of similarly modified appendages.
+It is highly characteristic of the Malacostraca, however, that the
+trunk-limbs are divided into two sharply defined tagmata corresponding
+to the thoracic and abdominal regions respectively, the limit
+between the two being marked by the position of the male genital
+openings. The thoracic limbs have the endopodites converted, as a
+rule, into more or less efficient walking-legs, and the exopodites are
+often lost, while the abdominal limbs more generally preserve the
+biramous form and are, in the more primitive types, natatory.
+These tagmata may again be subdivided into groups preserving a
+more or less marked individuality. For example, in the Amphipoda
+(fig. 4) the abdominal appendages are constantly divided into an
+anterior group of three natatory &ldquo;swimmerets&rdquo; and a posterior
+group of three limbs used chiefly in jumping or in burrowing. In
+nearly all Malacostraca the last pair of abdominal appendages
+(uropods) differ from the others, and in the more primitive groups
+they form, with the telson, a lamellar &ldquo;tail-fan&rdquo; (fig. 3, <i>T</i>), used in
+springing backwards through the water. In the thoracic series it is
+usual for one or more of the anterior pairs to be pressed into the
+service of the mouth, forming &ldquo;foot-jaws&rdquo; or maxillipeds. In the
+Decapoda three pairs are thus modified, and in the Tanaidacea,
+Isopoda and Amphipoda only one. In the Schizopoda and Cumacea
+the line of division is less sharp, and the varying number of so-called
+maxillipeds recognized by different authors gives rise to some
+confusion of terminology in systematic literature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gills.</i>&mdash;In many of the smaller Entomostraca (Copepoda and most
+Ostracoda) no special gills are present, and respiration is carried on
+by the general surface of the body and limbs. When present, the
+branchiae are generally differentiations of parts of the appendages,
+most often the epipodites, as in the Phyllopoda. In the Cirripedia,
+however, they are vascular processes from the inner surface of the
+mantle or shell-fold, and in some Ostracoda they are outgrowths
+from the sides of the body. In the primitive Malacostraca the
+gills were probably, as in the Phyllopoda and in <i>Nebalia</i>, the modified
+epipodites of the thoracic limbs, and this is the condition found in
+some Schizopoda. In the Cumacea and Tanaidacea only the first
+thoracic limb has a branchial epipodite. In the Amphipoda, the
+gills though arising from the inner side of the bases of the thoracic
+legs are probably also epipodial in nature. In the Isopoda the
+respiratory function has been taken over by the abdominal appendages,
+both rami or only the inner becoming thin or flattened. In the
+Decapoda the branchial system is more complex. The gills are
+inserted at the base of the thoracic limbs, and lie within a pair of
+branchial chambers covered by the carapace. Three series are
+distinguished, <i>podobranchiae</i>, attached to the proximal segments of
+the appendages, <i>pleurobranchiae</i>, springing from the body-wall,
+and an intermediate series, <i>arthrobranchiae</i>, inserted on the articular
+membrane of the joint between the limb and the body. The podobranchiae
+are clearly epipodites, or, more correctly, parts of the
+epipodites, and it is probable that the arthro- and pleurobranchiae
+are also epipodial in origin and have migrated from the proximal
+segment of the limbs on to the adjacent body-wall.</p>
+
+<p>Adaptations for aërial respiration are found in some of the land-crabs,
+where the lining membrane of the gill-chamber is beset with
+vascular papillae and acts as a lung. In some of the terrestrial
+Isopoda or woodlice (Oniscoidea) the abdominal appendages have
+ramified tubular invaginations of the integument, filled with air and
+resembling the tracheae of insects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Internal Structure: Alimentary System.</i>&mdash;In almost all Crustacea
+the food-canal runs straight through the body, except at its anterior
+end, where it curves downwards to the ventrally-placed mouth.
+In a few cases its course is slightly sinuous or twisted, but the only
+cases in which it is actually coiled upon itself are found in the
+Cladocera of the family <i>Lynceidae</i> (<i>Alonidae</i>) and in a single recently-discovered
+genus of Cumacea (Sympoda). As in all Arthropoda,
+it is composed of three divisions, a fore-gut or stomodaeum, ectodermal
+in origin and lined by an inturning of the chitinous cuticle,
+a mid-gut formed by endoderm and without a cuticular lining,
+and a hind-gut or proctodaeum, which, like the fore-gut, is ectodermal
+and is lined by cuticle. The relative proportions of these
+three divisions vary considerably, and the extreme abbreviation of
+the mid-gut found in the common crayfish (<i>Astacus</i>) is by no means
+typical of the class. Even in the closely-related lobster (<i>Homarus</i>)
+the mid-gut may be 2 or 3 in. long.</p>
+
+<p>In a few Entomostraca (some Phyllopoda and Ostracoda) the
+chitinous lining of the fore-gut develops spines and hairs which help
+to triturate and strain the food, and among the Ostracods there is
+occasionally (<i>Bairdia</i>) a more elaborate armature of toothed plates
+moved by muscles. It is among the Malacostraca, however, and
+especially in the Decapoda, that the &ldquo;gastric mill&rdquo; reaches its
+greatest perfection. In most Decapods the &ldquo;stomach&rdquo; or dilated
+portion of the fore-gut is divided into two chambers, a large anterior
+&ldquo;cardiac&rdquo; and a smaller posterior &ldquo;pyloric.&rdquo; In the narrow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span>
+opening between these, three teeth (fig. 10) are set, one dorsally
+and one on each side. These teeth are connected with a framework
+of movably articulated ossicles developed as thickened and calcified
+portions of the lining cuticle of the stomach and moved by special
+muscles in such a way as to bring the three teeth together in the
+middle line. The walls of the pyloric chamber bear a series of pads
+and ridges beset with hairs and so disposed as to form a straining
+apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>The mid-gut is essentially the digestive and absorptive region of
+the alimentary canal, and its surface is, in most cases, increased by
+pouch-like or tubular outgrowths which not only serve as glands
+for the secretion of the digestive juices, but may also become filled
+by the more fluid portion of the partially digested food and facilitate
+its absorption. These outgrowths vary much in their arrangement
+in the different groups. Most commonly there is a pair of lateral
+caeca, which may be more or less ramified and may form a massive
+&ldquo;hepato-pancreas&rdquo; or &ldquo;liver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:234px; height:303px" src="images/img557.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Gastric Teeth of
+Crab and Lobster.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>1<i>a</i>, Stomach of common crab,
+<i>Cancer pagurus</i>, laid open,
+showing <i>b, b, b</i>, some of the
+calcareous plates inserted in
+its muscular coat; <i>g, g</i>, the
+lateral teeth, which when
+in use are brought in contact
+with the sides of the
+median tooth <i>m</i>; <i>c, c</i>, the
+muscular coat.</p>
+
+<p>1<i>b</i>&prime; and 1<i>b</i>&Prime;, The gastric teeth
+enlarged to show their
+grinding surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>2, Gastric teeth of common
+lobster, <i>Homarus vulgaris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3<i>a</i> and 3<i>b</i>, Two crustacean teeth
+(of <i>Dithyrocaris</i>) from the
+Carboniferous series of
+Renfrewshire (these, however,
+may be the toothed
+edges of the mandibles).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The whole length of the alimentary canal is provided, as a rule,
+with muscular fibres, both circular and longitudinal, running in its
+walls, and, in addition, there may be muscle-bands running between
+the gut and the body-wall. In the region of the oesophagus these
+muscles are more strongly developed to perform the movements of
+deglutition, and, where a gastric mill is present, both intrinsic and
+extrinsic muscles co-operate in
+producing the movements of its
+various parts. The hind-gut is
+also provided with sphincter and
+dilator muscles, and these may
+produce rhythmic expansion and
+contraction, causing an inflow
+and outflow of water through the
+anus, which has been supposed to
+aid in respiration.</p>
+
+<p>In the parasitic Rhizocephala
+and in a few Copepoda (<i>Monstrillidae</i>)
+the alimentary canal is
+absent or vestigial throughout
+life.</p>
+
+<p><i>Circulatory System.</i>&mdash;As in the
+other Arthropoda, the circulatory
+system in Crustacea is largely
+lacunar, the blood flowing in
+spaces or channels without
+definite walls. These spaces make
+up the apparent body-cavity, the
+true body-cavity or coelom having
+been, for the most part, obliterated
+by the great expansion of
+the blood-containing spaces. The
+heart is of the usual Arthropodous
+type, lying in a more or
+less well-defined pericardial blood-sinus,
+with which it communicates
+by valvular openings or
+ostia. In the details of the system,
+however, great differences exist
+within the limits of the class.
+There is every reason to believe
+that, in the primitive Arthropoda,
+the heart was tubular in form,
+extending the whole length of the
+body, and having a pair of ostia
+in each somite. This arrangement
+is retained in some of the Phyllopoda,
+but even in that group
+a progressive abbreviation of the
+heart, with a diminution in the
+number of the ostia, can be traced, leading to the condition found
+in the closely related Cladocera, where the heart is a subglobular
+sac, with only a single pair of ostia. In the Malacostraca,
+an elongated heart with numerous segmentally arranged ostia is
+found only in the aberrant group of Stomatopoda and in the transitional
+Phyllocarida. In the other Malacostraca the heart is generally
+abbreviated, and even where, as in the Amphipoda, it is elongated
+and tubular, the ostia are restricted in number, three pairs only
+being usually present. In many Entomostraca the heart is absent,
+and it is impossible to speak of a &ldquo;circulation&rdquo; in the proper sense
+of the term, the blood being merely driven hither and thither by
+the movements of the body and limbs and of the alimentary canal.</p>
+
+<p>A very remarkable condition of the blood-system, unique, as far
+as is yet known among the Arthropoda, is found in a few genera of
+parasitic Copepoda (<i>Lernanthropus</i>, <i>Mytilicola</i>). In these there is
+a closed system of vessels, not communicating with the body-cavity,
+and containing a coloured fluid. There is no heart. The morphological
+nature of this system is unknown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Excretory System.</i>&mdash;The most important excretory or renal organs
+of the Crustacea are two pairs of glands lying at the base of the
+antennae and of the second maxillae respectively. The two are
+probably never functional together in the same animal, though one
+may replace the other in the course of development. Thus, in the
+Phyllopoda, the antennal gland develops early and is functional
+during a great part of the larval life, but it ultimately atrophies,
+and in the adult (as in most Entomostraca) the maxillary gland
+is the functional excretory organ. In the Decapoda, where the antennal
+gland alone is well-developed in the adult, the maxillary
+gland sometimes precedes it in the larva. The structure of both
+glands is essentially the same. There is a more or less convoluted
+tube with glandular walls connected internally with a closed &ldquo;end-sac&rdquo;
+and opening to the exterior by means of a thin-walled duct.
+Development shows that the glandular tube is mesoblastic in origin
+and is of the nature of a coelomoduct, while the end-sac is to be
+regarded as a vestigial portion of the coelom. In the Branchiopoda
+the maxillary gland is lodged in the thickness of the shell-fold (when
+this is present), and, from this circumstance, it often receives the
+somewhat misleading name of &ldquo;shell-gland.&rdquo; In the Decapoda
+the antennal gland is largely developed and is known as the &ldquo;green
+gland.&rdquo; The external duct of this gland is often dilated into a
+bladder, and may sometimes send out diverticula, forming a complex
+system of sinuses ramifying through the body. The green gland and
+the structures associated with it in Decapods were at one time
+regarded as constituting an auditory apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these two pairs of glands, which are in all probability
+the survivors of a series of segmentally arranged coelomoducts
+present in the primitive Arthropoda, other excretory organs have
+been described in various Crustacea. Although the excretory
+function of these has been demonstrated by physiological methods,
+however, their morphological relations are not clear. In some cases
+they consist of masses of mesodermal cells, within which the excretory
+products appear to be stored up instead of being expelled from the
+body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;The central nervous system is constructed on
+the same general plan as in the other Arthropoda, consisting of a
+supra-oesophageal ganglionic mass or brain, united by circum-oesophageal
+connectives with a double ventral chain of segmentally
+arranged ganglia. In the primitive Phyllopoda the ventral chain
+retains the ladder-like arrangement found in some Annelids and
+lower worms, the two halves being widely separated and the pairs of
+ganglia connected together across the middle line by double transverse
+commissures. In the higher groups the two halves of the chain
+are more or less closely approximated and coalesced, and, in addition,
+a concentration of the ganglia in a longitudinal direction takes place,
+leading ultimately, in many cases, to the formation of an unsegmented
+ganglionic mass representing the whole of the ventral chain. This
+is seen, for example, in the Brachyura among the Decapoda. The
+brain, or supra-oesophageal ganglion, shows various degrees of
+complexity. In the Phyllopoda it consists mainly of two pairs of
+ganglionic centres, giving origin respectively to the optic and
+antennular nerves. The centres for the antennal nerves form ganglionic
+swellings on the oesophageal connectives. In the higher forms,
+as already mentioned, the antennal ganglia have become shifted
+forwards and coalesced with the brain. In the higher Decapoda,
+numerous additional centres are developed in the brain and its
+structure becomes extremely complex.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eyes.</i>&mdash;The eyes of Crustacea are of two kinds, the unpaired,
+median or &ldquo;nauplius&rdquo; eye, and the paired compound eyes. The
+former is generally present in the earliest larval stages (nauplius),
+and in some Entomostraca (<i>e.g.</i> Copepoda) it forms the sole organ
+of vision in the adult. In the Malacostraca it is absent in the adult,
+or persists only in a vestigial condition, as in some Decapoda and
+Schizopoda. It is typically tripartite, consisting of three cup-shaped
+masses of pigment, the cavity of each cup being filled with columnar
+retinal cells. At their inner ends (towards the pigment) these cells
+contain rod-like structures, while their outer ends are connected
+with the nerve-fibres. In some cases three separate nerves arise
+from the front of the brain, one going to each of the three divisions
+of the eye. In the Copepoda the median eye may undergo considerable
+elaboration, and refracting lenses and other accessory
+structures may be developed in connexion with it.</p>
+
+<p>The compound eyes are very similar in the details of their structure
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>) to those of insects (Hexapoda). They consist of
+a varying number of ommatidia or visual elements, covered by a
+transparent region of the external cuticle forming the cornea.
+In most cases this cornea is divided into lenticular facets corresponding
+to the underlying ommatidia.</p>
+
+<p>As has been already stated, the compound eyes are often set on
+movable peduncles. It is probable that this is the primitive condition
+from which the sessile eyes of other forms have been derived.
+In the Malacostraca the sessile eyed groups are certainly less primitive
+than some of those with stalked eyes, and among the Entomostraca
+also there is some evidence pointing in the same direction.</p>
+
+<p>Although typically paired, the compound eyes may occasionally
+coalesce in the middle line into a single organ. This is the case in the
+Cladocera, the Cumacea and a few Amphipoda.</p>
+
+<p>Mention should also be made of the partial or complete atrophy
+of the eyes in many Crustacea which live in darkness, either in the
+deep sea or in subterranean habitats. In these cases the peduncles
+may persist and may even be modified into spinous organs of defence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Sense-Organs.</i>&mdash;As in Arthropoda, the hairs or setae on the
+surface of the body are important organs of sense and are variously
+modified for special sensory functions. Many, perhaps all, of them
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span>
+are tactile. They are movably articulated at the base where they
+are inserted in pits formed by a thinning away of the cuticle, and
+each is supplied by a nerve-fibril. When feathered or provided
+with secondary barbs the setae will respond to movements or
+vibrations in the surrounding water, and have been supposed to
+have an auditory function. In certain divisions of the Malacostraca
+more specialized organs are found which have been regarded as
+auditory. In the majority of the Decapoda there is a saccular
+invagination of the integument in the basal segment of the antennular
+peduncle having on its inner surface &ldquo;auditory&rdquo; setae
+of the type just described. The sac is open to the exterior in most
+of the Macrura, but completely closed in the Brachyura. In the
+former case it contains numerous grains of sand which are introduced
+by the animal itself after each moult and which are supposed to
+act as otoliths. Where the sac is completely closed it generally
+contains no solid particles, but in a few Macrura a single otolith
+secreted by the walls of the sac is present. In the <i>Mysidae</i> among the
+Schizopoda a pair of similar otocysts are found in the endopodites
+of the last pair of appendages (uropods). These contain each a
+single concretionary otolith.</p>
+
+<p>Recent observations, however, make it very doubtful whether
+aquatic Crustacea can hear at all, in the proper sense of the term,
+and it has been shown that one function, at least, of the so-called
+otocysts is connected with the equilibration of the body. They are
+more properly termed statocysts.</p>
+
+<p>Another modification of sensory setae is supposed to be associated
+with the sense of smell. In nearly all Crustacea the antennules
+and often also the antennae bear groups of hair-like filaments in
+which the chitinous cuticle is extremely delicate and which do not
+taper to a point but end bluntly. These are known as olfactory
+filaments or aesthetascs. They are very often more strongly developed
+in the male sex, and are supposed to guide the males in pursuit of
+the females.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glands.</i>&mdash;In addition to the digestive and excretory glands already
+mentioned, various glandular structures occur in the different
+groups of Crustacea. The most important of these belong to the
+category of dermal glands, and may be scattered over the surface
+of the body and limbs, or grouped at certain points for the discharge
+of special functions. Such glands occurring on the upper and lower
+lips or on the walls of the oesophagus have been regarded as salivary.
+In some Amphipoda the secretion of glands on the body and limbs
+is used in the construction of tubular cases in which the animals live.
+In some freshwater Copepoda the secretion of the dermal glands
+forms a gelatinous envelope, by means of which the animals are able
+to survive desiccation. In certain Copepoda and Ostracoda glands
+of the same type produce a phosphorescent substance, and others,
+in certain Amphipoda and Branchiura, are believed to have a
+poisonous function. Possibly related to the same group of structures
+are the greatly-developed cement-glands of the Cirripedia, which
+serve to attach the animals to their support.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phosphorescent Organs.</i>&mdash;Many Crustacea belonging to very
+different groups (Ostracoda, Copepoda, Schizopoda, Decapoda)
+possess the power of emitting light. In the Ostracoda and Copepoda
+the phosphorescence, as already mentioned, is due to glands which
+produce a luminous secretion, and this is the case also in certain
+members of the Schizopoda and Decapoda. In other cases in the
+last two groups, however, the light-producing organs found on
+the body and limbs have a complex and remarkable structure,
+and were formerly described as accessory eyes. Each consists of a
+globular capsule pierced at one or two points for the entrance of
+nerves which end in a central cup-shaped &ldquo;striated body.&rdquo; This
+body appears to be the source of light, and has behind it a reflector
+formed of concentric lamellae, while, in front, in some cases, there is a
+refracting lens. The whole organ can be rotated by special muscles.
+Organs of this type are best known in the <i>Euphausiidae</i> among the
+Schizopoda, but a modified form is found in some of the lower
+Decapods.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reproductive System.</i>&mdash;In the great majority of Crustacea the sexes
+are separate. Apart from certain doubtful and possibly abnormal
+instances among Phyllopoda and Amphipoda, the only exceptions
+are the sessile Cirripedia and some parasitic Isopoda (<i>Cymothoidae</i>),
+where hermaphroditism is the rule. Parthenogenesis is prevalent
+in the Branchiopoda and Ostracoda, often in more or less definite
+seasonal alternation with sexual reproduction. Where the sexes
+are distinct, a more or less marked dimorphism often exists. The
+male is very often provided with clasping organs for seizing the
+female. These may be formed by the modification of almost any
+of the appendages, often the antennules or antennae or some of the
+thoracic limbs, or even the mandibular palps (some Ostracoda).
+In addition, some of the appendages in the neighbourhood of the
+genital apertures may be modified for the purpose of transferring
+the genital products to the female, as, for instance, the first and
+second abdominal limbs in the Decapoda. In the higher Decapoda
+the male is generally larger than the female and has stronger chelae.
+On the other hand, in other groups the male is often smaller than the
+female. In the parasitic Copepoda and Isopoda the disparity in
+size is carried to an extreme degree, and the minute male is attached,
+like a parasite, to the enormously larger female.</p>
+
+<p>The Cirripedia present some examples of sexual relationships
+which are only paralleled, in the animal kingdom, among the parasitic
+Myzostomida. While the great majority are simple hermaphrodites,
+capable of cross and self fertilization, it was discovered
+by Darwin that, in certain species, minute degraded males exist,
+attached within the mantle-cavity of the ordinary individuals.
+Since these dwarf males pair, not with females, but with hermaphrodites,
+Darwin termed them &ldquo;complemental&rdquo; males. In other
+species the large individuals have become purely female by atrophy
+of the male organs, and are entirely dependent on the dwarf males
+for fertilization. In spite of the opinion of some distinguished
+zoologists to the contrary, it seems most probable that the separation
+of the sexes is in this case a secondary condition, derived from
+hermaphroditism through the intermediate stage represented by
+the species having complemental males.</p>
+
+<p>The gonads, as in other Arthropoda, are hollow saccular organs,
+the cavity communicating with the efferent ducts. They are
+primitively paired, but often coalesce with each other more or less
+completely. The ducts are present only as a single pair, except in
+one genus of parasitic Isopoda (<i>Hemioniscus</i>), where two pairs of
+oviducts are found. Various accessory structures may be connected
+with the efferent ducts in both sexes. The oviducts may have
+diverticula serving as receptacles for the spermatozoa (in cases where
+internal impregnation takes place), and may be provided with glands
+secreting envelopes or shells around the eggs. The male ducts often
+have glandular walls, secreting capsules or spermatophores within
+which the spermatozoa are packed for transference to the female.
+The terminal part of the male ducts may be protrusible and act as
+an intromittent organ, or this function may be discharged by some
+of the appendages, as, for instance, in the Brachyura.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:425px; height:285px" src="images/img558.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Side view of Crab, the abdomen extended and carrying a
+mass of eggs beneath it; <i>e</i>, eggs. (After Morse.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The position of the genital apertures varies very greatly in the
+different groups of the class. They are farthest forward in the case
+of the female organs of the Cirripedia, where the openings are on
+the first thoracic (fourth postoral) somite. The most posterior
+position is occupied by the genital apertures of certain Phyllopoda
+(<i>Polyartemia</i>), which lie behind the nineteenth trunk-somite. It is
+characteristic of the Malacostraca that the position of the genital
+apertures is constantly different in the two sexes, the female openings
+being on the sixth, and those of the male on the eighth thoracic
+somite.</p>
+
+<p>Very few Crustacea are viviparous in the sense that the eggs are
+retained within the body until hatching takes place (some Phyllopoda),
+but, on the other hand, the great majority carry the eggs in
+some way or other after their extrusion. In some Phyllopoda (<i>Apus</i>)
+egg-sacs are formed by modification of certain of the thoracic feet.
+The eggs are retained between the valves of the shell in some Phyllopoda
+and in the Cladocera and Ostracoda, and they lie in the mantle
+cavity in the Cirripedia. In the Copepoda they are agglutinated
+together into masses attached to the body of the female. Among the
+Malacostraca some Schizopoda, the Cumacea, Tanaidacea, Isopoda
+and Amphipoda (sometimes grouped all together as Peracarida)
+have a marsupium or brood-pouch formed by overlapping plates
+attached to the bases of some of the thoracic legs. In most of the
+Decapoda the eggs are carried by the female, attached to the abdominal
+appendages (fig. 11). A few cases are known in which the
+developing embryos are nourished by a special secretion while in the
+brood-chamber of the mother (Cladocera, terrestrial Isopoda).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Embryology.</i></p>
+
+<p>The majority of the Crustacea are hatched from the egg in a form
+differing more or less from that of the adult, and pass through a
+series of free-swimming larval stages. There are many cases,
+however, in which the metamorphosis is suppressed, and the newly-hatched
+young resemble the parent in general structure. The
+relative size of the eggs and the amount of nutritive yolk which they
+contain are generally much greater in those forms which have a
+direct development.</p>
+
+<p>The details of the early embryonic stages vary considerably
+within the limits of the class. They are of interest, however, rather
+from the point of view of general embryology than from that of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span>
+the special student of the Crustacea, and cannot be fully dealt with
+here.</p>
+
+<p>Segmentation is usually of the superficial or centrolecithal type.
+The hypoblast is formed either by a definite invagination or by the
+immigration of isolated cells, known as vitellophags, which wander
+through the yolk and later become associated into a definite mesenteron,
+or by some combination of these two methods. The blastopore
+generally occupies a position corresponding to the posterior end of
+the body. The mesoblast of the cephalic (naupliar) region probably
+arises in connexion with the lips of the blastopore and consists of
+loosely-connected cells or mesenchyme. In the region of the trunk,
+in many cases, paired mesoblastic bands are formed, growing in
+length by the division of teloblastic cells at the posterior end, and
+becoming segmented into somites. The existence of true coelom-sacs
+is somewhat doubtful. The rudiments of the first three pairs
+of appendages commonly appear simultaneously, and, even in forms
+with embryonic development, they show differences in their mode
+of appearance from the succeeding somites. Further, a definite
+cuticular membrane is frequently formed and shed at this stage,
+which corresponds to the nauplius-stage of larval development.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:364px" src="images/img559a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Nauplius of a Prawn (<i>Penaeus</i>). (Fritz Müller).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The larval metamorphoses of the Crustacea have attracted much
+attention, and have been the subject of much discussion in view of
+their bearing on the phylogenetic history of the group. In those
+Crustacea in which the series of larval stages is most complete, the
+starting-point is the form already mentioned under the name of
+<i>nauplius</i>. The typical nauplius (fig. 12) has an oval unsegmented
+body and three pairs of limbs corresponding to the antennules,
+antennae and mandibles of the adult. The antennules are uniramous,
+the others biramous, and all three pairs are used in swimming.
+The antennae have a spiniform or hooked masticatory process at the
+base, and share with the mandibles, which have a similar process,
+the function of seizing and masticating the food. The mouth is overhung
+by a large labrum or upper lip, and the integument of the
+dorsal surface of the body forms a more or less definite dorsal shield.
+The paired eyes are, as yet, wanting, but the unpaired eye is large
+and conspicuous. A pair of frontal papillae or filaments, probably
+sensory, are commonly present.</p>
+
+<p>A nauplius larva differing only in details from the typical form
+just described is found in the majority of the Phyllopoda, Copepoda
+and Cirripedia, and in a more modified form, in some Ostracoda.
+Among the Malacostraca the nauplius is less commonly found, but
+it occurs in the <i>Euphausiidae</i> among the Schizopoda and in a few
+of the more primitive Decapoda (<i>Penaeidea</i>) (fig. 12). In most
+of the Crustacea which hatch at a later stage there is, as already
+mentioned, more or less clear evidence of an embryonic nauplius
+stage. It seems certain, therefore, that the possession of a nauplius
+larva must be regarded as a very primitive character of the Crustacean
+stock.</p>
+
+<p>As development proceeds, the body of the nauplius elongates,
+and indications of segmentation begin to appear in its posterior part.
+At successive moults the somites increase in number, new somites
+being added behind those already differentiated, from a formative
+zone in front of the telsonic region. Very commonly the posterior
+end of the body becomes forked, two processes growing out at the
+sides of the anus and often persisting in the adult as the &ldquo;caudal
+furca.&rdquo; The appendages posterior to the mandibles appear as buds
+on the ventral surface of the somites, and in the most primitive
+cases they become differentiated, like the somites which bear them,
+in regular order from before backwards. The limb-buds early
+become bilobed and grow out into typical biramous appendages
+which gradually assume the characters found in the adult. With
+the elongation of the body, the dorsal shield begins to project
+posteriorly as a shell-fold, which may increase in size to envelop
+more or less of the body or may disappear altogether. The rudiments
+of the paired eyes appear under the integument at the sides of the
+head, but only become pedunculated at a comparatively late stage.</p>
+
+<p>The course of development here outlined, in which the nauplius
+gradually passes into the adult form by the successive addition of
+somites and appendages in regular order, agrees so well with the
+process observed in the development of the typical Annelida that
+we must regard it as being the most primitive method. It is most
+closely followed by the Phyllopods such as <i>Apus</i> or <i>Branchipus</i>,
+and by some Copepoda.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:368px; height:305px" src="images/img559b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Early Stages of <i>Balanus</i>. (After Spence Bate.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>A</i>, Nauplius. <i>e</i>, Eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>B</i>, <i>Cypris</i>-larva with a bivalve
+shell and just before becoming
+attached (represented
+feet upwards for comparison
+with <i>E</i>, where it is attached).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>C</i>, After becoming attached, side
+views.</p>
+
+<p><i>D</i>, Later stage, viewed from
+above.</p>
+
+<p><i>E</i>, Side view, later stage and
+with cirri extended.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">The dots indicate the actual size.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:334px; height:396px" src="images/img559c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in
+its second stage. (Spence Bate.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>r</i>, Rostral spine.</p>
+
+<p><i>s</i>, Dorsal spine.</p>
+
+<p><i>m</i>, Maxillipeds.</p>
+
+<p><i>t</i>, Buds of thoracic feet.</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>, Abdomen.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In most Crustacea, however, this primitive scheme is more or less
+modified. The earlier stages may be suppressed or passed through
+within the egg (or within the maternal brood-chamber), so that the
+larva, on hatching, has reached a stage more advanced than the
+nauplius. Further, the gradual appearance and differentiation of
+the successive somites and appendages may be accelerated, so that
+comparatively great advances take place at a single moult. In the
+Cirripedia, for example, the latest nauplius stage (fig. 13, A) gives
+rise directly to the so-called <i>Cypris</i>-larva (fig. 13, B), differing widely
+from the nauplius in form, and possessing all the appendages of the
+adult. Another very common modification of the primitive method
+of development is found in the accelerated appearance of certain
+somites or appendages,
+disturbing the regular
+order of development.
+This modification is
+especially found in the
+Malacostraca. Even in
+those which have most
+fully retained the primitive
+order of development,
+as in the <i>Penaeidea</i>
+and <i>Euphausiidae</i>,
+the last pair of abdominal
+appendages make
+their appearance in
+advance of those immediately
+in front of
+them. The same process,
+carried further,
+leads to the very peculiar
+larva known as the
+<i>Zoea</i>, in the typical form
+of which, found in the
+Brachyura (fig. 14), the
+posterior five or six
+thoracic somites have
+their development
+greatly retarded, and
+are still represented by
+a short unsegmented
+region of the body at a
+time when the abdominal
+somites are fully
+formed and even carry
+appendages. The <i>Zoea</i> was formerly regarded as a recapitulation
+of an ancestral form, but there can be no doubt that its peculiarities
+are the result of secondary modification. It is most typically
+developed in the most specialized Decapoda, the Brachyura, while
+the more primitive groups of Malacostraca, the <i>Euphausiidae</i>,
+<i>Penaeidea</i> and Stomatopoda, retain the primitive order of appearance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span>
+of the somites, and, for the most part, of the limbs. At the same time,
+the tendency to a retardation in the development of the posterior
+thoracic somites is very general in Malacostracan larvae, and may
+perhaps be correlated with the fact that in the primitive Phyllocarida
+the whole thoracic region is very short and the limbs closely crowded
+together.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:296px; height:359px" src="images/img560a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Nauplius of <i>Tetraclita
+porosa</i> after the first moult.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">(Fritz Müller.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Besides the nauplius and the zoea there are many other types of
+Crustacean larvae, distinguished by special names, though, as their
+occurrence is restricted
+within the limits of the
+smaller systematic groups,
+they are of less general
+interest. We need only
+mention the <i>Mysis</i>-stage
+(better termed Schizopod-stage)
+found in many
+Macrura (as, for example,
+the lobster), which differs
+from the adult in having
+large natatory exopodites
+on the thoracic legs.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the larval forms
+swim freely at the surface
+of the sea, and many show
+special adaptations to this
+habit of life. As in many
+other &ldquo;pelagic&rdquo; organisms,
+spines and processes from
+the surface of the body are
+often developed, which are
+probably less important as
+defensive organs than as
+aids to flotation. This is
+well seen in the nauplius of
+many Cirripedia (fig. 15) and
+in nearly all zoeae. Perhaps
+the most striking example is the zoea-like larva of the <i>Sergestidae</i>,
+known as <i>Elaphocaris</i>, which has an extraordinary armature of
+ramified spines. The same purpose is probably served by the
+extreme flattening of the body in the membranous <i>Phyllosoma</i>-larva
+of the rock-lobsters and their allies (Loricata).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Past History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Although fossil remains of Crustacea are abundant, from the
+most ancient fossiliferous rocks down to the most recent, their
+study has hitherto contributed little to a precise knowledge of the
+phylogenetic history of the class. This is partly due to the fact
+that many important forms must have escaped fossilization
+altogether owing to their small size and delicate structure, while
+very many of those actually preserved are known only from the
+carapace or shell, the limbs being absent or represented only
+by indecipherable fragments. Further, many important groups
+were already differentiated when the geological record began.
+The Phyllopoda, Ostracoda and Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) are
+represented in Cambrian or Silurian rocks by forms which seem
+to have resembled closely those now existing, so that palaeontology
+can have little light to throw on the mode of origin of these
+groups. With the Malacostraca the case is little better. There
+is considerable reason for believing that the <i>Ceratiocaridae</i>, which
+are found from the Cambrian onwards, were allied to the existing
+<i>Nebalia</i>, and may possibly include the forerunners of the true
+Malacostraca, but nothing is definitely known of their appendages.
+In Palaeozoic formations, from the Upper Devonian onwards,
+numbers of shrimp-like forms are found which have been referred
+to the Schizopoda and the Decapoda, but here again the scanty
+information which may be gleaned as to the structure of the
+limbs rarely permits of definite conclusions as to their affinities.
+The recent discovery in the Tasmanian &ldquo;schizopod&rdquo; <i>Anaspides</i>,
+of what is believed to be a living representative of the Carboniferous
+and Permian <i>Syncarida</i>, has, however, afforded a clue
+to the affinities of some of these problematical forms.</p>
+
+<p>True Decapods are first met with in Mesozoic rocks, the first
+to appear being the <i>Penaeidea</i>, a primitive group comprising
+the <i>Penaeidae</i> and <i>Sergestidae</i>, which occur in the Jurassic and
+perhaps in the Trias. Some of the earliest are referred to the
+existing genus <i>Penaeus</i>. The Stenopidea, another primitive
+group, differing from the Penaeidea in the character of the gills,
+appear in the Trias and Jurassic. The Caridea or true prawns
+and shrimps appear later, in the Upper Jurassic, some of them
+presenting primitive characteristics in the retention of swimming
+exopodites on the walking-legs. The Eryonidea (fig. 16, 3), a
+group related to the Loricata but of a more generalized type,
+are specially interesting since the few existing deep-sea forms
+appear to be only surviving remnants of what was, in the Mesozoic
+period, a dominant group. The Mesozoic <i>Glyphaeidae</i> have
+been supposed to stand in the direct line of descent of the modern
+rock-lobsters and their allies (Loricata). Some of the Loricata
+have persisted with little change from the Cretaceous period
+to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>The Anomura are hardly known as fossils. The Brachyura,
+on the other hand, are well represented (fig 16, 1, 2). The
+earliest forms, from the Lower Oolite and later, belonging
+chiefly to the extinct family <i>Prosoponidae</i>, have been shown to
+have close relations with the most generalized of existing
+Brachyura, the deep-sea <i>Homolodromiidae</i>, and to link the
+Brachyura to the Homarine (lobster-like) Macrura.</p>
+
+<p>A few Isopoda are known from Secondary rocks, but their
+systematic position is doubtful and they throw no light on the
+evolution of the group. The Amphipoda are not definitely
+known to occur till Tertiary times. Stomatopoda of a very
+modern-looking type, and even their larvae, occur in Jurassic
+rocks.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:470px; height:286px" src="images/img560b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1, <i>Dromilites Lamarckii</i>, Desm.; London Clay, Sheppey.</p>
+<p>2, <i>Palaeocorystes Stokesii</i>, Gault; Folkestone.</p>
+<p>3, <i>Eryon arctiformis</i>, Schl.; Lithographic stone, Solenhofen.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>4, <i>Mecocheirus longimanus</i>, Schl.; Lithographic stone, Solenhofen.</p>
+<p>5, <i>Cypridea tuberculata</i>, Sby.; (Ostracoda); Weald, Sussex.</p>
+<p>6, <i>Loricula pulchella</i>, Sby (Cirripedia); L. Chalk, Sussex.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the dearth of trustworthy evidence as to the actual forerunners
+of existing Crustacea, we are compelled to rely wholly
+on the data afforded by comparative anatomy and embryology
+in attempting to reconstruct the probable phylogeny of the class.
+It is unnecessary to insist on the purely speculative character
+of the conclusions to be reached in this way, so long as they
+cannot be checked by the results of palaeontology, but, when
+this is recognized, such speculation is not only legitimate but
+necessary as a basis on which to build a natural classification.</p>
+
+<p>The first attempts to reconstruct the genealogical history of
+the Crustacea started from the assumption that the &ldquo;theory
+of recapitulation&rdquo; could be applied to their larval history. The
+various larval forms, especially the nauplius and zoea, were
+supposed to reproduce, more or less closely, the actual structure
+of ancestral types. So far as the zoea was concerned, this
+assumption was soon shown to be erroneous, and the secondary
+nature of this type of larva is now generally admitted. As
+regards the nauplius, however, the constancy of its general
+character in the most widely diverse groups of Crustacea strongly
+suggests that it is a very ancient type, and the view has been
+advocated that the Crustacea must have arisen from an unsegmented
+nauplius-like ancestor.</p>
+
+<p>The objections to this view, however, are considerable. The
+resemblances between the Crustacea and the Annelid worms,
+in such characters as the structure of the nervous system and
+the mode of growth of the somites, can hardly be ignored.
+Several structures which must be attributed, to the common
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span>
+stock of the Crustacea, such as the paired eyes and the shell-fold,
+are not present in the nauplius. The opinion now most generally
+held is that the primitive Crustacean type is most nearly approached
+by certain Phyllopods such as <i>Apus</i>. The large
+number and the uniformity of the trunk somites and their
+appendages, and the structure of the nervous system and of the
+heart in <i>Apus</i>, are Annelidan characters which can hardly be
+without significance. It is probable also, as already mentioned,
+that the leaf-like appendages of the Phyllopoda are of a primitive
+type, and attempts have been made to refer their structure to
+that of the Annelid parapodium. In many respects, however,
+the Phyllopoda, and especially <i>Apus</i>, have diverged considerably
+from the primitive Crustacean type. All the cephalic appendages
+are much reduced, the mandibles have no palps, and the maxillulae
+are vestigial. In these respects some of the Copepoda have
+retained characters which we must regard as much more
+primitive. In those Copepods in which the palps of the mandibles
+as well as the antennae are biramous and natatory, the first
+three pairs of appendages retain throughout life, with little
+modification, the shape and function which they have in the
+nauplius stage, and must, in all likelihood, be regarded as
+approximating to those of the primitive Crustacea. In other
+respects, however, such as the absence of paired eyes and of a
+shell-fold, as well as in the characters of the post-oral limbs, the
+Copepoda are undoubtedly specialized.</p>
+
+<p>In order to reconstruct the hypothetical ancestral Crustacean,
+therefore, it is necessary to combine the characters of several
+of the existing groups. It may be supposed to have approximated,
+in general form, to <i>Apus</i>, with an elongated body composed
+of numerous similar somites and terminating in a caudal
+furca; with the post-oral appendages all similar and all bearing
+gnathobasic processes; and with a carapace originating as a
+shell-fold from the maxillary somite. The eyes were probably
+stalked, the antennae and mandibles biramous and natatory,
+and both armed with masticatory processes. It is likely that
+the trunk-limbs were also biramous, with additional endites and
+exites. Whether any of the obscure fossils generally referred to
+the Phyllopoda or Phyllocarida may have approximated to
+this hypothetical form it is impossible to say. It is to be noted,
+however, that the Trilobita, which, according to the classification
+here adopted, are dealt with under Arachnida, are not very far
+removed, except in such characters as the absence of a shell-fold
+and of eye-stalks, from the primitive Crustacean here
+sketched.</p>
+
+<p>On this view, the nauplius, while no longer regarded as
+reproducing an ancestral type, does not altogether lose its
+phylogenetic significance. It is an ancestral <i>larval</i> form, corresponding
+perhaps to the stages immediately succeeding the
+trochophore in the development of Annelids, but with some of
+the later-acquired Crustacean characters superposed upon it.
+While little importance is to be given to such characters as the
+unsegmented body, the small number of limbs and the absence of
+a shell-fold and of paired eyes, it has, on the other hand, preserved
+archaic features in the form of the limbs and the masticatory
+function of the antenna.</p>
+
+<p>The probable course of evolution of the different groups of
+Crustacea from this hypothetical ancestral form can only be
+touched on here. The Phyllopoda must have branched off very
+early and from them to the Cladocera the way is clear. The
+Ostracoda might have been derived from the same stock were
+it not that they retain the mandibular palp which all the Phyllopods
+have lost. The Copepoda must have separated themselves
+very early, though perhaps some of their characters may be
+persistently larval rather than phylogenetically primitive.
+The Cirripedia are so specialized both as larvae and as adults
+that it is hard to say in what direction their origin is to be
+sought.</p>
+
+<p>For the Malacostraca, it is generally admitted that the Leptostraca
+(<i>Nebalia</i>, &amp;c.) provide a connecting-link with the base of
+the Phyllopod stem. Nearest to them come the Schizopoda,
+a primitive group from which two lines of descent can be traced,
+the one leading from the Mysidacea (<i>Mysidae</i> + <i>Lophogastridae</i>)
+to the Cumacea and the sessile-eyed groups Isopoda and Amphipoda,
+the other from the Euphausiacea (<i>Euphausiidae</i>) to the
+Decapoda.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Classification.</i></p>
+
+<p>The modern classification of Crustacea may be said to have
+been founded by P. A. Latreille, who, in the beginning of the
+19th century, divided the class into Entomostraca and Malacostraca.
+The latter division, characterized by the possession of
+19 somites and pairs of appendages (apart from the eyes), by
+the division of the appendages into two tagmata corresponding
+to cephalothorax and abdomen, and by the constancy in position
+of the generative apertures, differing in the two sexes, is unquestionably
+a natural group. The Entomostraca, however, are
+certainly a heterogeneous assemblage, defined only by negative
+characters, and the name is retained only for the sake of convenience,
+just as it is often useful to speak of a still more heterogeneous
+and unnatural assemblage of animals as Invertebrata.
+The barnacles and their allies, forming the group Cirripedia or
+Thyrostraca, sometimes treated as a separate sub-class, are
+distinguished by being sessile in the adult state, the larval
+antennules serving as organs of attachment, and the antennae
+being lost. An account of them will be found in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thyrostraca</a></span>. The remaining groups are dealt with under the
+headings <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Entomostraca</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Malacostraca</a></span>, the annectent
+group Leptostraca being included in the former.</p>
+
+<p>It may be useful to give here a synopsis of the classification
+adopted in this encyclopaedia, noting that, for convenience of
+treatment, it has been thought necessary to adopt a grouping
+not always expressive of the most recent views of affinity.</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Class <i>Crustacea</i>.</p>
+  <p class="i1">Sub-class <i>Entomostraca</i>.</p>
+    <p class="i3">Order <i>Branchiopoda</i>.</p>
+      <p class="i5">Sub-orders <i>Phyllopoda</i>.</p>
+                <p class="i9"><i>Cladocera</i>.</p>
+                <p class="i9"><i>Branchiura</i>.</p>
+    <p class="i3">Orders <i>Ostracoda</i>.</p>
+           <p class="i6"><i>Copepoda</i>.</p>
+  <p class="i1">Sub-classses <i>Thyrostraca</i> (<i>Cirripedia</i>).</p>
+                <p class="i6"><i>Leptostraca</i>.</p>
+                <p class="i6"><i>Malacostraca</i>.</p>
+    <p class="i3">Order <i>Decapoda</i>.</p>
+      <p class="i5">Sub-orders <i>Brachyura</i>.</p>
+                  <p class="i9"><i>Macrura</i>.</p>
+    <p class="i3">Orders <i>Schizopoda</i> (including <i>Anaspides</i>).</p>
+            <p class="i6"><i>Stomatopoda</i>.</p>
+            <p class="i6"><i>Sympoda</i> (Cumacea).</p>
+            <p class="i6"><i>Isopoda</i> (including <i>Tanaidacea</i>).</p>
+            <p class="i6"><i>Amphipoda</i>.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(W. T. Ca.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUSTUMERIUM,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> an ancient town of Latium, on the edge
+of the Sabine territory, near the headwaters of the Allia, not far
+from the Tiber. It appears several times in the early history
+of Rome, but was conquered in 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> according to Livy ii. 19,
+the <i>tribus Crustumina</i> [or <i>Clustumina</i>] being formed in 471 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Pliny mentions it among the lost cities of Latium, but the name
+clung to the district, the fertility of which remained famous.
+No remains of it exist, and its exact site is uncertain.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iii. 50.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUVEILHIER, JEAN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1791-1874), French anatomist, was
+born at Limoges in 1791, and was educated at the university of
+Paris, where in 1825 he became professor of anatomy. In 1836
+he became the first occupant of the recently founded chair of
+pathological anatomy. He died at Jussac in 1874. His chief
+works are <i>Anatomie descriptive</i> (1834-1836); <i>Anatomie pathologique
+du corps humain</i> (1829-1842), with many coloured plates;
+<i>Traité d&rsquo;anatomie pathologique générale</i> (1849-1864); <i>Anatomie
+du systčme nerveux de l&rsquo;homme</i> (1845); <i>Traité d&rsquo;anatomie
+descriptive</i> (1851).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1731-1799), Portuguese
+heroic-comic poet, was the son of a Lisbon carpenter who
+emigrated to Brazil shortly before the poet&rsquo;s birth, leaving his
+wife to support and educate her young family by the earnings of
+her needle. Diniz studied Latin and philosophy with the
+Oratorians, and in 1747 matriculated at Coimbra University,
+where he wrote his first versus about 1750. In 1753 he took his
+degree in law, and returning to the capital, devoted much of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span>
+next six years to literary work. In 1756 he became one of the
+founders and drew up the statues of the <i>Arcadia Lusitana</i>, a
+literary society whose aims were the instruction of its members,
+the cultivation of the art of poetry, and the restoration of good
+taste. The fault was not his if these ends were not attained,
+for, taking contemporary French authors as his models, he
+contributed much, both in prose and verse, to its proceedings,
+until he left in February 1760 to take up the position of <i>juiz de
+fora</i> at Castello de Vide. On returning to Lisbon for a short visit,
+he found the <i>Arcadia</i> a prey to the internal dissensions that
+caused its dissolution in 1774, but succeeded in composing them
+and in 1764 he went to Elvas to act as auditor of one of the
+regiments stationed there. During a ten years&rsquo; residence, his
+wide reading and witty conversation gained him the friendship
+of the governor of that fortress and the admiration of a circle
+comprising all that was cultivated in Elvas. As in most cathedral
+and garrison towns, the clerical and military elements dominated
+society, and here were mutually antagonistic, because of the
+enmity between their respective leaders, the bishop and the
+governor. Moreover, Elvas, being a remote provincial centre,
+abounded in curious and grotesque types. Diniz, who was a
+keen observer, noted these, and, treasuring them in his memory,
+reproduced them, with their vanities, intrigues and ignorance,
+in his masterpiece, <i>Hyssope</i>. In 1768 a quarrel arose between
+the bishop, a proud, pretentious prelate, and the dean, as to the
+right of the former to receive holy water from the latter at a
+private side door of the cathedral, instead of at the principal
+entrance. The matter being one of principle, neither party
+would yield what he considered his rights, and it led to a lawsuit,
+and divided the town into two sections, which eagerly debated the
+arguments on both sides and enjoyed the ridiculous incidents
+which accompanied the dispute. Ultimately the dean died,
+and was succeeded by his nephew, who appealed to the crown
+with success and the bishop lost his pretension. The <i>Hyssope</i>
+arose out of and deals with this affair. It was dictated in
+seventeen days, in the years 1770-1772, and, in its final redaction,
+consists of eight cantos of blank verse. The pressure of absolutism
+left open only one form of expression, satire, and in this poem
+Diniz produced an original work which ridicules the clergy and
+the prevailing Gallomania, and contains episodes full of humour.
+It has been compared with Boileau&rsquo;s <i>Lutrin</i>, because both are
+founded on a petty ecclesiastical quarrel, but here the resemblance
+ends, and the poem of Diniz is the superior in everything except
+matrification.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to Lisbon in 1774, Diniz endeavoured once more
+to resuscitate the <i>Arcadia</i>, but his long absence had withdrawn
+its chief support, its most talented members Garçăo (<i>q.v.</i>) and
+Quita were no more, and he only assisted at its demise. In
+April 1776 he was appointed <i>disembargador</i> of the court of
+Relaçăo in Rio de Janeiro and given the habit of Aviz. He lived
+in Brazil, devouting his leisure to a study of its natural history
+and mineralogy, until 1789, when he went back to Lisbon to
+take up the post of <i>disembargador</i> of the Relaçăo of Oporto;
+in July 1790 he was promoted, and became <i>disembargador</i> of
+the Casa da Supplicaçăo. In this year he was sent again to
+Brazil to assist in trying the leaders of the Republican conspiracy
+in Minas, in which Gonzaga (<i>q.v.</i>) and the other men of letters were
+involved, and in December 1792 he became chancellor of the
+Relaçăo in Rio. Six years later he was named councillor of the
+<i>Conselho Ultramarino</i>, but did not live to return home, dying
+in Rio on the 5th of October 1799.</p>
+
+<p>Diniz possessed a poetic temperament, but his love of imitating
+the classics, whose spirit he failed to understand, fettered his
+muse, and he seems never to have perceived that mythological
+comparisons and pastoral allegories were poor substitutes for
+the expression of natural feeling. The conventionalism of his
+art prejudiced its sincerity, and, inwardly cherishing the belief
+that poetry was unworthy of the dignity of a judge, he never gave
+his real talents a chance to display themselves. His Anacreontic
+odes, dithyrambs and idylls earned the admiration of contemporaries,
+but his Pindaric odes lack fire, his sonnets are weak,
+and his idylls have neither the truth nor the simplicity of Quita&rsquo;s
+work. As a rule Diniz&rsquo;s versification is weak and his verses lack
+harmony, though the diction is beyond cavil.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His poems were published in 6 vols. (Lisbon, 1807-1817). The
+best edition of <i>Hyssope</i>, to which Diniz owes his lasting fame, is
+that of J. R. Coelho (Lisbon, 1879), with an exhaustive introductory
+study on his life and writings. A French prose version of the poem
+by Boissonade has gone through two editions (Paris, 1828 and 1867),
+and English translations of selections have been printed in the
+<i>Foreign Quarterly Review</i>, and in the <i>Manchester Quarterly</i> (April
+1896).</p>
+
+<p>See also Dr Theophilo Braga, <i>A. Arcadia Lusitana</i> (Oporto, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYOLITE,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a mineral discovered in Greenland by the Danes
+in 1794, and found to be a compound of fluorine, sodium and
+aluminium. From its general appearance, and from the fact that
+it melts readily, even in a candle-flame, it was regarded by the
+Eskimos as a peculiar kind of ice; from this fact it acquired the
+name of cryolite (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="kryos">&#954;&#961;&#973;&#959;&#962;</span>, frost, and <span class="grk" title="lithos">&#955;&#943;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>, stone). Cryolite
+occurs in colourless or snow-white cleavable masses, often tinted
+brown or red with iron oxide, and occasionally passing into a
+black variety. It is usually translucent, becoming nearly
+transparent on immersion in water. The mineral cleaves in
+three rectangular directions, and the crystals occasionally found
+in the crevices have a cubic habit, but it has been proved, after
+much discussion, that they belong to the anorthic system. The
+hardness is 2.5, and the specific gravity 3. Cryolite has the
+formula Na<span class="su">3</span>AlF<span class="su">6</span>, or 3NaFˇAlF<span class="su">3</span>, corresponding to fluorine 54.4,
+sodium 32.8, and aluminium 12.8%. It colours a flame yellow,
+through the presence of sodium, and when heated with sulphuric
+acid it evolves hydrofluoric acid.</p>
+
+<p>Cryolite occurs almost exclusively at Ivigtut (sometimes
+written Evigtok) on the Arksut Fjord in S.W. Greenland.
+There it forms a large deposit, in a granitic vein running through
+gneiss, and is accompanied by quartz, siderite, galena, blende,
+chalcopyrite, &amp;c. It is also associated with a group of kindred
+minerals, some of which are evidently products of alteration of
+the cryolite, known as pachnolite, thomsenolite, ralstonite,
+gearksutite, arksutite, &amp;c. Cryolite likewise occurs, though
+only to a limited extent, at Miyask, in the Ilmen Mountains;
+at Pike&rsquo;s Peak, Colorado, and in the Yellowstone Park.</p>
+
+<p>Cryolite is a mineral of much economic importance. It
+has been extensively used as a source of metallic aluminium,
+and as a flux in smelting the metal. It is largely employed in
+the manufacture of certain sodium salts, as suggested by Julius
+Thomsen, of Copenhagen, in 1849; and it has been used for the
+production of certain kinds of porcelain and glass, remarkable
+for its toughness, and for enamelled ware.</p>
+
+<p>Although cryolite is known as &ldquo;ice-stone&rdquo; (<i>Eisstein</i>),
+it is not to be confused with &ldquo;ice-spar&rdquo; (<i>Eisspath</i>), which
+is a vitreous kind of felspar termed &ldquo;glassy felspar&rdquo; or
+rhyacolite.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYPT<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (Lat. <i>crypta</i>, from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kryptein">&#954;&#961;&#973;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to hide), a vault or
+subterranean chamber, especially under churches. In classical
+phraseology &ldquo;crypta&rdquo; was employed for any vaulted building,
+either partially or entirely below the level of the ground. It is
+used for a sewer (<i>crypta Suburae</i>, Juvenal, <i>Sat.</i> v. 106);  for the
+&ldquo;carceres,&rdquo; or vaulted stalls for the horses and chariots in a
+circus (Sidon. Apoll. <i>Carm.</i> xxiii. 319); for the close porticoes
+or arcades, more fully known as &ldquo;cryptoporticus,&rdquo; attached by
+the Romans to their suburban villas for the sake of coolness,
+and to the theatres as places of exercise or rehearsal for the
+performers (Plin. <i>Epist.</i> ii. 15, v. 6, vii. 21; Sueton. <i>Calig.</i> 58;
+Sidon. Apoll, lib. ii. epist. 2); and for underground receptacles
+for agricultural produce (Vitruv. vi. 8, Varro, <i>De re rust.</i> i. 57).
+Tunnels, or galleries excavated in the living rock, were also
+called <i>cryptae</i>. Thus the tunnel to the north of Naples, through
+which the road passes to Puteoli, familiar to tourists as the
+&ldquo;Grotto of Posilipo,&rdquo; was originally designated <i>crypta Neapolitana</i>
+(Seneca, Epist. 57). In early Christian times <i>crypta</i>
+was appropriately employed for the galleries of a catacomb, or
+for the catacomb itself. Jerome calls them by this name when
+describing his visits to them as a schoolboy, and the term is used
+by Prudentius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catacombs</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span></p>
+
+<p>A crypt, as a portion of a church, had its origin in the subterranean
+chapels known as &ldquo;confessiones,&rdquo; erected around the
+tomb of a martyr, or the place of his martyrdom. This is the
+origin of the spacious crypts, some of which may be called
+subterranean churches, of the Roman churches of S. Prisca,
+S. Prassede, S. Martino ai Monti, S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and
+above all of St Peter&rsquo;s&mdash;the crypt being thus the germ of the
+church or basilica subsequently erected above the hallowed spot.
+When the martyr&rsquo;s tomb was sunk in the surface of the ground,
+and not placed in a catacomb chapel, the original memorial-shrine
+would be only partially below the surface, and consequently
+the part of the church erected over it, which was always
+that containing the altar, would be elevated some height above
+the ground, and be approached by flights of steps. This fashion
+of raising the chancel or altar end of a church on a crypt was
+widely imitated long after the reason for adopting it ceased,
+and even where it never existed. The crypt under the altar
+at the basilica of St Maria Maggiore in Rome is merely imitative,
+and the same may be said of many of the crypts of the
+early churches in England. The original Saxon cathedral of
+Canterbury had a crypt beneath the eastern apse, containing
+the so-called body of St Dunstan, and other relics, &ldquo;fabricated,&rdquo;
+according to Eadmer, &ldquo;in the likeness of the confessionary of St
+Peter at Rome&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basilica</a></span>). St Wilfrid constructed crypts
+still existing beneath the churches erected by him in the latter
+part of the 7th century at Hexham and Ripon. These are
+peculiarly interesting from their similarity in form and arrangement
+to the catacomb chapels with which Wilfrid must have
+become familiar during his residence in Rome. The cathedral,
+begun by Ćthelwold and finished by Alphege at Winchester, at
+the end of the 10th century, had spacious crypts &ldquo;supporting
+the holy altar and the venerable relics of the saints&rdquo; (Wulstan,
+<i>Life of St Ćthelwold</i>), and they appear to have been common in
+the earlier churches in England. The arrangement was adopted
+by the Norman builders of the 11th and 12th centuries, and
+though far from universal is found in many of the cathedrals of
+that date. The object of the construction of these crypts was
+twofold,&mdash;to give the altar sufficient elevation to enable those
+below to witness the sacred mysteries, and to provide a place of
+burial for those holy men whose relics were the church&rsquo;s most
+precious possession. But the crypt was &ldquo;a foreign fashion,&rdquo;
+derived, as has been said, from Rome, &ldquo;which failed to
+take root in England, and indeed elsewhere barely outlasted
+the Romanesque period&rdquo; (<i>Essays on Cathedrals</i>, ed. Howson,
+p. 331).</p>
+
+<p>Of the crypts beneath English Norman cathedrals, that under
+the choir of Canterbury (<i>q.v.</i>) is by far the largest and most
+elaborate in its arrangements. It is, in fact, a subterranean
+church of vast size and considerable altitude. The whole crypt
+was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and contained two chapels
+especially dedicated to her,&mdash;the central one beneath the high
+altar, enclosed with rich Gothic screen-work, and one under the
+south transept. This latter chapel was appropriated by Queen
+Elizabeth to the use of the French Huguenot refugees who had
+settled at Canterbury in the time of Edward VI. There were
+also in this crypt a large number of altars and chapels of other
+saints, some of whose hallowed bodies were buried here. At the
+extreme east end, beneath the Trinity chapel, the body of St
+Thomas (Becket) was buried the day after his martyrdom,
+and lay there till his translation, July 7, 1220.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedrals of Winchester, Worcester and Gloucester have
+crypts of slightly earlier date (they may all be placed between
+1080 and 1100), but of similar character, though less elaborate.
+They all contain piscinas and other evidences of the existence of
+altars in considerable numbers. They are all apsidal. The most
+picturesque is that of Worcester, the work of Bishop Wulfstan
+(1084), which is remarkable for the multiplicity of small pillars
+supporting its radiating vaults. Instead of having the air of a
+sepulchral vault like those of Winchester and Gloucester, this
+crypt is, in Professor Willis&rsquo;s words, &ldquo;a complex and beautiful
+temple.&rdquo; Archbishop Roger&rsquo;s crypt at York, belonging to the
+next century (1154-1181), was filled up with earth when the
+present choir was built at the end of the 14th century, and its
+existence forgotten till its disinterment after the fire of 1829.
+The choir and presbytery at Rochester are supported by an
+extensive crypt, of which the western portion is Gundulf&rsquo;s work
+(1076-1107), but the eastern part, which displays slender
+cylindrical and octagonal shafts, with light vaulting springing
+from them, is of the same period as the superstructure, the first
+years of the 13th century. This crypt, and that beneath the
+Early English Lady chapel at Hereford, are the latest English
+existing cathedral crypts. That at Hereford was rendered
+necessary by the fall of the ground, and is an exceptional case.
+Later than any of these crypts was that of St Paul&rsquo;s, London.
+This was a really large and magnificent church of Decorated
+date, with a vaulted roof of rich and intricate character resting
+on a forest of clustered columns. Part of it served as the parish
+church of St Faith. A still more exquisite work of the Decorated
+period is the crypt of St Stephen&rsquo;s chapel at Westminster, than
+which it is difficult to conceive anything more perfect in design
+or more elaborate in ornamentation. Having happily escaped
+the conflagration of the Houses of Parliament in 1834&mdash;before
+which it was degraded to the purpose of the speaker&rsquo;s state
+dining-room&mdash;it has been restored to its former sumptuousness
+of decoration, and is now one of the most beautiful architectural
+gems in England.</p>
+
+<p>Of Scottish cathedrals the only one that possesses a crypt is
+the cathedral of Glasgow, rendered celebrated by Sir Walter
+Scott in his novel of <i>Rob Roy</i> (ch. xx.). At the supposed date
+of the tale, and indeed till a comparatively recent period, this
+crypt was used as a place of worship by one of the three congregations
+among which the cathedral was partitioned, and was
+known as &ldquo;the Laigh or Barony Kirk.&rdquo; It extends beneath
+the choir transepts and chapter-house; in consequence of the
+steep declivity on which the cathedral stands it is of unusual
+height and lightsomeness. It belongs to the 13th century, its
+style corresponding to Early English, and is simply constructional,
+the building being adapted to the locality. In architectural
+beauty it is quite unequalled by any crypt in the United
+Kingdom, and can hardly anywhere be surpassed. It is an
+unusually rich example of the style, the clustered piers and
+groining being exquisite in design and admirable in execution.
+The bosses of the roof and capitals of the piers are very elaborate,
+and the doors are much enriched with foliage. &ldquo;There is a
+solidity in its architecture, a richness in its vaulting, and a
+variety of perspective in the spacing of its pillars, which make
+it one of the most perfect pieces of architecture in these
+kingdoms&rdquo; (Fergusson).</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the main alley stands the mutilated effigy
+of St Mungo, the patron saint of Glasgow, and at the south-east
+corner is a well called after the same saint.</p>
+
+<p>Crypts under parish churches are not very uncommon in
+England, but they are usually small and not characterized by
+any architectural beauty. A few of the earlier crypts, however,
+deserve notice. One of the earliest and most remarkable is that
+of the church of Lastingham near Pickering in Yorkshire, on
+the site of the monastery founded in 648 by Cedd, bishop of the
+East Saxons. The existing crypt, though exceedingly rude
+in structure, is of considerably later date than Bishop Cedd,
+forming part of the church erected by Abbot Stephen of Whitby
+in 1080, when he had been driven inland by the incursions of the
+northern pirates. This crypt is remarkable from its extending
+under the nave as well as the chancel of the upper church, the
+plan of which it accurately reproduces, with the exception of the
+westernmost bay. It forms a nave with side aisles of three bays,
+and an apsidal chancel, lighted by narrow deeply splayed slits.
+The roof of quadripartite vaulting is supported by four very
+dwarf thick cylindrical columns, the capitals of which and of
+the responds are clumsy imitations of classical work with rude
+volutes. Still more curious is the crypt beneath the chancel
+of the church of Repton in Derbyshire. This also consists of a
+centre and side aisles, divided by three arches on either side.
+The architectural character, however, is very different from
+that at Lastingham, and is in some respects almost unique, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span>
+piers being slender, and some of them of a singular spiral form,
+with a bead running in the sunken part of the spiral. Another
+very extensive and curious Norman crypt is that beneath the
+chancel of St Peter&rsquo;s-in-the-East at Oxford. This is five
+bays in length, the quadripartite vaulting being supported
+by eight low, somewhat slender, cylindrical columns with
+capitals bearing grotesque animal and human subjects. Its
+dimensions are 36 by 20 ft. and 10 ft. in height. This crypt has
+been commonly attributed to Grymboldt in the 9th century;
+but it is really not very early Norman. Under the church of
+St Mary-le-Bow in London there is an interesting Norman crypt
+not very dissimilar in character to that last described. Of a later
+date is the remarkably fine Early English crypt groined in stone,
+beneath the chancel of Hythe in Kent, containing a remarkable
+collection of skulls and bones, the history of which is quite
+uncertain. There is also a Decorated crypt beneath the chancel
+at Wimborne minster, and one of the same date beneath the
+southern chancel aisle at Grantham.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more remarkable French crypts may be mentioned
+those of the cathedrals of Auxerre, said to date from the original
+foundation in 1085; of Bayeux, attributed to Odo, bishop of that
+see, uterine brother of William the Conqueror, where twelve
+columns with rude capitals support a vaulted roof; of Chartres,
+running under the choir and its aisles, frequently assigned to
+Bishop Fulbert in 1029, but more probably coeval with the
+superstructure; and of Bourges, where the crypt is in the Pointed
+style, extending beneath the choir. The church of the Holy
+Trinity attached to Queen Matilda&rsquo;s foundation&mdash;the &ldquo;Abbaye
+aux Dames&rdquo; at Caen&mdash;has a Norman crypt where the thirty-four
+pillars are as closely set as those at Worcester. The church of
+St Eutropius at Saintes has also a crypt of the 11th century, of
+very large dimensions, which deserves special notice; the capitals
+of the columns exhibit very curious carvings. Earlier than any
+already mentioned is that of St Gervase of Rouen, considered
+by E. A. Freeman &ldquo;the oldest ecclesiastical work to be seen north
+of the Alps.&rdquo; It is apsidal, and in its walls are layers of Roman
+brick. It is said to contain the remains of two of the earliest
+apostles of Gaul&mdash;St Mello and St Avitian. There are numerous
+crypts in Germany. One at Göttingen may be mentioned, where
+cylindrical shafts with capitals of singular design support
+&ldquo;vaulting of great elegance and lightness&rdquo; (Fergusson), the
+curves being those of a horseshoe arch. The crypts of the
+cathedrals or churches at Halberstadt, Hildesheim and Naumburg
+also deserve to be noticed; that of Lübeck may be rather
+called a lower choir. It is 20 ft. high and vaulted.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian crypts, when found, as a rule reproduce the
+&ldquo;confessio&rdquo; of the primitive churches. That beneath the
+chancel of S. Michele at Pavia is an excellent typical example,
+probably dating from the 10th century. It is apsidal and vaulted,
+and is seven bays in length. That at S. Zeno at Verona (<i>c.</i> 1138)
+is still more remarkable; its vaulted roof is upborne by forty
+columns, with curiously carved capitals. It is approached from
+the west by a double flight of steps and contains many ancient
+monuments. S. Miniato at Florence, begun in 1013, has a very
+spacious crypt at the east end, forming virtually a second choir.
+It is seven bays in length and vaulted. The most remarkable
+crypt in Italy, however, is perhaps that of St Mark&rsquo;s, Venice.
+The plan of this is almost a Greek cross. Four rows of nine
+columns each run from end to end, and two rows of three each
+occupy the arms of the cross, supporting low stunted arches
+on which rests the pavement of the church above. This also
+constitutes a lower church, containing a <i>chorus cantorum</i> formed
+by a low stone screen, not unlike that of S. Clemente at Rome
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basilica</a></span>), enclosing a massive stone altar with four low
+columns. This crypt is reasonably supposed to belong to the
+church founded by the doge P. Orseolo in 977. There are also
+crypts deserving notice at the cathedrals of Brescia, Fiesole
+and Modena, and the churches of S. Ambrogio and S. Eustorgio
+at Milan. The former was unfortunately modernized by St
+Charles Borromeo. The crypt at Assisi is really a second church
+at a lower level, and being built on the steep side of a hill is well
+lighted. The whole fabric is a beautiful specimen of Italian
+Gothic, and both the lower and upper churches are covered with
+rich frescoes.</p>
+
+<p>Domestic crypts are of frequent occurrence. Medieval houses
+had as a rule their chief rooms raised above the level of the
+ground upon vaulted substructures, which were used as cellars
+and storerooms. These were sometimes partially underground,
+sometimes entirely above it. The underground vaults often
+remain when all the superstructure has been swept away, and
+from their Gothic character are frequently mistaken for ecclesiastical
+buildings. The older English towns are full of crypts of
+this character, now used as cellars. They occur in Oxford and
+Rochester, are very abundant in the older parts of Bristol, and,
+according to J. H. Parker, &ldquo;nearly the whole city of Chester
+is built upon a series of them with the Rows or passages made
+on the top of the vaults&rdquo; (<i>Domestic Architecture</i>, iii. 91). The
+crypt of Gerard&rsquo;s Hall in London, destroyed in the construction
+of New Cannon Street, figured by Parker (<i>Dom. Arch.</i> ii. 185),
+was a beautiful example of the lower storey of the residence of
+a wealthy merchant of the time of Edward I. It was divided
+down the middle by a row of four slender cylindrical columns
+supporting a very graceful vault. The finest example of a
+secular crypt now remaining in England is that beneath the
+Guildhall of London. The date of this is early in the 15th
+century&mdash;1411. It is a large and lofty apartment, divided into
+four alleys by two rows of clustered shafts supporting a rich
+lierne vault with ribs of considerable intricacy. There is a fine
+vaulted crypt of the same date and of similar character beneath
+St Mary&rsquo;s Hall, the Guildhall of the city of Coventry.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. V.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYPTEIA<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kryptein">&#954;&#961;&#973;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to hide), a kind of secret police
+in ancient Sparta, founded, according to Aristotle, by Lycurgus;
+there is, however, no real evidence as to the date of its origin.
+The institution was under the supervision of the ephors, who,
+on entering office, annually proclaimed war against the helots
+(serf-class) and thus absolved from the guilt of murder any
+Spartan who should slay a helot. It was instituted primarily
+as a precaution against the ever-present danger of a helot revolt,
+and secondarily perhaps as a training for young Spartans, who
+were sent out by the ephors to keep watch on the helots and
+assassinate any who might appear dangerous. Plato (<i>Laws</i>, i.
+p. 633) emphasizes the former aspect, but there can be little
+doubt that, at all events after the revolt of 464 (see Cimon),
+its more sinister purpose was predominant, as we may gather
+from the secret massacre of 2000 helots who, on the invitation
+of the ephors, claimed to have rendered distinguished service
+(Thuc. iv. 80).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Helots</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ephor</a></span>; also A. H. J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Gk.
+Const. Hist.</i> (London, 1896); G. Gilbert, <i>Gk. Const. Antiq.</i> (Eng.
+trans., London, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYPTOBRANCHUS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a genus of thoroughly aquatic, but
+lung-breathing tailed Batrachia, of the family <i>Amphiumidae</i>,
+characterized by a heavy, flattened build, a very porous tubercular
+skin, with a frilled fold along each side, short stout limbs
+with four very short fingers and five very short toes, and minute
+eyes without lids. The vertebrae are biconcave, and although
+the gills are lost in the adult, ossified gill-arches, two to four in
+number, persist. A strong series of vomerine teeth extends
+across the palate. Three species of this genus are known. One
+is the well-known fossil of Oeningen first described as <i>Homo
+diluvii testis</i> and shown by Cuvier to be nearly related to the
+gigantic salamander of Japan, <i>Cryptobranchus maximus</i>, which
+has since been found to inhabit China also; the third is the
+hellbender, mud-puppy or water-dog of North America, <i>C.
+alleghaniensis</i>, also known under the name of <i>Menopoma</i>. Both
+the fossil <i>C. scheuchzeri</i> and <i>C. maximus</i> grow to a length of
+over 5 ft. and are by far the largest Urodeles known, whilst
+<i>C. alleghaniensis</i> reaches the respectable length of 18 in.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid in rosary-like strings. They have been
+found, in Japan, deposited in deep holes in the water, where
+they form large clumps (70 to 80 eggs) round which the female
+coils herself. The gigantic salamander has also bred in the
+Amsterdam zoological gardens, the eggs numbering upwards of
+500; the male, it is stated, took charge of the eggs, and for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span>
+ten weeks which elapsed before the release of the last larva, he
+kept close to them, at times crawling among the coiled mass of
+egg-strings or lifting them up, evidently for the purpose of
+aeration. The larva on leaving the egg is about an inch long,
+provided with three branched external gills on each side, and
+showing mere rudiments of the four limbs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYPTOGRAPHY<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="kryptos">&#954;&#961;&#973;&#960;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, hidden, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>,
+to write), or writing in cipher, called also steganography (from
+Gr. <span class="grk" title="steganę">&#963;&#964;&#949;&#947;&#940;&#957;&#951;</span>, a covering), the art of writing in such a way as to
+be incomprehensible except to those who possess the key to the
+system employed. The unravelling of the writing is called
+deciphering. Cryptography having become a distinct art,
+Bacon (Lord Verulam) classed it (under the name <i>ciphers</i>) as
+a part of grammar. Secret modes of communication have been in
+use from the earliest times. The Lacedemonians had a method
+called the <i>scytale</i>, from the staff (<span class="grk" title="skytalę">&#963;&#954;&#965;&#964;&#940;&#955;&#951;</span>) employed in constructing
+and deciphering the message. When the Spartan ephors
+wished to forward their orders to their commanders abroad, they
+wound slantwise a narrow strip of parchment upon the <span class="grk" title="skytalę">&#963;&#954;&#965;&#964;&#940;&#955;&#951;</span>
+so that the edges met close together, and the message was then
+added in such a way that the centre of the line of writing was
+on the edges of the parchment. When unwound the scroll
+consisted of broken letters; and in that condition it was
+despatched to its destination, the general to whose hands it
+came deciphering it by means of a <span class="grk" title="skytalę">&#963;&#954;&#965;&#964;&#940;&#955;&#951;</span> exactly corresponding
+to that used by the ephors. Polybius has enumerated other
+methods of cryptography.</p>
+
+<p>The art was in use also amongst the Romans. Upon the
+revival of letters methods of secret correspondence were introduced
+into private business, diplomacy, plots, &amp;c.; and as the
+study of this art has always presented attractions to the
+ingenious, a curious body of literature has been the result.</p>
+
+<p>John Trithemius (d. 1516), the abbot of Spanheim, was the
+first important writer on cryptography. His <i>Polygraphia</i>,
+published in 1518, has passed through many editions, and has
+supplied the basis upon which subsequent writers have worked.
+It was begun at the desire of the duke of Bavaria; but
+Trithemius did not at first intend to publish it, on the ground
+that it would be injurious to public interests. A <i>Steganographia</i>
+published at Lyons (? 1551) and later at Frankfort (1606), is
+also attributed to him. The next treatises of importance were
+those of Giovanni Battista della Porta, the Neapolitan mathematician,
+who wrote <i>De furtivis litterarum notis</i>, 1563; and of
+Blaise de Vigenere, whose <i>Traité des chiffres</i> appeared in Paris,
+1587. Bacon proposed an ingenious system of cryptography
+on the plan of what is called the double cipher; but while thus
+lending to the art the influence of his great name, he gave an
+intimation as to the general opinion formed of it and as to the
+classes of men who used it. For when prosecuting the earl of
+Somerset in the matter of the poisoning of Overbury, he urged
+it as an aggravation of the crime that the earl and Overbury
+&ldquo;had cyphers and jargons for the king and queen and all the
+great men,&mdash;things seldom used but either by princes and their
+ambassadors and ministers, or by such as work or practise against
+or, at least, upon princes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other eminent Englishmen were afterwards connected with
+the art. John Wilkins, subsequently bishop of Chester, published
+in 1641 an anonymous treatise entitled <i>Mercury, or The Secret
+and Swift Messenger</i>,&mdash;a small but comprehensive work on the
+subject, and a timely gift to the diplomatists and leaders of
+the Civil War. The deciphering of many of the royalist papers
+of that period, such as the letters that fell into the hands of the
+parliament at the battle of Naseby, has by Henry Stubbe been
+charged on the celebrated mathematician Dr John Wallis
+(<i>Athen. Oxon.</i> iii. 1072), whose connexion with the subject of
+cipher-writing is referred to by himself in the Oxford edition of
+his mathematical works, 1689, p. 659; as also by John Davys.
+Dr Wallis elsewhere states that this art, formerly scarcely known
+to any but the secretaries of princes, &amp;c., had grown very common
+and familiar during the civil commotions, &ldquo;so that now there is
+scarce a person of quality but is more or less acquainted with it,
+and doth, as there is occasion, make use of it.&rdquo; Subsequent
+writers on the subject are John Falconer (<i>Cryptomenysis patefacta</i>),
+1685; John Davys (<i>An Essay on the Art of Decyphering:
+in which is inserted a Discourse of Dr Wallis</i>), 1737; Philip
+Thicknesse (<i>A Treatise on the Art of Decyphering and of Writing
+in Cypher</i>), 1772; William Blair (the writer of the comprehensive
+article &ldquo;Cipher&rdquo; in Rees&rsquo;s <i>Cyclopaedia</i>), 1819; and G. von
+Marten (Cours <i>diplomatique</i>), 1801 (a fourth edition of which
+appeared in 1851). Perhaps the best modern work on this
+subject is the <i>Kryptographik</i> of J. L. Klüber (Tübingen, 1809),
+who was drawn into the investigation by inclination and official
+circumstances. In this work the different methods of cryptography
+are classified. Amongst others of lesser merit who
+have treated of this art may be named Gustavus Selenus (<i>i.e.</i>
+Augustus, duke of Brunswick), 1624; Cospi, translated by
+Niceron in 1641; the marquis of Worchester, 1659; Kircher,
+1663; Schott, 1665; Ludwig Heinrich Hiller, 1682; Comiers;
+1690; Baring, 1737; Conrad, 1739, &amp;c. See also a paper on
+<i>Elizabethan Cipher-books</i> by A. J. Butler in the Bibliographical
+Society&rsquo;s <i>Transactions</i>, London, 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Schemes of cryptography are endless in their variety. Bacon
+lays down the following as the &ldquo;virtues&rdquo; to be looked for in
+them:&mdash;&ldquo;that they be not laborious to write and read; that
+they be impossible to decipher; and, in some cases, that they
+be without suspicion.&rdquo; These principles are more or less disregarded
+by all the modes that have been advanced, including
+that of Bacon himself, which has been unduly extolled by his
+admirers as &ldquo;one of the most ingenious methods of writing in
+cypher, and the most difficult to be decyphered, of any yet
+contrived&rdquo; (Thicknesse, p. 13).</p>
+
+<p>The simplest and commonest of all the ciphers is that in which
+the writer selects in place of the proper letters certain other
+letters in regular advance. This method of transposition was
+used by Julius Caesar. He, &ldquo;per quartam elementorum literam,&rdquo;
+wrote <i>d</i> for <i>a</i>, <i>e</i> for <i>b</i>, and so on. There are instances of this
+arrangement in the Jewish rabbis, and even in the sacred writers.
+An illustration of it occurs in Jeremiah (xxv. 26), where the
+prophet, to conceal the meaning of his prediction from all but
+the initiated, writes <i>Sheshak</i> instead of Babel (Babylon), the
+place meant; <i>i.e.</i> in place of using the second and twelfth letters
+of the Hebrew alphabet (<i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>l</i>) from the beginning, he wrote
+the second and twelfth (<i>sh</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>k</i>) from the end. To this kind of
+cipher-writing Buxtorf gives the name Athbash (from <i>a</i> the first
+letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and <i>th</i> the last; <i>b</i> the second from
+the beginning, and <i>h</i> the second from the end). Another Jewish
+cabalism of like nature was called Albam; of which an example
+is in Isaiah vii. 6, where Tabeal is written for Remaliah. In its
+adaptation to English this method of transposition, of which
+there are many modifications, is comparatively easy to decipher.
+A rough key may be derived from an examination of the respective
+quantities of letters in a type-founder&rsquo;s bill, or a printer&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;case.&rdquo; The decipherer&rsquo;s first business is to classify the letters
+of the secret message in the order of their frequency. The letter
+that occurs oftenest is <i>e</i>; and the next in order of frequency is <i>t</i>.
+The following groups come after these, separated from each other
+by degrees of decreasing recurrence:&mdash;<i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>i</i>; <i>r</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>h</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>l</i>;
+<i>c</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>u</i>, <i>m</i>; <i>f</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>b</i>; <i>v</i>, <i>k</i>; <i>x</i>, <i>q</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>z</i>. All the single letters must
+be <i>a</i>, <i>I</i> or <i>O</i>. Letters occurring together are <i>ee</i>, <i>oo</i>, <i>ff</i>, <i>ll</i>, <i>ss</i>, &amp;c.
+The commonest words of two letters are (roughly arranged in
+the order of their frequency) <i>of</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>in</i>, <i>it</i>, <i>is</i>, <i>be</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>by</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>as</i>,
+<i>at</i>, <i>an</i>, <i>so</i>, &amp;c. The commonest words of three letters are <i>the</i>
+and <i>and</i> (in great excess), <i>for</i>, <i>are</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>all</i>, <i>not</i>, &amp;c.; and of four
+letters&mdash;<i>that</i>, <i>with</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>have</i>, <i>this</i>, <i>they</i>, &amp;c. Familiarity with
+the composition of the language will suggest numerous other
+points that are of value to the decipherer. He may obtain other
+hints from Poe&rsquo;s tale called <i>The Gold Bug</i>. As to messages in the
+continental languages constructed upon this system of transposition,
+rules for deciphering may be derived from Breithaupt&rsquo;s
+<i>Ars decifratoria</i> (1737), and other treatises.</p>
+
+<p>Bacon remarks that though ciphers were commonly in letters
+and alphabets yet they might be in words. Upon this basis
+codes have been constructed, classified words taken from
+dictionaries being made to represent complete ideas. In recent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span>
+years such codes have been adapted by merchants and others to
+communications by telegraph, and have served the purpose not
+only of keeping business affairs private, but also of reducing
+the excessive cost of telegraphic messages to distant markets.
+Obviously this class of ciphers presents greater difficulties to
+the skill of the decipherer.</p>
+
+<p>Figures and other characters have been also used as letters;
+and with them ranges of numerals have been combined as the
+representatives of syllables, parts of words, words themselves,
+and complete phrases. Under this head must be placed the
+despatches of Giovanni Michael, the Venetian ambassador to
+England in the reign of Queen Mary, documents which have only
+of late years been deciphered. Many of the private letters
+and papers from the pen of Charles I. and his queen, who were
+adepts in the use of ciphers, are of the same description. One of
+that monarch&rsquo;s letters, a document of considerable interest, consisting
+entirely of numerals purposely complicated, was in 1858
+deciphered by Professor Wheatstone, the inventor of the ingenious
+crypto-machine, and printed by the Philobiblon Society.
+Other letters of the like character have been published in the
+<i>First Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts</i>
+(1870). In the second and subsequent reports of the same commission
+several keys to ciphers have been catalogued, which
+seem to refer themselves to the methods of cryptography under
+notice. In this connexion also should be mentioned the &ldquo;characters,&rdquo;
+which the diarist Pepys drew up when clerk to Sir
+George Downing and secretary to the earl of Sandwich and to
+the admiralty, and which are frequently mentioned in his journal.
+Pepys describes one of them as &ldquo;a great large character,&rdquo; over
+which he spent much time, but which was at length finished,
+25th April 1660; &ldquo;it being,&rdquo; says he, &ldquo;very handsomely done
+and a very good one in itself, but that not truly alphabetical.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Shorthand marks and other arbitrary characters have also
+been largely imported into cryptographic systems to represent
+both letters and words, but more commonly the latter. This
+plan is said to have been first put into use by the old Roman poet
+Ennius. It formed the basis of the method of Cicero&rsquo;s freedman,
+Tiro, who seems to have systematized the labours of his predecessors.
+A large quantity of these characters have been
+engraved in Gruter&rsquo;s <i>Inscriptiones</i>. The correspondence of
+Charlemagne was in part made up of marks of this nature. In
+Rees&rsquo;s <i>Cyclopaedia</i> specimens were engraved of the cipher used
+by Cardinal Wolsey at the court of Vienna in 1524, of that used
+by Sir Thomas Smith at Paris in 1563, and of that of Sir Edward
+Stafford in 1586; in all of which arbitrary marks are introduced.
+The first English system of shorthand&mdash;Bright&rsquo;s <i>Characterie</i>,
+1588&mdash;almost belongs to the same category of ciphers. A
+favourite system of Charles I., used by him during the year 1646,
+was one made up of an alphabet of twenty-four letters, which
+were represented by four simple strokes varied in length, slope
+and position. This alphabet is engraved in Clive&rsquo;s <i>Linear System
+of Shorthand</i> (1830), having been found amongst the royal manuscripts
+in the British Museum. An interest attaches to this
+cipher from the fact that it was employed in the well-known
+letter addressed by the king to the earl of Glamorgan, in which
+the former made concessions to the Roman Catholics of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Complications have been introduced into ciphers by the employment
+of &ldquo;dummy&rdquo; letters,&mdash;&ldquo;nulls and insignificants,&rdquo;
+as Bacon terms them. Other devices have been introduced to
+perplex the decipherer, such as spelling words backwards, making
+false divisions between words, &amp;c. The greatest security against
+the decipherer has been found in the use of elaborate tables of
+letters, arranged in the form of the multiplication table, the
+message being constructed by the aid of preconcerted key-words.
+Details of the working of these ciphers may be found in the
+treatises named in this article. The deciphering of them is one
+of the most difficult of tasks. A method of this kind is explained
+in the Latin and English lives of Dr John Barwick, whose
+correspondence with Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, was
+carried on in cryptography. In a letter dated 20th February
+1659/60, Hyde, alluding to the skill of his political opponents
+in deciphering, says that &ldquo;nobody needs to fear them, if they
+write carefully in good cyphers.&rdquo; In his next he allays his
+correspondent&rsquo;s apprehensiveness as to the deciphering of their
+letters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;I confess to you, as I am sure no copy could be gotten of any
+of my cyphers from hence, so I did not think it probable that they
+could be got on your side the water. But I was as confident, till
+you tell me you believe it, that the devil himself cannot decypher
+a letter that is well written, or find that 100 stands for Sir H. Vane.
+I have heard of many of the pretenders to that skill, and have
+spoken with some of them, but have found them all to be mountebanks;
+nor did I ever hear that more of the King&rsquo;s letters that
+were found at Naseby, than those which they found decyphered,
+or found the cyphers in which they were writ, were decyphered.
+And I very well remember that in the volume they published there
+was much left in cypher which could not be understood, and which
+I believe they would have explained if it had been in their power.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An excellent modification of the key-word principle was constructed
+by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort.</p>
+
+<p>Ciphers have been constructed on the principle of altering
+the places of the letters without changing their powers. The
+message is first written Chinese-wise, upward and downward, and
+the letters are then combined in given rows from left to right.
+In the celebrated cipher used by the earl of Argyll when plotting
+against James II., he altered the positions of the words.
+Sentences of an indifferent nature were constructed, but the
+real meaning of the message was to be gathered from words,
+placed at certain intervals. This method, which is connected
+with the name of Cardan, is sometimes called the trellis or cardboard
+cipher.</p>
+
+<p>The wheel-cipher, which is an Italian invention, the string-cipher,
+the circle-cipher and many others are fully explained,
+with the necessary diagrams, in the authorities named above&mdash;more
+particularly by Klüber in his <i>Kryptographik</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. E. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYPTOMERIA,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Japanese Cedar</span>, a genus of conifers,
+containing a single species, <i>C. japonica</i>, native of China and
+Japan, which was introduced into Great Britain by the Royal
+Horticultural Society in 1844. It is described as one of the
+finest trees in Japan, reaching a height of 100 or more feet,
+usually divested of branches along the lower part of the trunk
+and crowned with a conical head. The narrow, pointed leaves are
+spirally arranged and persist for four or five years; the cones
+are small, globose and borne at the ends of the branchlets, the
+scales are thickened at the extremity and divided into sharply
+pointed lobes, three to five seeds are borne on each scale. <i>Cryptomeria</i>
+is extensively used in Japan for reafforesting denuded
+lands, as it is a valuable timber tree; it is also planted to form
+avenues along the public roads. In Veitch&rsquo;s <i>Manual of Coniferae</i>
+(ed. 2, 1900, p. 265) reference is made to &ldquo;an avenue of Cryptomerias
+7 m. in extent near Lake Hakone&rdquo; in which &ldquo;the trees
+are more than 100 ft. high, with perfectly straight trunks crowned
+with conical heads of foliage.&rdquo; Professor C. S. Sargent, in his
+<i>Forest Flora of Japan</i>, says, &ldquo;Japan owes much of the beauty
+of its groves and gardens to the <i>Cryptomeria</i>. Nowhere is there
+a more solemn and impressive group of trees than that which
+surrounds the temples and tombs at Nikko where they rise to a
+height of 100 to 125 ft.; it is a stately tree with no rival except
+in the sequoias of California.&rdquo; Many curious varieties have
+been obtained by Japanese horticulturists, including some
+dwarf shrubby forms not exceeding a few feet in height. When
+grown in Great Britain <i>Cryptomeria</i> requires a deep, well-drained
+soil with plenty of moisture, and protection from cold winds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYPTO-PORTICUS<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kryptos">&#954;&#961;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, concealed, and Lat.
+<i>porticus</i>), an architectural term for a concealed or covered
+passage, generally underground, though lighted and ventilated
+from the open air. One of the best-known examples is the
+crypto-porticus under the palaces of the Caesars in Rome. In
+Hadrian&rsquo;s villa in Rome they formed the principal private
+intercommunication between the several buildings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYSTAL-GAZING,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Scrying</span>, the term commonly applied
+to the induction of visual hallucinations by concentrating the
+gaze on any clear deep, such as a crystal or a ball of polished
+rock crystal. Some persons do not even find a clear deep
+necessary, and are content to gaze at the palm of the hand, for
+example, when hallucinatory pictures, as they declare, emerge.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span>
+Among objects used are a pool of ink in the hand (Egypt), the
+liver of an animal (tribes of the North-West Indian frontier),
+a hole filled with water (Polynesia), quartz crystals (the Apaches
+and the Euahlayi tribe of New South Wales), a smooth slab of
+polished black stone (the Huille-che of South America), water
+in a vessel (Zulus and Siberians), a crystal (the Incas), a mirror
+(classical Greece and the middle ages), the finger-nail, a sword-blade,
+a ring-stone, a glass of sherry, in fact almost anything.
+Much depends on what the &ldquo;seer&rdquo; is accustomed to use, and
+some persons who can &ldquo;scry&rdquo; in a glass ball or a glass water-bottle
+cannot &ldquo;scry&rdquo; in ink.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of inducing pictorial hallucinations by such
+methods as these has been traced among the natives of North
+and South America, Asia, Australia, Africa, among the Maoris,
+who sometimes use a drop of blood, and in Polynesia, and is thus
+practically of world-wide diffusion. This fact was not observed
+(that is, the collections of examples were not made) till recently,
+when experiments in private non-spiritualist circles drew
+attention to crystal-gazing, a practice always popular among
+peasants, and known historically to have survived through
+classical and medieval times, and, as in the famous case of Dr
+Dee, after the Reformation.</p>
+
+<p>The early church condemned <i>specularii</i> (mirror-gazers), and
+Aubrey and the <i>Memoirs</i> of Saint-Simon contain &ldquo;scrying&rdquo;
+anecdotes of the 17th and 18th centuries, while Sir Walter
+Scott&rsquo;s story, <i>My Aunt Margaret&rsquo;s Mirror</i>, is based on a tradition
+of about 1750 in a noble Scottish family. The practice, in all
+times and countries, was used for purposes of divination. The
+gazer detected unknown criminals, or described remote events,
+or even professed to foretell things future. Sometimes the
+supposed magician or medicine man himself did the scrying;
+occasionally he enabled his client to see for himself; often a
+child was selected as the scryer. The process was usually
+explained as the result of the action of a spirit, angel or devil,
+and many unessential formulae, invocations, &ldquo;calls,&rdquo; written
+charms with cabbalistic signs, and fumigations, were employed.
+These things may have had some effect by way of suggestion;
+the scryer may have been brought by them into an appropriate
+frame of mind; but, as a whole, they are tedious and superfluous.</p>
+
+<p>A person can either induce the pictorial hallucinations (he
+may discover his capacity by accident, like George Sand, as she
+tells in her <i>Memoirs</i>&mdash;and other cases are known), or he cannot
+induce them, though he stare till his eyes water. It is almost
+universally found, in cases of successful experiment, that the
+glass ball, for example, takes a milky or misty aspect, that it then
+grows black, reflections disappearing, and that then the pictures
+emerge. Some people arrive at seeing the glass ball milky or
+misty, and can go no further. Others see pictures of persons or
+landscapes, only in black and white, and motionless. Others
+see in the glass coloured figures of men, women and animals in
+motion; while in rarer cases the ball disappears from view, and
+the scryer finds himself apparently looking at an actual scene.
+In a few attested cases two persons have shared the same vision.
+In experiments with magnifying glasses, and through spars,
+the ordinary effects of magnifying and of alteration of view are
+sometimes produced; sometimes they are not. The evidence,
+of course, is necessarily only that of the scryers themselves,
+but repeated experiments by persons of probity, and unfamiliar
+with the topic, combined with the world-wide existence of the
+practice, prove that hallucinatory pictures are really induced.</p>
+
+<p>It has not been found possible to determine, before experiment,
+whether any given man or woman will prove capable of the
+hallucinatory experiences. Many subjects with strong powers
+of &ldquo;visualization,&rdquo; or seeing things &ldquo;in the mind&rsquo;s eye,&rdquo; cannot
+scry; others are successful in various degrees. We might expect
+persons who have experienced spontaneous visual hallucinations,
+of the kind vulgarly styled &ldquo;ghosts&rdquo; or &ldquo;wraiths,&rdquo; to succeed
+in inducing pictures in a glass ball. As a matter of fact such
+persons sometimes can and sometimes cannot see pictures in
+the way of crystal-gazing; while many who can see in the crystal
+have had no spontaneous hallucinations. It is useless to make
+experiments with hysterical and visionary people, &ldquo;whose word
+no man relies on&rdquo;; they may have the hallucinatory experiences,
+but they would say that they had in any case.</p>
+
+<p>The nearest analogy to crystal visions, as described, is the
+common experience of &ldquo;hypnagogic illusions&rdquo; (cf. Alfred Maury.
+<i>Les Ręves et le sommeil</i>). With closed eyes, between sleeping and
+waking, many people see faces, landscapes and other things
+flash upon their view, pictures often brilliant, but of very brief
+duration and rapid mutation. Sometimes the subject opens
+his eyes to get rid of an unpleasant vision of this kind. People
+who cannot scry may have these hypnagogic illusions, and, so
+far, may partly understand the experience of the scryer who is
+wide awake. But the visions of the scryer often endure for a
+considerable time. He or she may put the glass down and converse,
+and may find the picture still there when the ball is taken
+up again. New figures may join the figure first seen, as when
+one enters a room. In these respects, and in the awakeness
+of the scryer, crystal pictures differ from hypnagogic illusions.
+In other ways the experiences coincide, the pictures are either
+fanciful, like illustrations of some unread history or romance, or
+are revivals of remembered places and faces.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally, in hypnagogic illusions, the observer can see
+the picture develop rapidly out of a blot of light or colour,
+beheld by the closed eyes. One or two scryers think that they,
+too, can trace the picture as it develops on the suggestion of some
+passage of light, colour or shadow in the glass or crystal. But,
+as a rule, the scryer cannot detect any process of development
+from such <i>points de mire</i>; though this may be the actual process.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole there seems little doubt that successful crystal-gazing
+is the exertion of a not uncommon though far from
+universal faculty, like those of &ldquo;chromatic audition&rdquo;&mdash;the vivid
+association of certain sounds with certain colours&mdash;and the
+mental seeing of figures arranged in coloured diagrams (Galton,
+<i>Inquiry into Human Faculty</i>, pp. 114-154). The experience
+of hypnagogic illusions also seems far more rare than ordinary
+dreaming in sleep. Unfortunately, while these phenomena have
+been carefully studied by officially scientific characters, in
+England orthodox <i>savants</i> have disdained to observe crystal-gazing,
+while in France psychologists have too commonly
+experimented with subjects professionally hysterical and quite
+untrustworthy. Our remarks are therefore based mainly on
+considerable personal study of &ldquo;scrying&rdquo; among normal
+British subjects of both sexes, to whom the topic was previously
+unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The superstitious associations of crystal-gazing, as of hypnotism,
+appear to bar the way to official scientific investigation,
+and the fluctuating proficiency of the seers, who cannot command
+success, or determine the causes and conditions of success and
+failure, tends in the same direction. The existence, too, of paid
+professionals who lead astray silly women, encourages the
+natural scientific contempt for the study of the faculty.</p>
+
+<p>The seeing of the pictures, as far as we have spoken of it,
+appears to be a thing unusual, but in no way abnormal, any
+more than dreams or hypnagogic illusions are abnormal. Crystal
+pictures, however, are commonly dismissed as mere results of
+&ldquo;imagination,&rdquo; a theory which, of course, is of no real assistance
+to psychology. Persons of recognized &ldquo;imaginativeness,&rdquo; such
+as novelists and artists, do not seem more or less capable of the
+hallucinatory experiences than their sober neighbours; while
+persons not otherwise recognizably &ldquo;imaginative&rdquo; (we could
+quote a singularly accurate historian) are capable of the experiences.
+It is unfortunate, as it awakens prejudice, but in the
+present writer&rsquo;s opinion it is true, that crystal-gazing sometimes
+is rewarded with results which may be styled &ldquo;supra-normal.&rdquo;
+In addition to the presentation of revived memories, and of
+&ldquo;objectivation of ideas or images consciously or unconsciously
+in the mind of the percipient,&rdquo; there occur &ldquo;visions, possibly
+telepathic or clairvoyant, implying acquirement of knowledge
+by supra-normal means.&rdquo;<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>A number of examples occurring during experiments made
+by the present writer and by his acquaintances in 1897 were
+carefully recorded and attested by the signatures of all concerned
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span>
+The cases, or rather a selection of the cases, are printed in A.
+Lang&rsquo;s book, <i>The Making of Religion</i> (2nd ed., London, 1902,
+pp. 87-104). Others are chronicled in A. Lang&rsquo;s Introduction
+to Mr N. W. Thomas&rsquo;s work, <i>Crystal Gazing</i> (1905). The experiments
+took this form: any person might ask the scryer (a lady
+who had never previously heard of crystal-gazing) &ldquo;to see what
+he was thinking of.&rdquo; The scryer, who was a stranger in a place
+which she had not visited before, gave, in a long series of cases,
+a description of the person or place on which the inquirer&rsquo;s
+thoughts were fixed. The descriptions, though three or four
+entire failures occurred, were of remarkable accuracy as a rule,
+and contained facts and incidents unknown to the inquirers,
+but confirmed as accurate. In fact, some Oriental scenes and
+descriptions of incidents were corroborated by a letter from India
+which arrived just after the experiment; and the same thing
+happened when the events described were occurring in places less
+remote. On one occasion a curious set of incidents were
+described, which happened to be vividly present to the mind of
+a sceptical stranger who chanced to be in the room during the
+experiment; events unknown to the inquirer in this instance.
+As an example of the minuteness of description, an inquirer,
+thinking of a brother in India, an officer in the army, whose hair
+had suffered in an encounter with a tiger, had described to her
+an officer in undress uniform, with bald scars through the hair
+on his temples, such as he really bore. The number and proportion
+of successes was too high to admit of explanation by chance
+coincidence, but success was not invariable. On one occasion
+the scryer could see nothing, &ldquo;the crystal preserved its natural
+diaphaneity,&rdquo; as Dr Dee says; and there were failures with two
+or three inquirers. On the other hand no record was kept in
+several cases of success.</p>
+
+<p>Whoever can believe that the successes were numerous and
+that descriptions were given correctly&mdash;not only of facts present
+to the minds of inquirers, and of other persons present who were
+not consciously taking a share in the experiments, but also of
+facts necessarily unknown to all concerned&mdash;must of course
+be most impressed by the latter kind of success. If the process
+commonly styled &ldquo;telepathy&rdquo; exists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telepathy</a></span>), that
+may account for the scryer&rsquo;s power of seeing facts which are in
+the mind of the inquirer. But when the scryers see details of
+various sorts, which are unknown to the inquirer, but are verified
+on inquiry, then telepathy perhaps fails to provide an explanation.
+We seem to be confronted with actual clairvoyance (<i>q.v.</i>),
+or <i>vue ŕ distance</i>. It would be vain to form hypotheses as to
+the conditions or faculties which make <i>vue ŕ distance</i> possible.
+This way lie metaphysics, with Hegel&rsquo;s theory of the Sensitive
+Soul, or Myers&rsquo; theory of the Subliminal Self. &ldquo;The intuitive
+soul,&rdquo; says Hegel, &ldquo;oversteps the conditions of time and space;
+it beholds things remote, things long past, and things to come.&rdquo;<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>What we need, if any progress is to be made in knowledge of
+the subject, is not a metaphysical hypothesis, but a large,
+carefully tested, and well-recorded collection of examples, made
+by <i>savants</i> of recognized standing. At present we are where
+we were in electrical science, when Newton produced curious
+sparks while rubbing glass with paper. By way of facts, we
+have only a large body of unattested anecdotes of supra-normal
+successes in crystal-gazing, in many lands and ages; and the
+scanty records of modern amateur investigators, like the present
+writer. Even from these, if the honesty of all concerned be
+granted (and even clever dishonesty could not have produced
+many of the results), it would appear that we are investigating
+a strange and important human faculty. The writer is acquainted
+with no experiments in which it was attempted to discern the
+future (except in trivial cases as to events on the turf, when
+chance coincidence might explain the successes), and only with
+two or three cases in which there was an attempt to help historical
+science and discern the past by aid of psychical methods. The
+results were interesting and difficult to explain, but the experiments
+were few. Ordinary scryers of fancy pictures are common
+enough, but scryers capable of apparently supra-normal successes
+are apparently rare. Perhaps something depends on the inquirer
+as well as the scryer.</p>
+
+<p>The method of scrying, as generally practised, is simple.
+It is usual to place a glass ball on a dark ground, to sit with the
+back to the light, to focus the gaze on the ball (disregarding
+reflections, if these cannot be excluded), and to await results.
+Perhaps from five to ten minutes is a long enough time for the
+experiment. The scryer may let his consciousness play freely,
+but should not be disturbed by lookers-on. As a rule, if a person
+has the faculty he &ldquo;sees&rdquo; at the first attempt; if he fails in
+the first three or four efforts he need not persevere. Solitude is
+advisable at first, but few people can find time amounting to ten
+minutes for solitary studies of this sort, so busy and so gregarious
+is mankind. The writer has no experience of trance, sleep or
+auto-hypnotization produced in such experiments; scryers
+have always seemed to retain their full normal consciousness.
+As regards scepticism concerning the faculty we may quote
+what Mr Galton says about the faculty of visualization: &ldquo;Scientific
+men as a class have feeble power of visual reproduction....
+They had a mental deficiency of which they were
+unconscious, and, naturally enough, supposed that those who
+affirmed <i>they</i> were possessed of it were romancing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;A useful essay is that of &ldquo;Miss X&rdquo; (Miss Goodrich
+Freer) in the <i>Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research</i>, v.
+The history of crystal-gazing is here traced, and many examples of
+the author&rsquo;s own experiments are recorded. A. Lang&rsquo;s <i>The Making
+of Religion</i>, ch. v., contains anthropological examples and a series
+of experiments. In N. W. Thomas&rsquo;s <i>Crystal Gazing</i> the history
+and anthropology of the subject are investigated, with modern instances.
+For Egypt, see Lane&rsquo;s <i>Modern Egyptians</i>, and the <i>Journal</i>
+of Sir Walter Scott, xi. 419-421, with <i>Quarterly Review</i>, No. 117,
+pp. 196-208. These Egyptian experiments of 1830 were vitiated
+by their method, the scryer being asked to see and describe a given
+person, named. He ought not, of course, to be told more than that
+he is to descry the inquirer&rsquo;s thoughts, and there ought never to be
+physical contact, as in holding hands, between the inquirer and the
+scryer during the experiment. There is a chapter on crystal-gazing
+in <i>Les Névroses et les idées fixes</i> of Dr Janet (1898). His statements
+are sometimes demonstrably inaccurate (see <i>Making of Religion</i>, Appendix
+C). A curious passage on the subject, by Ibn Khaldun, an
+Arabian medieval <i>savant</i>, is quoted by Mr Thomas from the printed
+Extracts of MSS. in the Bibliothčque Nationale. There is also a
+chapter on crystal-gazing in Myers&rsquo; <i>Human Personality</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. L.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research</i>, v. 486.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> &ldquo;Philosophie der Geistes,&rdquo; Hegel&rsquo;s <i>Werke</i>, vii. 179, 406, 408
+(Berlin, 1845). Cf. Wallace&rsquo;s translation (Oxford, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYSTALLITE.<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> In media which, on account of their viscosity,
+offer considerable resistance to those molecular movements
+which are necessary for the building and growth of crystals,
+rudimentary or imperfect forms of crystallization very frequently
+occur. Such media are the volcanic rocks when they
+are rapidly cooled, producing various kinds of pitchstone,
+obsidian, &amp;c. When examined under the microscope these
+rocks consist largely of a perfectly amorphous or glassy base,
+through which are scattered great numbers of very minute
+crystals (microliths), and other bodies, termed crystallites, which
+seem to be stages in the formation of crystals. Crystallites
+may also be produced by allowing a solution of sulphur in carbon
+disulphide mixed with Canada balsam to evaporate slowly, and
+their development may be watched on a microscopic slide.
+Small globules appear (globulites), spherical and non-crystalline
+(so far as can be ascertained). They may coalesce or may
+arrange themselves into rows like strings of beads&mdash;margarites&mdash;(Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="margaritęs">&#956;&#945;&#961;&#947;&#945;&#961;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, a pearl) or into groups with a somewhat
+radiate arrangement&mdash;globospherites. Occasionally they take
+elongated shapes&mdash;longulites and baculites (Lat. <i>baculus</i>, a staff).
+The largest may become crystalline, changing suddenly into
+polyhedral bodies with evident double refraction and the optical
+properties belonging to crystals. Others become long and
+thread-like&mdash;trichites (Gr. <span class="grk" title="thrix, trichos">&#952;&#961;&#943;&#958;, &#964;&#961;&#953;&#967;&#972;&#962;</span>, hair)&mdash;and these are
+often curved, and a group of them may be implanted on the
+surface of a small crystal. All these forms are found in vitreous
+igneous rocks. H. P. J. Vogelsang, who was the first to direct
+much attention to them, believes that the globulites are preliminary
+stages in the formation of crystals.</p>
+
+<p>Microliths, as distinguished from crystallites, have crystalline
+properties, and evidently belong to definite minerals or salts.
+When sufficiently large they are often recognizable, but usually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span>
+they are so small, so opaque, or so densely crowded together
+that this is impossible. In igneous rocks they are usually felspar,
+augite, enstatite, and iron oxides, and are found in abundance
+only where there is much uncrystallized glassy base; in contact-altered
+sediments, slags, &amp;c., microlithic forms of garnet, spinel,
+sillimanite, cordierite, various lime silicates, and many other
+substances have been observed. Their form varies greatly, <i>e.g.</i>
+thin fibres (sillimanite, augite), short prisms or rods (felspar,
+enstatite, cordierite), or equidimensional grains (augite, spinel,
+magnetite). Occasionally they are perfectly shaped though
+minute crystals; more frequently they appear rounded (magnetite,
+&amp;c.), or have brush-like terminations (augite, felspar, &amp;c.).
+The larger microliths may contain enclosures of glass, and it is
+very common to find that the prisms have hollow, funnel-shaped
+ends, which are filled with vitreous material. These microliths,
+under the influence of crystalline forces, may rank themselves
+side by side to make up skeleton crystals and networks, or
+feathery and arborescent forms, which obey more or less closely
+the laws of crystallization of the substance to which they belong.
+They bear a very close resemblance to the arborescent frost
+flowers seen on window panes in winter, and to the stellate snow
+crystals. In magnetite the growths follow three axes at right
+angles to one another; in augite this is nearly, though not
+exactly, the case; in hornblende an angle of 57° may frequently
+be observed, corresponding to the prism angle of the fully-developed
+crystal. The interstices of the network may be
+partly filled up by a later growth. In other cases the crystalline
+arrangement of the microliths is less perfect, and branching,
+arborescent or feathery groupings are produced (<i>e.g.</i> felspar,
+augite, hornblende). Spherulites may be regarded as radiate
+aggregates of such microliths (mostly felspar mixed with quartz
+or tridymite). If larger porphyritic crystals occur in the rock,
+the microliths of the vitreous base frequently grow outwards
+from their faces; in some cases a definite parallelism exists
+between the two, but more frequently the early crystal has served
+merely as a centre, or nucleus, from which the microliths and
+spherulites have spread in all directions.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYSTALLIZATION,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> the art of obtaining a substance in the
+form of crystals; it is an important process in chemistry since
+it permits the purification of a substance, or the separation of
+the constituents of a mixture. Generally a substance is more
+soluble in a solvent at a high temperature than at a low, and
+consequently, if a boiling concentrated solution be allowed to
+cool, the substance will separate in virtue of the diminished
+solubility, and the slower the cooling the larger and more perfect
+will be the crystals formed. If, as sometimes appears, such a
+solution refuses to crystallize, the expedient of inoculating the
+solution with a minute crystal of the same substance, or with a
+similar substance, may be adopted; shaking the solution, or
+the addition of a drop of another solvent, may also occasion
+the desired result. &ldquo;Fractional crystallization&rdquo; consists in repeatedly
+crystallizing a salt so as to separate the substances of
+different solubilities. Examples are especially presented in the
+study of the rare-earths. Other conditions under which crystals
+are formed are given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYSTALLOGRAPHY<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="krystallos">&#954;&#961;&#973;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, ice, and
+<span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to write), the science of the forms, properties and
+structure of crystals. Homogeneous solid matter, the physical
+and chemical properties of which are the same about every point,
+may be either amorphous or crystalline. In amorphous matter
+all the properties are the same in every direction in the mass;
+but in crystalline matter certain of the physical properties vary
+with the direction. The essential properties of crystalline matter
+are of two kinds, viz. the general properties, such as density,
+specific heat, melting-point and chemical composition, which
+do not vary with the direction; and the directional properties,
+such as cohesion and elasticity, various optical, thermal and
+electrical properties, as well as external form. By reason of the
+homogeneity of crystalline matter the directional properties
+are the same in all parallel directions in the mass, and there may
+be a certain symmetrical repetition of the directions along which
+the properties are the same.</p>
+
+<p>When the crystallization of matter takes place under conditions
+free from outside influences the peculiarities of internal structure
+are expressed in the external form of the mass, and there results
+a solid body bounded by plane surfaces intersecting in straight
+edges, the directions of which bear an intimate relation to the
+internal structure. Such a polyhedron (<span class="grk" title="polys">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#973;&#962;</span>, many, <span class="grk" title="hedra">&#7957;&#948;&#961;&#945;</span>, base
+or face) is known as a crystal. An example of this is sugar-candy,
+of which a single isolated crystal may have grown freely in a
+solution of sugar. Matter presenting well-defined and regular
+crystal forms, either as a single crystal or as a group of individual
+crystals, is said to be crystallized. If, on the other hand, crystallization
+has taken place about several centres in a confined space,
+the development of plane surfaces may be prevented, and a
+crystalline aggregate of differently orientated crystal-individuals
+results. Examples of this are afforded by loaf sugar and statuary
+marble.</p>
+
+<p>After a brief historical sketch, the more salient principles of
+the subject will be discussed under the following sections:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>I. <span class="sc">Crystalline Form.</span></p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>a</i>) Symmetry of Crystals.</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>b</i>) Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms.</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>c</i>) Law of Rational Indices.</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>d</i>) Zones.</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>e</i>) Projection and Drawing of Crystals.</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>f</i>) Crystal Systems and Classes.</p>
+                <p class="i6">1. Cubic System.</p>
+                <p class="i6">2. Tetragonal System.</p>
+                <p class="i6">3. Orthorhombic System.</p>
+                <p class="i6">4. Monoclinic System.</p>
+                <p class="i6">5. Anorthic System.</p>
+                <p class="i6">6. Hexagonal System</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>g</i>) Regular Grouping of Crystals (Twinning, &amp;c.).</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>h</i>) Irregularities of Growth of Crystals: Characters of Faces.</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>i</i>) Theories of Crystal Structure.</p>
+
+<p class="s">II. <span class="sc">Physical Properties of Crystals.</span></p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>a</i>) Elasticity and Cohesion (Cleavage, Etching, &amp;c.).</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>b</i>) Optical Properties (Interference figures, Pleochroism, &amp;c.).</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>c</i>) Thermal Properties.</p>
+        <p class="i3">(<i>d</i>) Magnetic and Electrical Properties.</p>
+
+<p class="s">III. <span class="sc">Relations between Crystalline Form and Chemical Composition.</span></p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Most chemical elements and compounds are capable of assuming
+the crystalline condition. Crystallization may take place
+when solid matter separates from solution (<i>e.g.</i> sugar, salt,
+alum), from a fused mass (<i>e.g.</i> sulphur, bismuth, felspar), or
+from a vapour (<i>e.g.</i> iodine, camphor, haematite; in the last case
+by the interaction of ferric chloride and steam). Crystalline
+growth may also take place in solid amorphous matter, for
+example, in the devitrification of glass, and the slow change
+in metals when subjected to alternating stresses. Beautiful
+crystals of many substances may be obtained in the laboratory by
+one or other of these methods, but the most perfectly developed
+and largest crystals are those of mineral substances found in
+nature, where crystallization has continued during long periods
+of time. For this reason the physical science of crystallography
+has developed side by side with that of mineralogy. Really,
+however, there is just the same connexion between crystallography
+and chemistry as between crystallography and mineralogy,
+but only in recent years has the importance of determining
+the crystallographic properties of artificially prepared compounds
+been recognized.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The word &ldquo;crystal&rdquo; is from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="krystallos">&#954;&#961;&#973;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+meaning clear ice (Lat. <i>crystallum</i>), a name which was also
+applied to the clear transparent quartz (&ldquo;rock-crystal&rdquo;) from
+the Alps, under the belief that it had been formed from water
+by intense cold. It was not until about the 17th century that
+the word was extended to other bodies, either those found in
+nature or obtained by the evaporation of a saline solution,
+which resembled rock-crystal in being bounded by plane surfaces,
+and often also in their clearness and transparency.</p>
+
+<p>The first important step in the study of crystals was made by
+Nicolaus Steno, the famous Danish physician, afterwards bishop
+of Titiopolis, who in his treatise <i>De solido intra solidum naturaliter
+contento</i> (Florence, 1669; English translation, 1671) gave the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span>
+results of his observations on crystals of quartz. He found that
+although the faces of different crystals vary considerably in
+shape and relative size, yet the angles between similar pairs of
+faces are always the same. He further pointed out that the
+crystals must have grown in a liquid by the addition of layers of
+material upon the faces of a nucleus, this nucleus having the
+form of a regular six-sided prism terminated at each end by a
+six-sided pyramid. The thickness of the layers, though the
+same over each face, was not necessarily the same on different
+faces, but depended on the position of the faces with respect to
+the surrounding liquid; hence the faces of the crystal, though
+variable in shape and size, remained parallel to those of the
+nucleus, and the angles between them constant. Robert Hooke
+in his <i>Micrographia</i> (London, 1665) had previously noticed the
+regularity of the minute quartz crystals found lining the cavities
+of flints, and had suggested that they were built up of spheroids.
+About the same time the double refraction and perfect
+rhomboidal cleavage of crystals of calcite or Iceland-spar were
+studied by Erasmus Bartholinus (<i>Experimenta crystalli Islandici
+disdiaclastici</i>, Copenhagen, 1669) and Christiaan Huygens
+(<i>Traité de la lumičre</i>, Leiden, 1690); the latter supposed, as did
+Hooke, that the crystals were built up of spheroids. In 1695
+Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed under the microscope that
+different forms of crystals grow from the solutions of different
+salts. Andreas Libavius had indeed much earlier, in 1597,
+pointed out that the salts present in mineral waters could be
+ascertained by an examination of the shapes of the crystals
+left on evaporation of the water; and Domenico Guglielmini
+(<i>Riflessioni filosofiche dedotte dalle figure de&rsquo; sali</i>, Padova, 1706)
+asserted that the crystals of each salt had a shape of their own
+with the plane angles of the faces always the same.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest treatise on crystallography is the <i>Prodromus
+Crystallographiae</i> of M. A. Cappeller, published at Lucerne in
+1723. Crystals were mentioned in works on mineralogy and
+chemistry; for instance, C. Linnaeus in his <i>Systema Naturae</i>
+(1735) described some forty common forms of crystals amongst
+minerals. It was not, however, until the end of the 18th century
+that any real advances were made, and the French crystallographers
+Romé de l&rsquo;Isle and the abbé Haüy are rightly considered
+as the founders of the science. J. B. L. de Romé de l&rsquo;Isle (<i>Essai
+de cristallographie</i>, Paris, 1772; <i>Cristallographie, ou description
+des formes propres ŕ tous les corps du rčgne minéral</i>, Paris, 1783)
+made the important discovery that the various shapes of crystals
+of the same natural or artificial substance are all intimately
+related to each other; and further, by measuring the angles
+between the faces of crystals with the goniometer (<i>q.v.</i>), he
+established the fundamental principle that these angles are
+always the same for the same kind of substance and are characteristic
+of it. Replacing by single planes or groups of planes
+all the similar edges or solid angles of a figure called the
+&ldquo;primitive form&rdquo; he derived other related forms. Six kinds
+of primitive forms were distinguished, namely, the cube, the
+regular octahedron, the regular tetrahedron, a rhombohedron,
+an octahedron with a rhombic base, and a double six-sided
+pyramid. Only in the last three can there be any variation in
+the angles: for example, the primitive octahedron of alum,
+nitre and sugar were determined by Romé de l&rsquo;Isle to have
+angles of 110°, 120° and 100° respectively. René Just Haüy in
+his <i>Essai d&rsquo;une théorie sur la structure des crystaux</i> (Paris, 1784;
+see also his Treatises on Mineralogy and Crystallography, 1801,
+1822) supported and extended these views, but took for his
+primitive forms the figures obtained by splitting crystals in
+their directions of easy fracture of &ldquo;cleavage,&rdquo; which are aways
+the same in the same kind of substance. Thus he found that all
+crystals of calcite, whatever their external form (see, for example,
+figs. 1-6 in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calcite</a></span>), could be reduced by cleavage
+to a rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 75°. Further, by
+stacking together a number of small rhombohedra of uniform
+size he was able, as had been previously done by J. G. Gahn in
+1773, to reconstruct the various forms of calcite crystals. Fig. 1
+shows a scalenohedron (<span class="grk" title="skalęnos">&#963;&#954;&#945;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, uneven) built up in this
+manner of rhombohedra; and fig. 2 a regular octahedron built
+up of cubic elements, such as are given by the cleavage of galena
+and rock-salt.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:449px; height:240px" src="images/img570.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Scalenohedron built<br />
+up of Rhombohedra.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Octahedron built up<br />
+of Cubes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The external surfaces of such a structure, with their step-like
+arrangement, correspond to the plane faces of the crystal, and
+the bricks may be considered so small as not to be separately
+visible. By making the steps one, two or three bricks in width
+and one, two or three bricks in height the various secondary
+faces on the crystal are related to the primitive form or &ldquo;cleavage
+nucleus&rdquo; by a law of whole numbers, and the angles between
+them can be arrived at by mathematical calculation. By
+measuring with the goniometer the inclinations of the secondary
+faces to those of the primitive form Haüy found that the
+secondary forms are always related to the primitive form
+on crystals of numerous substances in the manner indicated, and
+that the width and the height of a step are always in a simple
+ratio, rarely exceeding that of 1 : 6. This laid the foundation of
+the important &ldquo;law of rational indices&rdquo; of the faces of crystals.</p>
+
+<p>The German crystallographer C. S. Weiss (<i>De indagando
+formarum crystallinarum charactere geometrico principali dissertatio</i>,
+Leipzig, 1809; <i>Übersichtliche Darstellung der verschiedenen
+natürlichen Abtheilungen der Krystallisations-Systeme</i>,
+Denkschrift der Berliner Akad. der Wissensch., 1814-1815)
+attacked the problem of crystalline form from a purely geometrical
+point of view, without reference to primitive forms or
+any theory of structure. The faces of crystals were considered
+by their intercepts on co-ordinate axes, which were drawn
+joining the opposite corners of certain forms; and in this way
+the various primitive forms of Haüy were grouped into four
+classes, corresponding to the four systems described below under
+the names cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal and orthorhombic. The
+same result was arrived at independently by F. Mohs, who
+further, in 1822, asserted the existence of two additional systems
+with oblique axes. These two systems (the monoclinic and
+anorthic) were, however, considered by Weiss to be only hemihedral
+or tetartohedral modifications of the orthorhombic
+system, and they were not definitely established until 1835,
+when the optical characters of the crystals were found to be
+distinct. A system of notation to express the relation of each
+face of a crystal to the co-ordinate axes of reference was devised
+by Weiss, and other notations were proposed by F. Mohs, A. Lévy
+(1825), C. F. Naumann (1826), and W. H. Miller (<i>Treatise on
+Crystallography</i>, Cambridge, 1839). For simplicity and utility
+in calculation the Millerian notation, which was first suggested
+by W. Whewell in 1825, surpasses all others and is now generally
+adopted, though those of Lévy and Naumann are still in use.</p>
+
+<p>Although the peculiar optical properties of Iceland-spar had
+been much studied ever since 1669, it was not until much later
+that any connexion was traced between the optical characters
+of crystals and their external form. In 1818 Sir David Brewster
+found that crystals could be divided optically into three classes,
+viz. isotropic, uniaxial and biaxial, and that these classes corresponded
+with Weiss&rsquo;s four systems (crystals belonging to the
+cubic system being isotropic, those of the tetragonal and hexagonal
+being uniaxial, and the orthorhombic being biaxial).
+Optically biaxial crystals were afterwards shown by J. F. W.
+Herschel and F. E. Neumann in 1822 and 1835 to be of three
+kinds, corresponding with the orthorhombic, monoclinic and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span>
+anorthic systems. It was, however, noticed by Brewster himself
+that there are many apparent exceptions, and the &ldquo;optical
+anomalies&rdquo; of crystals have been the subject of much study.
+The intimate relations existing between various other physical
+properties of crystals and their external form have subsequently
+been gradually traced.</p>
+
+<p>The symmetry of crystals, though recognized by Romé de
+l&rsquo;Isle and Haüy, in that they replaced all similar edges and
+corners of their primitive forms by similar secondary planes,
+was not made use of in defining the six systems of crystallization,
+which depended solely on the lengths and inclinations of the
+axes of reference. It was, however, necessary to recognize that
+in each system there are certain forms which are only partially
+symmetrical, and these were described as hemihedral and tetartohedral
+forms (<i>i.e.</i> <span class="grk" title="hęmi">&#7969;&#956;&#953;</span>-, half-faced, and <span class="grk" title="tetartos">&#964;&#941;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, quarter-faced
+forms).</p>
+
+<p>As a consequence of Haüy&rsquo;s law of rational intercepts, or,
+as it is more often called, the law of rational indices, it was
+proved by J. F. C. Hessel in 1830 that thirty-two types of
+symmetry are possible in crystals. Hessel&rsquo;s work remained
+overlooked for sixty years, but the same important result was
+independently arrived at by the same method by A. Gadolin in
+1867. At the present day, crystals are considered as belonging
+to one or other of thirty-two classes, corresponding with these
+thirty-two types of symmetry, and are grouped in six systems.
+More recently, theories of crystal structure have attracted
+attention, and have been studied as purely geometrical problems
+of the homogeneous partitioning of space.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The historical development of the subject is treated more fully in
+the article <span class="sc">Crystallography</span> in the 9th edition of this work.
+Reference may also be made to C. M. Marx, <i>Geschichte der Crystallkunde</i>
+(Karlsruhe and Baden, 1825); W. Whewell, <i>History of the
+Inductive Sciences</i>, vol. iii. (3rd ed., London, 1857); F. von Kobell,
+<i>Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860</i> (München, 1864); L.
+Fletcher, <i>An Introduction to the Study of Minerals</i> (British Museum
+Guide-Book); L. Fletcher, <i>Recent Progress in Mineralogy and
+Crystallography</i> [1832-1894] (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120">I. CRYSTALLINE FORM</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental laws governing the form of crystals are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Law of the Constancy of Angle.</p>
+
+<p>2. Law of Symmetry.</p>
+
+<p>3. Law of Rational Intercepts or Indices.</p>
+
+<p>According to the first law, the angles between corresponding
+faces of all crystals of the same chemical substance are always
+the same and are characteristic of the substance.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>a</i>) <i>Symmetry of Crystals.</i></p>
+
+<p>Crystals may, or may not, be symmetrical with respect to
+a point, a line or axis, and a plane; these &ldquo;elements of
+symmetry&rdquo; are spoken of as a centre of symmetry, an axis of
+symmetry, and a plane of symmetry respectively.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centre of Symmetry.</i>&mdash;Crystals which are centro-symmetrical
+have their faces arranged in parallel pairs; and the two parallel
+faces, situated on opposite sides of the centre (<i>O</i> in fig. 3) are
+alike in surface characters, such as lustre, striations, and figures
+of corrosion. An octahedron (fig. 3) is bounded by four pairs of
+parallel faces. Crystals belonging to many of the hemihedral
+and tetartohedral classes of the six systems of crystallization
+are devoid of a centre of symmetry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Axes of Symmetry.</i>&mdash;Consider the vertical axis joining the
+opposite corners a<span class="su">3</span> and &#257;<span class="su">3</span> of an octahedron (fig. 3) and passing
+through its centre <i>O</i>: by rotating the crystal about this axis
+through a right angle (90°) it reaches a position such that the
+orientation of its faces is the same as before the rotation; the
+face &#257;<span class="su">1</span>&#257;<span class="su">2</span>&#257;<span class="su">3</span>, for example, coming into the position of a<span class="su">1</span>&#257;<span class="su">2</span>a<span class="su">3</span>.
+During a complete rotation of 360° (= 90° × 4), the crystal
+occupies four such interchangeable positions. Such an axis
+of symmetry is known as a tetrad axis of symmetry. Other
+tetrad axes of the octahedron are a<span class="su">2</span>&#257;<span class="su">2</span> and a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">1</span>.</p>
+
+<p>An axis of symmetry of another kind is that which passing
+through the centre <i>O</i> is normal to a face of the octahedron.
+By rotating the crystal about such an axis <i>Op</i> (fig. 3) through
+an angle of 120° those faces which are not perpendicular to the
+axis occupy interchangeable positions; for example, the face
+a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">3</span>a<span class="su">2</span> comes into the position of &#257;<span class="su">2</span>a<span class="su">1</span>&#257;<span class="su">3</span>, and &#257;<span class="su">2</span>a<span class="su">1</span>&#257;<span class="su">3</span> to a<span class="su">3</span>&#257;<span class="su">2</span>&#257;<span class="su">1</span>.
+During a complete rotation of 360° (= 120° × 3) the crystal
+occupies similar positions three times. This is a triad axis of
+symmetry; and there being four pairs of parallel faces on an
+octahedron, there are four triad axes (only one of which is
+drawn in the figure).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:472px; height:220px" src="images/img571a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Axes and Planes of Symmetry of an Octahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>An axis passing through the centre <i>O</i> and the middle points
+d of two opposite edges of the octahedron (fig. 4), <i>i.e.</i> parallel
+to the edges of the octahedron, is a dyad axis of symmetry.
+About this axis there may be rotation of 180°, and only twice
+in a complete revolution of 360° (= 180° × 2) is the crystal
+brought into interchangeable positions. There being six pairs
+of parallel edges on an octahedron, there are consequently six
+dyad axes of symmetry.</p>
+
+<p>A regular octahedron thus possesses thirteen axes of symmetry
+(of three kinds), and there are the same number in the cube.
+Fig. 5 shows the three tetrad (or tetragonal) axes (<i>aa</i>), four
+triad (or trigonal) axes (<i>pp</i>), and six dyad (diad or diagonal) axes
+(<i>dd</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Although not represented in the cubic system, there is still
+another kind of axis of symmetry possible in crystals. This is
+the hexad axis or hexagonal axis, for which the angle of rotation
+is 60°, or one-sixth of 360°. There can be only one hexad axis
+of symmetry in any crystal (see figs. 77-80).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:264px; height:276px" src="images/img571b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Axes of Symmetry of
+a Cube.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Planes of Symmetry.</i>&mdash;A regular octahedron can be divided
+into two equal and similar halves by a plane passing through
+the corners a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">3</span>&#257;<span class="su">1</span>&#257;<span class="su">3</span> and the
+centre <i>O</i> (fig. 3). One-half
+is the mirror reflection of
+the other in this plane, which
+is called a plane of symmetry.
+Corresponding planes
+on either side of a plane of
+symmetry are inclined to it
+at equal angles. The octahedron
+can also be divided
+by similar planes of symmetry
+passing through the
+corners a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">2</span>&#257;<span class="su">1</span>&#257;<span class="su">2</span> and a<span class="su">2</span>a<span class="su">3</span>&#257;<span class="su">2</span>&#257;<span class="su">3</span>.
+These three similar planes of
+symmetry are called the cubic
+planes of symmetry, since
+they are parallel to the faces
+of the cube (compare figs. 6-8, showing combinations of the
+octahedron and the cube).</p>
+
+<p>A regular octahedron can also be divided symmetrically into
+two equal and similar portions by a plane passing through the
+corners a<span class="su">3</span> and &#257;<span class="su">3</span>, the middle points <i>d</i> of the edges
+a<span class="su">1</span>&#257;<span class="su">2</span> and &#257;<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">2</span>,
+and the centre <i>O</i> (fig. 4). This is called a dodecahedral plane
+of symmetry, being parallel to the face of the rhombic dodecahedron
+which truncates the edge a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">2</span> (compare fig. 14, showing
+a combination of the octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron).
+Another similar plane of symmetry is that passing through the
+corners a<span class="su">3</span>&#257;<span class="su">3</span> and the middle points of the edges a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">2</span> and &#257;<span class="su">1</span>&#257;<span class="su">2</span>,
+and altogether there are six dodecahedral planes of symmetry,
+two through each of the corners a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, a<span class="su">3</span> of the octahedron.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span></p>
+
+<p>A regular octahedron and a cube are thus each symmetrical
+with respect to the following elements of symmetry: a centre
+of symmetry, thirteen axes of symmetry (of three kinds), and
+nine planes of symmetry (of two kinds). This degree of symmetry,
+which is the type corresponding to one of the classes of
+the cubic system, is the highest possible in crystals. As will be
+pointed out below, it is possible, however, for both the octahedron
+and the cube to be associated with fewer elements of symmetry
+than those just enumerated.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>b</i>) <i>Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms.</i></p>
+
+<p>A single face a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">2</span>a<span class="su">3</span> (figs. 3 and 4) may be repeated by certain
+of the elements of symmetry to give the whole eight faces of
+the octahedron. Thus, by rotation about the vertical tetrad
+axis a<span class="su">3</span>&#257;<span class="su">3</span> the four upper faces are obtained; and by rotation of
+these about one or other of the horizontal tetrad axes the eight
+faces are derived. Or again, the same repetition of the faces
+may be arrived at by reflection across the three cubic planes of
+symmetry. (By reflection across the six dodecahedral planes
+of symmetry a tetrahedron only would result, but if this is
+associated with a centre of symmetry we obtain the octahedron.)
+Such a set of similar faces, obtained by symmetrical repetition,
+constitutes a &ldquo;simple form.&rdquo; An octahedron thus consists of
+eight similar faces, and a cube is bounded by six faces all of
+which have the same surface characters, and parallel to each of
+which all the properties of the crystal are identical.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:452px; height:165px" src="images/img572a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Cube in combination<br />
+with Octahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Cubo-octahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:193px; height:190px" src="images/img572b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Octahedron in
+combination with Cube.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Examples of simple forms amongst crystallized substances
+are octahedra of alum and spinel and cubes of salt and fluorspar.
+More usually, however, two or more forms are present on a
+crystal, and we then have a combination of forms, or simply a
+&ldquo;combination.&rdquo; Figs. 6, 7 and 8 represent combinations of the
+octahedron and the cube; in the first the faces of the cube
+predominate, and in the third those of the octahedron; fig. 7
+with the two forms equally developed is called a cubo-octahedron.
+Each of these combined forms has all
+the elements of symmetry proper to the
+simple forms.</p>
+
+<p>The simple forms, though referable
+to the same type of symmetry and
+axes of reference, are quite independent,
+and cannot be derived one from the
+other by symmetrical repetition, but,
+after the manner of Romé de l&rsquo;Isle,
+they may be derived by replacing
+edges or corners by a face equally
+inclined to the faces forming the edges
+or corners; this is known as &ldquo;truncation&rdquo;
+(Lat. <i>truncare</i>, to cut off). Thus in fig. 6 the corners of
+the cube are symmetrically replaced or truncated by the faces of
+the octahedron, and in fig. 8 those of the octahedron are
+truncated by the cube.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>c</i>) <i>Law of Rational Intercepts.</i></p>
+
+<p>For axes of reference, <i>OX</i>, <i>OY</i>, <i>OZ</i> (fig. 9), take any three
+edges formed by the intersection of three faces of a crystal.
+These axes are called the crystallographic axes, and the planes in
+which they lie the axial planes. A fourth face on the crystal
+intersecting these three axes in the points <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i> is taken as
+the parametral plane, and the lengths <i>OA</i> : <i>OB</i> : <i>OC</i> are the
+parameters of the crystal. Any other face on the crystal may be
+referred to these axes and parameters by the ratio of the intercepts</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>OA</td>
+<td rowspan="2">:</td> <td>OB</td>
+<td rowspan="2">:</td> <td>OC</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">h</td> <td class="denom">k</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Thus for a face parallel to the plane A Be the intercepts are in
+the ratio <i>OA</i> : <i>OB</i> : <i>Oe</i>, or</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>OA</td>
+<td rowspan="2">:</td> <td>OB</td>
+<td rowspan="2">:</td> <td>OC</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1</td> <td class="denom">1</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and for a plane <i>fg<span class="ov">C</span></i> they are <i>Of</i> : <i>Og</i> : <i>O<span class="ov">C</span></i> or</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>OA</td>
+<td rowspan="2">:</td> <td>OB</td>
+<td rowspan="2">:</td> <td>O<span class="ov">C</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">3</td> <td class="denom">1</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Now the important relation existing between the faces of a
+crystal is that the denominators <i>h, k</i> and <i>l</i> are always rational
+whole numbers, rarely exceeding 6, and usually 0, 1, 2 or 3.
+Written in the form (<i>hkl</i>), <i>h</i> referring to the axis <i>OX</i>, <i>k</i> to <i>OY</i>,
+and <i>l</i> to <i>OZ</i>, they are spoken of as the indices (Millerian indices)
+of the face. Thus of a face parallel to the plane <i>ABC</i> the indices
+are (111), of <i>ABe</i> they are (112), and of <i>fg<span class="ov">C</span></i> (23<span class="ov">1</span>). The indices
+are thus inversely proportional to the intercepts, and the law
+of rational intercepts is often spoken of as the &ldquo;law of rational
+indices.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The angular position of a face is thus completely fixed by its
+indices; and knowing the angles between the axial planes and
+the parametral plane all the angles of a crystal can be calculated
+when the indices of the faces
+are known.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:260px; height:271px" src="images/img572c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Crystallographic axes of
+reference.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Although any set of edges
+formed by the intersection of
+three planes may be chosen
+for the crystallographic axes,
+it is in practice usual to select
+certain edges related to the
+symmetry of the crystal, and
+usually coincident with axes
+of symmetry; for then the
+indices will be simpler and all
+faces of the same simple form
+will have a similar set of
+indices. The angles between
+the axes and the ratio of the
+lengths of the parameters
+<i>OA : OB : OC</i> (usually given as <i>a : b : c</i>) are spoken of as the
+&ldquo;elements&rdquo; of a crystal, and are constant for and characteristic
+of all crystals of the same substance.</p>
+
+<p>The six systems of crystal forms, to be enumerated below,
+are defined by the relative inclinations of the crystallographic
+axes and the lengths of the parameters. In the cubic system, for
+example, the three crystallographic axes are taken parallel to the
+three tetrad axes of symmetry, <i>i.e.</i> parallel to the edges of the
+cube (fig. 5) or joining the opposite corners of the octahedron
+(fig. 3), and they are therefore all at right angles; the parametral
+plane (111) is a face of the octahedron, and the parameters
+are all of equal length. The indices of the eight faces of the
+octahedron will then be (111), (<span class="ov">1</span>11), (1<span class="ov">1</span>1), (<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>1), (11<span class="ov">1</span>), (<span class="ov">1</span>1<span class="ov">1</span>),
+(1<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>), (<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>). The symbol {111} indicates all the faces belonging
+to this simple form. The indices of the six faces of the cube are
+(100), (010), (001), (<span class="ov">1</span>00), (0<span class="ov">1</span>0), (00<span class="ov">1</span>); here each face is parallel
+to two axes, <i>i.e.</i> intercepts them at infinity, so that the corresponding
+indices are zero.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>d</i>) <i>Zones.</i></p>
+
+<p>An important consequence of the law of rational intercepts
+is the arrangement of the faces of a crystal in zones. All faces,
+whether they belong to one or more simple forms, which intersect
+in parallel edges are said to lie in the same zone. A line drawn
+through the centre <i>O</i> of the crystal parallel to these edges is
+called a zone-axis, and a plane perpendicular to this axis is
+called a zone-plane. On a cube, for example, there are three
+zones each containing four faces, the zone-axes being coincident
+with the three tetrad axes of symmetry. In the crystal of zircon
+(fig. 88) the eight prism-faces <i>a, m</i>, &amp;c. constitute a zone, denoted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span>
+by [<i>a, m, a</i>&prime;, &amp;c.], with the vertical tetrad axis of symmetry as
+zone-axis. Again the faces [<i>a, x, p, e</i>&prime;, <i>p</i>&prime;, <i>x</i>&Prime;&prime;, <i>a</i>&Prime;] lie in another
+zone, as may be seen by the parallel edges of intersection of the
+faces in figs. 87 and 88; three other similar zones may be traced
+on the same crystal.</p>
+
+<p>The direction of the line of intersection (<i>i.e.</i> zone-axis) of any
+two planes (<i>hkl</i>) and (<i>h<span class="su">1</span>k<span class="su">1</span>l<span class="su">1</span></i>) is given by the zone-indices [<b>uvw</b>],
+where <b>u</b> = kl<span class="su">1</span> &minus; lk<span class="su">1</span>, <b>v</b> = lh<span class="su">1</span> &minus; hl<span class="su">1</span>, and <b>w</b> = hk<span class="su">1</span> &minus; kh<span class="su">1</span>, these being
+obtained from the face-indices by cross multiplication as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt1"><img style="width:108px; height:45px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img573d.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>Any other face (<i>h<span class="su">2</span>k<span class="su">2</span>l<span class="su">2</span></i>) lying in this zone must satisfy the
+equation</p>
+
+<p class="center">h<span class="su">2</span><b>u</b> + k<span class="su">2</span><b>v</b> + l<span class="su">2</span><b>w</b> = 0.</p>
+
+<p>This important relation connecting the indices of a face lying
+in a zone with the zone-indices is known as Weiss&rsquo;s zone-law,
+having been first enunciated by C. S. Weiss. It may be pointed
+out that the indices of a face may be arrived at by adding
+together the indices of faces on either side of it and in the same
+zone; thus, (311) in fig. 12 lies at the intersections of the three
+zones [210, 101], [201, 110] and [211, 100], and is obtained by
+adding together each set of indices.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>e</i>) <i>Projection and Drawing of Crystals.</i></p>
+
+<p>The shapes and relative sizes of the faces of a crystal being
+as a rule accidental, depending only on the distance of the faces
+from the centre of the crystal and not on their angular relations,
+it is often more convenient to consider only the directions of the
+normals to the faces. For this purpose projections are drawn,
+with the aid of which the zonal relations of a crystal are more
+readily studied and calculations are simplified.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:376px; height:365px" src="images/img573a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Stereographic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:150px; height:155px" src="images/img573b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Clinographic
+Drawing of a
+Cubic Crystal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The kind of projection most extensively used is the &ldquo;stereographic
+projection.&rdquo; The crystal is considered to be placed
+inside a sphere from the centre of which normals are drawn to
+all the faces of the crystal. The points at which these normals
+intersect the surface of the sphere are called the poles of the
+faces, and by these poles the positions of the faces are fixed.
+The poles of all faces in the same zone on the crystal will lie on
+a great circle of the sphere, which are therefore called zone-circles.
+The calculation of the angles between the normals of faces and
+between zone-circles is then performed by the ordinary methods
+of spherical trigonometry. The stereographic projection, however,
+represents the poles and zone-circles on a plane surface and not
+on a spherical surface. This is achieved by drawing lines
+joining all the poles of the faces with the north or south pole
+of the sphere and finding their points of intersection with the
+plane of the equatorial great circle, or primitive circle, of the
+sphere, the projection being represented on this plane. In fig.
+10 is shown the stereographic projection, or stereogram, of a
+cubic crystal; a<span class="sp">1</span>, a<span class="sp">2</span>, &amp;c. are the poles of the faces of the cube.
+o<span class="sp">1</span>, o<span class="sp">2</span>, &amp;c. those of the octahedron, and d<span class="sp">1</span>, d<span class="sp">2</span>, &amp;c. those of the
+rhombic dodecahedron. The straight lines and circular arcs
+are the projections on the equatorial plane of the great circles in
+which the nine planes of symmetry intersect the sphere. A
+drawing of a crystal showing a combination of the cube, octahedron
+and rhombic dodecahedron is shown in fig. 11, in which
+the faces are lettered the same as the corresponding poles in the
+projection. From the zone-circles in the projection and the
+parallel edges in the drawing the zonal
+relations of the faces are readily seen:
+thus [a<span class="sp">1</span>o<span class="sp">1</span>d<span class="sp">5</span>], [a<span class="sp">1</span>d<span class="sp">1</span>a<span class="sp">5</span>], [a<span class="sp">5</span>o<span class="sp">1</span>d<span class="sp">2</span>], &amp;c. are
+zones. A stereographic projection of a
+rhombohedral crystal is given in fig. 72.</p>
+
+<p>Another kind of projection in common
+use is the &ldquo;gnomonic projection&rdquo; (fig. 12).
+Here the plane of projection is tangent to
+the sphere, and normals to all the faces are
+drawn from the centre of the sphere to
+intersect the plane of projection. In this
+case all zones are represented by straight
+lines. Fig. 12 is the gnomonic projection of a cubic crystal,
+the plane of projection being tangent to the sphere at the
+pole of an octahedral face (111), which is therefore in the
+centre of the projection. The indices of the several poles are
+given in the figure.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:461px; height:413px" src="images/img573c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Gnomonic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In drawing crystals the simple plans and elevations of descriptive
+geometry (<i>e.g.</i> the plans in the lower part of figs. 87
+and 88) have sometimes the advantage of showing the symmetry
+of a crystal, but they give no idea of solidity. For instance, a
+cube would be represented merely by a square, and an octahedron
+by a square with lines joining the opposite corners. True perspective
+drawings are never used in the representation of crystals,
+since for showing the zonal relations it is important to preserve
+the parallelism of the edges. If, however, the eye, or point of
+vision, is regarded as being at an infinite distance from the object
+all the rays will be parallel, and edges which are parallel on the
+crystal will be represented by parallel lines in the drawing.
+The plane of the drawing, in which the parallel rays joining the
+corners of the crystals and the eye intersect, may be either
+perpendicular or oblique to the rays; in the former case we
+have an &ldquo;orthographic&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="orthos">&#8000;&#961;&#952;&#972;&#962;</span>, straight; <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to draw)
+drawing, and in the latter a &ldquo;clinographic&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="klinein">&#954;&#955;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to incline)
+drawing. Clinographic drawings are most frequently used for
+representing crystals. In representing, for example, a cubic
+crystal (fig. 11) a cube face a<span class="sp">5</span> is first placed parallel to the plane
+on which the crystal is to be projected and with one set of edges
+vertical; the crystal is then turned through a small angle about
+a vertical axis until a second cube face a<span class="sp">2</span> comes into view,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span>
+and the eye is then raised so that a third cube face a<span class="sp">1</span> may
+be seen.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>f</i>) <i>Crystal Systems and Classes.</i></p>
+
+<p>According to the mutual inclinations of the crystallographic
+axes of reference and the lengths intercepted on them by the
+parametral plane, all crystals fall into one or other of six groups
+or systems, in each of which there are several classes depending
+on the degree of symmetry. In the brief description which follows
+of these six systems and thirty-two classes of crystals we shall
+proceed from those in which the symmetry is most complex to
+those in which it is simplest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<p class="pt2 center f120 bold">1. CUBIC SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Isometric; Regular; Octahedral; Tesseral).</p>
+
+<p>In this system the three crystallographic axes of reference are all
+at right angles to each other and are equal in length. They are
+parallel to the edges of the cube, and in the different classes coincide
+either with tetrad or dyad axes of symmetry. Five classes are included
+in this system, in all of which there are, besides other elements
+of symmetry, four triad axes.</p>
+
+<p>In crystals of this system the angle between any two faces <i>P</i> and
+<i>Q</i> with the indices (<i>hkl</i>) and (<i>pqr</i>) is given by the equation</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">COS PQ =</td> <td>hp + kq + lr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic;<span class="ov">(h˛ + k˛ + l˛) (p˛ + q˛ + r˛)</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The angles between faces with the same indices are thus the same
+in all substances which crystallize in the cubic system: in other
+systems the angles vary with the substance and are characteristic of
+it.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><span class="sc">Holosymmetric Class</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">(Holohedral (<span class="grk" title="holos">&#8005;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, whole); Hexakis-octahedral).</p>
+
+<p>Crystals of this class possess the full number of elements of symmetry
+already mentioned above for the octahedron and the cube,
+viz. three cubic planes of symmetry, six dodecahedral planes, three
+tetrad axes of symmetry, four triad axes, six dyad axes, and a centre
+of symmetry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:516px; height:231px" src="images/img574a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Rhombic Dodecahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Rhombic Dodecahedron and<br />
+Octahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Cube (fig. 5). This is bounded by six square faces parallel to the
+cubic planes of symmetry; it is known also as the hexahedron.
+The angles between the faces are 90°, and the indices of the form
+are {100}. Salt, fluorspar and galena crystallize in simple cubes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:215px" src="images/img574b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Triakis-octahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />Triakis-octahedron
+and Cube.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Octahedron (fig. 3). Bounded by eight equilateral triangular faces
+perpendicular to the triad axes of symmetry. The angles between
+the faces are 70° 32&prime; and 109° 28&prime;, and the indices are {111}. Spinel,
+magnetite and gold crystallize in simple octahedra. Combinations
+of the cube and octahedron are shown in figs. 6-8.</p>
+
+<p>Rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 13). Bounded by twelve rhomb-shaped
+faces parallel to the six dodecahedral planes of symmetry.
+The angles between the normals to adjacent faces are 60°, and
+between other pairs of faces 90°; the indices are {110}. Garnet
+frequently crystallizes in this form. Fig. 14 shows the rhombic
+dodecahedron in combination with the octahedron.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:464px; height:204px" src="images/img574c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Icositetrahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />Icositetrahedron
+and Cube.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In these three simple forms of the cubic system (which are shown
+in combination in fig. 11) the angles between the faces and the indices
+are fixed and are the same in all crystals; in the four remaining
+simple forms they are variable.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:468px; height:206px" src="images/img574d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Icositetrahedron and Octahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Icositetrahedron {211} and<br />
+Rhombic Dodecahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Triakis-octahedron (three-faced octahedron) (fig. 15). This solid
+is bounded by twenty-four isosceles triangles, and may be considered
+as an octahedron with a low triangular pyramid on each of its faces.
+As the inclinations of the faces may vary there is a series of these
+forms with the indices {221}, {331}, {332}, &amp;c. or in general {<i>hhk</i>}.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:472px; height:216px" src="images/img574e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Tetrakis-hexahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Tetrakis-hexahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Icositetrahedron (fig. 17). Bounded by twenty-four trapezoidal
+faces, and hence sometimes called a &ldquo;trapezohedron.&rdquo; The indices
+are {211}, {311}, {322}, &amp;c., or in general {<i>hkk</i>}. Analcite, leucite and
+garnet often crystallize in the simple form {211}. Combinations are
+shown in figs. 18-20. The plane <i>ABe</i> in fig. 9 is one face (112) of an
+icositetrahedron; the indices of the remaining faces in this octant
+being (211) and (121).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:182px; height:174px" src="images/img574f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Combination of
+Tetrakis-hexahedron and
+Cube.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tetrakis-hexahedron (four-faced cube) (figs. 21 and 22). Like the
+triakis-octahedron this solid is also
+bounded by twenty-four isosceles
+triangles, but here grouped in fours
+over the cubic faces. The two figures
+show how, with different inclinations
+of the faces, the form may vary,
+approximating in fig. 21 to the cube
+and in fig. 22 to the rhombic dodecahedron.
+The angles over the edges
+lettered <i>A</i> are different from the
+angles over the edges lettered <i>C</i>. Each
+face is parallel to one of the crystallographic
+axes and intercepts the two
+others in different lengths; the indices
+are therefore {210}, {310}, {320},
+&amp;c., in general {<i>hko</i>}. Fluorspar sometimes
+crystallizes in the simple form {310}; more usually, however,
+in combination with the cube (fig. 23).</p>
+
+<p>Hexakis-octahedron (fig. 24). Here each face of the octahedron
+is replaced by six scalene triangles, so that altogether there are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span>
+forty-eight faces. This is the greatest number of faces possible for
+any simple form in crystals. The faces are all oblique to the planes
+and axes of symmetry, and they intercept the three crystallographic
+axes in different lengths, hence the indices are all unequal, being in
+general {<i>hkl</i>}, or in particular cases {321}, {421}, {432}, &amp;c. Such
+a form is known as the &ldquo;general form&rdquo; of the class. The interfacial
+angles over the three edges of each triangle are all different. These
+forms usually exist only in combination with other cubic forms
+(for example, fig. 25), but {421} has been observed as a simple form
+on fluorspar.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:462px; height:211px" src="images/img575a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Hexakis-octahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Hexakis-octahedron and<br />
+Cube.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Several examples of substances which crystallize in this class
+have been mentioned above under the different forms; many others
+might be cited&mdash;for instance, the metals iron, copper, silver, gold,
+platinum, lead, mercury, and the non-metallic elements silicon and
+phosphorus.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Tetrahedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Tetrahedral-hemihedral; Hexakis-tetrahedral).</p>
+
+<p>In this class there is no centre of symmetry nor cubic planes of
+symmetry; the three tetrad axes become dyad axes of symmetry,
+and the four triad axes are polar, <i>i.e.</i> they are associated with different
+faces at their two ends. The other elements of symmetry (six dodecahedral
+planes and six dyad axes) are the same as in the last class.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:452px; height:197px" src="images/img575b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Tetrahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Deltoid Dodecahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of the seven simple forms, the cube, rhombic dodecahedron and
+tetrakis-hexahedron are geometrically the same as before, though
+on actual crystals the faces will have different surface characters.
+For instance, the cube faces will be striated parallel to only one of
+the diagonals (fig. 90), and etched figures on this face will be symmetrical
+with respect to two lines, instead of four as in the last class.
+The remaining simple forms have, however, only half the number
+of faces as the corresponding form in the last class, and are spoken
+of as &ldquo;hemihedral with inclined faces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:470px; height:186px" src="images/img575c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Triakis-tetrahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Hexakis-tetrahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tetrahedron (fig. 26). This is bounded by four equilateral triangles
+and is identical with the regular tetrahedron of geometry. The angles
+between the normals to the faces are 109° 28&prime;. It may be derived
+from the octahedron by suppressing the alternate faces.</p>
+
+<p>Deltoid<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> dodecahedron (fig. 27). This is the hemihedral form of
+the triakis-octahedron; it has the indices {<i>hhk</i>} and is bounded by
+twelve trapezoidal faces.</p>
+
+<p>Triakis-tetrahedron (fig. 28). The hemihedral form {<i>hkk</i>} of the
+icositetrahedron; it is bounded by twelve isosceles triangles arranged
+in threes over the tetrahedron faces.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:455px; height:171px" src="images/img575d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />two
+Tetrahedra.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />Tetrahedron
+and Cube.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Hexakis-tetrahedron (fig. 29). The hemihedral form {<i>hkl</i>} of the
+hexakis-octahedron; it is bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles
+and is the general form of the class.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:473px; height:175px" src="images/img575e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Tetrahedron, Cube and Rhombic<br />
+Dodecahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Tetrahedron and Rhombic<br />
+Dodecahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Corresponding to each of these hemihedral forms there is another
+geometrically similar form, differing, however, not only in orientation,
+but also in actual crystals in the characters of the faces.
+Thus from the octahedron there may be derived two tetrahedra
+with the indices {111} and {<span class="ov">1</span>11}, which may be distinguished as
+positive and negative respectively. Fig. 30 shows a combination of
+these two tetrahedra, and represents a crystal of blende, in which the
+four larger faces are dull and striated, whilst the four smaller are
+bright and smooth. Figs. 31-33 illustrate other tetrahedral combinations.</p>
+
+<p>Tetrahedrite, blende, diamond, boracite and pharmacosiderite
+are substances which crystallize in this class.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><span class="sc">Pyritohedral<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Class</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">(Parallel-faced hemihedral; Dyakis-dodecahedral).</p>
+
+<p>Crystals of this class possess three cubic planes of symmetry but
+no dodecahedral planes. There are only three dyad axes of symmetry,
+which coincide with the crystallographic axes; in addition
+there are three triad axes and a centre of symmetry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:445px; height:206px" src="images/img575f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>
+Pentagonal Dodecahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>
+Dyakis-dodecahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Here the cube, octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, triakis-octahedron
+and icositetrahedron are geometrically the same as in the
+first class. The characters of the faces will, however, be different;
+thus the cube faces will be striated parallel to one edge only (fig. 89),
+and triangular markings on the octahedron faces will be placed
+obliquely to the edges. The remaining simple forms are &ldquo;hemihedral
+with parallel faces,&rdquo; and from the corresponding holohedral
+forms two hemihedral forms, a positive and a negative, may be
+derived.</p>
+
+<p>Pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 34). This is bounded by twelve
+pentagonal faces, but these are not regular pentagons, and the angles
+over the three sets of different edges are different. The regular
+dodecahedron of geometry, contained by twelve regular pentagons,
+is not a possible form in crystals. The indices are {<i>hko</i>}: as a simple
+form {210} is of very common occurrence in pyrites.</p>
+
+<p>Dyakis-dodecahedron (fig. 35). This is the hemihedral form of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span>
+the hexakis-octahedron and has the indices {<i>hkl</i>}; it is bounded by
+twenty-four faces. As a simple form {321} is met with in pyrites.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:462px; height:167px" src="images/img576a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Pentagonal Dodecahedron<br />
+and Cube.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Pentagonal Dodecahedron<br />
+and Octahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Combinations (figs. 36-39) of these forms with the cube and the
+octahedron are common in pyrites. Fig. 37 resembles in general
+appearance the regular icosahedron of geometry, but only eight of
+the faces are equilateral triangles. Cobaltite, smaltite and other
+sulphides and sulpharsenides of the pyrites group of minerals
+crystallize in these forms. The alums also belong to this class;
+from an aqueous solution they crystallize as simple octahedra,
+sometimes with subordinate faces of the cube and rhombic dodecahedron,
+but from an acid solution as octahedra combined with
+the pentagonal dodecahedron {210}.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:473px; height:176px" src="images/img576b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Pentagonal Dodecahedron, Cube<br />
+and Octahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;Combination of<br />
+Pentagonal Dodecahedron <i>e</i><br />
+{210}, Dyakis-dodecahedron <i>f</i><br />
+{321}, and Octahedron <i>d</i> {111}.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Plagihedral<a name="fa3o" id="fa3o" href="#ft3o"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Plagihedral-hemihedral; Pentagonal icositetrahedral;
+Gyroidal<a name="fa4o" id="fa4o" href="#ft4o"><span class="sp">4</span></a>).</p>
+
+<p>In this class there are the full number of axes of symmetry (three
+tetrad, four triad and six dyad), but no planes of symmetry and no
+centre of symmetry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:472px; height:202px" src="images/img576c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Pentagonal<br />
+Icositetrahedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Tetrahedral Pentagonal<br />
+Dodecahedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Pentagonal icositetrahedron (fig. 40). This is the only simple form in
+this class which differs geometrically from those of the holosymmetric
+class. By suppressing either one or other set of alternate faces of the
+hexakis-octahedron two pentagonal icositetrahedra {<i>hkl</i>} and {<i>khl</i>}
+are derived. These are each bounded by twenty-four irregular
+pentagons, and although similar to each other they are respectively
+right- and left-handed, one being the mirror image of the other; such
+similar but nonsuperposable forms are said to be enantiomorphous
+(<span class="grk" title="enantios">&#7952;&#957;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#943;&#959;&#962;</span>, opposite, and <span class="grk" title="morphę">&#956;&#959;&#961;&#966;&#942;</span>, form), and crystals showing such forms
+sometimes rotate the plane of polarization of plane-polarized light.
+Faces of a pentagonal icositetrahedron with high indices have been
+very rarely observed on crystals of cuprite, potassium chloride and
+ammonium chloride, but none of these are circular polarizing.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Tetartohedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here, in addition to four polar triad axes, the only other elements
+of symmetry are three dyad axes, which coincide with the crystallographic
+axes. Six of the simple forms, the cube, tetrahedron,
+rhombic dodecahedron, deltoid dodecahedron, triakis-tetrahedron
+and pentagonal dodecahedron, are geometrically the same in this
+class as in either the tetrahedral or pyritohedral classes. The
+general form is the Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 41). This is bounded
+by twelve irregular pentagons, and is a tetartohedral or quarter-faced
+form of the hexakis-octahedron. Four such forms may be derived,
+the indices of which are {<i>hkl</i>}, {<i>khl</i>}, {<i><span class="ov">h</span>kl</i>} and {<i><span class="ov">k</span>hl</i>}; the first pair
+are enantiomorphous with respect to one another, and so are the last
+pair. Barium nitrate, lead nitrate, sodium chlorate and sodium
+bromate crystallize in this class, as also do the minerals ullmannite
+(NiSbS) and langbeinite (K<span class="su">2</span>Mg<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120">2. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Pyramidal; Quadratic; Dimetric).</p>
+
+<p>In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right
+angles, but while two are equal in length and interchangeable the
+third is of a different length. The unequal axis is spoken of as the
+principal axis or morphological axis
+of the crystal, and it is always
+placed in a vertical position; in
+five of the seven classes of this
+system it coincides with the single
+tetrad axis of symmetry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:222px; height:161px" src="images/img576d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:139px; height:256px" src="images/img576e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Tetragonal Bipyramids.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The parameters are <i>a</i> : <i>a</i> : <i>c</i>, where
+a refers to the two equal horizontal
+axes, and <i>c</i> to the vertical axis; <i>c</i> may be either shorter (as
+in fig. 42) or longer (fig. 43) than <i>a</i>. The ratio <i>a</i> : <i>c</i> is spoken of as
+the axial ratio of a crystal, and it is dependent on the angles between
+the faces. In all crystals of the same substance this ratio is constant,
+and is characteristic of the substance; for other substances crystallizing
+in the tetragonal system it will be different. For example,
+in cassiterite it is given as <i>a</i> : <i>c</i> = 1 : 0.67232 or simply as <i>c</i> = 0.67232,
+<i>a</i> being unity; and in anatase as <i>c</i> = 1.7771.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Holosymmetric Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Holohedral; Ditetragonal bipyramidal).</p>
+
+<p>Crystals of this class are symmetrical with respect to five planes,
+which are of three kinds; one is perpendicular to the principal axis,
+and the other four intersect in it; of the latter, two are perpendicular
+to the equal crystallographic axes, while the two others bisect the
+angles between them. There are five axes of symmetry, one tetrad
+and two pairs of dyad, each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry.
+Finally, there is a centre of symmetry.</p>
+
+<p>There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Tetragonal bipyramid of the first order (figs. 42 and 43). This is
+bounded by eight equal isosceles triangles. Equal lengths are intercepted
+on the two horizontal axes, and the indices are {111}, {221},
+{112}, &amp;c., or in general {<i>hhl</i>}. The parametral plane with the intercepts
+<i>a</i> : <i>a</i> : <i>c</i> is a face of the bipyramid {111}.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:522px; height:220px" src="images/img576f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Tetragonal Bipyramids of the first and second orders.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tetragonal bipyramid of the second order. This is also bounded
+by eight equal isosceles triangles, but differs from the last form in
+its position, four of the faces being parallel to each of the horizontal
+axes; the indices are therefore {101}, {201}, {102}, &amp;c., or {<i>hol</i>}.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 44 shows the relation between the tetragonal bipyramids
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span>
+of the first and second orders when the indices are {111} and {101}
+respectively: <i>ABB</i> is the face (111), and <i>ACC</i> is (101). A combination
+of these two forms is shown in fig. 45.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:149px; height:267px" src="images/img577a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;Ditetragonal
+Bipyramid.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Ditetragonal bipyramid (fig. 46). This is the general form; it is
+bounded by sixteen scalene triangles, and all the indices are unequal,
+being {321}, &amp;c., or {<i>hkl</i>}.</p>
+
+<p>Tetragonal prism of the first order. The four faces intersect the
+horizontal axes in equal lengths and are parallel to the principal
+axis; the indices are therefore {110}.
+This form does not enclose space, and
+is therefore called an &ldquo;open form&rdquo;
+to distinguish it from a &ldquo;closed form&rdquo;
+like the tetragonal bipyramids and all
+the forms of the cubic system. An
+open form can exist only in combination
+with other forms; thus fig. 47
+is a combination of the tetragonal
+prism {110} with the basal pinacoid
+{001}. If the faces (110) and (001)
+are of equal size such a figure will be
+geometrically a cube, since all the
+angles are right angles; the variety of
+apophyllite known as tesselite crystallizes
+in this form.</p>
+
+<p>Tetragonal prism of the second order.
+This has the same number of faces as
+the last prism, but differs in position;
+each face being parallel to the vertical
+axis and one of the horizontal axes; the indices are {100}.</p>
+
+<p>Ditetragonal prism. This consists of eight faces all parallel to
+the principal axis and intercepting the horizontal axes in different
+lengths; the indices are {210}, {320}, &amp;c., or {<i>hko</i>}.</p>
+
+<p>Basal pinacoid (from <span class="grk" title="pinax">&#960;&#943;&#957;&#945;&#958;</span>, a tablet). This consists of a single
+pair of parallel faces perpendicular to the principal axis. It is therefore
+an open form and can exist only in combination (fig. 47).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:151px; height:183px" src="images/img577b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:136px; height:223px" src="images/img577c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:156px; height:228px" src="images/img577d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span><br />
+Combination of<br />
+Tetragonal Prism<br />
+and Basal Pinacoid.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">Combinations of Tetragonal Prisms and Pyramids.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Combinations of holohedral tetragonal forms are shown in figs.
+47-49; fig. 48 is a combination of a bipyramid of the first order with
+one of the second order and the prism of the first order; fig. 49 a
+combination of a bipyramid of the first order with a ditetragonal
+bipyramid and the prism of the second order. Compare also figs.
+87 and 88.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of substances which crystallize in this class are cassiterite,
+rutile, anatase, zircon, thorite, vesuvianite, apophyllite, phosgenite,
+also boron, tin, mercuric iodide.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Scalenohedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Bisphenoidal-hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here there are only three dyad axes and two planes of symmetry,
+the former coinciding with the crystallographic axes and the latter
+bisecting the angles between the horizontal pair. The dyad axis
+of symmetry, which in this class coincides with the principal axis
+of the crystal, has certain of the characters of a tetrad axis, and is
+sometimes called a tetrad axis of &ldquo;alternating symmetry&rdquo;; a face
+on the upper half of the crystal if rotated through 90° about this axis
+and reflected across the equatorial plane falls into the position of a
+face on the lower half of the crystal. This kind of symmetry, with
+simultaneous rotation about an axis and reflection across a plane,
+is also called &ldquo;composite symmetry.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In this class all except two of the simple forms are geometrically
+the same as in the holosymmetric class.</p>
+
+<p>Bisphenoid (<span class="grk" title="sphęn">&#963;&#966;&#942;&#957;</span>, a wedge) (fig. 50). This is a double wedge-shaped
+solid bounded by four equal isosceles triangles; it has the
+indices {111}, {211}, {112}, &amp;c., or in general {<i>hhl</i>}. By suppressing
+either one or other set of alternate faces of the tetragonal bipyramid
+of the first order (fig. 42) two bisphenoids are derived, in the
+same way that two tetrahedra are derived from the regular
+octahedron.</p>
+
+<p>Tetragonal scalenohedron or ditetragonal bisphenoid (fig. 51).
+This is bounded by eight scalene triangles and has the indices {<i>hkl</i>}.
+It may be considered as the hemihedral form of the ditetragonal
+bipyramid.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:465px; height:239px" src="images/img577e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 50.</span>&mdash;Tetragonal<br />Bisphenoids.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 51.</span>&mdash;Tetragonal<br />
+Scalenohedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The crystal of chalcopyrite (CuFeS<span class="su">2</span>) represented in fig. 52 is a
+combination of two bisphenoids (<i>P</i> and <i>P</i>&prime;), two bipyramids of the
+second order (<i>b</i> and <i>c</i>), and the basal pinacoid (<i>a</i>). Stannite
+(Cu<span class="su">2</span>FeSnS<span class="su">4</span>), acid potassium phosphate (H<span class="su">2</span>KPO<span class="su">4</span>), mercuric cyanide,
+and urea (CO(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>) also crystallize in this class.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Bipyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Parallel-faced hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>The elements of symmetry are a tetrad axis with a plane perpendicular
+to it, and a centre of symmetry. The simple forms are
+the same here as in the holosymmetric class, except the prism {<i>hko</i>},
+which has only four faces, and the bipyramid {<i>hkl</i>}, which has eight
+faces and is distinguished as a &ldquo;tetragonal pyramid of the third
+order.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:420px; height:247px" src="images/img577f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 52.</span>&mdash;Crystal of<br />Chalcopyrite.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 53.</span>&mdash;Crystal of<br />Fergusonite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 53 shows a combination of a tetragonal prism of the first order
+with a tetragonal bipyramid of the third order and the basal pinacoid,
+and represents a crystal of fergusonite. Scheelite (<i>q.v.</i>), scapolite
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and erythrite (C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">4</span>) also crystallize in this class.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Pyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here the only element of symmetry is the tetrad axis. The pyramids
+of the first {<i>hhl</i>}, second {<i>hol</i>} and third {<i>hkl</i>} orders have each
+only four faces at one or other end of the crystal, and are hemimorphic.
+All the simple forms are thus open forms.</p>
+
+<p>Examples are wulfenite (PbMoO<span class="su">4</span>) and barium antimonyl dextro-tartrate
+(Ba(SbO)<span class="su">2</span>(C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">6</span>)ˇH<span class="su">2</span>O).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Ditetragonal Pyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemimorphic-hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here there are two pairs of vertical planes of symmetry intersecting
+in the tetrad axis. The pyramids {<i>hhl</i>} and {<i>hol</i>} and the
+bipyramid {<i>hkl</i>} are all hemimorphic.</p>
+
+<p>Examples are iodosuccimide (C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">2</span>NI), silver fluoride (AgFˇH<span class="su">2</span>O),
+and penta-erythrite (C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">4</span>). No examples are known amongst
+minerals.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Trapezohedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Trapezohedral-hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here there are the full number of axes of symmetry, but no planes
+or centre of symmetry. The general form {<i>hkl</i>} is bounded by eight
+trapezoidal faces and is the tetragonal trapezohedron.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span></p>
+
+<p>Examples are nickel sulphate (NiSO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ6H<span class="su">2</span>O), guanidine carbonate
+((CH<span class="su">5</span>N<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span>), strychnine sulphate
+((C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">22</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>ˇH<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ6H<span class="su">2</span>O).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Bisphenoidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Bisphenoidal-tetartohedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here there is only a single dyad axis of symmetry, which coincides
+with the principal axis. All the forms, except the prisms and basal
+pinacoid, are sphenoids. Crystals possessing this type of symmetry
+have not yet been observed.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120">3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Rhombic; Prismatic; Trimetric).</p>
+
+<p>In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right
+angles, but they are of different lengths and not interchangeable.
+The parameters, or axial ratios, are <i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i>, these referring to the
+axes <i>OX</i>, <i>OY</i> and <i>OZ</i> respectively. The choice of a vertical axis,
+<i>OZ = c</i>, is arbitrary, and it is customary to place the longer of the two
+horizontal axes from left to right (<i>OY = b</i>) and take it as unity:
+this is called the &ldquo;macro-axis&rdquo; or &ldquo;macro-diagonal&rdquo; (from <span class="grk" title="makros">&#956;&#945;&#954;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>,
+long), whilst the shorter horizontal axis (<i>OX = a</i>) is called the
+&ldquo;brachy-axis&rdquo; or &ldquo;brachy-diagonal&rdquo; (from <span class="grk" title="brachus">&#946;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#973;&#962;</span>, short). The
+axial ratios are constant for crystals of any one substance and are
+characteristic of it; for example, in barytes (BaSO<span class="su">4</span>), <i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i> =
+0.8152 : 1 : 1.3136; in anglesite (PbSO<span class="su">4</span>),
+<i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i> = 0.7852: 1 : 1.2894;
+in cerussite (PbCO<span class="su">3</span>), <i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i> = 0.6100 : 1 : 0.7230.</p>
+
+<p>There are three symmetry-classes in this system:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Holohedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Holohedral; Bipyramidal).</p>
+
+<p>Here there are three dissimilar dyad axes of symmetry, each
+coinciding with a crystallographic axis; perpendicular to them are
+three dissimilar planes of symmetry; there is also a centre of
+symmetry. There are seven kinds of simple forms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:498px; height:256px" src="images/img578a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 54.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 55.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Orthorhombic Bipyramids.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Bipyramid (figs. 54 and 55). This is the general form and is
+bounded by eight scalene triangles; the indices are {111}, {211},
+{221}, {112}, {321}, {123}, &amp;c., or in general {<i>hkl</i>}. The crystallographic
+axes join opposite corners of these pyramids and in
+the fundamental bipyramid {111} the parametral plane has the
+intercepts <i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i>. This is the only closed form in this class; the
+others are open forms and can exist only in combination. Sulphur
+often crystallizes in simple bipyramids.</p>
+
+<p>Prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the vertical axis and
+intercepting the horizontal axes in the lengths a and b or in any
+multiples of these; the indices are therefore {110}, {210}, {120} or
+{<i>hko</i>}.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:517px; height:163px" src="images/img578b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 56.</span>&mdash;Macro-prism and<br />
+Brachy-pinacoid.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;Brachy-prism and<br />
+Macro-pinacoid.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Macro-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the macro-axis,
+and has the indices {101}, {201} ... or {<i>hol</i>}.</p>
+
+<p>Brachy-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the brachy-axis,
+and has the indices {011}, {021} ... {<i>okl</i>}. The macro- and
+brachy-prisms are often called &ldquo;domes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Basal pinacoid, consisting of a pair of parallel faces perpendicular
+to the vertical axis; the indices are {001}. The macro-pinacoid
+{100} and the brachy-pinacoid {010} each consist of a pair of parallel
+faces respectively parallel to the macro- and the brachy-axis.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 56-58 show combinations of these six open forms, and fig. 59
+a combination of the macro-pinacoid (<i>a</i>), brachy-pinacoid (<i>b</i>), a
+prism (<i>m</i>), a macro-prism (<i>d</i>), a brachy-prism (<i>k</i>), and a bipyramid (<i>u</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:299px" src="images/img578c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 58.</span>&mdash;Prism and Basal<br />
+Pinacoid.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;Crystal of<br />
+Hypersthene.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Holohedral Orthorhombic Combinations.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Examples of substances crystallizing in this class are extremely
+numerous; amongst minerals are sulphur, stibnite, cerussite,
+chrysoberyl, topaz, olivine, nitre, barytes, columbite and many
+others; and amongst artificial products iodine, potassium permanganate,
+potassium sulphate, benzene, barium formate, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Pyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemimorphic).</p>
+
+<p>Here there is only one dyad axis in which two planes of symmetry
+intersect. The crystals are usually so placed that the dyad axis
+coincides with the vertical crystallographic axis, and the planes
+of symmetry are also vertical.</p>
+
+<p>The pyramid {<i>hkl</i>} has only four faces at one end or other of the
+crystal. The macro-prism and the brachy-prism of the last class are
+here represented by the macro-dome and brachy-dome respectively,
+so called because of the resemblance of the pair of equally sloped
+faces to the roof of a house. The form {001} is a single plane at the
+top of the crystal, and is called a &ldquo;pedion&rdquo;; the parallel pedion
+{00<span class="ov">1</span>}, if present at the lower end of the crystal, constitutes a different
+form. The prisms {<i>hko</i>} and the macro- and brachy-pinacoids are
+geometrically the same in this class as in the last. Crystals of this
+class are therefore differently developed at the two ends and are said
+to be &ldquo;hemimorphic.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:371px; height:193px" src="images/img578d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.</span>&mdash;Crystal of<br />
+Hemimorphite.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 61.</span>&mdash;Orthorhombic<br />
+Bisphenoid.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 60 shows a crystal of the mineral hemimorphite (H<span class="su">2</span>Zn<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">5</span>)
+which is a combination of the brachy-pinacoid {010} and a prism,
+with the pedion (001), two brachy-domes and two macro-domes
+at the upper end, and a pyramid at the lower end. Examples
+of other substances belonging to this class are struvite
+(NH<span class="su">4</span>MgPO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ6H<span class="su">2</span>O), bertrandite (H<span class="su">2</span>Be<span class="su">4</span>Si<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">9</span>), resorcin, and picric
+acid.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Bisphenoidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here there are three dyad axes, but no planes of symmetry and
+no centre of symmetry. The general form {<i>hkl</i>} is a bisphenoid
+(fig. 61) bounded by four scalene triangles. The other simple forms
+are geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class.</p>
+
+<p>Examples: epsomite (Epsom salts, MgSO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ7H<span class="su">2</span>O), goslarite
+(ZnSO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ7H<span class="su">2</span>O), silver nitrate, sodium potassium dextro-tartrate
+(seignette salt, NaKC<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">6</span>ˇ4H<span class="su">2</span>O), potassium antimonyl dextro-tartrate
+(tartar-emetic, K(SbO)C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">6</span>), and asparagine
+(C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">8</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">8</span>ˇH<span class="su">2</span>O).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120">4. MONOCLINIC<a name="fa5o" id="fa5o" href="#ft5o"><span class="sp">5</span></a> SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Oblique; Monosymmetric).</p>
+
+<p>In this system two of the angles between the crystallographic
+axes are right angles, but the third angle is oblique, and the axes
+are of unequal lengths. The axis which is perpendicular to the other
+two is taken as <i>OY = b</i> (fig. 62) and is called the ortho-axis or ortho-diagonal.
+The choice of the other two axes is arbitrary; the vertical
+axis (<i>OZ = c</i>) is usually taken parallel to the edges of a prominently
+developed prismatic zone, and the clino-axis or clino-diagonal
+(<i>OX = a</i>) parallel to the zone-axis of some other prominent zone on
+the crystal. The acute angle between the axes <i>OX</i> and <i>OZ</i> is usually
+denoted as &beta;, and it is necessary to know its magnitude, in addition
+to the axial ratios <i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i>, before the crystal is completely determined.
+As in other systems, except the cubic, these elements,
+<i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i> and &beta;, are characteristic of the substance. Thus for gypsum
+<i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i> = 0.6899 : 1 : 0.4124; &beta; = 80° 42&prime;; for orthoclase <i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i> =
+0.6585 : 1 : 0.5554; &beta; = 63° 57&prime;; and for cane-sugar <i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i> =
+1.2595 : 1 : 0.8782; &beta; = 76° 30&prime;.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Holosymmetric Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Holohedral; Prismatic).</p>
+
+<p>Here there is a single plane of symmetry perpendicular to which
+is a dyad axis; there is also a centre of symmetry. The dyad axis
+coincides with the ortho-axis <i>OY</i>, and the vertical axis <i>OZ</i> and the
+clino-axis <i>OX</i> lie in the plane of symmetry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:440px; height:222px" src="images/img579a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 62.</span>&mdash;Monoclinic Axes and<br />
+Hemi-pyramid.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 63.</span>&mdash;Crystal of Augite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>All the forms are open, being either pinacoids or prisms; the
+former consisting of a pair of parallel faces, and the latter of four
+faces intersecting in parallel edges and with a rhombic cross-section.
+The pair of faces parallel to the plane of symmetry is distinguished
+as the &ldquo;clino-pinacoid&rdquo; and has the indices {010}. The other
+pinacoids are all perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (and
+parallel to the ortho-axis); the one parallel to the vertical axis is
+called the &ldquo;ortho-pinacoid&rdquo; {100}, whilst that parallel to the clino-axis
+is the &ldquo;basal pinacoid&rdquo; {001}; pinacoids not parallel to the
+arbitrarily chosen clino- and vertical axes may have the indices
+{101}, {201}, {102} ... {<i>hol</i>} or {<span class="ov">1</span>01}, {<span class="ov">2</span>01}, {<span class="ov">1</span>02} ... {<i><span class="ov">h</span>ol</i>},
+according to whether they lie in the obtuse or the acute axial angle.
+Of the prisms, those with edges (zone-axis) parallel to the clino-axis,
+and having indices {011}, {021}, {012} ... {<i>okl</i>}, are called &ldquo;clino-prisms&rdquo;;
+those with edges parallel to the vertical axis, and with the
+indices {110}, {210}, {120} ... {<i>hko</i>}, are called simply &ldquo;prisms.&rdquo;
+Prisms with edges parallel to neither of the axes <i>OX</i> and <i>OY</i> have
+the indices {111}, {221}, {211}, {321} ... {<i>hkl</i>} or {<span class="ov">1</span>11} ... {<i><span class="ov">h</span>kl</i>},
+and are usually called &ldquo;hemi-pyramids&rdquo; (fig. 62); they are distinguished
+as negative or positive according to whether they lie
+in the obtuse or the acute axial angle &beta;.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 63 represents a crystal of augite bounded by the clino-pinacoid
+(<i>l</i>), the ortho-pinacoid (<i>r</i>), a prism (<i>M</i>), and a hemi-pyramid
+(<i>s</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The substances which crystallize in this class are extremely
+numerous: amongst minerals are gypsum, orthoclase, the amphiboles,
+pyroxenes and micas, epidote, monazite, realgar, borax,
+mirabilite (Na<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ10H<span class="su">2</span>O), melanterite (FeSO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ7H<span class="su">2</span>O) and many
+others; amongst artificial products are monoclinic sulphur, barium
+chloride (BaCl<span class="su">2</span>ˇ2H<span class="su">2</span>O), potassium chlorate, potassium ferrocyanide
+(K<span class="su">4</span>Fe(CN)<span class="su">6</span>ˇ3H<span class="su">2</span>O), oxalic acid (C<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">2</span>ˇ2H<span class="su">2</span>O), sodium acetate
+(NaC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>ˇ3H<span class="su">2</span>O) and naphthalene.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Hemimorphic Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Sphenoidal).</p>
+
+<p>In this class the only element of symmetry is a single dyad axis,
+which is polar in character, being dissimilar at the two ends.</p>
+
+<p>The form {010} perpendicular to the axis of symmetry consists of
+a single plane or pedion; the parallel face is dissimilar in character
+and belongs to the pedion {0<span class="ov">1</span>0}. The pinacoids {100}, {001}, {<i>hol</i>}
+and {<i><span class="ov">h</span>ol</i>} parallel to the axis of symmetry are geometrically the
+same in this class as in the holosymmetric class. The remaining
+forms consist each of only two planes on the same side of the axial
+plane <i>XOZ</i> and equally inclined to the dyad axis (<i>e.g.</i> in fig. 62 the
+two planes <i>XYZ</i> and <i><span class="ov">X</span>Y<span class="ov">Z</span></i>); such a wedge-shaped form is sometimes
+called a sphenoid.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:187px" src="images/img579b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 64.</span>&mdash;Enantiomorphous Crystals of Tartaric Acid.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 64 shows two crystals of tartaric acid, <i>a</i> a right-handed
+crystal of dextro-tartaric acid, and <i>b</i> a left-handed crystal of laevo-tartaric
+acid. The two crystals are enantiomorphous, <i>i.e.</i> although
+they have the same interfacial angles they are not superposable,
+one being the mirror image of the other. Other examples are
+potassium dextro-tartrate, cane-sugar, milk-sugar, quercite, lithium
+sulphate (Li<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>ˇH<span class="su">2</span>O); amongst minerals the only example is the
+hydrocarbon fichtelite (C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">8</span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Clinohedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemihedral; Domatic).</p>
+
+<p>Crystals of this class are symmetrical only with respect to a single
+plane. The only form which is here geometrically the same as in the
+holosymmetric class is the clino-pinacoid {010}. The forms perpendicular
+to the plane of symmetry are all pedions, consisting of
+single planes with the indices {100}, {<span class="ov">1</span>00}, {001}, {00<span class="ov">1</span>}, {<i>hol</i>}, &amp;c.
+The remaining forms, {<i>hko</i>}, {<i>okl</i>} and {<i>hkl</i>}, are domes or &ldquo;gonioids&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="gonia">&#947;&#969;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span>, an angle, and <span class="grk" title="eidos">&#949;&#7990;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>, form), consisting of two planes equally
+inclined to the plane of symmetry.</p>
+
+<p>Examples are potassium tetrathionate (K<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">6</span>), hydrogen trisodium
+hypophosphate (HNa<span class="su">3</span>P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>ˇ9H<span class="su">2</span>O); and amongst minerals,
+clinohedrite (H<span class="su">2</span>ZnCaSiO<span class="su">4</span>) and scolectite.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120">5. ANORTHIC SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Triclinic).</p>
+
+<p>In the anorthic (from <span class="grk" title="an">&#7936;&#957;</span>, privative, and <span class="grk" title="orthos">&#8000;&#961;&#952;&#972;&#962;</span>, right) or triclinic
+system none of the three crystallographic axes are at right angles,
+and they are all of unequal lengths. In addition to the parameters
+a : b : c, it is necessary to know the angles, &alpha;, &beta;, and &gamma;, between the
+axes. In anorthite, for example, these elements are <i>a</i> : <i>b</i> : <i>c</i> =
+0.6347 : 1 : 0.5501; &alpha; = 93° 13&prime;, &beta; = 115° 55&prime;, &gamma; = 91° 12&prime;.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Holosymmetric Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Holohedral; Pinacoidal).</p>
+
+<p>Here there is only a centre of symmetry. All the forms are pinacoids,
+each consisting of only two parallel faces. The indices of the
+three pinacoids parallel to the axial planes are {100}, {010} and
+{001}; those of pinacoids parallel to only one axis are {<i>hko</i>}, {<i>hol</i>}
+and {<i>okl</i>}; and the general form is {<i>hkl</i>}.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:158px; height:151px" src="images/img579c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 65.</span>&mdash;Crystal of
+Axinite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Several minerals crystallize in this class; for example, the plagioclastic
+felspars, microcline, axinite (fig. 65), cyanite, amblygonite,
+chalcanthite (CuSO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ5H<span class="su">2</span>O), sassolite (H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>);
+among artificial substances are potassium
+bichromate, racemic acid (C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">6</span>ˇ2H<span class="su">2</span>O),
+dibrom-para-nitrophenol, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Asymmetric Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemihedral, Pediad).</p>
+
+<p>Crystals of this class are devoid of any
+elements of symmetry. All the forms are
+pedions, each consisting of a single plane;
+they are thus hemihedral with respect to
+crystals of the last class. Although there is
+a total absence of symmetry, yet the faces are arranged in zones
+on the crystals.</p>
+
+<p>Examples are calcium thiosulphate (CaS<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>ˇ6H<span class="su">2</span>O) and hydrogen
+strontium dextro-tartrate ((C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">6</span>H)<span class="su">2</span>Srˇ5H<span class="su">2</span>O); there is no example
+amongst minerals.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120">6. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p>Crystals of this system are characterized by the presence of a single
+axis of either triad or hexad symmetry, which is spoken of as the
+&ldquo;principal&rdquo; or &ldquo;morphological&rdquo; axis. Those with a triad axis
+are grouped together in the rhombohedral or trigonal division, and
+those with a hexad axis in the hexagonal division. By some authors
+these two divisions are treated as separate systems; or again the
+rhombohedral forms may be considered as hemihedral developments
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span>
+of the hexagonal. On the other hand, hexagonal forms may be
+considered as a combination of two rhombohedral forms.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the peculiarities of symmetry associated with a single
+triad or hexad axis, the crystallographic axes of reference are different
+in this system from those used in the five other systems of crystals.
+Two methods of axial representation are in common use; rhombohedral
+axes being usually used for crystals of the rhombohedral
+division, and hexagonal axes for those of the hexagonal division;
+though sometimes either one or the other set is employed in both
+divisions.</p>
+
+<p>Rhomobohedral axes are taken parallel to the three sets of edges
+of a rhombohedron (fig. 66). They are inclined to one another at
+equal oblique angles, and they are all equally inclined to the principal
+axis; further, they are all of equal length and are interchangeable.
+With such a set of axes there can be no statement of an axial ratio,
+but the angle between the axes (or some other angle which may be
+calculated from this) may be given as a constant of the substance.
+Thus in calcite the rhombohedral angle (the angle between two faces
+of the fundamental rhombohedron) is 74° 55&prime;, or the angle between
+the normal to a face of this rhombohedron and the principal axis is
+44° 36˝&prime;.</p>
+
+<p>Hexagonal axes are four in number, viz. a vertical axis coinciding
+with the principal axis of the crystal, and three horizontal axes
+inclined to one another at 60° in a plane perpendicular to the principal
+axis. The three horizontal axes, which are taken either parallel
+or perpendicular to the faces of a hexagonal prism (fig. 71) or the
+edge of a hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), are equal in length (<i>a</i>) but
+the vertical axis is of a different length (<i>c</i>). The indices of planes
+referred to such a set of axes are four in number; they are written
+as {<i>hikl</i>}, the first three (<i>h</i> + <i>i</i> + <i>k</i> = 0) referring to the horizontal
+axes and the last to the vertical axis. The ratio <i>a</i> : <i>c</i> of the parameters,
+or the axial ratio, is characteristic of all the crystals of the
+same substance. Thus for beryl (including emerald) <i>a</i> : <i>c</i> = 1 : 0.4989
+(often written <i>c</i> = 0.4989); for zinc <i>c</i> = 1.3564.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120"><i>Rhombohedral Division.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the rhomobohedral or trigonal division of the hexagonal system
+there are seven symmetry-classes, all of which possess a single
+triad axis of symmetry.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Holosymmetric Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Holohedral; Ditrigonal scalenohedral).</p>
+
+<p>In this class, which presents the commonest type of symmetry
+of the hexagonal system, the triad axis is associated with three
+similar planes of symmetry inclined to one another at 60° and intersecting
+in the triad axis; there are also three similar dyad axes,
+each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry, and a centre of symmetry.
+The seven simple forms are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:163px" src="images/img580a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 67.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Direct and Inverse Rhombohedra.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:278px" src="images/img580b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;Scalenohedron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Rhombohedron (figs. 66 and 67), consisting of six rhomb-shaped
+faces with the edges all of equal lengths: the faces are perpendicular
+to the planes of symmetry. There are
+two sets of rhombohedra, distinguished
+respectively as direct and inverse; those
+of one set (fig. 66) are brought into the
+orientation of the other set (fig. 67) by
+a rotation of 60° or 180° about the principal
+axis. For the fundamental rhombohedron,
+parallel to the edges of which
+are the crystallographic axes of reference,
+the indices are {100}. Other rhombohedra
+may have the indices {211}, {4<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>},
+{110}, {22<span class="ov">1</span>}, {11<span class="ov">1</span>}, &amp;c., or in general
+{<i>hkk</i>}. (Compare fig. 72; for figures of
+other rhombohedra see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calcite</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Scalenohedron (fig. 68), bounded by
+twelve scalene triangles, and with the
+general indices {<i>hkl</i>}. The zig-zag lateral
+edges coincide with the similar edges of a
+rhombohedron, as shown in fig. 69;
+if the indices of the inscribed rhombohedron
+be {100}, the indices of the
+scalenohedron represented in the figure are {20<span class="ov">1</span>}. The scalenohedron
+{20<span class="ov">1</span>} is a characteristic form of calcite, which for this reason is sometimes
+called &ldquo;dog-tooth-spar.&rdquo; The angles over the three edges of
+a face of a scalenohedron are all different; the angles over three
+alternate polar edges are more obtuse than over the other three
+polar edges. Like the two sets of rhombohedra, there are also
+direct and inverse scalenohedra, which may be similar in form and
+angles, but different in orientation and indices.</p>
+
+<p>Hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), bounded by twelve isosceles
+triangles each of which are equally inclined to two planes of symmetry.
+The indices are {210}, {41<span class="ov">2</span>}, &amp;c., or in general (hkl), where
+<i>h</i> &minus; 2<i>k</i> + <i>l</i> = 0.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td>
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:210px; height:431px" src="images/img580c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;Scalenohedron with<br />
+inscribed Rhombohedron.</td></tr></table></td>
+
+<td>
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:202px; height:162px" src="images/img580d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;Hexagonal<br />
+Bipyramid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:141px; height:169px" src="images/img580e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 71.</span>&mdash;Hexagonal Prism<br />
+and Basal Pinacoid.</td></tr></table></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Hexagonal prism of the first order (2<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>), consisting of six faces
+parallel to the principal axis and perpendicular to the planes of
+symmetry; the angles between (the normals to) the faces are 60°.</p>
+
+<p>Hexagonal prism of the second order (10<span class="ov">1</span>), consisting of six faces
+parallel to the principal axis and parallel to the planes of symmetry.
+The faces of this prism are inclined to 30° to those of the last prism.</p>
+
+<p>Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the
+principal axis and inclined to the planes of symmetry. There are
+two sets of angles between the faces. The indices are {3<span class="ov">2</span><span class="ov">1</span>},
+{5<span class="ov">3</span><span class="ov">2</span>} ... {<i>h<span class="ov">k</span>l</i>},
+where <i>h</i> + <i>k</i> + <i>l</i> = 0.</p>
+
+<p>Basal pinacoid {111}, consisting of a pair of parallel faces perpendicular
+to the principal axis.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:434px; height:418px" src="images/img580f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 72.</span>&mdash;Stereographic Projection of a Holosymmetric
+Rhombohedral Crystal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 71 shows a combination of a hexagonal prism (<i>m</i>) with the
+basal pinacoid (<i>c</i>). For figures of other combinations see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calcite</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corundum</a></span>. The relation between rhombohedral forms and
+their indices are best studied with the aid of a stereographic projection
+(fig. 72); in this figure the thicker lines are the projections
+of the three planes of symmetry, and on these lie the poles of the
+rhombohedra (six of which are indicated).</p>
+
+<p>Numerous substances, both natural and artificial, crystallize
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span>
+in this class; for example, calcite, chalybite, calamine, corundum
+(ruby and sapphire), haematite, chabazite; the elements arsenic,
+antimony, bismuth, selenium, tellurium and perhaps graphite;
+also ice, sodium nitrate, thymol, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Ditrigonal Pyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemimorphic-hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here there are three similar planes of symmetry intersecting in
+the triad axis; there are no dyad axes and no centre of symmetry.
+The triad axis is uniterminal and polar, and the crystals are differently
+developed at the two ends; crystals of this class are therefore
+pyro-electric. The forms are all open forms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:116px; height:209px" src="images/img581a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 73.</span>&mdash;Crystal of
+Tourmaline.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Trigonal pyramid {<i>hkk</i>}, consisting of the three faces which correspond
+to the three upper or the three lower faces of a
+rhombohedron of the holosymmetric class.</p>
+
+<p>Ditrigonal pyramid {<i>hkl</i>}, of six faces,
+corresponding to the six upper or lower faces
+of the scalenohedron.</p>
+
+<p>Hexagonal pyramid (<i>hkl</i>) where (<i>h</i> &minus; 2<i>k</i> + <i>l</i> = 0),
+of six faces, corresponding to the six
+upper or lower faces of the hexagonal bipyramid.</p>
+
+<p>Trigonal prism {2<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>} or {<span class="ov">2</span>11}, two forms
+each consisting of three faces parallel to principal
+axis and perpendicular to the planes of
+symmetry.</p>
+
+<p>Hexagonal prism {10<span class="ov">1</span>}, which is geometrically
+the same as in the last class.</p>
+
+<p>Ditrigonal prism {<i>h<span class="ov">k</span><span class="ov">l</span></i>} (where <i>h</i> + <i>k</i> + <i>l</i> = 0),
+of six faces parallel to the principal axis, and
+with two sets of angles between them.</p>
+
+<p>Basal pedion (111) or (<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>), each consisting of a single plane
+perpendicular to the principal axis.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 73 represents a crystal of tourmaline with the trigonal prism
+(2<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>), hexagonal prism (10<span class="ov">1</span>), and a trigonal pyramid at each end.
+Other substances crystallizing in this class are pyrargyrite, proustite,
+iodyrite (AgI), greenockite, zincite, spangolite, sodium lithium
+sulphate, tolylphenylketone.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Trapezohedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Trapezohedral-hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here there are three similar dyad axes inclined to one another at
+60° and perpendicular to the triad axis. There are no planes or
+centre of symmetry. The dyad axes are uniterminal, and are pyro-electric
+axes. Crystals of most substances of this class rotate the
+plane of polarization of
+a beam of light.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:291px; height:173px" src="images/img581b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 74.</span>&mdash;Trigonal<br />
+Trapezohedron.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 75.</span>&mdash;Trigonal<br />
+Bipyramid.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In this class the
+rhombohedra {<i>hkk</i>}, the
+hexagonal prism {2<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>},
+and the basal pinacoid
+{111} are geometrically
+the same as in the
+holosymmetric class;
+the trigonal prism {10<span class="ov">1</span>}
+and the ditrigonal
+prisms are as in the
+ditrigonal pyramidal
+class. The remaining
+simple forms are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Trigonal trapezohedron (fig. 74), bounded by six trapezoidal
+faces. There are two complementary and enantiomorphous trapezohedra,
+{<i>hkl</i>} and {<i>hlk</i>}, derivable from the scalenohedron.</p>
+
+<p>Trigonal bipyramid (fig. 75), bounded by six isosceles triangles;
+the indices are {<i>hkl</i>}, where <i>h</i> &minus; 2<i>k</i> + <i>l</i> = 0, as in the hexagonal
+bipyramid.</p>
+
+<p>The only minerals crystallizing in this class are quartz (<i>q.v.</i>)
+and cinnabar, both of which rotate the plane of a beam of polarized
+light transmitted along the triad axis. Other examples are dithionates
+of lead (PbS<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>ˇ4H<span class="su">2</span>O), calcium and strontium, and of potassium
+(K<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>), benzil, matico-stearoptene.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Rhombohedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Parallel-faced hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>The only elements of symmetry are the triad axis and a centre of
+symmetry. The general form {<i>hkl</i>} is a rhombohedron, and is a
+hemihedral form, with parallel faces, of the scalenohedron. The
+form {<i>hkl</i>}, where <i>h</i> &minus; 2<i>k</i> + <i>l</i> = 0, is also a rhombohedron, being the
+hemihedral form of the hexagonal bipyramid. The dihexagonal
+prism {<i>h<span class="ov">k</span><span class="ov">l</span></i>} of the holosymmetric class becomes here a hexagonal
+prism. The rhombohedra (hkk), hexagonal prisms {2<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>} and {10<span class="ov">1</span>},
+and the basal pinacoid {111} are geometrically the same in this
+class as in the holosymmetric class.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 76 represents a crystal of dioptase with the fundamental
+rhombohedron <i>r</i> {100} and the hexagonal prism of the second order
+<i>m</i> {10<span class="ov">1</span>} combined with the rhombohedron <i>s</i> {03<span class="ov">1</span>}.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of minerals which crystallize in this class are phenacite,
+dioptase, willemite, dolomite, ilmenite and pyrophanite: amongst
+artificial substances is ammonium periodate ((NH<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">4</span>I<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">9</span>ˇ3H<span class="su">2</span>O).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Trigonal Pyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:141px; height:263px" src="images/img581c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 76.&mdash;Crystal of Dioptase.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Here there is only the triad axis of symmetry, which is uniterminal.
+The general form {<i>hkl</i>} is a trigonal pyramid consisting of three faces
+at one end of the crystal. All other forms, in
+which the faces are neither parallel nor
+perpendicular to the triad axis, are trigonal
+pyramids. All the prisms are trigonal prisms;
+and perpendicular to these are two pedions.</p>
+
+<p>The only substance known to crystallize in
+this class is sodium periodate (NaIO<span class="su">4</span>ˇ3H<span class="su">2</span>O),
+the crystals of which are circularly polarizing.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Trigonal Bipyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p>Here there is a plane of symmetry perpendicular
+to the triad axis. The trigonal
+pyramids of the last class are here trigonal
+bipyramids (fig. 75); the prisms are all trigonal
+prisms, and parallel to the plane of symmetry
+is the basal pinacoid. No example is known
+for this class.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Ditrigonal Bipyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p>Here there are three similar planes of symmetry
+intersecting in the triad axis, and perpendicular to them is
+a fourth plane of symmetry; at the intersection of the three
+vertical planes with the horizontal plane are three similar dyad
+axes; there is no centre of symmetry.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:151px; height:232px" src="images/img581d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 77.&mdash;Dihexagonal Bipyramid.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The general form is bounded by twelve scalene triangles and is
+a ditrigonal bipyramid. Like the general form of the last class, this
+has two sets of indices {<i>hkl, <span class="ov">p</span><span class="ov">q</span><span class="ov">r</span></i>}, (hkl) for
+faces above the equatorial plane of symmetry
+and (<span class="ov">p</span><span class="ov">q</span><span class="ov">r</span>) for faces below: with hexagonal
+axes there would be only one set of indices.
+The hexagonal bipyramids, the hexagonal
+prism {10<span class="ov">1</span>} and the basal pinacoid {111}
+are geometrically the same in this class as
+in the holosymmetric class. The trigonal
+prism {2<span class="ov">1</span><span class="ov">1</span>} and ditrigonal prisms {<i>hkl</i>} are
+the same as in the ditrigonal pyramidal
+class.</p>
+
+<p>The only representative of this type of
+symmetry is the mineral benitoite (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120"><i>Hexagonal Division.</i></p>
+
+<p>In crystals of this division of the hexagonal
+system the principal axis is a hexad
+axis of symmetry. Hexagonal axes of
+reference are used: if rhombohedral axes be used many of the
+simple forms will have two sets of indices.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Holosymmetric Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Holohedral; Dihexagonal bipyramidal).</p>
+
+<p>Intersecting in the hexad axis are six planes of symmetry of two
+kinds, and perpendicular to them is an equatorial plane of symmetry.
+Perpendicular to the hexad axis are six dyad axes of two kinds and
+each perpendicular to a vertical plane of symmetry. The seven
+simple forms are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Dihexagonal bipyramid, bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles
+(fig. 77; <i>v</i> in fig. 80). The indices are {21<span class="ov">3</span>1}, &amp;c., or in general
+{<i>hikl</i>}. This form may be considered as a combination of two
+scalenohedra, a direct and an inverse.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:499px; height:215px" src="images/img581e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 79.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 80.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 81.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">Combinations of Hexagonal forms.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Hexagonal bipyramid of the first order, bounded by twelve
+isosceles triangles (fig. 70; <i>p</i> and <i>u</i> in fig. 80); indices {10<span class="ov">1</span>1},
+{20<span class="ov">2</span>1} ... (ho<span class="ov">h</span>l). The hexagonal bipyramid so common in quartz
+is geometrically similar to this form, but it really is a combination
+of two rhombohedra, a direct and an inverse, the faces of which
+differ in surface characters and often also in size.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span></p>
+
+<p>Hexagonal bipyramid of the second order, bounded by twelve
+faces (<i>s</i> in figs. 79 and 80); indices {11<span class="ov">2</span>1}, {11<span class="ov">2</span>2} ... {<i>h.h.<span class="ov">2</span><span class="ov">h</span>.l</i>}.</p>
+
+<p>Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the hexad
+axis and inclined to the vertical planes of symmetry; indices {<i>hiko</i>}.</p>
+
+<p>Hexagonal prism of the first order {1010}, consisting of six faces
+parallel to the hexad axis and perpendicular to one set of three
+vertical planes of symmetry (<i>m</i> in figs. 71, 78-80).</p>
+
+<p>Hexagonal prism of the second order {11<span class="ov">2</span>0}, consisting of six
+faces also parallel to the hexad axis, but perpendicular to the other
+set of three vertical planes of symmetry (<i>a</i> in fig. 78).</p>
+
+<p>Basal pinacoid {0001}, consisting of a pair of parallel planes perpendicular
+to the hexad axis (<i>c</i> in figs. 71, 78-80).</p>
+
+<p>Beryl (emerald), connellite, zinc, magnesium and beryllium
+crystallize in this class.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Bipyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Parallel-faced hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Here there is a plane of symmetry perpendicular to the hexad
+axis; there is also a centre of symmetry. All the closed forms are
+hexagonal bipyramids; the open forms are hexagonal prisms or
+the basal pinacoid. The general form {<i>hikl</i>} is hemihedral with
+parallel faces with respect to the general form of the holosymmetric
+class.</p>
+
+<p>Apatite (<i>q.v.</i>), pyromorphite, mimetite and vanadinite possess
+this degree of symmetry.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Dihexagonal Pyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemimorphic-hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Six planes of symmetry of two kinds intersect in the hexad axis.
+The hexad axis is uniterminal and all the forms are open forms. The
+general form {<i>hikl</i>} consists of twelve faces at one end of the crystal,
+and is a dihexagonal pyramid. The hexagonal pyramids {<i>ho<span class="ov">h</span>l</i>} and
+(<i>h.h.<span class="ov">2</span><span class="ov">h</span>.l</i>) each consist of six faces at one end of the crystal. The
+prisms are geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class.
+Perpendicular to the hexad axis are the pedions (0001) and (000<span class="ov">1</span>).</p>
+
+<p>Iodyrite (AgI), greenockite (CdS), wurtzite (ZnS) and zincite
+(ZnO) are often placed in this class, but they more probably belong
+to the hemimorphic-hemihedral class of the rhombohedral division
+of this system.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Trapezohedral Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Trapezohedral-hemihedral).</p>
+
+<p>Six dyad axes of two kinds are perpendicular to the hexad axis.
+The general form {<i>hikl</i>} is the hexagonal trapezohedron bounded
+by twelve trapezoidal faces. The other simple forms are geometrically
+the same as in the holosymmetric class.
+Barium-anti-monyldextro-tartrate + potassium
+nitrate (Ba(SbO)<span class="su">2</span>(C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">6</span>)<span class="su">2</span>ˇKNO<span class="su">3</span>)
+and the corresponding lead salt crystallize in this class.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Hexagonal Pyramidal Class</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).</p>
+
+<p>No other element is here associated with the hexad axis, which is
+uniterminal. The pyramids all consist of six faces at one end of the
+crystal, and prisms are all hexagonal prisms; perpendicular to the
+hexad axis are the pedions.</p>
+
+<p>Lithium potassium sulphate, strontium-antimonyl dextro-tartrate,
+and lead-antimonyl dextro-tartrate are examples of this type of
+symmetry. The mineral nepheline is placed in this class because of the
+absence of symmetry in the etched figures on the prism faces (fig. 92).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>g</i>) <i>Regular Grouping of Crystals.</i></p>
+
+<p>Crystals of the same kind when occurring together may sometimes
+be grouped in parallel position and so give rise to special
+structures, of which the dendritic (from <span class="grk" title="dendrou">&#948;&#941;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, a tree) or
+branch-like aggregations of native copper or of magnetite
+and the fibrous structures of many minerals furnish examples.
+Sometimes, owing to changes in the surrounding conditions, the
+crystal may continue its growth with a different external form
+or colour, <i>e.g.</i> sceptre-quartz.</p>
+
+<p>Regular intergrowths of crystals of totally different substances
+such as staurolite with cyanite, rutile with haematite, blende
+with chalcopyrite, calcite with sodium nitrate, are not uncommon.
+In these cases certain planes and edges of the two crystals are
+parallel. (See O. Mügge, &ldquo;Die regelmässigen Verwachsungen
+von Mineralien verschiedener Art,&rdquo; <i>Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie</i>,
+1903, vol. xvi. pp. 335-475).</p>
+
+<p>But by far the most important kind of regular conjunction
+of crystals is that known as &ldquo;twinning.&rdquo; Here two crystals
+or individuals of the same kind have grown together in a certain
+symmetrical manner, such that one portion of the twin may be
+brought into the position of the other by reflection across a
+plane or by rotation about an axis. The plane of reflection is
+called the twin-plane, and is parallel to one of the faces, or to a
+possible face, of the crystal: the axis of rotation, called the
+twin-axis, is parallel to one of the edges or perpendicular to a
+face of the crystal.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:268px; height:218px" src="images/img582a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 81.</span>&mdash;Twinned<br />
+Crystal of Gypsum.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 82.</span>&mdash;Simple<br />
+Crystal of Gypsum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the twinned crystal of gypsum represented in fig. 81 the
+two portions are symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel
+to the ortho-pinacoid
+(100), <i>i.e.</i> a vertical
+plane perpendicular to
+the face <i>b</i>. Or we may
+consider the simple
+crystal (fig. 82) to be cut
+in half by this plane and
+one portion to be rotated
+through 180° about the
+normal to the same plane.
+Such a crystal (fig. 81) is
+therefore described as
+being twinned on the
+plane (100).</p>
+
+<p>An octahedron (fig. 83) twinned on an octahedral face (111)
+has the two portions symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel
+to this face (the large triangular face in the figure); and either
+portion may be brought into the position of the other by a rotation
+through 180° about the triad axis of symmetry which is
+perpendicular to this face. This kind of twinning is especially
+frequent in crystals of spinel, and is consequently often referred
+to as the &ldquo;spinel twin-law.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In these two examples the surface of the union, or composition-plane,
+of the two portions is a regular surface coinciding with the
+twin-plane; such twins are called &ldquo;juxtaposition-twins.&rdquo; In
+other juxtaposed twins the plane of composition is, however, not
+necessarily the twin-plane. Another type of twin is the &ldquo;interpenetration
+twin,&rdquo; an example of which is shown in fig. 84.
+Here one cube may be brought into the position of the other by
+a rotation of 180° about a triad axis, or by reflection across the
+octahedral plane which is perpendicular to this axis; the twin-plane
+is therefore (111).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:473px; height:211px" src="images/img582b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 83.</span>&mdash;Spinel-twin.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 84.</span>&mdash;Interpenetrating<br />
+Twinned Cubes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Since in many cases twinned crystals may be explained by
+the rotation of one portion through two right angles, R. J. Haüy
+introduced the term &ldquo;hemitrope&rdquo; (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="hęmi">&#7969;&#956;&#953;</span>-, half, and
+<span class="grk" title="tropos">&#964;&#961;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, a turn); the word &ldquo;macle&rdquo; had been earlier used by
+Romé d&rsquo;Isle. There are, however, some rare types of twins
+which cannot be explained by rotation about an axis, but only
+by reflection across a plane; these are known as &ldquo;symmetric
+twins,&rdquo; a good example of which is furnished by one of the twin-laws
+of chalcopyrite.</p>
+
+<p>Twinned crystals may often be recognized by the presence of
+re-entrant angles between the faces of the two portions, as may
+be seen from the above figures. In some twinned crystals (<i>e.g.</i>
+quartz) there are, however, no re-entrant angles. On the other
+hand, two crystals accidentally grown together without any
+symmetrical relation between them will usually show some
+re-entrant angles, but this must not be taken to indicate the
+presence of twinning.</p>
+
+<p>Twinning may be several times repeated on the same plane
+or on other similar planes of the crystal, giving rise to triplets,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span>
+quartets and other complex groupings. When often repeated
+on the same plane, the twinning is said to be &ldquo;polysynthetic,&rdquo;
+and gives rise to a laminated structure in the crystal. Sometimes
+such a crystal (<i>e.g.</i> of corundum or pyroxene) may be readily
+broken in this direction, which is thus a &ldquo;plane of parting,&rdquo;
+often closely resembling a true cleavage in character. In calcite
+and some other substances this lamellar twinning may be produced
+artificially by pressure (see below, Sect. II. (<i>a</i>), <i>Glide-plane</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Another curious result of twinning is the production of forms
+which apparently display a higher degree of symmetry than that
+actually possessed by the substance. Twins of this kind are
+known as &ldquo;mimetic-twins or pseudo-symmetric twins.&rdquo; Two
+hemihedral or hemimorphic crystals (<i>e.g.</i> of diamond or of
+hemimorphite) are often united in twinned position to produce a
+group with apparently the same degree of symmetry as the
+holosymmetric class of the same system. Or again, a substance
+crystallizing in, say, the orthorhombic system (<i>e.g.</i> aragonite)
+may, by twinning, give rise to pseudo-hexagonal forms: and
+pseudo-cubic forms often result by the complex twinning of
+crystals (<i>e.g.</i> stannite, phillipsite, &amp;c.) belonging to other systems.
+Many of the so-called &ldquo;optical anomalies&rdquo; of crystals may be
+explained by this pseudo-symmetric twinning.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>h</i>) <i>Irregularities of Growth of Crystals; Character of Faces.</i></p>
+
+<p>Only rarely do actual crystals present the symmetrical appearance
+shown in the figures given above, in which similar faces
+are all represented as of equal size. It frequently happens that
+the crystal is so placed with respect to the liquid in which it
+grows that there will be a more rapid deposition of material on
+one part than on another; for instance, if the crystal be attached
+to some other solid it cannot grow in that direction. Only when
+a crystal is freely suspended in the mother-liquid and material
+for growth is supplied at the same rate on all sides does an equably
+developed form result.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:440px; height:162px" src="images/img583a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 85.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 86.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Misshappen Octahedra.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Two misshapen or distorted octahedra are represented in figs.
+85 and 86; the former is elongated in the direction of one of the
+edges of the octahedron, and the latter is flattened parallel to one
+pair of faces. It will be noticed in these figures that the edges in
+which the faces intersect have the same directions as before,
+though here there are additional edges not present in fig. 3.
+The angles (70° 32&prime; or 109° 28&prime;) between the faces also remain
+the same; and the faces have the same inclinations to the axes
+and planes of symmetry as in the equably developed form. Although
+from a geometrical point of view these figures are no
+longer symmetrical with respect to the axes and planes of symmetry,
+yet crystallographically they are just as symmetrical
+as the ideally developed form, and, however much their
+irregularity of development, they still are regular (cubic) octahedra
+of crystallography. A remarkable case of irregular
+development is presented by the mineral cuprite, which is often
+found as well-developed octahedra; but in the variety known
+as chalcotrichite it occurs as a matted aggregate of delicate hairs,
+each of which is an individual crystal enormously elongated
+in the direction of an edge or diagonal of the cube.</p>
+
+<p>The symmetry of actual crystals is sometimes so obscured by
+irregularities of growth that it can only be determined by measurement
+of the angles. An extreme case, where several of the planes
+have not been developed at all, is illustrated in fig. 87, which
+shows the actual shape of a crystal of zircon from Ceylon; the
+ideally developed form (fig. 88) is placed at the side for comparison,
+and the parallelism of the edges between corresponding
+faces will be noticed. This crystal is a combination of five simple
+forms, viz. two tetragonal prisms (<i>a</i> and <i>m</i>,) two tetragonal
+bipyramids (<i>e</i> and <i>p</i>), and one ditetragonal bipyramid (<i>x</i>, with
+16 faces).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:455px; height:392px" src="images/img583b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 87.</span>&mdash;Actual Crystal.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 88.</span>&mdash;Ideal Development.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Crystal of Zircon (clinographic drawings and plans).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The actual form, or &ldquo;habit,&rdquo; of crystals may vary widely
+in different crystals of the same substance, these differences
+depending largely on the conditions under which the growth has
+taken place. The material may have crystallized from a fused
+mass or from a solution; and in the latter case the solvent may
+be of different kinds and contain other substances in solution,
+or the temperature may vary. Calcite (<i>q.v.</i>) affords a good
+example of a substance crystallizing in widely different habits,
+but all crystals are referable to the same type of symmetry and
+may be reduced to the same fundamental form.</p>
+
+<p>When crystals are aggregated together, and so interfere with
+each other&rsquo;s growth, special structures and external shapes often
+result, which are sometimes characteristic of certain substances,
+especially amongst minerals.</p>
+
+<p>Incipient crystals, the development of which has been arrested
+owing to unfavourable conditions of growth, are known as
+crystallites (<i>q.v.</i>). They are met with in imperfectly crystallized
+substances and in glassy rocks (obsidian and pitchstone), or may
+be obtained artificially from a solution of sulphur in carbon
+disulphide rendered viscous by the addition of Canada-balsam.
+To the various forms H. Vogelsang gave, in 1875, the names
+&ldquo;globulites,&rdquo; &ldquo;margarites&rdquo; (from <span class="grk" title="margaritęs">&#956;&#945;&#961;&#947;&#945;&#961;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, a pearl), &ldquo;longulites,&rdquo;
+&amp;c. At a more advanced stage of growth these bodies react
+on polarized light, thus possessing the internal structure of true
+crystals; they are then called &ldquo;microlites.&rdquo; These have the
+form of minute rods, needles or hairs, and are aggregated into
+feathery and spherulitic forms or skeletal crystals. They are
+common constituents of microcrystalline igneous rocks, and
+often occur as inclusions in larger crystals of other substances.</p>
+
+<p>Inclusions of foreign matter, accidentally caught up during
+growth, are frequently present in crystals. Inclusions of other
+minerals are specially frequent and conspicuous in crystals
+of quartz, and crystals of calcite may contain as much as 60%
+of included sand. Cavities, either with rounded boundaries
+or with the same shape (&ldquo;negative crystals&rdquo;) as the surrounding
+crystal, are often to be seen; they may be empty or enclose a
+liquid with a movable bubble of gas.</p>
+
+<p>The faces of crystals are rarely perfectly plane and smooth,
+but are usually striated, studded with small angular elevations,
+pitted or cavernous, and sometimes curved or twisted. These
+irregularities, however, conform with the symmetry of the
+crystal, and much may be learnt by their study. The parallel
+grooves or furrows, called &ldquo;striae,&rdquo; are the result of oscillatory
+combination between adjacent faces, narrow strips of first one
+face and then another being alternately developed. Sometimes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span>
+the striae on crystal-faces are due to repeated lamellar twinning,
+as in the plagioclase felspars. The directions of the striations
+are very characteristic features of many crystals: <i>e.g.</i> the faces
+of the hexagonal prism of quartz are always striated horizontally,
+whilst in beryl they are striated vertically. Cubes of pyrites
+(fig. 89) are striated parallel to one edge, the striae on adjacent
+faces being at right angles, and due to oscillatory combination
+of the cube and the pentagonal dodecahedron (compare fig. 36);
+whilst cubes of blende (fig. 90) are striated parallel to one diagonal
+of each face, <i>i.e.</i> parallel to the tetrahedron faces (compare
+fig. 31). These striated cubes thus possess different degrees of
+symmetry and belong to different symmetry-classes. Oscillatory
+combination of faces gives rise also to curved surfaces. Crystals
+with twisted surfaces (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dolomite</a></span>) are, however, built up of
+smaller crystals arranged in nearly parallel position. Sometimes
+a face is entirely replaced by small faces of other forms, giving
+rise to a drusy surface; an example of this is shown by some
+octahedral crystals of fluorspar (fig. 2) which are built up of
+minute cubes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:156px" src="images/img584.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 89.</span>&mdash;Striated Cube of<br />
+Pyrites.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 90.</span>&mdash;Striated Cube of<br />
+Blende.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The faces of crystals are sometimes partly or completely
+replaced by smooth bright surfaces inclined at only a few
+minutes of arc from the true position of the face; such surfaces
+are called &ldquo;vicinal faces,&rdquo; and their indices can be expressed
+only by very high numbers. In apparently perfectly developed
+crystals of alum the octahedral face, with the simple indices
+(111), is usually replaced by faces of very low triakis-octahedra,
+with indices such as (251ˇ251ˇ250); the angles measured on
+such crystals will therefore deviate slightly from the true octahedral
+angle. Vicinal faces of this character are formed during
+the growth of crystals, and have been studied by H. A. Miers
+(<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1903, Ser. A. vol. 202). Other faces with high
+indices, viz. &ldquo;prerosion faces&rdquo; and the minute faces forming the
+sides of etched figures (see below), as well as rounded edges and
+other surface irregularities, may, however, result from the
+corrosion of a crystal subsequent to its growth. The pitted and
+cavernous faces of artificially grown crystals of sodium chloride
+and of bismuth are, on the other hand, a result of rapid growth,
+more material being supplied at the edges and corners of the
+crystal than at the centres of the faces.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>i</i>) <i>Theories of Crystal Structure.</i></p>
+
+<p>The ultimate aim of crystallographic research is to determine
+the internal structure of crystals from both physical and chemical
+data. The problem is essentially twofold: in the first place
+it is necessary to formulate a theory as to the disposition of the
+molecules, which conforms with the observed types of symmetry&mdash;this
+is really a mathematical problem; in the second place,
+it is necessary to determine the orientation of the atoms (or
+groups of atoms) composing the molecules with regard to the
+crystal axes&mdash;this involves a knowledge of the atomic structure
+of the molecule. As appendages to the second part of our
+problem, there have to be considered: (1) the possibility of the
+existence of the same substance in two or more distinct crystalline
+forms&mdash;polymorphism, and (2) the relations between the
+chemical structure of compounds which affect nearly identical
+or related crystal habits&mdash;isomorphism and morphotropy. Here
+we shall discuss the modern theory of crystal structure; the
+relations between chemical composition and crystallographical
+form are discussed in Part III. of this article; reference should
+also be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>: <i>Physical</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest theory of crystal structure of any moment is that
+of Haüy, in which, as explained above, he conceived a crystal
+as composed of elements bounded by the cleavage
+planes of the crystal, the elements being arranged
+<span class="sidenote">Haüy.</span>
+contiguously and along parallel lines. There is, however, no
+reason to suppose that matter is continuous throughout a
+crystalline body; in fact, it has been shown that space does
+separate the molecules, and we may therefore replace the
+contiguous elements of Haüy by particles equidistantly distributed
+along parallel lines; by this artifice we retain the
+reticulated or net-like structure, but avoid the continuity of
+matter which characterizes Haüy&rsquo;s theory; the permanence
+of crystal form being due to equilibrium between the intermolecular
+(and interatomic) forces. The crystal is thus conjectured
+as a &ldquo;space-lattice,&rdquo; composed of three sets of parallel
+planes which enclose parallelopipeda, at the corners of which are
+placed the constituent molecules (or groups of molecules) of
+the crystal.</p>
+
+<p>The geometrical theory of crystal structure (<i>i.e.</i> the determination
+of the varieties of crystal symmetry) is thus reduced to the
+mathematical problem: &ldquo;in how many ways can
+space be partitioned?&rdquo; M. L. Frankenheim, in 1835,
+<span class="sidenote">Frankenheim; Bravais.</span>
+determined this number as fifteen, but A. Bravais,
+in 1850, proved the identity of two of Frankenheim&rsquo;s
+forms, and showed how the remaining fourteen coalesced by
+pairs, so that really these forms only corresponded to seven
+distinct systems and fourteen classes of crystal symmetry.
+These systems, however, only represented holohedral forms,
+leaving the hemihedral and tetartohedral classes to be explained.
+Bravais attempted an explanation by attributing differences
+in the symmetry of the crystal elements, or, what comes to the
+same thing, he assumed the crystals to exhibit polar differences
+along any member of the lattice; for instance, assume the
+particles to be (say) pear-shaped, then the sharp ends point in
+one direction, the blunt ends in the opposite direction.</p>
+
+<p>A different view was adopted by L. Sohncke in 1879, who,
+by developing certain considerations published by Camille
+Jordan in 1869 on the possible types of regular repetition
+in space of identical parts, showed that the
+<span class="sidenote">Sohncke.</span>
+lattice-structure of Bravais was unnecessary, it being sufficient
+that each molecule of an indefinitely extended crystal, represented
+by its &ldquo;point&rdquo; (or centre of gravity), was identically
+situated with respect to the molecules surrounding it. The
+problem then resolves itself into the determination of the number
+of &ldquo;point-systems&rdquo; possible; Sohncke derived sixty-five such
+arrangements, which may also be obtained from the fourteen
+space-lattices of Bravais, by interpenetrating any one space-lattice
+with one or more identical lattices, with the condition
+that the resulting structure should conform with the homogeneity
+characteristic of crystals. But the sixty-five arrangements
+derived by Sohncke, of which Bravais&rsquo; lattices are
+particular cases, did not complete the solution, for certain of the
+known types of crystal symmetry still remained unrepresented.
+These missing forms are characterized as being enantiomorphs
+consequently, with the introduction of this principle of repetition
+over a plane, <i>i.e.</i> mirror images. E. S. Fedorov (1890), A.
+Schoenflies (1891), and W. Barlow (1894), independently and
+by different methods, showed how Sohncke&rsquo;s theory of regular
+point-systems explained the whole thirty-two classes of crystal
+symmetry, 230 distinct types of crystal structure falling into
+these classes.</p>
+
+<p>By considering the atoms instead of the centres of gravity
+of the molecules, Sohncke (<i>Zeits. Kryst. Min.</i>, 1888, 14, p. 431)
+has generalized his theory, and propounded the structure of a
+crystal in the following terms: &ldquo;A crystal consists of a finite
+number of interpenetrating regular point-systems, which all
+possess like and like-directed coincidence movements. Each
+separate point-system is occupied by similar material particles,
+but these may be different for the different interpenetrating
+partial systems which form the complex system.&rdquo; Or we may
+quote the words of P. von Groth (<i>British Assoc. Rep.</i>, 1904):
+&ldquo;A crystal&mdash;considered as indefinitely extended&mdash;consists of n
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span>
+interpenetrating regular point-systems, each of which is formed
+of similar atoms; each of these point-systems is built up from
+a number of interpenetrating space-lattices, each of the latter
+being formed from similar atoms occupying parallel positions.
+All the space-lattices of the combined system are geometrically
+identical, or are characterized by the same elementary parallelopipedon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete résumé, with references to the literature, will be found
+in &ldquo;Report on the Development of the Geometrical Theories of
+Crystal Structure, 1666-1901&rdquo; (<i>British Assoc. Rep.</i>, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120">II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the physical properties of crystals vary with the
+direction in the material, but are the same in certain directions;
+these directions obeying the same laws of symmetry as do the
+faces on the exterior of the crystal. The symmetry of the internal
+structure of crystals is thus the same as the symmetry of their
+external form.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>a</i>) <i>Elasticity and Cohesion.</i></p>
+
+<p>The elastic constants of crystals are determined by similar
+methods to those employed with amorphous substances, only
+the bars and plates experimented upon must be cut from the
+crystal with known orientations. The &ldquo;elasticity surface&rdquo;
+expressing the coefficients in various directions within the crystal
+has a configuration symmetrical with respect to the same planes
+and axes of symmetry as the crystal itself. In calcite, for instance,
+the figure has roughly the shape of a rounded rhombohedron
+with depressed faces and is symmetrical about three
+vertical planes. In the case of homogeneous elastic deformation,
+produced by pressure on all sides, the effect on the crystal is the
+same as that due to changes of temperature; and the surfaces
+expressing the compression coefficients in different directions have
+the same higher degree of symmetry, being either a sphere,
+spheroid or ellipsoid. When strained beyond the limits of
+elasticity, crystalline matter may suffer permanent deformation
+in one or other of two ways, or may be broken along cleavage
+surfaces or with an irregular fracture. In the case of plastic
+deformation, <i>e.g.</i> in a crystal of ice, the crystalline particles
+are displaced but without any change in their orientation.
+Crystals of some substances (<i>e.g.</i> para-azoxyanisol) have such
+a high degree of plasticity that they are deformed even by
+their surface tension, and the crystals take the form of drops
+of doubly refracting liquid which are known as &ldquo;liquid crystals.&rdquo;
+(See O. Lehmann, <i>Flüssige Kristalle</i>, Leipzig, 1904; F. R. Schenck,
+<i>Kristallinische Flüssigkeiten und flüssige Krystalle</i>, Leipzig,
+1905.)</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:196px; height:164px" src="images/img585.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 91.</span>&mdash;Glide-plane
+of Calcite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the second, and more usual kind of permanent deformation
+without fracture, the particles glide along certain planes into a
+new (twinned) position of equilibrium. If a knife blade be
+pressed into the edge of a cleavage rhombohedron of calcite
+(at <i>b</i>, fig. 91) the portion <i>abcde</i> of the crystal will take up the
+position <i>a</i>&prime;<i>b</i>&prime;<i>cde</i>. The obtuse solid
+angle at <i>a</i> becomes acute (<i>a</i>&prime;), whilst
+the acute angle at <i>b</i> becomes obtuse (<i>b</i>&prime;);
+and the new surface <i>a</i>&prime;<i>ce</i> is as bright
+and smooth as before. This result
+has been effected by the particles in
+successive layers gliding or rotating
+over each other, without separation,
+along planes parallel to <i>cde</i>. This
+plane, which truncates the edge of
+the rhombohedron and has the indices
+(110), is called a &ldquo;glide-plane.&rdquo; The new portion is in
+twinned position with respect to the rest of the crystal,
+being a reflection of it across the plane <i>cde</i>, which is therefore
+a plane of twinning. This secondary twinning is often
+to be observed as a repeated lamination in the grains of calcite
+composing a crystalline limestone, or marble, which has been
+subjected to earth movements. Planes of gliding have been
+observed in many minerals (pyroxene, corundum, &amp;c.) and their
+crystals may often be readily broken along these directions,
+which are thus &ldquo;planes of parting&rdquo; or &ldquo;pseudo-cleavage.&rdquo;
+The characteristic transverse striae, invariably present on the
+cleavage surfaces of stibnite and cyanite are due to secondary
+twinning along glide-planes, and have resulted from the bending
+of the crystals.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important characters of crystals is that of
+&ldquo;cleavage&rdquo;; there being certain plane directions across which
+the cohesion is a minimum, and along which the crystal may be
+readily split or cleaved. These directions are always parallel to
+a possible face on the crystal and usually one prominently
+developed and with simple indices, it being a face in which the
+crystal molecules are most closely packed. The directions of
+cleavage are symmetrically repeated according to the degree
+of symmetry possessed by the crystal. Thus in the cubic
+system, crystals of salt and galena cleave in three directions
+parallel to the faces of the cube {100}, diamond and fluorspar
+cleave in four directions parallel to the octahedral faces {111},
+and blende in six directions parallel to the faces of the rhombic
+dodecahedron {110}. In crystals of other systems there will be
+only a single direction of cleavage if this is parallel to the faces of
+a pinacoid; <i>e.g.</i> the basal pinacoid in tetragonal (as in apophyllite)
+and hexagonal crystals; or parallel (as in gypsum) or perpendicular
+(as in mica and cane-sugar) to the plane of symmetry in
+monoclinic crystals. Calcite cleaves in three directions parallel
+to the faces of the primitive rhombohedron. Barytes, which
+crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, has two sets of
+cleavages, viz. a single cleavage parallel to the basal
+pinacoid {001} and also two directions parallel to the faces
+of the prism {110}. In all of the examples just quoted the
+cleavage is described as perfect, since cleavage flakes with very
+smooth and bright surfaces may be readily detached from the
+crystals. Different substances, however, vary widely in their
+character of cleavage; in some it can only be described as
+good or distinct, whilst in others, <i>e.g.</i> quartz and alum, there
+is little or no tendency to split along certain directions and the
+surfaces of fracture are very uneven. Cleavage is therefore a
+character of considerable determinative value, especially for the
+purpose of distinguishing different minerals.</p>
+
+<p>Another result of the presence in crystals of directions of minimum
+cohesion are the &ldquo;percussion figures,&rdquo; which are produced
+on a crystal-face when this is struck with a sharp point. A
+percussion figure consists of linear cracks radiating from the
+point of impact, which in their number and orientation agree
+with the symmetry of the face. Thus on a cube face of a crystal
+of salt the rays of the percussion figure are parallel to the
+diagonals of the face, whilst on an octahedral face a three-rayed
+star is developed. By pressing a blunt point into a crystal face
+a somewhat similar figure, known as a &ldquo;pressure figure,&rdquo; is
+produced. Percussion and pressure figures are readily developed
+in cleavage sheets of mica (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to cohesion is the character of &ldquo;hardness,&rdquo;
+which is often defined, and measured by, the resistance which
+a crystal face offers to scratching. That hardness is a character
+depending largely on crystalline structure is well illustrated
+by the two crystalline modifications of carbon: graphite is one
+of the softest of minerals, whilst diamond is the hardest of all.
+The hardness of crystals of different substances thus varies
+widely, and with minerals it is a character of considerable
+determinative value; for this purpose a scale of hardness is
+employed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mineralogy</a></span>). Various attempts have been made
+with the view of obtaining accurate determinations of degrees
+of hardness, but with varying results; an instrument used for this
+purpose is called a sclerometer (from <span class="grk" title="sklęros">&#963;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, hard). It may,
+however, be readily demonstrated that the degree of hardness on
+a crystal face varies with the direction, and that a curve expressing
+these relations possesses the same geometrical symmetry
+as the face itself. The mineral cyanite is remarkable in having
+widely different degrees of hardness on different faces of its
+crystals and in different directions on the same face.</p>
+
+<p>Another result of the differences of cohesion in different
+directions is that crystals are corroded, or acted upon by chemical
+solvents, at different rates in different directions. This is
+strikingly shown when a sphere cut from a crystal, say of calcite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span>
+or quartz, is immersed in acid; after some time the resulting form
+is bounded by surfaces approximating to crystal faces, and has
+the same symmetry as that of the crystal from which the sphere
+was cut. When a crystal bounded by faces is immersed in a
+solvent the edges and corners become rounded and &ldquo;prerosion
+faces&rdquo; developed in their place; the faces become marked
+all over with minute pits or shallow depressions, and as these
+are extended by further solution they give place to small elevations
+on the corroded face. The sides of the pits and elevations
+are bounded by small faces which have the character of vicinal
+faces. These markings are known as &ldquo;etched figures&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;corrosion figures,&rdquo; and they are extremely important aids in
+determining the symmetry of crystals. Etched figures are sometimes
+beautifully developed on the faces of natural crystals,
+<i>e.g.</i> of diamond, and they may be readily produced artificially
+with suitable solvents.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:502px; height:153px" src="images/img586.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 92.</span>&mdash;Nepheline.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 93.</span>&mdash;Calcite.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 94.</span>&mdash;Beryl.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">Etched Figures on Hexagonal Prisms.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As an example, the etched figures on the faces of a hexagonal
+prism and the basal plane are illustrated in figs. 92-94 for three
+of the several symmetry-classes of the hexagonal system. The
+classes chosen are those in which nepheline, calcite and beryl
+(emerald) crystallize, and these minerals often have the simple
+form of crystal represented in the figures. In nepheline (fig. 92)
+the only element of symmetry is a hexad axis; the etched
+figures on the prism are therefore unsymmetrical, though similar
+on all the faces; the hexagonal markings on the basal plane
+have none of their edges parallel to the edges of the face;
+further the crystals being hemimorphic, the etched figures on
+the basal planes at the two ends will be different in character.
+The facial development of crystals of nepheline give no indication
+of this type of symmetry, and the mineral has been referred to
+this class solely on the evidence afforded by the etched figures.
+In calcite there is a triad axis of symmetry parallel to the prism
+edges, three dyad axes each perpendicular to a pair of prism edges
+and three planes of symmetry perpendicular to the prism faces;
+the etched figures shown in fig. 93 will be seen to conform to all
+these elements of symmetry. There being in calcite also a centre
+of symmetry, the equilateral triangles on the basal plane at the
+lower end of the crystal will be the same in form as those at the
+top, but they will occupy a reversed position. In beryl, which
+crystallizes in the holosymmetric class of the hexagonal system,
+the etched figures (fig. 94) display the fullest possible degree of
+symmetry; those on the prism faces are all similar and are each
+symmetrical with respect to two lines, and the hexagonal
+markings on the basal planes at both ends of the crystal are
+symmetrically placed with respect to six lines. A detailed
+account of the etched figures of crystals is given by H. Baumhauer,
+<i>Die Resultate der Ätzmethode in der krystallographischen
+Forschung</i> (Leipzig, 1894).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>b</i>) <i>Optical Properties.</i></p>
+
+<p>The complex optical characters of crystals are not only of
+considerable interest theoretically, but are of the greatest
+practical importance. In the absence of external crystalline
+form, as with a faceted gem-stone, or with the minerals constituting
+a rock (thin, transparent sections of which are examined
+in the polarizing microscope), the mineral species may often
+be readily identified by the determination of some of the optical
+characters.</p>
+
+<p>According to their action on transmitted plane-polarized light
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polarization of Light</a></span>) all crystals may be referred to one
+or other of the five groups enumerated below. These groups
+correspond with the six systems of crystallization (in the
+second group two systems being included together). The several
+symmetry-classes of each system are optically the same, except
+in the rare cases of substances which are circularly polarizing.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Optically isotropic crystals&mdash;corresponding with the cubic
+system.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Optically uniaxial crystals&mdash;corresponding with the
+tetragonal and hexagonal systems.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Optically biaxial crystals in which the three principal
+optical directions coincide with the three crystallographic
+axes&mdash;corresponding
+with the orthorhombic system.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Optically biaxial crystals in which only one of the three
+principal optical directions coincides with a crystallographic
+axis&mdash;corresponding
+with the monoclinic system.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Optically biaxial crystals in which there is no fixed and
+definite relation between the optical and crystallographic
+directions&mdash;corresponding with the anorthic system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Optically Isotropic Crystals.</i>&mdash;These belong to the cubic
+system, and like all other optically isotropic (from <span class="grk" title="isos">&#7988;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span>, like,
+and <span class="grk" title="tropos">&#964;&#961;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, character) bodies have only one index of refraction
+for light of each colour. They have no action on polarized light
+(except in crystals which are circularly polarizing); and when
+examined in the polariscope or polarizing microscope they
+remain dark between crossed nicols, and cannot therefore be
+distinguished optically from amorphous substances, such as
+glass and opal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Optically Uniaxial Crystals.</i>&mdash;These belong to the tetragonal
+and hexagonal (including rhombohedral) systems, and between
+crystals of these systems there is no optical distinction. Such
+crystals are anisotropic or doubly refracting (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Refraction</a></span>:
+<i>Double</i>); but for light travelling through them in a certain, single
+direction they are singly refracting. This direction, which is
+called the optic axis, is the same for light of all colours and at
+all temperatures; it coincides in direction with the principal
+crystallographic axis, which in tetragonal crystals is a tetrad
+(or dyad) axis of symmetry, and in the hexagonal system a triad
+or hexad axis.</p>
+
+<p>For light of each colour there are two indices of refraction;
+namely, the ordinary index (&omega;) corresponding with the ordinary
+ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the optic axis; and the
+extraordinary index (&epsilon;) corresponding with the extraordinary
+ray, which vibrates parallel to the optic axis. If the ordinary
+index of refraction be greater than the extraordinary index,
+the crystal is said to be optically negative, whilst if less the
+crystal is optically positive. The difference between the two
+indices is a measure of the strength of the double refraction or
+birefringence. Thus in calcite, for sodium (D) light, &omega; = 1.6585
+and &epsilon; = 1.4863; hence this substance is optically negative
+with a relatively high double refraction of &omega; &minus; &epsilon; = 0.1722. In
+quartz &omega; = 1.5442, &epsilon; = 1.5533 and &epsilon; &minus; &omega; = 0.0091; this mineral
+is therefore optically positive with low double refraction. The
+indices of refraction vary, not only for light of different colours,
+but also slightly with the temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The optical characters of uniaxial crystals are symmetrical
+not only with respect to the full number of planes and axes of
+symmetry of tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, but also with
+respect to all vertical planes, <i>i.e.</i> all planes containing the optic
+axis. A surface expressing the optical relations of such crystals
+is thus an ellipsoid of revolution about the optic axis. (In cubic
+crystals the corresponding surface is a sphere.) In the &ldquo;optical
+indicatrix&rdquo; (L. Fletcher, <i>The Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission
+of Light in Crystals</i>, London, 1892), the length of the
+principal axis, or axis of rotation, is proportional to the index
+of refraction, (<i>i.e.</i> inversely proportional to the velocity) of the
+extraordinary rays, which vibrate along this axis and are transmitted
+in directions perpendicular thereto; the equatorial
+diameters are proportional to the index of refraction of the
+ordinary rays, which vibrate perpendicular to the optic axis.
+For positive uniaxial crystals the indicatrix is thus a prolate
+spheroid (egg-shaped), and for negative crystals an oblate
+spheroid (orange-shaped).</p>
+
+<p>In &ldquo;Fresnel&rsquo;s ellipsoid&rdquo; the axis of rotation is proportional to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span>
+the velocity of the extraordinary ray, and the equatorial diameters
+proportional to the velocity of the ordinary ray; it is
+therefore an oblate spheroid for positive crystals, and a prolate
+spheroid for negative crystals. The &ldquo;ray-surface,&rdquo; or &ldquo;wave-surface,&rdquo;
+which represents the distances traversed by the rays
+during a given interval of time in various directions from a
+point of origin within the crystal, consists in uniaxial crystals
+of two sheets; namely, a sphere, corresponding to the ordinary
+rays, and an ellipsoid of revolution, corresponding to the extraordinary
+rays. The difference in form of the ray-surface for
+positive and negative crystals is shown in figs. 95 and 96.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:424px; height:165px" src="images/img587a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 95.</span>&mdash;Section of the<br />
+Ray-Surface of a Positive<br />
+Uniaxial Crystal.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 96.</span>&mdash;Section of the<br />
+Ray-Surface of a Negative<br />
+Uniaxial Crystal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When a uniaxial crystal is examined in a polariscope or
+polarizing microscope between crossed nicols (<i>i.e.</i> with the
+principal planes of the polarizer or analyser at right angles, and
+so producing a dark field of view) its behaviour differs according
+to the direction in which the light travels through the crystal,
+to the position of the crystal with respect to the principal planes
+of the nicols, and further, whether convergent or parallel polarized
+light be employed. A tetragonal or hexagonal crystal viewed,
+in parallel light, through the basal plane, <i>i.e.</i> along the principal
+axis, will remain dark as it is rotated between crossed nicols, and
+will thus not differ in its behaviour from a cubic crystal or other
+isotropic body. If, however, the crystal be viewed in any other
+direction, for example, through a prism face, it will, except in
+certain positions, have an action on the polarized light. A
+plane-polarized ray entering the crystal will be resolved into two
+polarized rays with the directions of vibration parallel to the
+vibration-directions in the crystal. These two rays on leaving
+the crystal will be combined again in the analyser, and a portion
+of the light transmitted through the instrument; the crystal
+will then show up brightly against the dark field. Further,
+owing to interference of these two rays in the analyser, the
+light will be brilliantly coloured, especially if the crystal be thin,
+or if a thin section of a crystal be examined. The particular
+colour seen will depend on the strength of the double refraction,
+the orientation of the crystal or section, and upon its thickness.
+If now, the crystal be rotated with the stage of the microscope,
+the nicols remaining fixed in position, the light transmitted
+through the instrument will vary in intensity, and in certain
+positions will be cut out altogether. The latter happens when
+the vibration-directions of the crystal are parallel to the vibration-directions
+of the nicols (these being indicated by cross-wires in
+the microscope). The crystal, now being dark, is said to be in
+position of extinction; and as it is turned through a complete
+rotation of 360° it will extinguish four times. If a prism face
+be viewed through, it will be seen that, when the crystal is in a
+position of extinction, the cross-wires of the microscope are
+parallel to the edges of the prism: the crystal is then said to
+give &ldquo;straight extinction.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:145px; height:145px" src="images/img587b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 97.</span>&mdash;Interference
+Figure of a Uniaxial
+Crystal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In convergent light, between crossed nicols, a very different
+phenomenon is to be observed when a uniaxial crystal, or section
+of such a crystal, is placed with its optic axis coincident with the
+axis of the microscope. The rays of light, being convergent, do
+not travel in the direction of the optic axis and are therefore
+doubly refracted in the crystal; in the analyser the vibrations
+will be reduced to the same plane and there will be interference
+of the two sets of rays. The result is an &ldquo;interference figure&rdquo;
+(fig. 97), which consists of a number of brilliantly coloured concentric
+rings, each showing the colours of the spectrum of white
+light; intersecting the rings is a black cross, the arms of which
+are parallel to the principal planes of the nicols. If monochromatic
+light be used instead of white light, the rings will
+be alternately light and dark. The
+number and distance apart of the
+rings depend on the strength of the
+double refraction and on the thickness
+of the crystal. By observing the
+effect produced on such a uniaxial
+interference figure when a &ldquo;quarter
+undulation (or wave-length) mica-plate&rdquo;
+is superposed on the crystal,
+it may be at once decided whether
+the crystal is optically positive or
+negative. Such a simple test may, for
+example, be applied for distinguishing certain faceted gem-stones:
+thus zircon and phenacite are optically positive, whilst
+corundum (ruby and sapphire) and beryl (emerald) are optically
+negative.</p>
+
+<p><i>Optically Biaxial Crystals.</i>&mdash;In these crystals there are three
+principal indices of refraction, denoted by &alpha;, &beta; and &gamma;; of these
+&gamma; is the greatest and &alpha; the least (&gamma; &gt; &beta; &gt; &alpha;). The three principal
+vibration-directions, corresponding to these indices, are at right
+angles to each other, and are the directions of the three rectangular
+axes of the optical indicatrix. The indicatrix (fig. 98)
+is an ellipsoid with the lengths of its axes proportional to the
+refractive indices; <i>OC</i> = &gamma;, <i>OB</i> = &beta;, <i>OA</i> = &alpha;, where <i>OC</i> &gt; <i>OB</i> &gt; <i>OA</i>.
+The figure is symmetrical with respect to the principal planes
+<i>OAB</i>, <i>OAC</i>, <i>OBC</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In Fresnel&rsquo;s ellipsoid the three rectangular axes are proportional
+to 1/&alpha;, 1/&beta;, and 1/&gamma;, and are usually denoted by <b>a</b>, <b>b</b> and <b>c</b>
+respectively, where <b>a &gt; b &gt; c:</b> these have often been called
+&ldquo;axes of optical elasticity,&rdquo; a term now generally discarded.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:446px; height:230px" src="images/img587c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 98.</span>&mdash;Optical Indicatrix of a<br />
+Biaxial Crystal.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 99.</span>&mdash;Ray-Surface of a<br />
+Biaxial Crystal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The ray-surface (represented in fig. 99 by its sections in the
+three principal planes) is derived from the indicatrix in the
+following manner. A ray of light entering the crystal and travelling
+in the direction <i>OA</i> is resolved into polarized rays vibrating
+parallel to <i>OB</i> and <i>OC</i>, and therefore propagated with the
+velocities 1/&beta; and 1/&gamma; respectively: distances <i>Ob</i> and <i>Oc</i> (fig. 99)
+proportional to these velocities are marked off in the direction
+<i>OA</i>. Similarly, rays travelling along <i>OC</i> have the velocities
+1/&alpha; and 1/&beta;, and those along <i>OB</i> the velocities 1/&alpha; and 1/&gamma;. In the
+two directions <i>Op</i><span class="su">1</span> and <i>Op</i><span class="su">2</span> (fig. 98), perpendicular to the two
+circular sections <i>P</i><span class="su">1</span><i>P</i><span class="su">1</span> and <i>P</i><span class="su">2</span><i>P</i><span class="su">2</span> of the indicatrix, the two rays
+will be transmitted with the same velocity 1/&beta;. These two directions
+are called the optic axes (&ldquo;primary optic axis&rdquo;), though
+they have not all the properties which are associated with the
+optic axis of a uniaxial crystal. They have very nearly the same
+direction as the lines <i>Os</i><span class="su">1</span> and <i>Os</i><span class="su">2</span> in fig. 99, which are distinguished
+as the &ldquo;secondary optic axes.&rdquo; In most crystals the primary
+and secondary optic axes are inclined to each other at not more
+than a few minutes, so that for practical purposes there is no
+distinction between them.</p>
+
+<p>The angle between <i>Op</i><span class="su">1</span> and <i>Op</i><span class="su">2</span> is called the &ldquo;optic axial
+angle&rdquo;; and the plane <i>OAC</i> in which they lie is called the
+&ldquo;optic axial plane.&rdquo; The angles between the optic axes are
+bisected by the vibration-directions <i>OA</i> and <i>OC</i>; the one which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
+bisects the acute angle being called the &ldquo;acute bisectrix&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;first mean line,&rdquo; and the other the &ldquo;obtuse bisectrix&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;second mean line.&rdquo; When the acute bisectrix coincides with
+the greatest axis <i>OC</i> of the indicatrix, <i>i.e.</i> the vibration-direction
+corresponding with the refractive index &gamma; (as in figs. 98 and 99),
+the crystal is described as being optically positive; and when the
+acute bisectrix coincides with <i>OA</i>, the vibration-direction for
+the index &alpha;, the crystal is negative. The distinction between
+positive and negative biaxial crystals thus depends on the
+relative magnitude of the three principal indices of refraction;
+in positive crystals &beta; is nearer to &alpha; than to &gamma;, whilst in negative
+crystals the reverse is the case. Thus in topaz, which is optically
+positive, the refractive indices for sodium light are &alpha; = 1.6120,
+&beta; = 1.6150, &gamma; = 1.6224; and for orthoclase which is optically
+negative, &alpha; = 1.5190, &beta; = 1.5237, &gamma; = 1.5260. The difference
+&gamma; &minus; &alpha; represents the strength of the double refraction.</p>
+
+<p>Since the refractive indices vary both with the colour of the
+light and with the temperature, there will be for each colour and
+temperature slight differences in the form of both the indicatrix
+and the ray-surface: consequently there will be variations in
+the positions of the optic axes and in the size of the optic axial
+angle. This phenomenon is known as the &ldquo;dispersion of the
+optic axes.&rdquo; When the axial angle is greater for red light than
+for blue the character of the dispersion is expressed by &rho; &gt; &upsilon;,
+and when less by &rho; &lt; &upsilon;. In some crystals, <i>e.g.</i> brookite, the optic
+axes for red light and for blue light may be, at certain temperatures,
+in planes at right angles.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:432px; height:175px" src="images/img588.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 100.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 101.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Interference Figures of a Biaxial Crystal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The type of interference figure exhibited by a biaxial crystal
+in convergent polarized light between crossed nicols is represented
+in figs. 100 and 101. The crystal must be viewed along
+the acute bisectrix, and for this purpose it is often necessary
+to cut a plate from the crystal perpendicular to this direction:
+sometimes, however, as in mica and topaz, a cleavage flake will
+be perpendicular to the acute bisectrix. When seen in white
+light, there are around each optic axis a series of brilliantly
+coloured ovals, which at the centre join to form an 8-shaped loop,
+whilst further from the centre the curvature of the rings is
+approximately that of lemniscates. In the position shown in
+fig. 100 the vibration-directions in the crystal are parallel to
+those of the nicols, and the figure is intersected by two black
+bands or &ldquo;brushes&rdquo; forming a cross. When, however, the crystal
+is rotated with the stage of the microscope the cross breaks up
+into the two branches of a hyperbola, and when the vibration-directions
+of the crystal are inclined at 45° to those of the nicols
+the figure is that shown in fig. 101. The points of emergence of
+the optic axes are at the middle of the hyperbolic brushes when
+the crystal is in the diagonal position: the size of the optic axial
+angle can therefore be directly measured with considerable
+accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>In orthorhombic crystals the three principal vibration-directions
+coincide with the three crystallographic axes, and have
+therefore fixed positions in the crystal, which are the same for
+light of all colours and at all temperatures. The optical orientation
+of an orthorhombic crystal is completely defined by stating
+to which crystallographic planes the optic axial plane and the
+acute bisectrix are respectively parallel and perpendicular.
+Examined in parallel light between crossed nicols, such a crystal
+extinguishes parallel to the crystallographic axes, which are
+often parallel to the edges of a face or section; there is thus
+usually &ldquo;straight extinction.&rdquo; The interference figure seen in
+convergent polarized light is symmetrical about two lines at right
+angles.</p>
+
+<p>In monoclinic crystals only one vibration-direction has a
+fixed position within the crystal, being parallel to the ortho-axis
+(<i>i.e.</i> perpendicular to the plane of symmetry or the plane (010)).
+The other two vibration-directions lie in the plane (010), but they
+may vary in position for light of different colours and at different
+temperatures. In addition to dispersion of the optic axes there
+may thus, in crystals of this system, be also &ldquo;dispersion of the
+bisectrices.&rdquo; The latter may be of one or other of three kinds,
+according to which of the three vibration-directions coincides
+with the ortho-axis of the crystal. When the acute bisectrix
+is fixed in position, the optic axial planes for different colours
+may be crossed, and the interference figure will then be symmetrical
+with respect to a point only (&ldquo;crossed dispersion&rdquo;).
+When the obtuse bisectrix is fixed, the axial planes may be inclined
+to one another, and the interference figure is symmetrical
+only about a line which is perpendicular to the axial planes
+(&ldquo;horizontal dispersion&rdquo;). Finally, when the vibration-direction
+corresponding to the refractive index &beta;, or the &ldquo;third mean
+line,&rdquo; has a fixed position, the optic axial plane lies in the plane
+(010), but the acute bisectrix may vary in position in this plane;
+the interference figure will then be symmetrical only about a
+line joining the optic axes (&ldquo;inclined dispersion&rdquo;). Examples
+of substances exhibiting these three kinds of dispersion are
+borax, orthoclase and gypsum respectively. In orthoclase and
+gypsum, however, the optic axial angle gradually diminishes
+as the crystals are heated, and after passing through a uniaxial
+position they open out in a plane at right angles to the one
+they previously occupied; the character of the dispersion thus
+becomes reversed in the two examples quoted. When examined
+in parallel light between crossed nicols monoclinic crystals will
+give straight extinction only in faces and sections which are
+perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (or the plane (010));
+in all other faces and sections the extinction-directions will be
+inclined to the edges of the crystal. The angles between these
+directions and edges are readily measured, and, being dependent
+on the optical orientation of the crystal, they are often characteristic
+constants of the substance (see, <i>e.g.</i>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plagioclase</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In anorthic crystals there is no relation between the optical
+and crystallographic directions, and the exact determination
+of the optical orientation is often a matter of considerable
+difficulty. The character of the dispersion of the bisectrices
+and optic axes is still more complex than in monoclinic crystals,
+and the interference figures are devoid of symmetry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Absorption of Light in Crystals: Pleochroism.</i>&mdash;In crystals
+other than those of the cubic system, rays of light with different
+vibration-directions will, as a rule, be differently absorbed;
+and the polarized rays on emerging from the crystal may be of
+different intensities and (if the observation be made in white
+light and the crystal is coloured) differently coloured. Thus,
+in tourmaline the ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular
+to the principal axis, is almost completely absorbed, whilst the
+extraordinary ray is allowed to pass through the crystal. A
+plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the principal axis may therefore
+be used for producing a beam of polarized light, and two such
+plates placed in crossed position form the polarizer or analyser
+of &ldquo;tourmaline tongs,&rdquo; with the aid of which the interference
+figures of crystals may be simply shown. Uniaxial (tetragonal
+and hexagonal) crystals when showing perceptible differences in
+colour for the ordinary and extraordinary rays are said to be
+&ldquo;dichroic.&rdquo; In biaxial (orthorhombic, monoclinic and anorthic)
+crystals, rays vibrating along each of the three principal vibration-directions
+may be differently absorbed, and, in coloured crystals,
+differently coloured; such crystals are therefore said to be
+&ldquo;trichroic&rdquo; or in general &ldquo;pleochroic&rdquo; (from <span class="grk" title="pleôn">&#960;&#955;&#941;&#969;&#957;</span>, more,
+and <span class="grk" title="chroa">&#967;&#961;&#972;&#945;</span>, colour). The directions of maximum absorption in
+biaxial crystals have, however, no necessary relation with the axes
+of the indicatrix, unless these have fixed crystallographic directions,
+as in the orthorhombic system and the ortho-axis in the
+monoclinic. In epidote it has been shown that the two directions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
+of maximum absorption which lie in the plane of symmetry
+are not even at right angles.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:116px" src="images/img589a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 102.</span>&mdash;Dichroscope.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pleochroism of some crystals is so strong that when they
+are viewed through in different directions they exhibit marked
+differences in colour. Thus a crystal of the mineral iolite (called
+also dichroite because of its strong pleochroism) will be seen to
+be dark blue, pale blue or pale yellow according to which of
+three perpendicular directions it is viewed. The &ldquo;face colours&rdquo;
+seen directly in this way result, however, from the mixture of two
+&ldquo;axial colours&rdquo; belonging to rays vibrating in two directions.
+In order to see the axial colours separately the crystal must
+be examined with a dichroscope, or in a polarizing microscope
+from which the analyser has been removed. The dichroscope,
+or dichroiscope (fig. 102), consists of a cleavage rhombohedron
+of calcite (Iceland-spar)
+<i>p</i>, on the ends of which
+glass prisms <i>w</i> are cemented:
+the lens <i>l</i> is
+focused on a small square
+aperture <i>o</i> in the tube of
+the instrument. The eye
+of the observer placed at
+<i>e</i> will see two images of the square aperture, and if a pleochroic
+crystal be placed in front of this aperture the two images will
+be differently coloured. On rotating this crystal with respect
+to the instrument the maximum difference in the colours will be
+obtained when the vibration-directions in the crystal coincide
+with those in the calcite. Such a simple instrument is especially
+useful for the examination of faceted gem-stones, even when they
+are mounted in their settings. A single glance suffices to distinguish
+between a ruby and a &ldquo;spinel-ruby,&rdquo; since the former
+is dichroic and the latter isotropic and therefore not dichroic.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic absorption bands in the spectrum of white
+light which has been transmitted through certain crystals,
+particularly those of salts of the cerium metals, will, of course,
+be different according to the direction of vibration of the rays.</p>
+
+<p><i>Circular Polarization in Crystals.</i>&mdash;Like the solutions of certain
+optically active organic substances, such as sugar and tartaric
+acid, some optically isotropic and uniaxial crystals possess the
+property of rotating the plane of polarization of a beam of light.
+In uniaxial (tetragonal and hexagonal) crystals it is only for
+light transmitted in the direction of the optic axis that there is
+rotatory action, but in isotropic (cubic) crystals all directions
+are the same in this respect. Examples of circularly polarizing
+cubic crystals are sodium chlorate, sodium bromate, and sodium
+uranyl acetate; amongst tetragonal crystals are strychnine
+sulphate and guanidine carbonate; amongst rhombohedral
+are quartz (<i>q.v.</i>) and cinnabar (<i>q.v.</i>) (these being the only two
+mineral substances in which the phenomenon has been observed),
+dithionates of potassium, lead, calcium and strontium, and
+sodium periodate; and amongst hexagonal crystals is potassium
+lithium sulphate. Crystals of all these substances belong to one
+or other of the several symmetry-classes in which there are
+neither planes nor centre of symmetry, but only axes of symmetry.
+They crystallize in two complementary hemihedral
+forms, which are respectively right-handed and left-handed, <i>i.e.</i>
+enantiomorphous forms. Some other substances which crystallize
+in enantiomorphous forms are, however, only &ldquo;optically
+active&rdquo; when in solution (<i>e.g.</i> sugar and tartaric acid); and there
+are many other substances presenting this peculiarity of crystalline
+form which are not circularly polarizing either when crystallized
+or when in solution. Further, in the examples quoted above,
+the rotatory power is lost when the crystals are dissolved (except
+in the case of strychnine sulphate, which is only feebly active
+in solution). The rotatory power is thus due to different causes
+in the two cases, in the one depending on a spiral arrangement of
+the crystal particles, and in the other on the structure of the
+molecules themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The circular polarization of crystals may be imitated by a pile
+of mica plates, each plate being turned through a small angle on
+the one below, thus giving a spiral arrangement to the pile.</p>
+
+<p><i>&ldquo;Optical Anomalies&rdquo; of Crystals.</i>&mdash;When, in 1818, Sir David
+Brewster established the important relations existing between
+the optical properties of crystals and their external form, he at
+the same time noticed many apparent exceptions. For example,
+he observed that crystals of leucite and boracite, which are cubic
+in external form, are always doubly refracting and optically
+biaxial, but with a complex internal structure; and that cubic
+crystals of garnet and analcite sometimes exhibit the same
+phenomena. Also some tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, <i>e.g.</i>
+apophyllite, vesuvianite, beryl, &amp;c., which should normally be
+optically uniaxial, sometimes consist of several biaxial portions
+arranged in sectors or in a quite irregular manner. Such exceptions
+to the general rule have given rise to much discussion.
+They have often been considered to be due to internal strains in
+the crystals, set up as a result of cooling or by earth pressures,
+since similar phenomena are observed in chilled and compressed
+glasses and in dried gelatine. In many cases, however, as shown
+by E. Mallard, in 1876, the higher degree of symmetry exhibited
+by the external form of the crystals is the result of mimetic
+twinning, as in the pseudo-cubic crystals of leucite (<i>q.v.</i>) and
+boracite (<i>q.v.</i>). In other instances, substances not usually
+regarded as cubic, <i>e.g.</i> the monoclinic phillipsite (<i>q.v.</i>), may by
+repeated twinning give rise to pseudo-cubic forms. In some
+cases it is probable that the substance originally crystallized
+in one modification at a higher temperature, and when the
+temperature fell it became transformed into a dimorphous
+modification, though still preserving the external form of the
+original crystal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boracite</a></span>). A summary of the literature
+is given by R. Brauns, <i>Die optischen Anomalien der Krystalle</i>
+(Leipzig, 1891).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>c</i>) <i>Thermal Properties.</i></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:115px; height:368px" src="images/img589b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 103.</span>&mdash;Conductivity
+of Heat in Quartz.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The thermal properties of crystals present certain points in
+common with the optical properties. Heat rays are transmitted
+and doubly refracted like light rays; and surfaces expressing
+the conductivity and dilatation in different directions possess the
+same degree of symmetry and are related in the same way to
+the crystallographic axes as the ellipsoids expressing the optical
+relations. That crystals conduct heat at different rates in
+different directions is well illustrated by the following experiment.
+Two plates (fig. 103) cut from a crystal
+of quartz, one parallel to the principal
+axis and the other perpendicular to it,
+are coated with a thin layer of wax,
+and a hot wire is applied to a point
+on the surface. On the transverse
+section the wax will be melted in a
+circle, and on the longitudinal section
+(or on the natural prism faces) in an
+ellipse. The isothermal surface in a
+uniaxial crystal is therefore a spheroid;
+in cubic crystals it is a sphere; and in
+biaxial crystals an ellipsoid, the three
+axes of which coincide, in orthorhombic
+crystals, with the crystallographic axes.</p>
+
+<p>With change of temperature cubic
+crystals expand equally in all directions,
+and the angles between the faces
+are the same at all temperatures. In
+uniaxial crystals there are two principal
+coefficients of expansion; the one
+measured in the direction of the principal
+axis may be either greater or less than that measured
+in directions perpendicular to this axis. A sphere cut from a
+uniaxial crystal at one temperature will be a spheroid at another
+temperature. In biaxial crystals there are different coefficients
+of expansion along three rectangular axes, and a sphere at one
+temperature will be an ellipsoid at another. A result of this is
+that for all crystals, except those belonging to the cubic system,
+the angles between the faces will vary, though only slightly, with
+changes of temperature. E. Mitscherlich found that the rhombohedral
+angle of calcite decreases 8&prime; 37&Prime; as the crystal is raised
+in temperature from 0° to 100° C.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span></p>
+
+<p>As already mentioned, the optical properties of crystals vary
+considerably with the temperature. Such characters as specific
+heat and melting-point, which do not vary with the direction,
+are the same in crystals as in amorphous substances.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">(<i>d</i>) <i>Magnetic and Electrical Properties.</i></p>
+
+<p>Crystals, like other bodies, are either paramagnetic or diamagnetic,
+<i>i.e.</i> they are either attracted or repelled by the pole
+of a magnet. In crystals other than those belonging to the cubic
+system, however, the relative strength of the induced magnetization
+is different in different directions within the mass. A
+sphere cut from a tetragonal or hexagonal (uniaxial) crystal will
+if freely suspended in a magnetic field (between the poles of a
+strong electro-magnet) take up a position such that the principal
+axis of the crystal is either parallel or perpendicular to the lines
+of force, or to a line joining the two poles of the magnet. Which
+of these two directions is taken by the axis depends on whether
+the crystal is paramagnetic or diamagnetic, and on whether
+the principal axis is the direction of maximum or minimum
+magnetization. The surface expressing the magnetic character
+in different directions is in uniaxial crystals a spheroid; in
+cubic crystals it is a sphere. In orthorhombic, monoclinic and
+anorthic crystals there are three principal axes of magnetic
+induction, and the surface is an ellipsoid, which is related to the
+symmetry of the crystal in the same way as the ellipsoids expressing
+the thermal and optical properties.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, the dielectric constants of a non-conducting crystal
+may be expressed by a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid. A sphere
+cut from a crystal will when suspended in an electro-magnetic
+field set itself so that the axis of maximum induction is parallel
+to the lines of force.</p>
+
+<p>The electrical conductivity of crystals also varies with the
+direction, and bears the same relation to the symmetry as the
+thermal conductivity. In a rhombohedral crystal of haematite
+the electrical conductivity along the principal axis is only half
+as great as in directions perpendicular to this axis; whilst in a
+crystal of bismuth, which is also rhombohedral, the conductivities
+along and perpendicular to the axis are as 1.6 : 1.</p>
+
+<p>Conducting crystals are thermo-electric: when placed against
+another conducting substance and the contact heated there will
+be a flow of electricity from one body to the other if the circuit
+be closed. The thermo-electric force depends not only on the
+nature of the substance, but also on the direction within the
+crystal, and may in general be expressed by an ellipsoid. A
+remarkable case is, however, presented by minerals of the
+pyrites group: some crystals of pyrites are more strongly
+thermo-electrically positive than antimony, and others more
+negative than bismuth, so that the two when placed together
+give a stronger thermo-electric couple than do antimony and
+bismuth. In the thermo-electrically positive crystals of pyrites
+the faces of the pentagonal dodecahedron are striated parallel
+to the cubic edges, whilst in the rarer negative crystals the faces
+are striated perpendicular to these edges. Sometimes both sets
+of striae are present on the same face, and the corresponding
+areas are then thermo-electrically positive and negative.</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting relation between the symmetry of
+crystals and their electrical properties is that presented by
+the pyro-electrical phenomena of certain crystals. This is a
+phenomenon which may be readily observed, and one which often
+aids in the determination of the symmetry of crystals. It is
+exhibited by crystals in which there is no centre of symmetry,
+and the axes of symmetry are uniterminal or polar in character,
+being associated with different faces on the crystal at their two
+ends. When a non-conducting crystal possessing this hemimorphic
+type of symmetry is subjected to changes of temperature
+a charge of positive electricity will be developed on the faces in
+the region of one end of the uniterminal axis, whilst the faces
+at the opposite end will be negatively charged. With rising
+temperature the pole which becomes positively charged is called
+the &ldquo;analogous pole,&rdquo; and that negatively charged the &ldquo;antilogous
+pole&rdquo;: with falling temperature the charges are reversed.
+The phenomenon was first observed in crystals of tourmaline,
+the principal axis of which is a uniterminal triad axis of symmetry.
+In crystals of quartz there are three uniterminal dyad
+axes of symmetry perpendicular to the principal triad axis (which
+is here similar at its two ends): the dyad axes emerge at the
+edges of the hexagonal prism, alternate edges of which become
+positively and negatively charged on change of temperature.
+In boracite there are four uniterminal triad axes, and the faces
+of the two tetrahedra perpendicular to them will bear opposite
+charges. Other examples of pyro-electric crystals are the
+orthorhombic mineral hemimorphite (called also, for this reason,
+&ldquo;electric calamine&rdquo;) and the monoclinic tartaric acid and
+cane-sugar, each of which possesses a uniterminal dyad axis of
+symmetry. In some exceptional cases, <i>e.g.</i> axinite, prehnite,
+&amp;c., there is no apparent relation between the distribution of the
+pyro-electric charges and the symmetry of the crystals.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of the electric charges may be made visible
+by the following simple method, which may be applied even
+with minute crystals observed under the microscope. A finely
+powdered mixture of red-lead and sulphur is dusted through a
+sieve over the cooling crystal. In passing through the sieve
+the particles of red-lead and sulphur become electrified by
+mutual friction, the former positively and the latter negatively.
+The red-lead is therefore attracted to the negatively charged
+parts of the crystal and the sulphur to those positively charged,
+and the distribution of the charges over the whole crystal
+becomes mapped out in the two colours red and yellow.</p>
+
+<p>Since, when a crystal changes in temperature, it also expands
+or contracts, a similar distribution of &ldquo;piezo-electric&rdquo; (from
+<span class="grk" title="piezein">&#960;&#953;&#941;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to press) charges are developed when a crystal is subjected
+to changes of pressure in the direction of a uniterminal
+axis of symmetry. Thus increasing pressure along the principal
+axis of a tourmaline crystal produces the same electric charges
+as decreasing temperature.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center bold f120">III. RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE FORM
+AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.</p>
+
+<p>That the general and physical characters of a chemical substance
+are profoundly modified by crystalline structure is strikingly
+illustrated by the two crystalline modifications of the element
+carbon&mdash;namely, diamond and graphite. The former crystallizes
+in the cubic system, possesses four directions of perfect cleavage,
+is extremely hard and transparent, is a non-conductor of heat
+and electricity, and has a specific gravity of 3.5; whilst graphite
+crystallizes in the hexagonal system, cleaves in a single direction,
+is very soft and opaque, is a good conductor of heat and electricity,
+and has a specific gravity of 2.2. Such substances, which are
+identical in chemical composition, but different in crystalline
+form and consequently in their physical properties, are said to
+be &ldquo;dimorphous.&rdquo; Numerous examples of dimorphous substances
+are known; for instance, calcium carbonate occurs in
+nature either as calcite or as aragonite, the former being rhombohedral
+and the latter orthorhombic; mercuric iodide crystallizes
+from solution as red tetragonal crystals, and by sublimation
+as yellow orthorhombic crystals. Some substances crystallize
+in three different modifications, and these are said to be &ldquo;trimorphous&rdquo;;
+for example, titanium dioxide is met with as the
+minerals rutile, anatase and brookite (<i>q.v.</i>). In general, or in
+cases where more than three crystalline modifications are known
+(<i>e.g.</i> in sulphur no less than six have been described), the term
+&ldquo;polymorphism&rdquo; is applied.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, substances which are chemically quite
+distinct may exhibit similarity of crystalline form. For example,
+the minerals iodyrite (AgI), greenockite (CdS), and zincite
+(ZnO) are practically identical in crystalline form; calcite
+(CaCO<span class="su">3</span>) and sodium nitrate (NaNO<span class="su">3</span>); celestite (SrSO)<span class="su">4</span> and
+marcasite (FeS<span class="su">2</span>); epidote and azurite; and many others,
+some of which are no doubt only accidental coincidences. Such
+substances are said to be &ldquo;homoeomorphous&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="homoios">&#8005;&#956;&#959;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, like,
+and <span class="grk" title="morphę">&#956;&#959;&#961;&#966;&#942;</span>, form).</p>
+
+<p>Similarity of crystalline form in substances which are chemically
+related is frequently met with and is a relation of much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span>
+importance: such substances are described as being &ldquo;isomorphous.&rdquo;
+Amongst minerals there are many examples of isomorphous
+groups, <i>e.g.</i> the rhombohedral carbonates, garnet (<i>q.v.</i>), plagioclase
+(<i>q.v.</i>); and amongst crystals of artificially prepared salts
+isomorphism is equally common, <i>e.g.</i> the sulphates and selenates
+of potassium, rubidium and caesium. The rhombohedral carbonates
+have the general formula R&Prime;CO<span class="su">3</span>, where R&Prime; represents
+calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt or lead, and
+the different minerals (calcite, ankerite, magnesite, chalybite,
+rhodochrosite and calamine (<i>q.v.</i>)) of the group are not only
+similar in crystalline form, cleavage, optical and other characters,
+but the angles between corresponding faces do not differ by more
+than 1° or 2°. Further, equivalent amounts of the different
+chemical elements represented by R&rdquo; are mutually replaceable,
+and two or more of these elements may be present together in
+the same crystal, which is then spoken of as a &ldquo;mixed crystal&rdquo;
+or isomorphous mixture.</p>
+
+<p>In another isomorphous series of carbonates with the same
+general formula R&Prime;CO<span class="su">3</span>, where R&Prime; represents calcium, strontium,
+barium, lead or zinc, the crystals are orthorhombic in form, and
+are thus dimorphous with those of the previous group (<i>e.g.</i>
+calcite and aragonite, the other members being only represented
+by isomorphous replacements). Such a relation is known as
+&ldquo;isodimorphism.&rdquo; An even better example of this is presented
+by the arsenic and antimony trioxides, each of which occurs as
+two distinct minerals:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>As<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, Arsenolite (cubic); Claudetite (monoclinic).</p>
+<p>Sb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, Senarmontite (cubic); Valentinite (orthorhombic).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Claudetite and valentinite though crystallizing in different
+systems have the same cleavages and very nearly the same
+angles, and are strictly isomorphous.</p>
+
+<p>Substances which form isodimorphous groups also frequently
+crystallize as double salts. For instance, amongst the carbonates
+quoted above are the minerals dolomite (CaMg(CO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>) and
+barytocalcite (CaBa(CO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>). Crystals of barytocalcite (<i>q.v.</i>) are
+monoclinic; and those of dolomite (<i>q.v.</i>), though closely related
+to calcite in angles and cleavage, possess a different degree of
+symmetry, and the specific gravity is not such as would result
+by a simple isomorphous mixture of the two carbonates. A
+similar case is presented by artificial crystals of silver nitrate
+and potassium nitrate. Somewhat analogous to double salts
+are the molecular compounds formed by the introduction of
+&ldquo;water of crystallization,&rdquo; &ldquo;alcohol of crystallization,&rdquo; &amp;c.
+Thus sodium sulphate may crystallize alone or with either seven
+or ten molecules of water, giving rise to three crystallographically
+distinct substances.</p>
+
+<p>A relation of another kind is the alteration in crystalline form
+resulting from the replacement in the chemical molecule of one
+or more atoms by atoms or radicles of a different kind. This is
+known as a &ldquo;morphotropic&rdquo; relation (Gr. <span class="grk" title="morphę">&#956;&#959;&#961;&#966;&#942;</span>, form, <span class="grk" title="tropos">&#964;&#961;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+habit). Thus when some of the hydrogen atoms of benzene are
+replaced by (OH) and (NO<span class="su">2</span>) groups the orthorhombic system
+of crystallization remains the same as before, and the crystallographic
+axis a is not much affected, but the axis c varies
+considerably:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc"><i>a</i></td> <td class="tcc">: <i>b</i></td> <td class="tcc">: <i>c</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Benzene, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.891</td> <td class="tcc">: 1</td> <td class="tcc">: 0.799</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Resorcin, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.910</td> <td class="tcc">: 1</td> <td class="tcc">: 0.540</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Picric acid, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>(OH)(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.937</td> <td class="tcc">: 1</td> <td class="tcc">: 0.974</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A striking example of morphotropy is shown by the humite
+(<i>q.v.</i>) group of minerals: successive additions of the group
+Mg<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">4</span> to the molecule produce successive increases in the
+length of the vertical crystallographic axis.</p>
+
+<p>In some instances the replacement of one atom by another
+produces little or no influence on the crystalline form; this
+happens in complex molecules of high molecular weight, the
+&ldquo;mass effect&rdquo; of which has a controlling influence on the
+isomorphism. An example of this is seen in the replacement of
+sodium or potassium by lead in the alunite (<i>q.v.</i>) group of minerals,
+or again in such a complex mineral as tourmaline, which, though
+varying widely in chemical composition, exhibits no variation
+in crystalline form.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of comparing the crystalline forms of isomorphous
+and morphotropic substances it is usual to quote the
+angles or the axial ratios of the crystal, as in the table of benzene
+derivatives quoted above. A more accurate comparison is, however,
+given by the &ldquo;topic axes,&rdquo; which are calculated from
+the axial ratios and the molecular volume; they express the
+relative distances apart of the crystal molecules in the axial
+directions.</p>
+
+<p>The two isomerides of substances, such as tartaric acid, which
+in solution rotate the plane of polarized light either to the right
+or to the left, crystallize in related but enantiomorphous forms.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">References.</span>&mdash;An introduction to crystallography is given in
+most text-books of mineralogy, <i>e.g.</i> those of H. A. Miers and of E. S.
+Dana (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mineralogy</a></span>). The standard work treating of the subject
+generally is that of P. Groth, <i>Physikalische Kristallographie</i> (4th ed.,
+Leipzig, 1905). A condensed summary is given by A. J. Moses,
+<i>The Characters of Crystals</i> (New York, 1899).</p>
+
+<p>For geometrical crystallography, dealing exclusively with the
+external form of crystals, reference may be made to N. Story-Maskelyne,
+<i>Crystallography, a Treatise on the Morphology of Crystals</i>
+(Oxford, 1895) and W. J. Lewis, <i>A Treatise on Crystallography</i>
+(Cambridge, 1899). Theories of crystal structure are discussed
+by L. Sohncke, <i>Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur</i>
+(Leipzig, 1879); A. Schoenflies, <i>Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur</i>
+(Leipzig, 1891); and H. Hilton, <i>Mathematical Crystallography and the
+Theory of Groups of Movements</i> (Oxford, 1903).</p>
+
+<p>The physical properties of crystals are treated by T. Liebisch,
+<i>Physikalische Krystallographie</i> (Leipzig, 1891), and in a more elementary
+form in his <i>Grundriss der physikalischen Krystallographie</i>
+(Leipzig, 1896); E. Mallard, <i>Traité de cristallographie, Cristallographie
+physique</i> (Paris, 1884); C. Soret, <i>Éléments de cristallographie physique</i>
+(Geneva and Paris, 1893).</p>
+
+<p>For an account of the relations between crystalline form and
+chemical composition, see A. Arzruni, <i>Physikalische Chemie der
+Krystalle</i> (Braunschweig, 1893); A. Fock, <i>An Introduction to
+Chemical Crystallography</i>, translated by W. J. Pope (Oxford, 1895);
+P. Groth, <i>An Introduction to Chemical Crystallography</i>, translated
+by H. Marshall (London, 1906); A. E. H. Tutton, <i>Crystalline Structure
+and Chemical Constitution</i>, 1910. Descriptive works giving
+the crystallographic constants of different substances are C. F.
+Rammelsberg, <i>Handbuch der krystallographisch-physikalischen Chemie</i>
+(Leipzig, 1881-1882); P. Groth, <i>Chemische Krystallographie</i> (Leipzig,
+1906); and of minerals the treatises of J. D. Dana and C. Hintze.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> From the Greek letter &delta;, &Delta;; in general, a triangular-shaped
+object; also an alternative name for a trapezoid.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Named after pyrites, which crystallizes in a typical form of this
+class.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3o" id="ft3o" href="#fa3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> From <span class="grk" title="plagios">&#960;&#955;&#940;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, placed sideways, referring to the absence of planes
+and centre of symmetry.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4o" id="ft4o" href="#fa4o"><span class="fn">4</span></a> From <span class="grk" title="gyros">&#947;&#8166;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, a ring or spiral, and <span class="grk" title="eidos">&#949;&#7990;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>, form.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5o" id="ft5o" href="#fa5o"><span class="fn">5</span></a> From <span class="grk" title="monos">&#956;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, single, and <span class="grk" title="klinein">&#954;&#955;&#943;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to incline, since one axis is inclined
+to the plane of the other two axes, which are at right angles.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRYSTAL PALACE, THE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a well-known English resort,
+standing high up in grounds just outside the southern boundary
+of the county of London, in the neighbourhood of Sydenham.
+The building, chiefly of iron and glass, is flanked by two towers
+and is visible from far over the metropolis. It measures 1608
+ft. in length by 384 ft. across the transepts, and was opened in
+its present site in 1854. The materials, however, were mainly
+those of the hall set up in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition
+of 1851. The designer was Sir Joseph Paxton. In the palace
+there are various permanent exhibitions, while special exhibitions
+are held from time to time, also concerts, winter pantomimes
+and other entertainments. In the extensive grounds there is
+accommodation for all kinds of games: the final tie of the
+Association Football Cup and other important football matches
+are played here, and there are also displays of fireworks and
+other attractions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CSENGERY, ANTON<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1822-1880), Hungarian publicist, and a
+historical writer of great influence on his time, was born at
+Nagyvárad on the 2nd of June 1822. He took, at an early date,
+a very active part in the literary and political movements
+immediately preceding the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. He
+and Baron Sigismund Kemény may be considered as the two
+founders of high-class Magyar journalism. After 1867 the greatest
+of modern Hungarian statesmen, Francis Deák, attached
+Csengery to his personal service, and many of the momentous
+state documents inspired or suggested by Deák were drawn up
+by Csengery. In that manner his influence, as represented by
+the text of many a statute regulating the relations between
+Austria and Hungary, is one of an abiding character. As a
+historical writer he excelled chiefly in brilliant and thoughtful
+essays on the leading political personalities of his time, such as
+Paul Nagy, Bertalan, Szemere and others. He also commenced
+a translation of Macaulay&rsquo;s <i>History</i>. He died at Budapest on
+the 13th of July 1880.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CSIKY, GREGOR<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1842-1891), Hungarian dramatist, was born
+on the 8th of December 1842 at Pankota, in the county of Arad.
+He studied Roman Catholic theology at Pest and Vienna, and was
+professor in the Priests&rsquo; College at Temesvár from 1870 to 1878.
+In the latter year, however, he joined the Evangelical Church,
+and took up literature. Beginning with novels and works on
+ecclesiastical history, which met with some recognition, he
+ultimately devoted himself to writing for the stage. Here his
+success was immediate. In his <i>Az ellenállhatatlan</i> (&ldquo;L&rsquo;Irrésistible&rdquo;),
+which obtained a prize from the Hungarian Academy,
+he showed the distinctive features of his talent&mdash;directness,
+freshness, realistic vigour, and highly individual style. In rapid
+succession he enriched Magyar literature with realistic <i>genre</i>-pictures,
+such as <i>A Proletárok</i> (&ldquo;Proletariate&rdquo;), <i>Buborckok</i>
+(&ldquo;Bubbles&rdquo;), <i>Két szerelem</i> (&ldquo;Two Loves&rdquo;), <i>A szégyenlös</i> (&ldquo;The
+Bashful&rdquo;), <i>Athalia</i>, &amp;c., in all of which he seized on one or
+another feature or type of modern life, dramatizing it with
+unusual intensity, qualified by chaste and well-balanced diction.
+Of the latter, his classical studies may, no doubt, be taken as
+the inspiration, and his translation of Sophocles and Plautus
+will long rank with the most successful of Magyar translations of
+the ancient classics. Among the best known of his novels are
+<i>Arnold</i>, <i>Az Atlasz család</i> (&ldquo;The Atlas Family&rdquo;). He died at
+Budapest on the 19th of November 1891.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1773-1805), Hungarian poet,
+was born at Debreczen in 1773. Having been educated in his
+native town, he was appointed while still very young to the
+professorship of poetry there; but soon after he was deprived
+of the post on account of the immorality of his conduct. The
+remaining twelve years of his short life were passed in almost
+constant wretchedness, and he died in his native town, and in
+his mother&rsquo;s house, when only thirty-one years of age. Csokonai
+was a genial and original poet with something of the lyrical fire
+of Petöfi, and wrote a mock-heroic poem called <i>Dorottya or the
+Triumph of the Ladies at the Carnival</i>, two or three comedies
+or farces, and a number of love-poems. Most of his works have
+been published, with a life, by Schedel (1844-1847).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CSOMA DE KÖRÖS, ALEXANDER<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1790-1842), or, as the
+name is written in Hungarian, <span class="sc">Körösi Csoma Sándor</span>, Hungarian
+traveller and philologist, born about 1790 at Körös in Transylvania,
+belonged to a noble family which had sunk into poverty.
+He was educated at Nagy-Enyed and at Göttingen; and, in
+order to carry out the dream of his youth and discover the
+origin of his countrymen, he divided his attention between
+medicine and the Oriental languages. In 1820, having received
+from a friend the promise of an annuity of 100 florins (about Ł10)
+to support him during his travels, he set out for the East. He
+visited Egypt, and made his way to Tibet, where he spent four
+years in a Buddhist monastery studying the language and the
+Buddhist literature. To his intense disappointment he soon
+discovered that he could not thus obtain any assistance in his
+great object; but, having visited Bengal, his knowledge of
+Tibetan obtained him employment in the library of the Asiatic
+Society there, which possessed more than 1000 volumes in that
+language; and he was afterwards supported by the government
+while he published a Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar
+(both of which appeared at Calcutta in 1834). He also contributed
+several articles on the Tibetan language and literature to
+the <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, and he published
+an analysis of the <i>Kah-Gyur</i>, the most important of the Buddhist
+sacred books. Meanwhile his fame had reached his native
+country, and procured him a pension from the government,
+which, with characteristic devotion to learning, he devoted to
+the purchase of books for Indian libraries. He spent some time
+in Calcutta, studying Sanskrit and several other languages;
+but, early in 1842, he commenced his second attempt to discover
+the origin of the Hungarians, but he died at Darjiling on the 11th
+of April 1842. An oration was delivered in his honour before
+the Hungarian Academy by Eötvös, the novelist.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:272px; height:752px" src="images/img592.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Schematic drawing of a
+Cydippid from the side. (After
+Chun.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>A</i>, Adradial canals.</p>
+<p><i>F</i>, Infundibulum.</p>
+<p><i>I</i>, Interradial canal.</p>
+<p><i>M</i>, Meridianal canal lying under a costa.</p>
+<p><i>N</i>, Ciliated furrow from sense pole to costa.</p>
+<p><i>Pg</i>, Paragastric canal.</p>
+<p><i>SO</i>, Sense-organ.</p>
+<p><i>St</i>, Stomodaeum.</p>
+<p><i>Subs</i>, Subsagittal costa.</p>
+<p><i>Subt</i>, Subtentacular costa.</p>
+<p><i>T</i>, Tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>Ts</i>, Boundaries of tentacle-sheath.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:319px" src="images/img593a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Schematic drawing of a Cydippid
+from the aboral pole. (After
+Chun.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>T</i> (centrally), Tentacular canal, and (distally)
+tentacle.</p>
+
+<p>&#9794;, Position of testes.</p>
+
+<p>&#9792;, Position of ovaries; other letters
+in fig. 1. The stomodaeum lies in the
+sagittal plane, the funnel and tentacles
+in the transverse or tentacular plane.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CTENOPHORA,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> in zoology, a class of jelly-fish which were
+briefly described by Professor T. H. Huxley in 1875 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Actinozoa</a></span>, <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th ed. vol. i.) as united with what we
+now term Anthozoa to form the group Actinozoa; but little was
+known of the intimate structure of those remarkable and beautiful
+forms till the appearance in 1880 of C. Chun&rsquo;s Monograph of
+the Ctenophora occurring in the Bay of Naples. They may be
+defined as Coelentera which exhibit both a radial and bilateral
+symmetry of organs; with a stomodaeum; with a mesenchyma
+which is partly gelatinous but partly cellular; with eight meridianal
+rows of vibratile paddles formed of long fused or matted
+cilia; lacking nematocysts (except in one genus). An example
+common on the British coasts is furnished by <i>Hormiphora</i>
+(<i>Cydippe</i>). In outward form this is an egg-shaped ball of clear
+jelly, having a mouth at the pointed (oral) pole, and a sense-organ
+at the broader (aboral)
+pole. It possesses
+eight meridians (costae) of
+iridescent paddles in constant
+vibration, which run
+from near one pole towards
+the other; it has also two
+pendent feathery tentacles
+of considerable length,
+which can be retracted into
+pouches. The mouth leads
+into an ectodermal stomodaeum
+(&ldquo;stomach&rdquo;), and
+the latter into an endodermal
+funnel (infundibulum);
+these two are
+compressed in planes at
+right angles to one another,
+the sectional long axis of
+the stomodaeum lying in the
+so-called sagittal (stomodaeal
+or gastric) plane, that
+of the funnel in the transverse
+(tentacular or funnel)
+plane. From the funnel,
+canals are given off in three
+directions; (<i>a</i>) a pair of
+paragastric (stomachal, or
+stomodaeal) canals run
+orally, parallel to the stomodaeum,
+and end blindly near
+the mouth; (<i>b</i>) a pair of
+perradial canals run in the
+transverse plane towards the
+equator of the animal; each
+of these becomes divided
+into two short canals at the
+base of the tentacle sheath
+which they supply, but has
+previously given off a pair
+of short interradial canals,
+which again bifurcate into
+two adradial canals; all
+these branches lie in the
+equatorial plane of the
+animal, but the eight adradial
+canals then open into
+eight meridianal canals
+which run orally and aborally
+under the costae; (<i>c</i>) a
+pair of aboral vessels which
+run towards the sense-organ,
+each of which bifurcates;
+of the four vessels thus formed, two only open at the sides
+of the sense-organ, forming the so-called excretory apertures.
+These three sets of structures, with the funnel from which they
+rise, make up the endodermal coelenteron, or gastro-vascular
+system. The generative organs are endodermal by origin,
+borne at the sides of the meridianal canals as indicated by the
+signs &#9794; &#9792;. There exists a subepithelial plexus with nerve cells
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span>
+and fibres, similar to that of jelly-fishes. The sense-organ of the
+aboral pole is complex, and lies under a dome of fused cilia
+shaped like an inverted bell-jar; it consists of an otolith, formed
+of numerous calcareous spheroids, which is supported on four
+plates of fused cilia termed balancers, but is otherwise free.
+The ciliated ectoderm below the organ is markedly thickened, and
+perhaps functionally represents a nerve-ganglion: from it eight
+ciliated furrows radiate outwards, two passing under each
+balancer as through an archway, and diverge each to the head
+of a meridianal costa.
+These ciliated furrows
+stain deeply with osmic
+acid, and nervous impulses
+are certainly
+transmitted along
+them. Locomotion is
+effected by strokes of
+the paddles in an aboral
+direction, driving the
+animal mouth forwards
+through the water: each
+paddle or comb (Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="kteis">&#954;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#962;</span>; hence Ctenophora)
+consists of a
+plate of fused or matted
+cilia set transversely to
+the costa. The myoepithelial
+cells (formerly
+termed neuro-muscular
+cells), characteristic of
+other Coelentera, are
+not to be found in this
+group. On the other
+hand there are well-marked
+muscle fibres
+in definite layers, derived from special mesoblastic cells
+in the embryo, which are embedded in a jelly; these in their
+origin and arrangement are quite comparable to the mesoderm
+of Triploblastica, and, although the muscle-cells of some
+jelly-fish exhibit a somewhat similar condition, nothing so
+highly specialized as the mesenchyme of Ctenophora occurs in any
+other Coelenterate. The nematocysts being nearly absent from
+their group, their chief function is carried out by adhesive
+lasso-cells.</p>
+
+<p>The Ctenophora are classified as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sub-class  i. <b>Tentaculata</b>,</td> <td class="tcc">Order</td> <td class="tcl">1. <span class="sc">Cydippidea</span>,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Hormiphora</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">2. <span class="sc">Lobata</span>,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Deiopea</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">3. <span class="sc">Cestoidea</span>,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cestus</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp; ii. <b>Nuda</b>,</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Beroë</i>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <b>Tentaculata</b>, as the name implies, may be recognized by the
+presence of tentacles of some sort. The <span class="sc">Cydippidea</span> are generally
+spherical or ovoid, with two long retrusible pinnate tentacles: the
+meridianal and paragastric canals end blindly. An example of
+these has already been briefly described. The <span class="sc">Lobata</span> are of the
+same general type as the first Order, except for the presence of four
+circumoral auricles (processes of the subtransverse costae) and of
+a pair of sagittal outgrowths or lobes, on to which the subsagittal
+costae are continued. Small accessory tentacles lie in grooves, but
+there is no tentacular pouch; the meridianal vessels anastomose in
+the lobes. In the <span class="sc">Cestoidea</span> the body is compressed in the transverse
+plane, elongated in the sagittal plane, so as to become riband-like:
+the subtransverse costae are greatly reduced, the subsagittal
+costae extend along the aboral edge of the riband. The subsagittal
+canals lie immediately below their costae aborally, but continuations
+of the subtransverse canals round down the middle of the riband,
+and at its end unite, not only with the subsagittal but also with the
+paragastric canals which run along the oral edge of the riband.
+The tentacular bases and pouches are present, but there is no main
+tentacle as in Cydippidea; fine accessory tentacles lie in four grooves
+along the oral edge. The sub-class <b>Nuda</b> have no tentacles of any
+kind; they are conical or ovoid, with a capacious stomodaeum like
+the cavity of a thimble. There is a coelenteric network formed by
+anastomoses of the meridianal and paragastric canals all over the
+body.</p>
+
+<p>The embryology of <i>Callianira</i> has been worked out by E. Mechnikov.
+Segmentation is complete and unequal, producing macromeres
+and micromeres marked by differences in the size and in yolk-contents.
+The micromeres give rise to the ectoderm; each of the
+sixteen macromeres, after budding off a small mesoblast cell, passes
+on as endoderm. A gastrula is established by a mixed process of
+embole and epibole. The mesoblast cells travel to the aboral pole
+of the embryo, and there form a cross-shaped mass, the arms of which
+lie in the sagittal and transverse planes (perradii).</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:457px; height:319px" src="images/img593b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Schematic Drawing of Cestus. (After Chun.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>Subs</i>, Subsagittal costae.</p>
+
+<p><i>Subt</i>, Much reduced subtentacular costae.</p>
+
+<p><i>Subt</i>, Branch of the subtentacular canal which runs along the centre of the riband.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>Pg</i>, Continuation of the paragastric canal at right angles to its original direction
+ along the lower edge of the riband. At the right-hand end the last
+ two are seen to unite with the subsagittal canal.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">There can be but little question of the propriety of including
+Ctenophora among the Coelentera. The undivided coelenteron
+(gastro-vascular system) which constitutes the sole cavity of
+the body, the largely radial symmetry, the presence of endodermal
+generative organs on the coelenteric canals, the subepithelial
+nerve-plexus, the mesogloea-like matrix of the body&mdash;all
+these features indicate affinity to other Coelentera, but, as
+has been stated in the article under that title, the relation is by
+no means close. At what period the Ctenophora branched off
+from the line of descent, which culminated in the Hydromedusae
+and Scyphozoa of to-day, is not clear, but it is practically certain
+that they did so before the point of divergence of these two groups
+from one another. The peculiar sense-organ, the specialization
+of the cilia into paddles with the corresponding modifications of
+the coelenteron, the anatomy and position of the tentacles, and,
+above all, the character and mode of formation of the mesenchyme,
+separate them widely from other Coelentera.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:91px; height:229px" src="images/img593c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Schematic
+Drawing of <i>Beröe</i>.
+(After Chun.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The last-named character, however, combined with the
+discovery of two remarkable organisms, <i>Coeloplana</i> and <i>Ctenoplana</i>,
+has suggested affinity to the flat-worms
+termed Turbellaria. <i>Ctenoplana</i>,
+the best known of these, has recently been
+redescribed by A. Willey (<i>Quart. Journ.
+Micr. Sci.</i> xxxix., 1896). It is flattened
+along the axis which unites sense-organ
+and mouth, so as to give it a dorsal
+(aboral) surface, and a ventral (oral)
+surface on which it frequently creeps. Its
+costae are very short, and retrusible;
+its two tentacles are pinnate and are also
+retrusible. Two crescentic rows of ciliated
+papillae lie in the transverse plane on each
+side of the sense-organ. The coelenteron
+exhibits six lobes, two of which Willey
+identifies with the stomodaeum of other
+Ctenophora; the other four give rise to a system of anastomosing
+canals such as are found in <i>Beroë</i> and Polyclad
+Turbellaria. An aboral vessel embraces the sense-organ, but
+has no external opening. <i>Ctenoplana</i> is obviously a Ctenophoran
+flattened and of a creeping habit. <i>Coeloplana</i> is of
+similar form and habit, with two Ctenophoran tentacles: it
+has no costae, but is uniformly ciliated. These two forms at
+least indicate a possible stepping-stone from Ctenophora to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span>
+Turbellaria, that is to say, from diploblastic to triploblastic
+Metazoa. By themselves they would present no very weighty
+argument for this line of descent from two-layered to three-layered
+forms, but the coincidences which occur in the development
+of Ctenophora and Turbellaria,&mdash;the methods of segmentation
+and gastrulation, of the separation of the mesoblast cells,
+and of mesenchyme formation,&mdash;together with the marked
+similarity of the adult mesenchyme in the two groups, have led
+many to accept this pedigree. In his Monograph on the Polyclad
+Turbellaria of the Bay of Naples, A. Lang regards a Turbellarian,
+so to say, as a Ctenophora, in which the sensory pole has rotated
+forwards in the sagittal plane through 90° as regards the original
+oral-aboral axis, a rotation which actually occurs in the development
+of <i>Thysanozoon</i> (Müller&rsquo;s larva); and he sees, in the eight
+lappets of the preoral ciliated ring of such a larva, the rudiments
+of the costal plates. According to his view, a simple early
+Turbellarian larva, such as that of <i>Stylochus</i>, most nearly
+represents for us to-day that ancestor from which Ctenophora
+and Turbellaria are alike derived. For details of this brilliant
+theory, the reader is referred to the original monograph.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;G. C. Bourne, &ldquo;The Ctenophora,&rdquo; in Ray Lankester&rsquo;s
+<i>Treatise on Zoology</i> (1900), where a bibliography is given;
+G. Curreri, &ldquo;Osservazioni sui ctenofori,&rdquo; <i>Boll. Soc. Zool. Ital.</i> (2), i.
+pp. 190-193 et ii. pp. 58-76; A. Garbe, &ldquo;Untersuchungen über die
+Entstehung der Geschlechtsorgane bei den Ctenophoren.,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr.
+Wiss. Zool.</i> lxix. pp. 472-491; K. C. Schneider, <i>Lehrbuch der
+vergleich. Histologie</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. H. Fo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CTESIAS,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> of Cnidus in Caria, Greek physician and historian,
+flourished in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In early life he was physician
+to Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied (401) on his
+expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger. Ctesias was
+the author of treatises on rivers, and on the Persian revenues,
+of an account of India (which is of value as recording the beliefs
+of the Persians about India), and of a history of Assyria and
+Persia in 23 books, called <i>Persica</i>, written in opposition to
+Herodotus in the Ionic dialect, and professedly founded on the
+Persian royal archives. The first six books treated of the history
+of Assyria and Babylon to the foundation of the Persian empire;
+the remaining seventeen went down to the year 398. Of the
+two histories we possess abridgments by Photius, and fragments
+are preserved in Athenaeus, Plutarch and especially Diodorus
+Siculus, whose second book is mainly from Ctesias. As to the
+worth of the <i>Persica</i> there has been much controversy, both in
+ancient and modern times. Being based upon Persian authorities,
+it was naturally looked upon with suspicion by the Greeks and
+censured as untrustworthy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an estimate of Ctesias as a historian see G. Rawlinson&rsquo;s
+<i>Herodotus</i>, i. 71-74; also the edition of the fragments of the <i>Persica</i>
+by J. Giimore (1888, with introduction and notes and list of
+authorities).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CTESIPHON,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a large village on the left bank of the Tigris,
+opposite to Seleucia, of which it formed a suburb, about 25 m.
+below Bagdad. It is first mentioned in the year 220 by Polybius
+v. 45. 4. When the Parthian Arsacids had conquered the lands
+east of the Euphrates in 129 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they established their winter
+residence in Ctesiphon. They dared not stay in Seleucia, as
+this city, the most populous town of western Asia, always
+maintained her Greek self-government and a strong feeling of
+independence, which made her incline to the west whenever a
+Roman army attacked the Parthians. The Arsacids also were
+afraid of destroying the wealth and commerce of Seleucia, if they
+entered it with their large retinue of barbarian officials and
+soldiers (Strabo xvi. 743, Plin. vi. 122, cf. Joseph. <i>Ant.</i> xviii.
+9, 2). From this time Ctesiphon increased in size, and many
+splendid buildings rose; it had the outward appearance of a
+large town, although it was by its constitution only a village.
+From <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 36-43 Seleucia was in rebellion against the Parthians
+till at last it was forced by King Vardanes to yield. It is
+very probable that Vardanes now tried to put Ctesiphon in its
+place; therefore he is called founder of Ctesiphon by Ammianus
+Marcellinus (xxiii. 6. 23), where King Pacorus (78-110) is said
+to have increased its inhabitants and built its walls. Seleucia
+was destroyed by the Romans in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 164. When Ardashir I.
+founded the Sassanian empire (226), and fixed his residence at
+Ctesiphon, he built up Seleucia again under the name of Veh-Ardashir.
+Later kings added other suburbs; Chosroes I. in 540
+established the inhabitants of Antiochia in Syria, whom he had
+led into captivity, in a new city, &ldquo;Chosrau-Antioch&rdquo; (or &ldquo;the
+Roman city&rdquo;) near his residence. Therefore the Arabs designate
+the whole complex of towns which lay together around Seleucia
+and Ctesiphon and formed the residence of the Sassanids by
+the name Mad&#257;in, &ldquo;the cities,&rdquo;&mdash;their number is often given
+as seven. In the wars between the Roman and Persian empires,
+Ctesiphon was more than once besieged and plundered, thus by
+Odaenathus in 261, and by Canis in 283; Julian in 363 advanced
+to Ctesiphon, but was not able to take it (Ammianus xxiv. 7).
+After the battle of Kadisiya (Q&#257;dis&#299;ya) Ctesiphon and the
+neighbouring towns were taken and plundered by the Arabs
+in 637, who brought home an immense amount of booty (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>). From then, these towns decayed before the increasing
+prosperity of the new Arab capitals Basra and Bagdad.
+The site is marked only by the ruins of one gigantic building of
+brick-work, called Takhti Khesra, &ldquo;throne of Khosrau&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+Chosroes). It is a great vaulted hall ornamented with pilasters,
+the remainder of the palace and the most splendid example of
+Sassanian architecture (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, vol. ii. p. 558, for
+further details and illustration). (Ed. M.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CUBA<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (the aboriginal name), a republic, the largest and most
+populous of the West India Islands, included between the
+meridians of 74° 7&prime; and 84° 57&prime; W. longitude and (roughly) the
+parallels of 19° 48&prime; and 23° 13&prime; N. latitude. It divides the entrance
+to the Gulf of Mexico into two passages of nearly equal
+width,&mdash;the Strait of Florida, about 110 m. wide between Capes
+Hicacos in Cuba and Arenas in Florida (Key West being a little
+over 100 m. from Havana); and the Yucatan Channel, about
+130 m. wide between Capes San Antonio and Catoche. On the
+N.E., E. and S.E., narrower channels separate it from the
+Bahamas, Haiti (50 m.) and Jamaica (85 m.). In 1908, by the
+opening of a railway along the Florida Keys, the time of passage
+by water between Cuba and the United States was reduced to a
+few hours.</p>
+
+<p>The island is long and narrow, somewhat in the form of an
+irregular crescent, convex toward the N. It has a decided pitch
+to the S. Its length from Cape Maisí to Cape San Antonio along
+a medial line is about 730 m.; its breadth, which averages about
+50 m., ranges from a maximum of 160 m. to a minimum of about
+22 m. The total area is estimated at 41,634 sq. m. without the
+surrounding keys and the Isle of Pines (area about 1180 sq. m.),
+and including these is approximately 44,164. The geography
+of the island is still very imperfectly known, and all figures are
+approximate only. The coast line, including larger bays, but
+excluding reefs, islets, keys and all minute sinuosities, is about
+2500 m. in length. The N. littoral is characterized by bluffs,
+which grow higher and higher toward the east, rising to 600 ft.
+at Cape Maisí. They are marked by distinct terraces. The
+southern coast near Cape Maisí is low and sandy. From Guantánamo
+to Santiago it rises in high escarpments, and W. of Santiago,
+where the Sierra Maestra runs close to the sea, there is a very
+high abrupt shore. To the W. of Manzanillo it sinks again, and
+throughout most of the remaining distance to Cape San Antonio
+is low, with a sandy or marshy littoral; at places sand hills
+fringe the shore; near Trinidad there are hills of considerable
+height; and the coast becomes high and rugged W. of Point
+Fisga, in the province of Pinar del Rio. On both the N. and the S.
+side of the island there are long chains of islets and reefs and
+coral keys (of which it is estimated there are 1300), which limit
+access to probably half of the coast, and on the N. render navigation
+difficult and dangerous. On the S. they are covered with
+mangroves. A large part of the southern littoral is subject to
+overflow, and much more of it is permanently marshy. The
+Zapata Swamp near Cienfuegos is 600 sq. m. in area; other large
+swamps are the Majaguillar, E. of Cárdenas, and the Ciénaga
+del Buey, S. of the Cauto river. The Isle of Pines in its northern
+part is hilly and wooded; in its southern part, very low, level and
+rather barren; a tidal swamp almost cuts the island in two.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
+A remarkable feature of the Cuban coast is the number of
+excellent anchorages, roadsteads and harbours. On the N. shore,
+beginning at the W., Bahía Honda, Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas,
+Nuevitas and Nipe; and on the S. shore running westward
+Guantánamo, Santiago and Cienfuegos, are harbours of the first
+class, several of them among the best of the world. Mariel,
+Cabańas, Banes, Sagua la Grande and Baracoa on the N., and
+Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, Batabanó and Trinidad on the S. are
+also excellent ports or anchorages. The peculiar pouch-shape
+of almost all the harbours named (Matanzas being a marked
+exception) greatly increases their security and defensibility.
+These pouch harbours are probably &ldquo;drowned&rdquo; drainage basins.
+The number of small bays that can be utilized for coast trade
+traffic is extraordinary.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:830px; height:407px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img595.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img595a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">In popular language the different portions of the island are
+distinguished as the Vuelta Abajo (&ldquo;lower turn&rdquo;), W. of Havana;
+the Vuelta Arriba (&ldquo;upper turn&rdquo;), E. of Havana to Cienfuegos&mdash;Vuelta
+Abajo and Vuelta Arriba are also used colloquially at
+any point in the island to mean &ldquo;east&rdquo; and &ldquo;west&rdquo;&mdash;Las Cinco
+Villas&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> Villa Clara, Trinidad, Remedios, Cienfuegos and
+Sancti Spiritus&mdash;between Cienfuegos and Sancti Spiritus; and
+Tierra Adentro, referring to the region between Cienfuegos and
+Bayamo. These names are extremely common. The province
+and city of Puerto Príncipe are officially known as Camagüey,
+their original Indian name, which has practically supplanted
+the Spanish name in local usage.</p>
+
+<p>Five topographic divisions of the island are fairly marked.
+Santiago (now Oriente) province is high and mountainous.
+Camagüey is characterized by rolling, open plains, slightly broken,
+especially in the W., by low mountains. The E. part of Santa
+Clara province is decidedly rough and broken. The W. part,
+with the provinces of Matanzas and Havana, is flat and rolling,
+with occasional hills a few hundred feet high. Finally, Pinar del
+Rio is dominated by a prominent mountain range and by outlying
+piedmont hills and mesas. There are mountains in Cuba from
+one end of the island to the other, but they are not derived from
+any central mass and are not continuous. As just indicated
+there are three distinctively mountainous districts, various
+minor groups lying outside these. The three main systems are
+known in Cuba as the occidental, central and oriental. The
+first, the Organ mountains, in Pinar del Rio, rises in a sandy,
+marshy region near Cape San Antonio. The crest runs near
+the N. shore, leaving various flanking spurs and foothills, and a
+coastal plain which at its greatest breadth on the S. is some 20 m.
+wide. The plain on the N. is narrower and higher. The southern
+slope is smooth, and abounds in creeks and rivers. The portion
+of the southern plain between the bays of Cortés and Majana
+is the most famous portion of the Vuelta Abajo tobacco region.
+The mountain range is capriciously broken at points, especially
+near Bejucal. The highest part is the Pan de Guajaibón, near
+Bahía Honda, at the W. end of the chain; its altitude has
+been variously estimated from 2500 to 1950 ft. The central
+system has two wings, one approaching the N. coast, the
+other covering the island between Sancti Spiritus and Santa
+Clara. It comprehends a number of independent groups. The
+highest point, the Pico Potrerillo, is about 2900 ft. in altitude.
+The summits are generally well rounded, while the lower slopes
+are often steep. Frequent broad intervals of low upland or low
+level plain extend from sea to sea between and around the mountains.
+Near the coast runs a continuous belt of plantations, while
+grazing, tobacco and general farm lands cover the lower slopes
+of the hills, and virgin forests much of the uplands and mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The oriental mountain region includes the province of Oriente
+and a portion of Camagüey. In extent, in altitude, in mass,
+in complexity and in geological interest, it is much the most
+important of the three systems. Almost all the mountains are
+very bold. They are imperfectly known. There are two main
+ranges, the Sierra Maestra, and a line of various groups along
+the N. shore. The former runs from Cape Santa Cruz eastward
+along the coast some 125 m. to beyond the river Baconao. The
+Sierra de Cobre, a part of the system in the vicinity of Santiago,
+has a general elevation of about 3000 ft. Monte Turquino,
+7700-8320 ft. in altitude, is the highest peak of the island.
+Gran Piedra rises more than 5200 ft., the Ojo del Toro more than
+3300, the Anvil de Baracoa is somewhat lower, and Pan de
+Matanzas is about 1267 ft. The western portions of the range
+rise abruptly from the ocean, forming a bold and beautiful
+coast. A multitude of ravines and gullies, filled with torrential
+streams or dry, according to the season of the year, and characterized
+by many beautiful cascades, seam the narrow coastal plain
+and the flanks of the mountains. The spurs of the central range
+are a highly intricate complex, covered with dense forests of
+superb woods. Many points are inaccessible, and the scenery
+is wild in the extreme. The mountains beyond Guantánamo are
+locally known by a variety of names, though topographically
+a continuation of the Sierra Maestra. The same is true of the
+chains that coalesce with these near Cape Maisí and diverge
+northwesterly along the N. coast of the island. The general
+character of this northern marginal system is much the same
+as that of the southern, save that the range is much less
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
+continuous. A dozen or more groups from Nipe in the E. to the
+coast N. of Camagüey in the W. are known only by individual
+names. The range near Baracoa is <span class="correction" title="amended from entremely">extremely</span> wild and broken.
+The region between the lines of the two coastal systems is a
+much dissected plateau, imperfectly explored. The Cauto river,
+the only one flowing E. or W. and the largest of Cuba, flows
+through it westward to the southern coast near Manzanillo.
+The scenery in the oriental portion of the island is very beautiful,
+with wild mountains and tropical forests. In the central
+part there are extensive prairies. In the west there are
+swelling hills and gentle valleys, with the royal palm the
+dominating tree. The valley of the Yumurí, near Matanzas,
+a small circular basin crossed by a river that issues through a
+glen to the sea, is perhaps the most beautiful in Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>A very peculiar feature of Cuba is the abundance of caverns
+in the limestone deposits that underlie much of the island&rsquo;s
+surface. The caves of Cotilla near Havana, of Bellamar near
+Matanzas, of Monte Libano near Guantánamo, and those of San
+Juan de los Remedios, are the best known, but there are scores
+of others. Many streams are &ldquo;disappearing,&rdquo; part of their
+course being through underground tunnels. Thus the Rio San
+Antonio suddenly disappears near San Antonio de los Bańos;
+the cascades of the Jatibónico del Norte disappear and reappear
+in a surprising manner; the Moa cascade (near Guantánamo)
+drops 300 ft. into a cavern and its waters later reissue from the
+earth; the Jojo river disappears in a great &ldquo;sink&rdquo; and later
+issues with violent current at the edge of the sea. The springs
+of fresh water that bubble up among the keys of the S. coast
+are also supposedly the outlets of underground streams.</p>
+
+<p>The number of rivers is very great, but almost without exception
+their courses are normal to the coast, and they are so short
+as to be of but slight importance. The Cauto river in Oriente
+province is exceptional; it is 250 m. long, and navigable by
+small vessels for about 75 m. Inside the bar at its mouth (formed
+by a storm in 1616) ships of 200 tons can still ascend to Cauto.
+In Camagüey province the Jatibónico del Sur; in Oriente the
+Salado, a branch of the Cauto; in Santa Clara the Sagua la
+Grande (which is navigable for some 20 m. and has an important
+traffic), and the Damuji; in Matanzas, the Canimar; and in
+Pinar del Rio the Cuyaguateje, are important streams. The
+water-parting in the four central provinces is very indefinite.
+There are few river valleys that are noteworthy&mdash;those of the
+Yumurí, the Trinidad and the Güines. At Guantánamo and
+Trinidad are other valleys, and between Mariel and Havana
+is the fine valley of Ariguanabo. Of lakes, there are a few on the
+coast, and a very few in the mountains. The finest is Lake
+Ariguanabo, near Havana, 6 sq. m. in area. Of the almost
+innumerable river cascades, those of the Sierra Maestra
+Mountains, and in particular the Moa cascade, have already been
+mentioned. The Guamá cascade in Oriente province and the
+Hanabanilla Fall near Cienfuegos (each more than 300 ft. high),
+the Rosario Fall in Pinar del Rio, and the Almendares cascade
+near Havana, may also be mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The foundation of the island is formed of metamorphic
+and igneous rocks, which appear in the Sierra Maestra and are exposed
+in other parts of the island wherever the comparatively thin
+covering of later beds has been worn away. A more or less continuous
+band of serpentine belonging to this series forms the principal
+watershed, although it nowhere rises to any great height. It is in
+this band that the greater part of the mineral wealth of Cuba is
+situated. These ancient rocks have hitherto yielded no fossils and
+their age is therefore uncertain, but they are probably pre-Cretaceous
+at least. Fossiliferous Cretaceous limestones containing <i>Rudistes</i>
+have been found in several parts of the island (Santiago de los
+Bańos, Santa Clara province, &amp;c.). At the base there is often an
+arkose, composed largely of fragments of serpentine and granite
+derived from the ancient floor. At Esperanza and other places in
+the Santa Clara province, bituminous plant-bearing beds occur
+beneath the Tertiary limestones, and at Baracoa a Radiolarian earth
+occupies a similar position. The latter, like the similar deposits in
+other West Indian islands, is probably of Oligocene age. It is the
+Tertiary limestones which form the predominant feature in the geology
+of Cuba. Although they do not exceed 1000 ft. in thickness,
+they probably at one time covered the whole island except the
+summits of the Sierra Maestra, where they have been observed,
+resting upon the older rocks, up to a height of 2300 ft. They contain
+corals, but are not coral reefs. The shells which have been found in
+them indicate that they belong for the most part to the Oligocene
+period. They are frequently very much disturbed and often strongly
+folded. Around the coast there is a raised shelf of limestone which
+was undoubtedly a coral reef. But it is of recent date and does not
+attain an elevation of more than 40 or 50 ft.</p>
+
+<p>Minerals are fairly abundant in number, but few are present in
+sufficient quantity to be industrially important. Traditions of gold
+and silver, dating from the time of the Spanish conquest, still endure,
+but these metals are in fact extremely rare. Oriente province
+is distinctively the mineral province of the island. Large copper
+deposits of peculiar richness occur here in the Sierra de Cobre,
+near the city of Santiago; and both iron and manganese are
+abundant. Besides the deposits in Oriente province, iron is
+known to exist in considerable amount in Camagüey and
+Santa Clara, and copper in Camagüey and Pinar del Rio
+provinces. The iron ores mined at Daiquiri near Santiago are
+mainly rich hematites running above 60% of iron, with very little
+sulphur or phosphorus admixture. The copper deposits are mainly
+in well-marked fracture planes in serpentine; the ore is pyrrhotite,
+with or without chalcopyrite. Manganese occurs especially along the
+coast between Santiago and Manzanillo; the best ores run above
+50%. Chromium and a number of other rare minerals are known
+to exist, but probably not in commercially available quantities.
+Bituminous products of every grade, from clear translucent oils
+resembling petroleum and refined naphtha, to lignite-like substances,
+occur in all parts of the island. Much of the bituminous deposits
+is on the dividing line between asphalt and coal. There is an endless
+amount of stone, very little of which is hard enough to be good for
+building material, the greatest part being a soft coralline limestone.
+The best buildings in Havana are constructed of a very rich white
+limestone, soft and readily worked when fresh, but hardening and
+slightly darkening with age. There are extensive and valuable
+deposits of beautiful marbles in the Isle of Pines, and lesser ones
+near Santiago. The Organ Mountains contain a hard blue limestone;
+and sandstones occur on the N. coast of Pinar del Rio province.
+Clays of all qualities and colours abound. Mineral waters, though
+not yet important in trade, are extremely abundant, and a score of
+places in Cuba and the Isle of Pines are already known as health
+resorts. Those near San Diego, Guanabacoa and Santa Maria del
+Rosario (near Havana) and Madruga (near Güines) are the best
+known.</p>
+
+<p>The soil of the island is almost wholly of modern formation,
+mainly alluvial, with superficial limestones as another prominent
+feature. In the original formation of the island volcanic disturbances
+and coral growth played some part; but there are only very slight
+superficial evidences in the island of former volcanic activity. Noteworthy
+earthquakes are rare. They have been most common in
+Oriente province. Those of 1776, 1842 and 1852 were particularly
+destructive, and of earlier ones those of 1551 and 1624 at Bayamo
+and of 1578 and 1678 at Santiago. Every year there are seismic
+disturbances, and though Santiago is the point of most frequent
+visitation, they occur in all parts of the island, in 1880 affecting the
+entire western end. Notable seismic disturbances in Cuba have coincided
+with similar activity in Central America so often as to make
+some connexion apparent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;The tropical heat and humidity of Cuba make possible
+a flora of splendid richness. All the characteristic species of the
+West Indies, the Central American and Mexican and southern
+Florida seaboard, and nearly all the large trees of the Mexican tropic
+belt, are embraced in it. As many as 3350 native flowering species
+were catalogued in 1876. The total number of species of the island
+flora was estimated in 1892 by a writer in the <i>Revista Cubana</i> (vol.
+xv. pp. 5-16) to be between 5000 and 6000, but hardly one-third of
+this number had then been gathered into a herbarium, and all parts
+of the island had not then been explored. It was estimated officially
+in 1904 that the wooded lands of the island comprised 3,628,434 acres,
+of which one-third were in Oriente province, another third in
+Camagüey, and hardly any in Havana province. Much of this
+area is of primeval forest; somewhat more than a third of the total,
+belonging to the government, was opened to sale (and speculative
+exspoliation) in 1904. The woods are so dense over large districts
+as to be impenetrable, except by cutting a path foot by foot through
+the close network of vines and undergrowth. The jagüey (<i>Ficus</i>
+sp.), which stifles in its giant coils the greatest trees of the forest,
+and the copei (<i>Clusia rosea</i>) are remarkable parasitic lianas. Of the
+palm there are more than thirty species. The royal palm is the most
+characteristic tree of Cuba. It attains a height of from 50 to 75 ft.,
+and sometimes of more than 100 ft. Alone, or in groups, or in long
+aisles, towering above the plantations or its fellow trees of the forest,
+its beautiful crest dominates every landscape. Every portion, from
+its roots to its leaves, serves some useful purpose. From it the native
+draws lumber for his hut, utensils for his kitchen, thatch for his roof,
+medicines, preserved delicacies, and a long list of other articles.
+The corojo palm (<i>Cocos crispa</i>) rivals the royal palm in beauty and
+utility; oil, sugar, drink and wood are derived from it. The coco
+palm (<i>Cocos nucifera</i>) is also put to varied uses. The mango is
+planted with the royal palm along the avenues of the plantations.
+The beautiful ceiba (<i>Bombax ceiba</i> L., <i>Ceiba pentandra</i>) or silk cotton
+tree is the giant of the Cuban forests; it often grows to a height of
+100 to 150 ft. with enormous girth. The royal pińon (<i>Erythrina</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span>
+<i>velatina</i>) is remarkable for the magnificent purple flowers that cover
+it. The tamarind and banyan are also noteworthy. Utilitarian
+trees and plants are legion. There are at least forty choice cabinet
+and building woods. Of these, ebonies, mahogany (for the bird&rsquo;s-eye
+variety such enormous prices are paid as $1200 to $1800 per thousand
+board-feet), cullá (or cuyá, <i>Bumelia retusa</i>), cocullo (cocuyo, <i>Bumelia
+nigra</i>), ocuje (<i>Callophyllum viticifolia</i>, <i>Ornitrophis occidentalis</i>, <i>O.
+cominia</i>), jigüe (jique, <i>Lysiloma sabicu</i>), mahagua (<i>Hibiscus tiliaceus</i>),
+granadillo (<i>Brya ebenus</i>), icaquillo (<i>Licania incania</i>) and agua-baría
+(<i>Cordia gerascanthes</i>) are perhaps the most beautiful. Other woods,
+beautiful and precious, include guayacan (Guaiacum sanctum), baría
+(varía, <i>Cordia gerascanthoides</i>)&mdash;the fragrant, hard-wood Spanish
+elm&mdash;the quiebra-hacha (<i>Copaifera hymenofolia</i>), which three
+are of wonderful lasting qualities; the jiquí (<i>Malpighia obovata</i>),
+acana (<i>Achras disecta</i>, <i>Bassia albescens</i>), caigarán (or caguairan,
+<i>Hymenaea floribunda</i>), and the dagame (<i>Calicophyllum candidissimum</i>),
+which four, like the cullá, are all wonderfully resistant to
+humidity; the caimatillo (<i>Chrysophyllum oliviforme</i>), the yaya (or
+yayajabico, yayabito: <i>Erythalis fructicosa</i>, <i>Bocagea virgata</i>, <i>Guateria
+virgata</i>, <i>Asimina Blaini</i>), a magnificent construction wood; the
+maboa (<i>Cameraria latifolia</i>) and the jocuma (jocum: <i>Sideroxylon
+mastichodendron</i>, <i>Bumelia saticifolia</i>), all of individual beauties and
+qualities. Many species are rich in gums and resins; the calambac,
+mastic, copal, cedar, &amp;c. Many others are oleaginous, among them,
+peanuts, sun-flowers, the bene seed (sesame), corozo, almond and
+palmachristi. Others (in addition to some already mentioned) are
+medicinal; as the palms, calabash, manchineel, pepper, fustic and
+a long list of cathartics, caustics, emetics, astringents, febrifuges,
+vermifuges, diuretics and tonics. Then, too, there are various
+dyewoods; rosewood, logwood (or campeachy wood), indigo,
+manajú (<i>Garcinia Morella</i>), Brazil-wood and saffron. Textile plants
+are extremely common. The majagua tree grows as high as 40 ft.;
+from its bark is made cordage of the finest quality, which is scarcely
+affected by the atmosphere. Strong, fine, glossy fibres are yielded
+by the exotic ramie (<i>Boehmeria nivea</i>), whose fibre, like that of the
+majagua, is almost incorruptible; by the maya or rat-pineapple
+(<i>Bromelia Pinguin</i>), and by the daquilla (or daiguiya&mdash;<i>Lagetta
+lintearia</i>, <i>L. valenzuelana</i>), which like the maya yields a brilliant,
+flexible product like silk; stronger cordage by the corojo palms,
+and various henequén plants, native and exotic (especially <i>Agave
+americana</i>, <i>A. Cubensis</i>); and various plantains, the exotic <i>Sansevieria
+guineensis</i>, okra, jute, <i>Laportea</i>, various lianas, and a great
+variety of reeds, supply varied textile materials of the best quality.
+The yucca is a source of starch. For building and miscellaneous
+purposes, in addition to the rare woods above named, there are
+cedars (used in great quantities for cigar boxes); the pine, found
+only in the W., where it gives its name to the Isle of Pines and the
+province of Pinar del Rio; various palms; oaks of varying hardness
+and colour, &amp;c. The number of alimentary plants is extremely great.
+Among economic plants should be mentioned the coffee, cacao,
+citron, cinnamon, cocoanut and rubber tree. Wheat, Indian corn
+and many vegetables, especially tuberous, are particularly important.
+Plantain occurs in several varieties; it is in part a cheap and healthful
+substitute for bread, which is also made from the bitter cassava,
+after the poison is extracted. The sweet cassava yields tapioca.
+Bread-trees are fairly common, but are little cared for. White and
+sweet potatoes, yams, sweet and bitter yuccas, sago and okra, may
+also be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Fruits are varied and delicious. The pineapple is the most favoured
+by Cubans. Four or five annual crops grow from one plant, but not
+more than three can be marketed, unless locally, as the product
+deteriorates. The better (&ldquo;purple&rdquo;) varieties are mainly consumed
+in the island, and the smaller and less juicy &ldquo;white&rdquo; varieties
+exported. The tamarind is everywhere. Bananas are grown particularly
+in the region about Nipe, Gibara and Baracoa, whence
+they are exported in large quantities, though there is a tendency
+to lessen their culture in these parts in favour of sugar. Mangoes,
+though exotic, are extremely common, and in the E. grow wild in the
+forests. They are the favourite fruit of the negroes. Oranges are
+little cultivated, although they offer apparently almost unlimited
+possibilities; their culture decreased steadily after 1880, but after
+about 1900 was again greatly extended. Lemons yield continuously
+through the year, but like oranges, not much has yet been done
+with them commercially. Pomegranates are as universally used in
+Cuba as apples in the United. States. Figs and grapes degenerate in
+Cuba. Dates grow better, but nothing has been done with them.
+The coco-nut palm is most abundant in the vicinity of Baracoa.
+Among the common fruits are various anonas&mdash;the custard apple
+(<i>Anona cherimolia</i>), sweet-sop (<i>A. squamosa</i>), sour-sop (<i>A. muricata</i>),
+mamón (<i>A. reticulata</i>), and others,&mdash;the star-apple (<i>Chrysophyllum
+cainito</i>, <i>C. pomiferum</i>), rose-apple (<i>Eugenia jambos</i>), pawpaw, the
+sapodilla (<i>Sapota achras</i>), the caniste (<i>Sapota Elongata</i>), jagua
+(<i>Genipa americana</i>), alligator pear (<i>Persea gratissima</i>), the yellow
+mammee (<i>Mammea americana</i>) and so-called &ldquo;red mammee&rdquo;
+(<i>Lucuma mammosa</i>) and limes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The fauna of Cuba, like the flora, is still imperfectly
+known. Collectively it shows long isolation from the other Antilles.
+Only two land mammals are known to be indigenous. One is the
+hutía (agouti) or Cuban rat, of which three species are known
+(<i>Capromys Fournieri</i>, <i>C. melanurus</i> and <i>C. Poey</i>). It lives in the
+most solitary woods, especially in the eastern hills. The other is
+a peculiar insectivore (<i>Solenodon paradoxus</i>), the only other representatives
+of whose family are found in Madagascar. Various animals,
+apparently indigenous, that are described by the early historians
+of the conquest, have disappeared. An Antillean rabbit is very
+abundant. Bats in prodigious numbers, and some of them of
+extraordinary size, inhabit the many caves of the island; more than
+twenty species are known. Rats and mice, especially the guayabita
+(<i>Mus musculus</i>), an extremely destructive rodent, are very abundant.
+The manatee, or sea-cow, frequents the mouths of rivers, the sargasso
+drifts, and the regions of submarine fresh-water springs off the coast.
+Horses, asses, cows, deer, sheep, goats, swine, cats and dogs were
+introduced by the early Spaniards. The last three are common in
+a wild state. Deer are not native, and are very rare; a few live in
+the swamps.</p>
+
+<p>Of birds there are more than 200 indigenous species, it is said,
+and migratory species are also numerous. Waders are represented
+by more than fifty species. Vultures are represented by only one
+species, the turkey buzzard, which is the universal scavenger of the
+fields, and until recent years even of the cities, and has always
+been protected by custom and the Laws of the Indies. Falcons
+are represented by a score of species, at least, several of them nocturnal.
+Kestrels are common. The gallinaceous order is rich in
+<i>Columbidae</i>. Trumpeters are notably represented, and climbers
+still more so. Among the latter are species of curious habits and
+remarkable colouring. Woodpeckers (<i>Coloptes auratus</i>), macaws,
+parrakeets and other small parrots, and trogons, these last of beautifully
+resplendent plumage, deserve particular mention. The Cuban
+mocking-bird is a wonderful songster. Of humming-birds there
+are said to be sixty species, probably only one indigenous. Of the
+other birds mere mention may be made of the wild pigeon, raven,
+indigo-bird, English lady-bird and linnet.</p>
+
+<p>Reptiles are numerous. Many tortoises are notable. The crocodile
+and cayman occur in the swampy littoral of the south. Of
+lizards the iguana (<i>Cyclura caudata</i>) is noteworthy. Chameleons
+are common. Snakes are not numerous, and it is said that none is
+poisonous or vicious. There is one enormous boa, the maja (<i>Epicrates
+angulifer</i>), which feeds on pigs, goats and the like, but does
+not molest man.</p>
+
+<p>Fishes are present in even greater variety than birds. Felipa
+Poey, in his <i>Ictiologia Cubana</i>, listed 782 species of fish and crustaceans,
+of which 105 were doubtful; but more than one-half of the
+remainder were first described by Poey. The fish of Cuban waters are
+remarkable for their metallic colourings. The largest species are
+found off the northern coast. Food fishes are relatively not abundant,
+presumably because the deep sea escarpments of the N. are unfavourable
+to their life. Shell fish are unimportant. Two species
+of blind fish, of extreme scientific interest, are found in the caves of
+the island. Of the &ldquo;percoideos&rdquo; there are many genera. Among
+the most important are the robalo (<i>Labrax</i>), an exquisite food fish,
+the tunny, eel, Spanish sardine and mangua. Of the sharks the
+genus <i>Squalus</i> is represented by individuals that grow to a length of
+26 to 30 ft. The hammer-head attains a weight at times of 600 &#8468;.
+The saw-fish is common. Of fresh-water fish the lisa, dogro, guayácón
+and viajocos (<i>Chromis fuscomaculatus</i>) are possibly the most
+noteworthy.</p>
+
+<p>Molluscs are extraordinarily numerous; and many, both of water
+and land, are rarities among their kind for size and richness of colour.
+Of crustaceans, land-crabs are remarkable for size and number.
+Arachnids are prodigiously numerous. Insect life is abundant and
+beautiful. The bite of the scorpion and of the numerous spiders
+produces no serious effects. The nigua, the Cuban jigger, is a pest of
+serious consequence, and the mal de nigua (jigger sickness) sometimes
+causes the death of lower animals and men. Sand-flies and
+biting gnats are lesser nuisances. Lepidoptera are very brilliant in
+colouring. The cucujo or Cuban firefly (<i>Pyrophorus noctilucus</i>)
+gives out so strong a light that a few of them serve effectively as
+a lantern. The <i>Stegomyia</i> mosquito is the agent of yellow fever
+inoculation. Sponges grow in great variety.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate of Cuba is tropical and distinctively
+insular in characteristics of humidity, equability and high mean
+temperature. There are two distinct seasons: a &ldquo;dry&rdquo; season
+from November to April, and a hotter, &ldquo;wet&rdquo; season. About
+two-thirds of the total precipitation falls in the latter. Droughts,
+extensive in area and in duration, are by no means uncommon.
+At Havana the mean temperature is about 76° F., with extreme
+monthly oscillations ranging on the average from 6° to 12° F.
+for different months, and with a range between the means of the
+coldest and warmest months of 10° (70° to 80°); temperatures
+below 50° or above 90° being rare. The mean rainfall at Havana
+is about 40.6 in. (sometimes over 80), and the mean absolute
+humidity of different months ranges from 70 to 80%. These
+figures represent fairly well the conditions of much of the northern
+coast. In the N.E. the rainfall is much greater. The equability
+of heat throughout the day is masked and relieved by the afternoon
+sea breezes. The trades are steady through the year, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
+in the dry season the western part of the island enjoys cool
+&ldquo;northers.&rdquo; Despite this the interior is somewhat cooler than
+the coast, and in the uplands frost is not uncommon. The
+southern littoral is also (except in sheltered points such as
+Santiago, which is one of the hottest cities of the island) somewhat
+cooler than the northern.</p>
+
+<p>More than eight or ten years rarely pass without tornadoes
+or hurricanes of local severity at least. Notably destructive
+ones occurred in 1768, 1774, 1842, 1844, 1846, 1865, 1870, 1876,
+1885 and 1894. Those of 1842 and 1844 caused extreme distress
+in the island. In 1846, 300 vessels and 2000 houses were destroyed
+at Havana; in 1896 the banana groves of the N.E. coast were
+ruined and the banana industry prostrated; and in 1906
+Havana suffered damage. The autumn months, particularly
+October and November, are those in which such storms most
+frequently occur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Health.</i>&mdash;Convincing evidence is offered by the qualities of
+the Spanish race in Cuba that white men of temperate lands can
+be perfectly acclimatized in this tropical island. As for diseases,
+some common to Cuba and Europe are more frequent or severe
+in the island, others rarer or milder. There are the usual malarial,
+bilious and intermittent fevers, and liver, stomach and intestinal
+complaints prevalent in tropical countries; but unhygienic
+living is, in Cuba as elsewhere, mainly responsible for their
+existence. Yellow fever (which first appeared in Cuba in 1647)
+was long the only epidemic disease, Havana being an endemic
+focus. Aside from the recurrent loss of life, the pecuniary loss
+from such epidemics was enormous, and the interference with
+commerce and social intercourse with other countries extremely
+vexatious. The Cuban coast was uninterruptedly full of infection,
+and the danger of an outbreak in each year was never
+absent, until the work of the United States army in 1901-1902
+conclusively proved that this disease, though ineradicable by
+the most extreme sanitary measures, based on the accepted
+theory of its origin as a filth-disease, could be eradicated entirely
+by removing the possibility of inoculation by the <i>Stegomyia</i>
+mosquito. Since then yellow fever has ceased to be a scourge
+in Cuba. Small-pox was the cause of a greater mortality than
+yellow fever even before the means of combating the latter had
+been ascertained. The remarkable sanitary work begun during
+the American occupation and continued by the republic of Cuba,
+has shown that the ravages of this and other diseases can be
+greatly diminished. Leprosy is rather common, but seemingly
+only slightly contagious. Consumption is very prevalent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Soils are of four classes: calcareous-ferruginous,
+alluvial, argillous and silicious. Calcareous lands are predominant,
+especially in the uplands. Deep residual clay soils
+derived from underlying limestones, and coloured red or black
+according to the predominance of oxides of iron or vegetable
+detritus, characterize the plains. A red-black soil known as
+&ldquo;mulatto&rdquo; or tawny is perhaps the best fitted for general
+cultivation. Tobacco is most generally cultivated on loose red
+soils, which are rich in clays and silicates; and sugar-cane preferably
+on the black and mulatto soils; but in general, contrary
+to prevalent suppositions, colour is no test of quality and not a
+very valuable guide in the setting of crops. Almost without
+exception the lands throughout the island are of extreme fertility.
+The lowlands about Cienfuegos, Trinidad, Mariel and Matanzas
+are noted for their richness. The census of 1899 showed that
+farm lands occupied three-tenths of the total area; the cultivated
+area being one-tenth of the farms or 3% of the whole. At the
+end of 1905 it was officially estimated that 16% was in cultivation.
+In 1902 it was officially estimated that the public land
+available for permanent agrarian cultivation, including forest
+lands, was only 186,967 hectares (416,995 acres), almost wholly
+in the province of Oriente. The average size of a farm in 1899
+was 143 acres. More than 85% of all cultivated lands were
+then occupied by whites; and somewhat more than one-half
+(56.6%) of all occupiers were renters. Holdings of more than
+32 acres constituted only 7% of the total. As regards crops,
+47% of the cultivated area was given over to sugar, 11% to
+sweet potatoes, 9% to tobacco and almost 9% to bananas.
+But owing to the disturbed conditions created by the war it
+is probable that these figures by no means represent normal
+conditions. The actual sugar crop of 1899-1900, for example,
+was not a quarter of that of 1894. With the establishment of
+peace in 1898 and the influx of American and other capital and
+of a heavy immigration, great changes took place in agriculture
+as in other industrial conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Sugar has been the dominant crop since the end of the 18th
+century. Before the Civil War of 1895-1898 the capital invested
+in sugar estates was greater by half than that represented
+by tobacco and coffee plantations, live-stock
+<span class="sidenote">Sugar.</span>
+ranches and other farms. Since that time fruit and live-stock
+interests have increased. The dependence of the island on one
+crop has been an artificial economic condition often of grave
+momentary danger to prosperity; but generally speaking, the
+progress of the industry has been steady. The competition of
+the sugar-beet has been felt severely. During and after the
+war of 1868-1878, when many Cuban estates were confiscated,
+many families emigrated, and many others were ruined, the
+ownership of plantations largely passed from the hands of Cubans
+to Spaniards. Under the conditions of free labour, the development
+of railways abroad, the improvement of machinery both
+in cane and beet producing countries, the general competition
+of the beet, and the fall of prices, it was impossible for the Cuban
+industry to survive without radical betterment of methods.
+About 1885 began an immense development of centralization
+(the tendency having been evident many years before this).
+Plantations have increased greatly in size (and also diminished
+in number), greater capital is involved, bagasse furnaces have been
+introduced, double grinding mills have increased by more than
+a half the yield of juice from a given weight of cane, and extractive
+operations instead of being carried on on all plantations
+have been (since 1880) concentrated in comparatively few
+&ldquo;centrals&rdquo; (168 in Feb. 1908). Three-fourths of all are in the
+jurisdictions of Cienfuegos, Cárdenas, Havana, Matanzas and
+Sagua la Grande, which are the great sugar centres of the island
+(three-fourths of the crop coming from Matanzas and Santa
+Clara provinces). Caibarién, Guantánamo and Manzanillo are
+next in importance. A comparatively low cost of labour, the
+fact that labour is not, as in the days of slavery, that of unintelligent
+blacks but of intelligent free labourers, the centralized
+organization and modern methods that prevail on the plantations,
+the remarkable fertility of the soil (which yields 5 or 6 crops on
+good soil and with good management, without replanting), and
+the proximity of the United States, in whose markets Cuba
+disposes of almost all her crop, have long enabled her to distance
+her smaller West Indian rivals and to compete with the bounty-fed
+beet. The methods of cultivation, however, are still distinctly
+extensive, and the returns are much less than they would be
+(and in some other cane countries are) under more intensive
+and scientific methods of cultivation. Indeed, conditions were
+relatively primitive so late as 1880, if compared with those of
+other sugar-producing countries. More than four-fifths of the
+total area sown to cane in the island is in the three provinces of
+Santa Clara, Matanzas and Oriente (formerly Santiago), the
+former two representing two-thirds of the area and three-fourths
+of the crop. The majority of the sugar estates are of an area
+less than 3000 acres, and the most common area is between
+1500 and 2000 acres; but the extremes range from a very small
+size to 60,000 acres. Only a part of the great estates is ever
+planted in any one season. The most profitable unit is calculated
+to be a daily consumption of 1500 tons of cane, or 150,000 in a
+grinding season of 100 days, which implies a feeding area not
+above 6000 acres. In the season of 1904-1905, which may be
+taken as typical, 179 estates, with a planted area of 431,056
+acres, produced 11,576,137 tons of cane, and yielded&mdash;in addition
+to alcohol, brandy and molasses&mdash;1,089,814 tons of sugar. Of
+this amount 416,862 tons were produced by 24 estates yielding
+more than 11,000 tons each, including one (planting 28,050 acres)
+that yielded 33,609, and 4 others more than 22,000 tons each.
+The production of the island from 1850 to 1868 averaged 469,934
+tons yearly, rising from 223,145 to 749,000; from 1869 to 1886
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span>
+(continuing high during the period of the Ten Years&rsquo; War),
+632,003 tons; from 1887 to 1907&mdash;omitting the five years 1896-1900
+when the industry was prostrated by war,&mdash;909,827 tons
+(and including the war period, 758,066); and in the six harvests
+of 1901-1906, 1,016,899 tons. Prior to 1902 the million mark,
+was reached only twice&mdash;in 1894 and 1895. Following the
+resuscitation of the industry after the last war, the island&rsquo;s crop
+rose steadily from one-sixth to a full quarter of the total cane
+sugar output of the world, its share in the world&rsquo;s product of
+sugar of all kinds ranging from a tenth to an eighth. Of this
+enormous output, from 98.3% upward went to the United
+States;<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of whose total importation of all sugars and of cane
+sugar the proportion of Cuban cane&mdash;steadily rising&mdash;was
+respectively 49.8 and 53.7% in the seasons of 1900-1901 and
+1904-1905.</p>
+
+<p>If sugar is the island&rsquo;s greatest crop, tobacco is her most
+renowned in the markets of the world. Three-fourths of the
+tobacco of Cuba comes from Pinar del Rio province;
+the rest mainly from the provinces of Havana and
+<span class="sidenote">Tobacco.</span>
+Santa Clara,&mdash;the description <i>de partido</i> being applied to the
+leaf not produced in Havana and Pinar del Rio provinces, and
+sometimes to all produced outside the <i>vuelta abajo</i>. This district,
+including the finest land, is on the southern slope of the Organ
+Mountains between the Honda river and Mantua; bananas are
+cultivated with the tobacco. &ldquo;Vegas&rdquo; (tobacco fields) of
+especially good repute are also found near Trinidad, Remedios,
+Yara, Mayarí and Vicana. The tobacco industry has been
+uniformly prosperous, except when crippled by the destruction
+of war in 1868-1878 and 1895-1898. Even in the time of slavery
+tobacco was generally a white-man&rsquo;s crop; for it requires
+intelligent labour and intensive care. In recent years the growth
+of the leaf under cloth tents has greatly increased, as it has been
+abundantly proved that the product thus secured is much more
+valuable&mdash;lighter in colour and weight, finer in texture, with an
+increased proportion of wrapper leaves, and more uniform
+qualities, and with lesser amounts of cellulose, nicotine, gums and
+resins. In these respects the finest Cuban tobacco crops, produced
+in the sun, hardly rival the finest Sumatra product; but
+produced under cheese-cloth they do. &ldquo;Cuban tobacco&rdquo; does
+not mean to-day, as a commercial fact, what the words imply;
+for the original <i>Nicotiana Tabacum</i>, variety <i>havanensis</i>, can
+probably be found pure to-day only in out-of-the-way corners
+of Pinar del Rio. After the Ten Year&rsquo;s War seed of Mexican
+and United States tobaccos was in great demand to re-seed
+the ruined vegas, and was introduced in great quantities;
+and although by a later law the destruction of these exotic
+species was ordered, that destruction was in fact quite impossible.
+&ldquo;Lusty growers and coarser than the genuine old-time Cuban ... Mexican
+tobaccos (<i>Nicotiana Tabacum</i>, variety <i>macrophyllum</i>)
+are to-day predominant in a large part of Cuban vegas....
+Ordinary commercial Cuban seed of to-day is largely, and often
+altogether, Mexican tobacco.&rdquo; Though improved in the Cuban
+environment, the foreign tobaccos introduced after the Ten
+Years&rsquo; War did not lose their exotic character, but prevailed
+over the indigenous forms: &ldquo;Tobaccos with exactly the character
+of the introduced types are now the prevalent forms&rdquo;
+(quotation from Bulletin of the <i>Estación Central Agronómica</i>,
+Feb. 1908). In the markets of the world Cuban tobacco has
+always suffered less competition than Cuban sugar, and still less
+has been done than in the case of sugar cane in the study of
+methods of cultivation, which in several respects are far behind
+those of other tobacco-growing countries. The crop of 1907 was
+201,512 bales (109,562,400 &#8468; Sp.).</p>
+
+<p>Coffee-raising was once a flourishing and very promising
+industry. It first attained prominence with the settlement in
+eastern Cuba, late in the 18th century, of French
+refugee immigrants from San Domingo. Some &ldquo;cafetales&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote">Coffee.</span>
+were established by the newcomers near Havana, but
+the industry has always been almost exclusively one of Oriente
+province; with Santa Clara as a much smaller producer. Before
+the war of 1868-1878 the production amounted to about
+25,000,000 &#8468; yearly. The war of 1895-1898 still further
+diminished the vitality of the industry. In 1907 the crop was
+6,595,700 &#8468;. The berries are of fine quality, and despite the
+competition of Brazil there is no (agricultural) reason why the
+home market at least should not be supplied from Cuban estates.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of other agricultural crops those of fruits are of greatest importance&mdash;bananas
+(which are planted about once in three years),
+pine-apples (planted about once in five years), coco-nuts, oranges,
+&amp;c. The coco-nut industry has long been largely confined to the
+region about Baracoa, owing to the ruin of the trees elsewhere by a
+disease not yet thoroughly understood, which, appearing finally
+near Baracoa, threatened by 1908 to destroy the industry there as
+well. Yams and sweet-potatoes, yuccas, malangas, cacao, rice&mdash;which
+is one of the most important foods of the people, but which
+is not yet widely cultivated on a profitable basis&mdash;and Indian corn,
+which grows everywhere and yields two crops yearly, may be mentioned
+also. In very recent years gardening has become an interest
+of importance, particularly in the province of Pinar del Rio. Save
+on the coffee, tobacco and sugar plantations, where competition in
+large markets has compelled the adoption of adequate modern
+methods, agriculture in Cuba is still very primitive. The wooden
+ploughstick, for instance&mdash;taking the country as a whole&mdash;has never
+been displaced. A central agricultural experiment station (founded
+1904) is maintained by the government at Santiago de las Vegas;
+but there is no agricultural college, nor any special school for the
+scientific teaching and improvement of sugar and tobacco farming or
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>Stock-breeding is a highly important interest. It was the all-important
+one in the early history of the island, down to about the
+latter part of the 18th century. Grasses grow luxuriantly, and the
+savannahs of central Cuba are, in this respect, excellent cattle
+ranges. The droughts to which the island is recurrently subject are,
+however, a not unimportant drawback to the industry; and though
+the best ranges, under favourable conditions, are luxuriant, nevertheless
+the pastures of the island are in general mediocre. Practically
+nothing has yet been done in the study of native grasses and the
+introduction of exotic species. The possibilities of the stock interest
+have as yet by no means been realized. The civil wars were probably
+more disastrous to it than to any other agricultural interest of the
+island. It has been authoritatively estimated, for example, that
+from 90 to 95% of all horses, neat cattle and hogs in the entire
+island were lost in the war years of 1895-1898. In the decade after
+1898 particularly great progress was made in the raising of live-stock.
+The fishing and sponge industries are important. Batabanó and
+Caibarién are centres of the sponge fisheries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Manufactures.</i>&mdash;The manufacturing industries of Cuba have
+never been more than insignificant as compared with what they
+might be. In 1907 48.5% of all wage-earners were engaged in
+agriculture, fishing and mining, 16.3 in manufactures, and 17.7
+in trade and transportation. Such manufactures as are of any
+consequence are mostly connected with the sugar and tobacco
+industries. Forest resources have been but slightly touched
+(more so since the end of Spanish rule) except mahogany, which
+goes to the United States, and cedar, which is used to box the
+tobacco products of the island, much going also to the United
+States. The value of forest products in 1901-1902 amounted
+to $320,528. There are some tanneries, some preparation of
+preserves and other fruit products, and some old handicraft
+industries like the making of hats; but these have been of
+comparatively scant importance. Despite natural advantages
+for all meat industries, canned meats have generally been
+imported. The leading manufactures are cigars and cigarettes,
+sugar, rum and whisky. The tobacco industries are very largely
+concentrated in Havana, and there are factories in Santiago
+de las Vegas and Bejucal. The yearly output of cigars was
+locally estimated in 1908 at about 500,000,000, but this is probably
+too high an estimate. In 1904-1906 the yearly average
+sent to the United States was 234,063,652 cigars, 29,776,429 &#8468;
+of leaf and 14,203,571 packages of cigarettes. The sugar
+industry is not similarly centralized. With the improvement
+of methods the old partially refined grades (moscobados) have
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mining.</i>&mdash;Mining is of very considerable importance. The
+Cobre copper mines near Santiago were once the greatest producers
+of the world. They were worked from 1524 until about
+1730, when they were abandoned for almost a century, after
+which they were reopened and greatly developed. In 1828-1840
+about two million dollars&rsquo; worth of ore was shipped yearly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span>
+to the United States alone. After 1868 the mines were again
+abandoned and flooded, the mining property being ruined during
+the civil war. Finally, after 1900 they again became prosperous
+producers. The &ldquo;Cobre&rdquo; mine is only the most famous and
+productive of various copper properties. The copper output
+has not greatly increased since 1890, and is of slight importance
+in mineral exports. Iron and manganese have, on the contrary,
+been greatly developed in the same period. Iron is now the most
+important mineral product. The iron ores are even more
+accessible than the famous ones of the Lake Superior region
+in the United States. No shafts or tunnels are necessary except
+for exploration; the mining consists entirely in open-cut and
+terrace work. The cost of exploitation is accordingly slight.
+Daiquiri, near Santiago, and mines near Nipe, on the north coast,
+are the chief centres of production. Nearly the entire product
+goes to the United States. The first exports from the Daiquiri
+district were made by an American company in 1884; the Nipe
+(Cagimaya) mines became prominent in promise in 1906. The
+shipments from Oriente province from 1884 to 1901 aggregated
+5,053,847 long tons, almost all going to the United States (which
+is true of other mineral products also). After 1900 production
+was greatly increased and by 1906 had come to exceed half a
+million tons annually. There are small mines in Santa Clara
+and Camagüey provinces. Manganese is mined mainly near La
+Maya and El Cristo in Oriente. The traditions as to gold and silver
+have already been referred to. Evidences of ancient workings
+remain near Holguin and Gibara, and it is possible that some
+of these workings are still exploitable. Mining for the precious
+metals ceased at a very early date, after rich discoveries were
+made on the continent. Bituminous products, though, as already
+stated, widely distributed, are not as yet much developed.
+The most promising deposits and the most important workings
+are in Matanzas and Santa Clara provinces. Petroleum has
+been used to some extent both as a fuel and as an illuminant.
+Small amounts of asphalt have been sent to the United States.
+Locally, asphalts are used as gas enrichers. Grahamite and
+glance-pitch are common, and are exported for use in varnish and
+paint manufactures. The commercial product of stones, brick
+and cement is of rapidly increasing importance. The foundation
+of the island is in many places almost pure carbonate
+of lime, and there are numerous small limekilns. The product
+is used to bleach sugar, as well as for construction and disinfection
+purposes. The number of small brick plants is legion,
+almost all very primitive.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;Commerce (resting largely upon specialized agriculture)
+is vastly more prominent as yet than manufacturing
+and mining in the island&rsquo;s economy. The leading articles of
+export are sugar, tobacco and fruit products; of import, textiles,
+foodstuffs, lumber and wood products, and machinery. Sugar
+and tobacco products together represent seven-eighths (in 1904-1907
+respectively 60.3 and 27.3%) of the normal annual
+exports. In the quinquennial period 1890-1894 (immediately
+preceding the War of Independence) the average yearly commerce
+of the island in and out was $86,875,663 with the United States;
+and $28,161,726 with Spain.<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> During the American military
+occupation of the island in 1899-1902, of the total imports
+45.9% were from the United States, 14 from other American
+countries, 15 from Spain, 14 from the United Kingdom, 6 from
+France and 4 from Germany; of the exports the corresponding
+percentages for the same countries were 70.7, 2, 3, 10, 4 and 7.
+No special favours were enjoyed by the United States in this
+period, and about the same percentages prevailed in the years
+following. The total <span class="correction" title="amended from commerical">commercial</span> movement of the island in
+the five calendar years 1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 (for
+the five fiscal years 1902-1903 to 1906-1907, $185,987,020)
+annually, and of this the share of the United States was
+$108,431,000 yearly, representing 45.8% of all imports and
+81.9% of all exports. The proportion of imports taken from the
+United States is greatest in foodstuffs, metals and metal manufactures,
+timber and furniture, mineral oils and lard. The trade
+of the United States with the island was as great in 1900-1907
+as with Mexico and all the other West Indies combined; as
+great as its trade with Spain, Portugal and Italy combined;
+and almost as great as its trade with China and Japan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Poor means of communication have always
+been a great handicap to the industries of the island. The first
+railroad in Cuba (and the first in Spanish lands) was opened from
+Havana to Güines in 1837. In succeeding years a fairly ample
+system was built up between the cities of Pinar del Rio and
+Santa Clara, with a number of short spurs from the chief ports
+farther eastward into the interior. After the first American
+occupation a private company built a line from Santa Clara to
+Santiago, more than half the length of the island, finally connecting
+its two ends (1902). The policy of the railways was always one
+rather of extortion than of fairness or of any interest in the
+development of the country, but better conditions have begun.
+There was ostensible government regulation of rates after 1877,
+but the roads were guaranteed outright against any loss of
+revenue, and in fact practically nothing was ever done in the way
+of reform in the Spanish period. In 1900 the total length of railways
+was 2097 m., of which 1226 were of 17 public roads and
+871 m. of 107 private roads. In August 1908 the mileage of
+all railways (including electric) in Cuba was 2329.8 m. The telegraph
+and telephone systems are owned by the government.
+Cables connect the island with Florida, Jamaica, Haiti and San
+Domingo, Porto Rico, the lesser Antilles, Panama, Venezuela
+and Brazil. Havana, Santiago and Cienfuegos are cable ports.
+Wagon roads are still of small extent and primitive character
+save in a very few localities. The peculiar two-wheeled carts
+of the country, carrying enormous loads of 4 to 6 tons, destroy
+even the finest road. Similar carts, slightly lighter, used in the
+cities, quickly destroy any paving but stone block. The only
+good highways of any considerable length in 1908 were in the
+two western provinces and in the vicinity of Santiago. During
+the second American occupation work was begun on a network
+of good rural highways.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;Various censuses were taken in Cuba beginning
+in 1774; but the results of those preceding the abolition of
+slavery, at least, are probably without exception extremely
+untrustworthy. The census of 1887 showed a population of
+1,631,687, that of 1899 a population of 1,572,792 (the decrease of
+3.6% is explained by the intervening war); and by the census of
+1907 there were 2,048,980 inhabitants, 30.3% more than in 1899.
+The average of settlement per square mile varied from 169.7
+in Havana province to 11.8 in Camagüey, and was 46.4 for all
+of Cuba; the percentage of urban population (in cities, that is,
+with more than 1000 inhabitants) in the different provinces
+varied from 18.2 in Pinar del Rio to 74.7 in Havana, and was
+43.9 for the entire island. There were five cities having populations
+above 25,000&mdash;Havana, 297,159; Santiago, 45,470;
+Matanzas, 36,009; Cienfuegos, 30,100; Puerto Príncipe (or
+Camagüey), 29,616; and fourteen more above 8000&mdash;Cardenas,
+Manzanillo, Guanabacoa, Santa Clara, Sagua la Grande, Sancti
+Spiritus, Guantánamo, Trinidad, Pinar del Rio, San Antonio de
+los Bańos, Jovellanos, Marianao, Caibarién and Güines. The
+proportion of the total population which in 1907 was in cities
+of 8000 or more was only 30.3%; and the proportion in cities
+of 25,000 or more was 21.4%. Mainly owing to the large
+element of transient foreign whites without families (long
+characteristic of Cuba), males outnumber females&mdash;in 1907 as
+21 to 19. Native whites, almost everywhere in the majority,
+constituted 59.8% of all inhabitants; persons of negro and
+mixed blood, 29.7%; foreign-born whites, 9.9%; Chinese less
+than 0.6%. Foreigners constituted 25.6% of the population in
+the city of Havana; only 7% in Pinar del Rio province. Native
+blood is most predominant in the provinces of Oriente and Pinar
+del Rio. After the end of the war of 1895-1898 a large immigration
+from Spain began; the inflow from the United States was
+very small in comparison. The Republic strongly encourages
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
+immigration. In 1900-1906 there were 143,122 immigrants,
+of whom 124,863 were Spaniards, 4557 were from the United
+States, 2561 were Spanish Americans, and a few were Italian,
+Syrian, Chinese, French, English, &amp;c. The Chinese element
+is a remnant of a former coolie population; their numbers in
+1907 (11,217) were less than a fourth the number in 1887. Their
+introduction began in 1847 and ended in 1871. Conjugal conditions
+in Cuba are peculiar. In 1907 only 20.7% of the total
+population were legally married; an additional 8.6% were living
+in more or less permanent consensual unions, these being particularly
+common among the negroes. Including all unions the total
+is below the European proportion, but above that of Porto Rico
+or Jamaica in 1899.</p>
+
+<p>The negro element is strongest in the province of Oriente and
+weakest in Camagüey; in the former it constituted 43.1%
+of the population, in the latter 18.3%, and in Havana City
+25.5%. In Guantánamo, in Santiago de Cuba, and in seven
+other towns they exceeded the whites in number. Caibarién
+and San Antonio de los Bańos had the largest proportion of
+white population. The position of the negroes in Cuba is
+exceptional. Despite the long period of slavery they are
+decidedly below the whites in number. The Spanish slave laws
+(although in practice often frightfully abused) were always
+comparatively generous to the slave, making relatively easy,
+among other things, the purchase of his freedom, the number of
+free blacks being always great. Since the abolition of slavery
+the status of the black has been made more definite, and his
+rights naturally much greater. The wars of 1868-1878 and
+1895-1898 and the threatened war of 1906 all helped to give
+to the negro element its high position. There is no antagonism
+between the divisions of the coloured race. All hold their own
+with the white in industrial usefulness to the community, and
+though the blacks are more backward in education and various
+other tests of social advancement, still their outlook is full of
+promise. There is practically no colour caste in Cuba; politically
+the negro is the white man&rsquo;s equal; socially there is very little
+ostensible inequality and almost perfect toleration. The negro
+in Cuba shows promising though undeveloped traits of landlordship.
+Women labour habitually in the fields. Miscegenation of
+blacks and whites was extremely common before emancipation.
+It is sometimes said that since then there has been a counter-tendency,
+but it is impossible to prove such a statement conclusively
+except with the aid of future censuses. Few of the
+negroes are black; some of the blackest have the regular features
+of the Caucasian; and racial mixtures are everywhere evidenced
+by colour of skin and by physiognomy. Its seems certain that
+the African element has been holding its own in the population
+totals since emancipation.</p>
+
+<p>Cuba is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic in religion, but under
+the new Republic there is a complete separation of church and
+state, and liberalism and indifference are increasing. Illiteracy is
+extremely widespread. In 1907 the census showed 56.6% (43.3
+in 1899) of persons above ten years who could read. Of the
+voting population 53.2% of native white, and 37.3% of coloured
+Cuban citizens, and 71.6% of Spanish citizens could read.
+A revolution in education was begun the first year of the United
+States military occupation and continued under the Republic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Constitution.</i>&mdash;The constitution upon which the government
+of Cuba rests was framed during the period of the United States
+military government; it was adopted the 21st of February
+1901, and certain amendments or conditions required by the
+United States were accepted on the 12th of June 1901. The
+constitution is republican and modelled on the Constitution
+of the United States, with some marked differences of greater
+centralization, due to colonial experience under the rule of Spain,
+notably as regards federalism; the provinces of the island being
+less important than the states of the American Union. The
+president of the Republic, who is elected for four years by an
+electoral college, and cannot hold office for more than two
+successive terms, has a cabinet whose members he may appoint
+and remove freely, their number being determined by law. He
+sanctions, promulgates and executes the laws, and supplements
+them (partly co-ordinately with congress) by administrative
+regulations in harmony with their ends; holds a veto power
+and pardoning power; controls with the senate political appointments
+and removals; and conducts foreign relations, submitting
+treaties to the senate for ratification. Congress consists
+of two houses. The senate contains four members from each
+province, chosen for eight years by a provincial electoral board,
+which consists of the provincial councilmen plus a double number
+of electors (half of them paying high taxes) who are selected at a
+special election by their fellow citizens. Half of the senators
+retire every four years. The senate is the court of trial for the
+president, officers of the cabinet, and provincial governors when
+accused of political offences. It also acts jointly with the
+president in political appointments and treaty making. The
+house of representatives, whose members are chosen directly
+by the citizens for four years, one-half retiring every two years,
+has the special power of impeaching the president and cabinet
+officers. Congress meets twice annually, in April and November.
+Its powers are extensive, including, in addition to ordinary
+legislative powers, control of financial affairs, foreign affairs, the
+power to declare war and approve treaties of peace, amnesties,
+electoral legislation for the provinces and municipalities, control
+of the electoral vote for president and vice-president, and
+designation of an acting president in case of the death or incapacity
+of these officers. The subjects of legislative power are
+very similar to those of the United States congress; but control
+of railroads, canals and public roads is explicitly given to
+the federal government. Justice is administered by courts of
+various grades, with a supreme court at Havana as the head;
+the members of this being appointed by the president and senate.
+This court passes on the constitutionality of all laws, decrees and
+regulations.</p>
+
+<p>There are six provinces&mdash;Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas,
+Santa Clara, Camagüey or Puerto Príncipe, and Oriente. Each has
+a provincial governor and assembly chosen directly by the people,
+generally charged with independent control of matters affecting
+the province; but the president may interfere against an abuse
+of power by either the governor or the assembly. Municipalities
+are administered by mayors (alcaldes) and assemblies elected by
+the people, and control strictly municipal affairs. The &ldquo;termino
+municipal&rdquo; is the chief political and administrative civil division.
+It is an urban district together with contiguous rural territory.
+Its divisions are &ldquo;barrios.&rdquo; The president may interfere if
+necessary in the municipality as in the province; and so may the
+governor of the province. But all interference is subject to
+review of claims by the courts. Both provinces and municipalities
+are forbidden by the constitution to contract debts
+without a coincident provision of permanent revenue for their
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>The franchise is granted to every male Cuban twenty-one years
+of age, not mentally incapacitated, nor previously a convict of
+crime, nor serving in the army or navy of the state. Foreigners
+may become citizens in five years by naturalization. Church
+and state are completely separated, toleration being guaranteed
+for the profession and practice of all religious beliefs, and the
+government may not subsidize any religion.</p>
+
+<p>Primary education is declared by the constitution to be free
+and compulsory; and its expenses are paid by the central
+government so far as it may be beyond the power of
+the province or municipality to bear them. Secondary
+<span class="sidenote">Education.</span>
+and advanced education is controlled by the state. In the last
+days of Spanish rule (1894), there were 904 public and 704
+private schools, and not more than 60,000 pupils enrolled; in
+1000 there were 3550 public schools with an enrolment of
+172,273 and an average attendance of 123,362. In the four
+school years from 1903-1904 to 1906-1907 the figures of
+enrolment and average attendance were: 201,824 and 110,531;
+194,657 and 105,706; 186,571 and 98,329; and 189,289 and
+93,865. In 1906-1907 the percentage (31.6) of attendants to
+children of school age was twice as large as in 1898-1899. Private
+schools, some of very high grade, draw many pupils. Almost
+all schools are primary. The university of Havana (founded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span>
+1728) was given greatly improved facilities, especially of material
+equipment, by the American military government, and seems
+to have begun an ambitious progress. In 1907 the number of
+students was 554. Below the university there are six provincial
+institutes, one in each province, in each of which there is a
+preparatory department, a department of secondary education,
+and (this due to peculiar local conditions) a school of surveying;
+and in that of Havana commercial departments in addition.
+In Havana, also, there is a school of painting and sculpture,
+a school of arts and trades, and a national library, all of which
+are supported or subventioned by the national government, as
+are also a public library in Matanzas, and the Agricultural
+Experiment Station at Santiago de las Vegas. In connexion
+with the university is a botanical garden; with the national
+sanitary service, a biological laboratory, and special services for
+small-pox, glanders and yellow fever. Independent of the
+government are various schools and learned societies in Havana
+(<i>q.v.</i>). A school was established by the government in Key
+West, Florida (U.S.A.), in 1905, for the benefit of the Cuban
+colony there. Finally, the government sustains about two score of
+penal establishments, reform schools, hospitals, dispensaries and
+asylums, which are scattered all over the island,&mdash;every town of
+any considerable size having one or more of these charities.</p>
+
+<p>Under the colonial rule of Spain the head of government was
+a supreme civil-military officer, the governor and captain-general.
+His control of the entire administrative life
+of the island was practically absolute. Originally
+<span class="sidenote">Former government.</span>
+residents at Santiago de Cuba, the captains-general
+resided after 1589 at Havana. Because of the isolation
+of the eastern part of the island, the dangers from pirates, and
+the important considerations which had caused Santiago de
+Cuba (<i>q.v.</i>) to be the first capital of the island, Cuba was divided
+in 1607 into two departments, and a governor, subordinate in
+military matters to the captain-general at Havana, was appointed
+to rule the territory east of Puerto Príncipe. In 1801, when the
+audiencia&mdash;of which the captain-general was <i>ex officio</i> president&mdash;began
+its functions at that point, the governor of Santiago
+became subordinated in political matters as much as in military.
+Two chief courts of justice (audiencias) sat at Havana (after
+1832) and Puerto Príncipe (1800-1853); appeals could go to
+Spain; below the audiencias were &ldquo;alcaldes mayores&rdquo; or
+district judges and ordinary &ldquo;alcaldes&rdquo; or local judges. The
+audiencias also held important political powers under the
+Laws of the Indies. The captaincy-general of Cuba was not
+originally, however, by any means so broad in powers as the
+viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru; and by the creation in 1765
+of the office of intendant&mdash;the delegate of the national treasury&mdash;his
+faculties were very greatly curtailed. The great powers of
+the intendant were, however, merged in those of the governor-general
+in 1853; and the captain-general having been given
+by royal order in 1825 (several times later explicitly confirmed,
+and not revoked until 1870) the absolute powers (to be assumed
+at his initiative and discretion) of the governor of a besieged
+city, and by a royal order of 1834 the power to banish at will
+persons supposed to be inimical to the public peace; and being
+by virtue of his office the president and dominator of all the
+important administrative boards of the government, held the
+government of the island, and in any emergency the liberty and
+property of its inhabitants, in his hand. The royal orders following
+1825 developed a system of extraordinary and extreme repression.
+In 1878, as the result of the Ten Years&rsquo; War, various administrative
+reforms, of a decentralizing tendency, were introduced.
+The six provinces were created, and had governors and assemblies
+(&ldquo;diputaciones&rdquo;); and a municipal law was provided
+that in many ways was a sound basis for local government. But
+centralization remained very great. In the municipality the
+alcalde (mayor) was appointed by the governor-general, and the
+ayuntamiento (council) was controlled by the veto of the provincial
+governor and by the assembly of the province. The
+deputation was subject in turn to the same veto of the provincial
+governor, and he controlled by the governor-general. There was
+besides a provincial commission of five lawyers named by the
+governor-general from the members of the deputation, who
+settled election questions, and questions of eligibility in this
+body, gave advice as to laws, acted for the deputation when
+it was not sitting, and in general facilitated centralized control
+of the administrative system. The character of this body was
+altered in 1890, and in 1898, in which latter year its functions
+were reduced to the essentially judicial. Despite superficial
+decentralization after 1878 any real growth of local self-government
+was rendered impossible. Moreover, no great reforms
+were made in the abuses naturally incident to the old personal
+system. Exile and imprisonment at the will of the government
+and without trial were common. Personal liberty, liberty of
+conscience, speech, assembly, petition, association, press, liberty
+of movement and security of home, were without real guarantee
+even within the extremely small limits in which they nominally
+existed. Under the constitution of the Republic the sphere of
+individual liberty is large and constitutionally protected against
+the government.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;There has been a great change in the budget of
+Cuba since the advent of the Republic. In 1891-1896 the average
+annual income was $20,738,930, the annual average expenditure
+$25,967,139. More than half of the revenue was derived from
+customs duties (two-thirds of the total being collected at Havana).
+Of the expenditure more than ten million dollars annually went
+for the public debt, 5.5 to 6 millions for the army and navy, as
+much more for civil administration (including more than two
+millions for purely Peninsular services with which the colony
+was burdened); and on an average probably one million more
+went for sinecures. Every Cuban paid about twice as heavy
+taxes as a Spaniard of the Peninsula. Very little was spent
+on sanitation, roads, other public works and education. The
+revenue receipts under the Republic have increased especially
+over those of the old régime in the item of customs duties; and
+the expenditure is very differently distributed. Lotteries which
+were an important source of revenue under Spain were abolished
+under the Republic. The debt resting on the colony in 1895
+(a large part of it as a result of the war of 1868-1878, the entire
+cost of which was laid upon the island, but a part as the result
+of Spain&rsquo;s war adventures in Mexico and San Domingo, home
+loans, &amp;c.) was officially stated at $168,500,000. The attainment
+of independence freed the island from this debt, and from
+enormous contemplated additions to cover the expense incurred
+by Spain during the last insurrection. The debt of the Republic
+in April 1908 was $48,146,585, including twenty-seven millions
+which were assumed in 1902 for the payment of the army of
+independence, four for agriculture, and four for the payment of
+revolutionary debts, and $2,196,585, representing obligations
+assumed by the revolution&rsquo;s representative in the United States
+during the War of Independence. United States and British
+investments, always important in the agriculture and manufactures
+of the island, greatly increased following 1898, and by
+1908 those of each nation were supposed to exceed considerably
+$100,000,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Archaeology.</i>&mdash;Archaeological study in Cuba has been limited,
+and has not produced results of great importance. Almost
+nothing is actually known of prehistoric Cuba; and a few skulls
+and implements are the only basis existing for conjecture. Very
+little also is known as to the natives who inhabited the island
+at the time of the discovery. They were a tall race of copper
+hue; fairly intelligent, mild in temperament, who lived in poor
+huts and practised a limited and primitive agriculture. How
+numerous they were when the Spaniards first came among
+them cannot be said; undoubtedly tradition has greatly exaggerated
+their number. They are supposed to have been
+practically extinct by 1550. Even in the 19th century reports
+were spread of communities in which Indian blood was supposedly
+still plainly dominant; but the conclusion of the competent
+scientists who have investigated such rumours has been that at
+least absolutely nothing of the language and traditions of the
+aborigines has survived.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Cuba was discovered by Columbus in the course of
+his first voyage, on the 27th of October 1492. He died believing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span>
+Cuba was part of a continent. In 1508 Sebastian de Ocampo
+circumnavigated it. In 1511 Diego Velazquez began the conquest
+of the island. Baracoa (the landing point), Bayamo, Santiago
+de Cuba, Puerto Príncipe, Sancti Spiritus, Trinidad and the
+original Havana were all founded by 1515. Velazquez&rsquo;s reputation
+and legends of wealth drew many immigrants to the island.
+From Cuba went the expeditions that discovered Yucatan (1517),
+and explored the shores of Mexico, Hernando Cortés&rsquo;s expedition
+for the invasion of Mexico, and de Soto&rsquo;s for the exploration of
+Florida. The last two had a pernicious effect on Cuba, draining
+it of horses, money and of men. At least as early as 1523 the
+African slave trade was begun. In 1544 the Indians, so far as
+they had not succumbed to the labour of the mines and fields to
+which they were put by the Spaniards, were proclaimed emancipated.
+The administration in the 16th century was loose and
+violent. The local authorities were divided among themselves
+by bitter feuds&mdash;the ecclesiastical against the civil, the <i>ayuntamiento</i>
+against the governors, the administrative officers among
+themselves; brigandage, mutinies and intestinal struggles disturbed
+the peace. As a result of the transfer of Jamaica to
+England, the population of Cuba was greatly augmented by
+Jamaican immigrants to about 30,000 in the middle of the
+17th century.</p>
+
+<p>The activity of English and French pirates began in the 16th
+century, and reached its climax in the middle of the 17th century.
+So early also began dissatisfaction with the economic regulations
+of the colonial system, even grave resistance to their enforcement;
+and illicit trade with privateers and foreign colonies had begun
+long before, and in the 17th and 18th centuries was the basis of
+the island&rsquo;s wealth. In 1762 Havana was captured after a long
+resistance by a British force under Admiral Sir George Pocock
+and the earl of Albemarle, with heavy loss to the besiegers.
+It was returned to Spain the next year in exchange for the
+Floridas. From this date begins the modern history of the island.
+The British opened the port to commerce and the slave trade
+and revealed its possibilities. The government of Spain, beginning
+in 1764, made notable breaches in the old monopolistic
+system of colonial trade throughout America; and Cuba received
+special privileges, also, that were a basis for real prosperity.
+Spain paid increasing attention to the island, and in harmony
+with the policy of the Laws of the Indies many decrees intended
+to stimulate agriculture and commerce were issued by the
+crown, first in the form of monopolies, then with increased
+freedom and with bounties. Various colonial products and the
+slave trade were favoured in this way. After the cession of the
+Spanish portion of San Domingo to France hundreds of Spanish
+families emigrated to Cuba, and many thousand more immigrants,
+mainly French, followed them from the entire island
+during the revolution of the blacks. Most of them settled in
+Oriente province, where their names and blood are still apparent,
+and with their cafetales and sugar plantations converted that
+region from neglect and poverty to high prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>Under a succession of liberal governors (especially Luis de las
+Casas, 1790-1796, and the marqués de Someruelos, 1799-1813),
+at the end of the 18th century and the first part of the 19th,
+when the wars in Europe cut off Spain almost entirely from
+the colony, Cuba was practically independent. Trade was
+comparatively free, and worked a revolution in culture and
+material conditions. General Las Casas, in particular, left
+behind him in Cuba an undying memory of good efforts. Free
+commerce with foreigners&mdash;a fact after 1809&mdash;was definitely
+legalized in 1818 (confirmed in 1824). The state tobacco
+monopoly was abolished in 1817. The reported populations
+by the (untrustworthy) censuses of 1774, 1792 and 1817 were
+161,670, 273,301 and 553,033. Something of political freedom
+was enjoyed during the two terms of Spanish constitutional
+government under the constitution of 1812. The sharp division
+between creoles and peninsulars (<i>i.e.</i> between those born in Cuba
+and those born in Spain), the question of annexation to the
+United States or possibly to some other power, the plotting for
+independence, all go back to the early years of the century.</p>
+
+<p>Partly because of political and social divisions thus revealed,
+conspiracies being rife in the decade 1820-1830, and partly as
+preparation for the defence against Mexico and Colombia, who
+throughout these same years were threatening the island with
+invasion, the captains-general, in 1825, received the powers above
+referred to; which became, as time passed, monstrously in disaccord
+with the general tendencies of colonial government and
+with increasing liberties in Spain, but continued to be the
+spiritual basis of Spanish rule in the island. Among the governors
+of the 19th century Miguel Tacon, governor in 1834-1839,
+a forceful and high-handed soldier, deserves mention, especially
+in the annals of Havana; he ruled as a tyrant, made many
+reforms as regarded law and order, and left Havana, in particular,
+full of municipal improvements. The good he did was limited
+to the spheres of public works and police; in other respects
+his rule was a pernicious influence for Cuba. Politically his rule
+was marked by the proclamation at Santiago in 1836, without
+his consent, of the Spanish constitution of 1834; he repressed
+the movement, and in 1837 the deputies of Cuba to the Cortes
+of Spain (to which they were admitted in the two earlier constitutional
+periods) were excluded from that body, and it was
+declared in the national constitution that Cuba (and Porto Rico)
+should be governed by &ldquo;special laws.&rdquo; The inapplicability
+of many laws passed for the Peninsula&mdash;all of which under a
+constitutional system would apply to Cuba as to any other
+province, unless that system be modified&mdash;was indeed notorious;
+and Cuban opinion had repeatedly, through official bodies,
+protested against laws thus imposed that worked injustice, and
+had pleaded for special consideration of colonial conditions.
+The promise of &ldquo;special laws&rdquo; based upon such consideration
+was therefore not, in itself, unjust, nor unwelcome. But as the
+colony had no voice in the Cortes, while the &ldquo;special laws&rdquo;
+were never passed (Cuba expected special fundamental laws,
+reforming her government, and the government regarded the
+old Laws of the Indies as satisfying the obligation of the constitution)
+the arbitrary rule of the captains-general remained
+quite supreme, under the will of the crown, and colonial discontent
+became stronger and stronger. The rule of Leopoldo
+O&rsquo;Donnell was marked in 1844 by a cruel and bloody persecution
+of negroes for a supposed plot of servile war; O&rsquo;Donnell&rsquo;s
+actions being partly due to the inquietude that had prevailed
+for some years over the supposed machinations of English
+abolitionists and even of English official residents in the island,
+and also over the mutual jealousies and supposed annexation
+ambitions of Great Britain and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>A Cuban international question had arisen before 1820.
+Spain, the United States, England, France, Colombia and
+Mexico were all involved in it, the first four continually. In
+the eighteen-fifties a strong pro-slavery interest in the United
+States advocated the acquisition of the island. One feature of
+this was the &ldquo;Ostend Manifesto&rdquo; (see Buchanan, James),
+in which the ministers of the United States at London, Paris and
+Madrid declared that if Spain refused a money offer for the
+colony the United States should seize it. Their government
+gave this document publicity. The Cuban policy of Presidents
+Pierce and Buchanan (during 1853-1861) was vainly directed
+to acquiring the island. From 1849 to 1851 there were three
+abortive filibustering expeditions from the United States, two
+being under a Spanish general, Narciso Lopez (1798-1851).
+The domestic problem, the problem of discontent in the island,
+had become acute by 1850, and from this time on to 1868 the
+years were full of conflict between liberal and reactionary sentiment
+in the colony, centreing about the asserted connivance
+of the captains-general in the illegal slave trade (declared illegal
+after 1820 by the treaties of 1817 and 1835 between Great Britain
+and Spain), the notorious immorality and prodigal wastefulness
+of the government, and the selfish exploitation of the colony
+by Spaniards and the Spanish government. From early in the
+19th century there had always been separatists, reformists and
+repressionists in the island, but they were individuals rather than
+groups. The last were peninsulars, the others mainly creoles, and
+among the wealthy classes of the latter the separatists gradually
+gained increasing support.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span></p>
+
+<p>An ineffective and extremely corrupt administration, a grave
+economic condition, new and heavy taxes, military repression,
+recurring heavy deficits in the budget, adding to a debt (about
+$150,000,000 in 1868) already very large and burdensome, and
+the complete fiasco of the <i>junta</i> of inquiry of Cuban and Porto
+Rican representatives which met in Madrid in 1866-1867&mdash;all
+were important influences favouring the outbreak of the Ten
+Years&rsquo; War. Among those who waged the war were men who
+fought to compel reforms, others who fought for annexation
+to the United States, others who fought for independence.
+The reformists demanded, besides the correction of the above
+evils, action against slavery, assimilation of rights between
+peninsulars and creoles and the practical recognition of equality,
+<i>e.g.</i> in the matter of office-holding, a grievance centuries
+old in Cuba as in other Spanish colonies, and guarantees of
+personal liberties. The separatists, headed by Carlos Manuel
+de Céspedes (1819-1874), a wealthy planter who proclaimed
+the revolution at Yara on the 10th of October, demanded
+the same reforms, including gradual emancipation of the
+slaves with indemnity to owners, and the grant of free and
+universal suffrage. War was confined throughout the ten years
+almost wholly to the E. provinces. The policy of successive
+captains-general was alternately uncompromisingly repressive
+and conciliatory. The Spanish volunteers committed horrible
+excesses in Havana and other places; the rebels also burned
+and killed indiscriminatingly, and the war became increasingly
+cruel and sanguinary. Intervention by the United States
+seemed probable, but did not come, and after alternations in
+the fortunes of war, Martinez Campos in January 1878 secured
+the acceptance by the rebels of the convention (pacto) of Zanjón,
+which promised amnesty for the war, liberty to slaves in the
+rebel ranks, the abolition of slavery, reforms in government, and
+colonial autonomy. A small rising after peace (the &ldquo;Little
+War&rdquo; of 1879-1880) was easily repressed. Gradual abolition
+of slavery was declared by a law of the 13th of February 1880;
+definitive abolition in 1886; and in 1893 the equal civil status
+of blacks and whites in all respects was proclaimed by General
+Calleja. There is no more evidence to warrant the wholly
+erroneous statement sometimes made that emancipation was an
+economic set-back to Cuba than could be gathered to support
+a similar statement regarding the United States. Coolie importation
+from China had been stopped in 1871.</p>
+
+<p>As for autonomy and political reforms it has already been
+remarked that the change from the old régime was only superficial.
+The Spanish constitution of 1876 was proclaimed in
+Cuba in 1881. In 1878-1895 political parties had a complex
+development. The Liberal party was of growing radicalism,
+the Union Constitutional party of growing conservatism; and
+after 1893 a Reformist party was launched that drew the compromisers
+and the waverers. The demands of the Liberals were
+as in 1868; those for personal and property rights were much
+more definitely stated, and among explicit reforms demanded
+were the separation of civil and military power, general recognition
+of administrative responsibility under a colonial autonomous
+constitutional régime; also among economic matters,
+customs reforms and reciprocity with the United States were
+demanded. As for the representation accorded Cuba in the
+Spanish Cortes, as a rule about a quarter of her deputies were
+Cuban-born, and the choice of only a few autonomists was
+allowed by those who controlled the elections. Reciprocity
+with the United States was in force from 1891 to 1894 and was
+extremely beneficial to Cuba. Its cessation greatly increased
+disaffection.</p>
+
+<p>Discontent grew, and another war was prepared for. On
+the 23rd of February 1895 General Calleja suspended the constitutional
+guarantees. The leading chiefs of the Ten Years&rsquo;
+War took the field again&mdash;Máximo Gómez, Antonio Macéo,
+Jose Martí, Calixto García and others. Unlike that war, this
+was carried to the western provinces, and indeed was fiercest
+there. Among the military means adopted by the Spaniards
+to isolate their foe were &ldquo;trochas&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> entrenchments, barbwire
+fences, and lines of block-houses) across the narrow parts of
+the island, and &ldquo;reconcentracion&rdquo; of non-combatants in camps
+guarded by the Spanish forces. The latter measure produced
+extreme suffering and much starvation (as the reconcentrados
+were largely thrown upon the charity of the beggared communities
+in which they were huddled). In October 1897 the
+Spanish premier, P. M. Sagasta, announced the policy of
+autonomy, and the new dispensation was proclaimed in Cuba
+in December. But again all final authority was reserved to the
+captain-general. The system was never to have a practical
+trial, although a full government was quickly organized under
+it. The American people had sent food to the reconcentrados;
+President McKinley, while opposing recognition of the rebels,
+affirmed the possibility of intervention; Spain resented this
+attitude; and finally, in February 1898, the United States
+battleship &ldquo;Maine&rdquo; was blown up&mdash;by whom will probably
+never be known&mdash;in the harbour of Havana.</p>
+
+<p>On the 20th of April the United States demanded the withdrawal
+of Spanish troops from the island. War followed immediately.
+A fine Spanish squadron seeking to escape from Santiago
+harbour was utterly destroyed by the American blockading
+force on the 3rd of July; Santiago was invested by land forces,
+and on the 15th of July the city surrendered. Other operations
+in Cuba were slight. By the treaty of Paris, signed on the 10th
+of December, Spain &ldquo;relinquished&rdquo; the island to the United
+States in trust for its inhabitants; the temporary character of
+American occupation being recognized throughout the treaty,
+in accord with the terms of the American declaration of war, in
+which the United States disclaimed any intention to control the
+island except for its pacification, and expressed the determination
+to leave the island thereupon to the control of its people. Spanish
+authority ceased on the 1st of January 1899, and was followed by
+American &ldquo;military&rdquo; rule (January 1, 1899-May 20, 1902).
+During these three years the great majority of offices were filled
+by Cubans, and the government was made as different as possible
+from the military control to which the colony had been accustomed.
+Very much was done for public works, sanitation,
+the reform of administration, civil service and education. Most
+notable of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been
+endemic for centuries. A constitutional convention sat at
+Havana from the 5th of November 1900 to the 21st of February
+1901. The provisions of the document thus formed have already
+been referred to. In the determination of the relations that
+should subsist between the new republic and the United States
+certain definite conditions known as the Platt Amendment were
+finally imposed by the United States, and accepted by Cuba
+(12th of June 1901) as a part of her constitution. By these
+Cuba was bound not to incur debts her current revenues will
+not bear; to continue the sanitary administration undertaken
+by the military government of intervention; to lease naval
+stations (since located at Bahía Honda and Guantánamo) to
+the United States; and finally, the right of the United States to
+intervene, if necessary, in the affairs of the island was explicitly
+affirmed in the provision, &ldquo;That the government of Cuba
+consents that the United States may exercise the right to
+intervene for the protection of Cuban independence, the maintenance
+of a government adequate for the protection of life,
+property and individual liberty, and for discharging the obligations
+with respect to Cuba imposed by the treaty of Paris on the
+United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the
+government of Cuba.&rdquo; The status thus created is very exceptional
+in the history of international relations. The status of
+the Isle of Pines was left an open question by the treaty of Paris,
+but a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States has
+declared it (in a question of customs duties) to be a part of Cuba,
+and though a treaty to the same end did not secure ratification
+(1908) by the United States Senate, repeated efforts by American
+residents thereon to secure annexation to the United States
+were ignored by the United States government.</p>
+
+<p>The first Cuban congress met on the 5th of May 1902, prepared
+to take over the government from the American military
+authorities, which it did on the 20th of May. Tomas Estrada
+Palma (1835-1908) became the first president of the Republic.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
+In material prosperity the progress of the island from 1902 to 1906
+was very great; but in its politics, various social and economic
+elements, and political habits and examples of Spanish provenience
+that ill befit a democracy, led once more to revolution.
+Congress neglected to pass certain laws which were required by
+the constitution, and which, as regards municipal autonomy,
+independence of the judiciary, and congressional representation
+of minority parties, were intended to make impossible the
+abuses of centralized government that had characterized Spanish
+administration. Political parties were forming without very
+evident basis for differences outside questions of political
+patronage and the good or ill use of power; and, in the absence
+of the laws just mentioned, the Moderates, being in power, used
+every instrument of government to strengthen their hold on
+office. The preliminaries of the elections of December 1905 and
+March 1906 being marked by frauds and injustice, the Liberals
+deserted the polls at those elections, and instead of appealing
+to judicial tribunals controlled by the Moderates, issued a
+manifesto of revolution on the 28th of July 1906.<a name="fa3p" id="fa3p" href="#ft3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> This insurrection
+rapidly assumed large proportions. The government was
+weak and lacked moral support in the whole island. After
+repeated petitions from President Palma for intervention by
+the United States, commissioners (William H. Taft, Secretary
+of War, and Robert Bacon, Acting Secretary of State) were sent
+from Washington to act as peace mediators.</p>
+
+<p>All possible efforts to secure a compromise that would preserve
+the Republic failed. The president resigned (on the 28th of
+September), Congress dispersed without choosing a successor,
+and as an alternative to anarchy the United States was compelled
+to proclaim on the 29th of September 1906 a provisional government,&mdash;to
+last &ldquo;long enough to restore order and peace and
+public confidence,&rdquo; and hold new elections. The insurrectionists
+promptly disbanded. Government was maintained under the
+Cuban flag,&mdash;the diplomatic and consular relations with even
+the United States remaining in outward forms unchanged;
+and the regular forms of the constitution were scrupulously
+maintained so far as possible. No use was made of American
+military force save as a passive background to the government.
+The government of intervention at first directed its main effort
+simply to holding the country together, without undertaking
+much that could divide public opinion or seem of unpalatably
+foreign impulse; and later to the establishment of a few fundamental
+laws which, when intervention ceased, should give greater
+simplicity, strength and stability to a new native government.
+These laws strictly defined the powers of the president; more
+clearly separated the executive departments, so as to lessen
+friction and jealousies; reformed the courts; reformed administrative
+routine; and increased the strength of the provinces
+at the expense of the municipalities. On the 28th of January
+1909 the American administration ceased, and the Republic was
+a second time inaugurated, with General José Miguel Gomez
+(b. 1856), the leader of the Miguelista faction of the Liberal party,
+as president, and Alfredo Zayas, the leader of the Zayista faction
+of the same party, as vice-president. The last American troops
+were withdrawn from the island on the 1st of April 1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<b>General Description.</b>&mdash;There is no trustworthy
+recent description. The best books are E. Pechardo, <i>Geografía de la
+isla de Cuba</i> (4 tom., Havana, 1854); M. Rodriguez-Ferrer, <i>Naturaleza
+y civilización de ... Cuba</i>, vol. i. (Madrid, 1876). See also
+<i>United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 192</i> (1902), H. Gannett,
+&ldquo;A Gazetteer of Cuba.&rdquo; Of general descriptions in English, in
+addition to travels cited below, may be cited R. T. Hill, <i>Cuba and
+Porto Rico with the other West Indies</i> (New York, 1898).</p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">Fauna and Flora.</span>&mdash;A. H. R. Grisebach, <i>Catalogus plantarum
+Cubensium</i> (Leipzig, 1866), and F. A. Sauvalle, <i>Flora Cubana:
+revisio catalogi Grisebachiani</i> (Havana, 1868); and <i>Flora Cubana:
+enumeratio nova plantarum Cubensium</i> (Havana, 1873); F. Poey et
+al., <i>Repertorio fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba</i> (2 vols., Havana,
+1865-1868), and F. Poey, <i>Memorias sobre la historia natural de ... Cuba</i>
+(3 tom., Havana, 1851-1860); Ramon de la Sagra, with many
+collaborators, <i>Historia física, política y natural de ... Cuba</i> (Paris,
+1842-1851, 12 vols.; issued also in French; vols. 3-12 being the
+&ldquo;Historia Natural&rdquo;); <i>Anales</i> of the Academia de Ciencias (Havana,
+1863-    , annual); M. Gomez de la Maza, <i>Flora Habanera</i> (Havana,
+1897); S. A. de Morales, <i>Flora arborícola de Cuba aplicada</i> (Havana,
+1887, only part published); D. H. Seguí, <i>Ojeado sobre la flora
+médica y tóxica de Cuba</i> (Havana, 1900); J. Gundlach, <i>Contribucion
+ŕ la entomología Cubana</i> (Havana, 1881); J. M. Fernandez y Jimenez,
+<i>Tratado de la arboricultura Cubana</i> (Havana, 1867).</p>
+
+<p> <b>Geology and Minerals.</b>&mdash;M. F. de Castro, &ldquo;Pruebas paleontologicas
+de que la isla de Cuba ha estado unida al continento americano y breve
+idea de su constitucion geologica,&rdquo; <i>Bol. Com. Mapa Geol. de Esp.</i> vol.
+viii. (1881), pp. 357-372; M. F. de Castro and P. Salterain y Legarra,
+&ldquo;Croquis geologico de la isla de Cuba,&rdquo; <i>ibid.</i> vol. viii. pl. vi. (published
+with vol. xi., 1884). Many articles in <i>Anales</i> of the Academy;
+also, R. T. Hill in <i>Harvard College Museum of Comparative Zöology,
+Bulletin</i>, vol. 16, pp. 243-288 (1895); <i>United States Geological
+Survey</i>, 22nd Annual Report, 1901, C. W. Hayes et al., &ldquo;Geological
+Reconnaissance of Cuba&rdquo;; <i>Civil Report of General Leonard Wood</i>,
+governor of Cuba (1902), vol. v., H. C. Brown, &ldquo;Report on Mineral
+Resources of Cuba.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p> <b>Climate.</b>&mdash;See the <i>Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Agricultura</i>,
+and publications of the observatory of Havana. <b>Sanitation.</b>&mdash;For
+conditions 1899-1902, see <i>Civil Reports</i> of American military
+governors. For conditions since 1902 consult the <i>Informe Mensual</i>
+(1903-&emsp;&emsp;) of the Junta Superior de Sanidad.</p>
+
+<p> <b>Agriculture.</b>&mdash;Consult the <i>Boletin</i> above mentioned, publications
+of the Estación Central Agronómica, and current statistical serial
+reports of the treasury department (Hacienda) on natural resources,
+live-stock interests, the sugar industry (annual), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p> <b>Industries, Commerce, Communications.</b>&mdash;See the works of Sagra
+and Pezuela. For conditions about 1899 consult R. P. Porter
+(Special Commissioner of the United States government), <i>Industrial
+Cuba</i> (New York, 1899); W. J. Clark, <i>Commercial Cuba</i> (New York,
+1898); reports of foreign consular agents in Cuba; and the statistical
+annuals of the Hacienda on foreign commerce and railways.</p>
+
+<p> <b>Population.</b>&mdash;The early censuses were extremely unreliable.
+Illuminating discussions of them can be found in Humboldt&rsquo;s <i>Essay</i>,
+Saco&rsquo;s <i>Papeles</i> and Pezuela&rsquo;s <i>Diccionario</i>. See <i>United States Department
+of War, Report on the Census of Cuba 1899</i> (Washington, 1899);
+<i>U.S. Bureau of the Census, Cuba: Population, History and Resources,
+1907</i> (1909).</p>
+
+<p> <b>Education.</b>&mdash;See <i>Civil Reports</i> of the American military government,
+1899-1902; United States commissioner of education, <i>Report,
+1897-1898</i>; current reports in <i>Informe del superintendente de
+escuelas de Cuba ...</i> (Havana, 1903-&emsp;&emsp;). On Letters and Culture.&mdash;E.
+Pechardo y Tapia, <i>Diccionario ... de voces Cubanas</i> (Havana,
+1836, 4th ed., 1875; all editions with many errors); Antonio
+Bachiller y Morales, <i>Apuntes para la historia de las letras y de la
+instrucción pública de Cuba</i> (3 tom., Havana, 1859-1861); J. M.
+Mestre, <i>De la filosofía en la Habana</i> (Havana, 1862); A. Mitjans,
+<i>Estudio sobre el movimiento científico y literario de Cuba</i> (Havana,
+1890); biographies of Varela and Luz Caballero by Rodriguez (see
+below); files of <i>La Revista de Cuba</i> (16 vols., Havana, 1877-1884)
+and <i>La Revista Cubana</i> (21 vols., Havana, 1885-1895). The literature
+of <span class="sc">Travel</span> is rich. It suffices to mention <i>Letters from the
+Havannah</i>, by the English consul (London, 1821); E. M. Masse,
+<i>L&rsquo;Île de Cuba</i> (Paris, 1825); D. Turnbull, <i>Travels in the West</i> (London,
+1840), and R. R. Madden, <i>The Island of Cuba</i> (London, 1853)&mdash;two
+very important books regarding slavery; J. B. Rosemond de
+Beauvallon, <i>L&rsquo;Île de Cuba</i> (Paris, 1844); J. G. Taylor, <i>The United
+States and Cuba</i> (London, 1851); F. Bremer, <i>The Homes of the New
+World</i> (2 vols., New York, 1853); M. M. Ballou, <i>History of Cuba,
+or Notes of a Traveller</i> (Boston, 1854); R. H. Dana, <i>To Cuba and
+Back</i> (Boston, 1859); J. von Sivers, <i>Die Perle der Antillen</i> (Leipzig,
+1861); A. C. N. Gallenga, <i>The Pearl of the Antilles</i> (London, 1873);
+S. Hazard, <i>Cuba with Pen and Pencil</i> (Hartford, Conn., 1873);
+H. Piron, <i>L&rsquo;Île de Cuba</i> (Paris, 1876). Of later books, F. Matthews,
+<i>The New-Born Cuba</i> (New York, 1899); R. Davey, <i>Cuba Past and
+Present</i> (London, 1898). Among the writers who have left short
+impressions are A. Granier de Cassagnac (1844), J. J. A. Ampčre
+(1855), A. Trollope (1860), J. A. Froude (1888).</p>
+
+<p> <b>Administration.</b>&mdash;Consult the literature of history and colonial
+reform given below. Also: Leandro Garcia y Gragitena, <i>Guia del
+empleado de hacienda</i> (Havana, 1860), with very valuable historical
+data; Carlos de Sedano y Cruzat, <i>Cuba desde 1850 ŕ 1873</i>. <i>Coleccion
+de informes, memorias, proyectos y antecedentes sobre el gobierno de
+la isla de Cuba</i> (Madrid, 1875); Vicente Vasquez Queipo, <i>Informe
+fiscal sobre fomento de la poblacion blanca</i> (Madrid, 1845); <i>Informacion
+sobre reformas en Cuba y Puerto Rico celebrada en Madrid en
+1866 y 67 por los representantes de ambas islas</i> (2 tom., New York,
+1867; 2nd ed., New York, 1877); and the <i>Diccionario</i> of Pezuela.
+These, with the works of Saco, Sagra, Arango and Alexander von
+Humboldt&rsquo;s work, <i>Essai politique sur l&rsquo;île de Cuba</i> (2 vols., Paris
+1826; Spanish editions, 1 vol., Paris, 1827 and 1840; English translation
+by J. S. Thrasher, with interpolations, New York, 1856),
+are indispensable. For conditions at the end of the 18th century,
+Fran. de Arango y Parreńo, <i>Obras</i> (2 tom., Havana, 1888). For
+later conditions, E. Valdes Dominguez, <i>Los Antiguos Diputados de
+Cuba</i> (Havana, 1879); B. Huber, <i>Aperçu statistique de l&rsquo;île de Cuba</i>
+(Paris, 1826); Humboldt; Sagra, vols. 1-2 of the book cited above,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
+being the <i>Historia física y política</i>, and also the earlier work on which
+they are based, <i>Historia económica-política y estadística de ... Cuba</i>
+(Havana, 1831); treatises on administrative law in Cuba by
+J. M. Morilla (Havana, 1847; 2nd ed., 1865, 2 vols.) and A. Govin
+(3 vols., Havana, 1882-1883); A. S. Rowan and M. M. Ramsay,
+<i>The Island of Cuba</i> (New York, 1896); <i>Coleccion de reales ordenes,
+decretos y disposiciones</i> (Havana, serial, 1857-1898); <i>Spanish Rule
+in Cuba</i>. <i>Laws Governing the Island.</i> <i>Reviews Published by the
+Colonial Office in Madrid ...</i> (New York, for the Spanish legation,
+1896); and compilations of Spanish colonial laws listed under
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indies, Laws of the</a></span>. On the new Republican régime:
+<i>Gaceta Oficial</i> (Havana, 1903-&emsp;&emsp;); reports of departments of
+government; M. Romero Palafox, <i>Agenda de la republica de Cuba</i>
+(Havana, 1905). See also the <i>Civil Reports</i> of the United States
+military governors, J. R. Brooke (2 vols., 1899; Havana and
+Washington, 1900), L. Wood (33 vols., 1900-1902; Washington,
+1901-1902).</p>
+
+<p> <b>History.</b>&mdash;The works (see above) of Sagra, Humboldt and Arango
+are indispensable; also those of Francisco Calcagno, <i>Diccionario
+biográfico Cubano</i> (ostensibly, New York, 1878); Vidal Morales y
+Morales, <i>Iniciadores y primeros mártires de la revolución Cubana</i>
+(Havana, 1901); José Ahumada y Centurión, <i>Memoria histórica
+política de ... Cuba</i> (Havana, 1874); Jacobo de la Pezuela,
+<i>Diccionario geográfico-estadístico-histórico de ... Cuba</i> (4 tom.,
+Madrid, 1863-1866); <i>Historia de ... Cuba</i>, (4 tom., Madrid,
+1868-1878; supplanting his <i>Ensayo histórico de ... Cuba</i>, Madrid
+and New York, 1842); and José Antonio Saco, <i>Obras</i> (2 vols., New
+York, 1853), <i>Papeles</i> (3 tom., Paris, 1858-1859), and <i>Coleccion
+postuma de Papeles</i> (Havana, 1881). Also: Rodriguez Ferrer,
+<i>op. cit.</i> above, vol. 2 (Madrid, 1888); P. G. Guitéras, <i>Historia de ... Cuba</i>
+(2 vols., New York, 1865-1866). Of great value is J.
+Zaragoza, <i>Las Insurrecciones en Cuba</i>. <i>Apuntes para la historia
+política</i> (2 tom., Madrid, 1872-1873); also J. I. Rodriguez, <i>Vida
+de ... Félix Varela</i> (New York, 1878), and <i>Vida de D. José de
+la Luz</i> (New York, 1874; 2nd ed., 1879). On early history see
+<i>Coleccion de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento ... de
+ultramar</i> (series 2, vols. 1, 4, 6, Madrid, 1885-1890). On
+archaeology, N. Fort y Roldan, <i>Cuba indigena</i> (Madrid, 1881);
+M. Rodriguez Ferrer (see above); and especially A. Bachiller y
+Morales, <i>Cuba primitiva</i> (Havana, 1883). For the history of the
+Cuban international problem consult José Ignacio Rodriguez, <i>Idea
+de la anexion de la isla de Cuba ŕ los Estados Unidos de America</i>
+(Havana, 1900), and J. M. Callahan, Cuba and International Relations
+(Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1898), which supplement
+each other. On the domestic reform problem there is an enormous
+literature, from which may be selected (see general histories above
+and works cited under § Administration of this bibliography): M.
+Torrente, <i>Bosquejo económico-político</i> (2 tom., Madrid-Havana,
+1852-1853); D. A. Galiano, <i>Cuba en 1858</i> (Madrid, 1859); José de
+la Concha, twice Captain-General of Cuba, <i>Memorias sobre el estado
+político, gobierno y administración de ... Cuba</i> (Madrid, 1853);
+A. Lopez de Letona, <i>Isla de Cuba, reflexiones</i> (Madrid, 1856); F. A.
+Conte, <i>Aspiraciones del partido liberal de Cuba</i> (Havana, 1892);
+P. Valiente, <i>Réformes dans les îles de Cuba et de Porto Rico</i> (Paris,
+1869); C. de Sedano, <i>Cuba: Estudios políticos</i> (Madrid, 1872);
+H. H. S. Aimes, <i>History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511-1868</i> (New York,
+1907); F. Armas y Cčspedes, <i>De la esclavitud en Cuba</i> (Madrid,
+1866), and <i>Régimen político de las Antillas Espańolas</i> (Palma, 1882);
+R. Cabrera, <i>Cuba y sus Jueces</i> (Havana, 1887; 9th ed., Philadelphia,
+1895; 8th ed., in English, <i>Cuba and the Cubans</i>, Philadelphia, 1896);
+P. de Alzola y Minondo, <i>El Problema Cubano</i> (Bilbao, 1898); various
+works by R. M. de Labra, including <i>La Cuestion social en las Antillas
+Espańolas</i> (Madrid, 1874), <i>Sistemas coloniales</i> (Madrid, 1874), &amp;c.;
+R. Montoro, <i>Discursos ... 1878-1893</i> (Philadelphia, 1894); Labra
+<i>et al.</i>, <i>El Problema colonial contemporánea</i> (2 vols., Madrid, 1894);
+articles by Em. Castelar <i>et al.</i>, in Spanish reviews (1895-1898).
+On the period since 1899 the best two books in English are C. M.
+Pepper, <i>To-morrow in Cuba</i> (New York, 1899); A. G. Robinson,
+<i>Cuba and the Intervention</i> (New York, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. S. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Other countries taking only 27,462 long tons out of a total of
+5,719,777 in the seven fiscal years 1899-1900 to 1905-1906.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In these same years the trade of the United States with Cuba
+and Porto Rico was: importations from the islands, $59,221,444
+annually; exportations to the islands, $20,017,156. The corresponding
+figures for Spain were $7,265,142 and $20,035,183; and
+for the United Kingdom, $714,837 and $11,971,129, the trade with
+other countries being of much less amount.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3p" id="ft3p" href="#fa3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In the preliminary registration by Moderate officials a total
+electorate was registered of 432,313,&mdash;about 30% of the supposed
+population of the island.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various
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+</body>
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+
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@@ -0,0 +1,18313 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7
+       "Crocoite" to "Cuba"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 20, 2012 [EBook #38622]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE CROWLAND: "The dissolution of the monastery in 1539 was
+      fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered under the
+      thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the position of
+      an unimportant village." 'unimportant' amended from 'umimportant'.
+
+    ARTICLE CROWNE, JOHN: "The king exacted one more comedy, which
+      should, he suggested, be based on the No pued esser of Moreto."
+      'be' amended from 'he'.
+
+    ARTICLE CRUSADES: "Taking a route midway between the eastern route
+      of the crusaders of 1097 and the western route of Louis VII. in
+      1148 ..." 'western' amended from 'westerh'.
+
+    ARTICLE CRUSADES: "... beginning as charitable societies, developed
+      into military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into
+      chartered companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable
+      territories." 'societies' amended from 'socities'.
+
+    ARTICLE CUBA: "The range near Baracoa is extremely wild and
+      broken." 'extremely' amended from 'entremely'.
+
+    ARTICLE CUBA: "The total commercial movement of the island in the
+      five calendar years 1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 ..."
+      'commercial' amended from 'commerical'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VII, SLICE VII
+
+                 Crocoite to Cuba
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CROCOITE                          CROWE, EYRE EVANS
+  CROCUS                            CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER
+  CROESUS                           CROW INDIANS
+  CROFT, SIR HERBERT                CROWLAND
+  CROFT, SIR JAMES                  CROWLEY, ROBERT
+  CROFT, WILLIAM                    CROWN (coin)
+  CROFTER                           CROWN and CORONET
+  CROKER, JOHN WILSON               CROWN DEBT
+  CROKER, RICHARD                   CROWNE, JOHN
+  CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON            CROWN LAND
+  CROLL, JAMES                      CROWN POINT
+  CROLY, GEORGE                     CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI
+  CROMAGNON RACE                    CROYDON
+  CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE        CROZAT, PIERRE
+  CROMARTY                          CROZET ISLANDS
+  CROMARTY FIRTH                    CROZIER, WILLIAM
+  CROME, JOHN                       CROZIER
+  CROMER, EVELYN BARING             CRUCIAL
+  CROMER                            CRUCIFERAE
+  CROMORNE                          CRUDEN, ALEXANDER
+  CROMPTON, SAMUEL                  CRUDEN
+  CROMPTON                          CRUELTY
+  CROMWELL, HENRY                   CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE
+  CROMWELL, OLIVER                  CRUNDEN, JOHN
+  CROMWELL, RICHARD                 CRUSADES
+  CROMWELL, THOMAS                  CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB
+  CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS             CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST
+  CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM              CRUSTACEA
+  CROOKSTON                         CRUSTUMERIUM
+  CROP                              CRUVEILHIER, JEAN
+  CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS           CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA
+  CROQUET                           CRYOLITE
+  CRORE                             CRYPT
+  CROSBY, HOWARD                    CRYPTEIA
+  CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION            CRYPTOBRANCHUS
+  CROSSBILL                         CRYPTOGRAPHY
+  CROSSEN                           CRYPTOMERIA
+  CROSSING                          CRYPTO-PORTICUS
+  CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM           CRYSTAL-GAZING
+  CROSS RIVER                       CRYSTALLITE
+  CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT            CRYSTALLIZATION
+  CROSS SPRINGER                    CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
+  CROTCH, WILLIAM                   CRYSTAL PALACE, THE
+  CROTCHET                          CSENGERY, ANTON
+  CROTONA                           CSIKY, GREGOR
+  CROTONIC ACID                     CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ
+  CROTON OIL                        CSOMA DE KOROS, ALEXANDER
+  CROUP                             CTENOPHORA
+  CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE           CTESIAS
+  CROW                              CTESIPHON
+  CROWBERRY                         CUBA
+  CROWD
+
+
+
+
+CROCOITE, a mineral consisting of lead chromate, PbCrO4, and
+crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It is sometimes used as a paint,
+being identical in composition with the artificial product
+chrome-yellow; it is the only chromate of any importance found in
+nature. It was discovered at Berezovsk near Ekaterinburg in the Urals in
+1766; and named crocoise by F. S. Beudant in 1832, from the Greek
+[Greek: krokos], saffron, in allusion to its colour, a name first
+altered to crocoisite and afterwards to crocoite. It is found as
+well-developed crystals of a bright hyacinth-red colour, which are
+translucent and have an adamantine to vitreous lustre. On exposure to
+light much of the translucency and brilliancy is lost. The streak is
+orange-yellow; hardness 2(1/2)-3; specific gravity 6.0. In the Urals the
+crystals are found in quartz-veins traversing granite or gneiss: other
+localities which have yielded good crystallized specimens are Congonhas
+do Campo near Ouro Preto in Brazil, Luzon in the Philippines, and Umtali
+in Mashonaland. Gold is often found associated with this mineral.
+Crystals far surpassing in beauty any previously known have been found
+in the Adelaide Mine at Dundas, Tasmania; they are long slender prisms,
+3 or 4 in. in length, with a brilliant lustre and colour.
+
+Associated with crocoite at Berezovsk are the closely allied minerals
+phoenicochroite and vauquelinite. The former is a basic lead Chromate,
+Pb3Cr2O9, and the latter a lead and copper phosphate-chromate, 2(Pb,
+Cu)CrO4. (Pb, Cu)3(PO4)2. Vauquelinite forms brown or green monoclinic
+crystals, and was named after L. N. Vauquelin, who in 1797 discovered
+(simultaneously with and independently of M. H. Klaproth) the element
+chromium in crocoite.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CROCUS, a botanical genus of the natural order Iridaceae, containing
+about 70 species, natives of Europe, North Africa, and temperate Asia,
+and especially developed in the dry country of south-eastern Europe and
+western and central Asia. The plants are admirably adapted for climates
+in which a season favourable to growth alternates with a hot or dry
+season; during the latter they remain dormant beneath the ground in the
+form of a short thickened stem protected by the scaly remains of the
+bases of last season's leaves (known botanically as a "corm"). At the
+beginning of the new season of growth, new flower- and leaf-bearing
+shoots are developed from the corm at the expense of the food-stuff
+stored within it. New corms are produced at the end of the season, and
+by these the plant is multiplied.
+
+These crocuses of the flower garden are mostly horticultural varieties
+of _C. vernus_, _C. versicolor_ and _C. aureus_ (Dutch crocus), the two
+former yielding the white, purple and striped, and the latter the yellow
+varieties. The crocus succeeds in any fairly good garden soil, and is
+usually planted near the edges of beds or borders in the flower garden,
+or in broadish patches at intervals along the mixed borders. The corms
+should be planted 3 in. below the surface, and as they become crowded
+they should be taken up and replanted with a refreshment of the soil, at
+least every five or six years. Crocuses have also a pleasing effect when
+dotted about on the lawns and grassy banks of the pleasure ground.
+
+Some of the best of the varieties are:--_Purple_: David Rizzio, Sir J.
+Franklin, purpureus grandiflorus. _Striped_: Albion, La Majestueuse, Sir
+Walter Scott, Cloth of _Silver_, Mme Mina. _White_: Caroline Chisholm,
+Mont Blanc. _Yellow_: Large Dutch.
+
+The species of crocus are not very readily obtainable, but those who
+make a specialty of hardy bulbs ought certainly to search them out and
+grow them. They require the same culture as the more familiar garden
+varieties; but, as some of them are apt to suffer from excess of
+moisture, it is advisable to plant them in prepared soil in a raised
+pit, where they are brought nearer to the eye, and where they can be
+sheltered when necessary by glazed sashes, which, however, should not be
+closed except when the plants are at rest, or during inclement weather
+in order to protect the blossoms, especially in the case of winter
+flowering species. The autumn blooming kinds include many plants of very
+great beauty. The following species are recommended:--
+
+Spring flowering:--_Yellow_: _C. aureus_, _aureus_ var. _sulphureus_,
+_chrysanthus_, _Olivieri_, _Korolkowi_, _Balansae_, _ancyrensis_,
+_Susianus_, _stellaris_. _Lilac_: _C. Imperati_, _Sieberi_, _etruscus_,
+_vernus_, _Tomasinianus_, _banaticus_. _White_: _C. biflorus_ and vars.,
+_candidus_, _vernus_ vars. _Striped_: _C. versicolor_, _reticulatus_.
+
+Autumn flowering:--_Yellow_: _C. Scharojani_. _Lilac_: _C. asluricus_,
+_cancellatus_ var., _cilicicus_, _byzantinus_ (_iridiflorus_),
+_longiflorus_, _medius_, _nudiflorus_, _pulchellus_, _Salzmanni_,
+_sativus_ vars. _speciosus_, _zonatus_. _White_: _caspius_,
+_cancellatus_, _hadrialicus_, _marathonisius_.
+
+Winter flowering:--_C. hyemaeis_, _laevigatus_, _vitellinus_.
+
+
+
+
+CROESUS, last king of Lydia, of the Mermnad dynasty, (560-546 B.C.),
+succeeded his father Alyattes after a war with his half-brother. He
+completed the conquest of Ionia by capturing Ephesus, Miletus and other
+places, and extended the Lydian empire as far as the Halys. His wealth,
+due to trade, was proverbial, and he used part of it in securing
+alliances with the Greek states whose fleets might supplement his own
+army. Various legends were told about him by the Greeks, one of the most
+famous being that of Solon's visit to him with the lesson it conveyed
+of the divine nemesis which waits upon overmuch prosperity (Hdt. i. 29
+seq.; but see SOLON). After the overthrow of the Median empire (549
+B.C.) Croesus found himself confronted by the rising power of Cyrus, and
+along with Nabonidos of Babylon took measures to resist it. A coalition
+was formed between the Lydian and Babylonian kings, Egypt promised
+troops and Sparta its fleet. But the coalition was defeated by the rapid
+movements of Cyrus and the treachery of Eurybatus of Ephesus, who fled
+to Persia with the gold that had been entrusted to him, and betrayed the
+plans of the confederates. Fortified with the Delphic oracles Croesus
+marched to the frontier of his empire, but after some initial successes
+fortune turned against him and he was forced to retreat to Sardis. Here
+he was followed by Cyrus who took the city by storm. We may gather from
+the recently discovered poem of Bacchylides (iii. 23-62) that he hoped
+to escape his conqueror by burning himself with his wealth on a funeral
+pyre, like Saracus, the last king of Assyria, but that he fell into the
+hands of Cyrus before he could effect his purpose.[1] A different
+version of the story is given (from Lydian sources) by Herodotus
+(followed by Xenophon), who makes Cyrus condemn his prisoner to be burnt
+alive, a mode of death hardly consistent with the Persian reverence for
+fire. Apollo, however, came to the rescue of his pious worshipper, and
+the name of Solon uttered by Croesus resulted in his deliverance.
+According to Ctesias, who uses Persian sources, and says nothing of the
+attempt to burn Croesus, he subsequently became attached to the court of
+Cyrus and received the governorship of Barene in Media. Fragments of
+columns from the temple of Attemis now in the British Museum have upon
+them a dedication by Croesus in Greek.
+
+  See R. Schubert, _De Croeso et Solone fabula_ (1868); M. G. Radet, _La
+  Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades_ (1892-1893); A. S.
+  Murray, _Journ. Hell. Studies_, x. pp. 1-10 (1889); for the
+  supposition that Croesus did actually perish on his own pyre see G. B.
+  Grundy, _Great Persian War_, p. 28; Grote, _Hist. of Greece_ (ed.
+  1907), p. 104. Cf. CYRUS; LYDIA.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This is probably a Greek legend (cf. the Attic vase of about 500
+    B.C. in _Journ. of Hell. Stud._, 1898, p. 268).
+
+
+
+
+CROFT, SIR HERBERT, Bart. (1751-1816), English author, was born at
+Dunster Park, Berkshire, on the 1st of November 1751, son of Herbert
+Croft (see below) of Stifford, Essex. He matriculated at University
+College, Oxford, in March 1771, and was subsequently entered at
+Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar, but in 1782 returned to Oxford
+with a view to preparing for holy orders. In 1786 he received the
+vicarage of Prittlewell, Essex, but he remained at Oxford for some years
+accumulating materials for a proposed English dictionary. He was twice
+married, and on the day after his second wedding day he was imprisoned
+at Exeter for debt. He then retired to Hamburg, and two years later his
+library was sold. He had succeeded in 1797 to the title, but not to the
+estates, of a distant cousin, Sir John Croft, the fourth baronet. He
+returned to England in 1800, but went abroad once more in 1802. He lived
+near Amiens at a house owned by Lady Mary Hamilton, said to have been a
+daughter of the earl of Leven and Melville. Later he removed to Paris,
+where he died on the 26th of April 1816. In some of his numerous
+literary enterprises he had the help of Charles Nodier. Croft wrote the
+Life of Edward Young inserted in Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_. In 1780
+he published _Love and Madness, a Story too true, in a series of letters
+between Parties whose names could perhaps be mentioned were they less
+known or less lamented_. This book, which passed through seven editions,
+narrates the passion of a clergyman named James Hackman for Martha Ray,
+mistress of the earl of Sandwich, who was shot by her lover as she was
+leaving Covent Garden in 1779 (see the Case and Memoirs of the late Rev.
+Mr James Hackman, 1779). _Love and Madness_ has permanent interest
+because Croft inserted, among other miscellaneous matter, information
+about Thomas Chatterton gained from letters which he obtained from the
+poet's sister, Mrs Newton, under false pretences, and used without
+payment. Robert Southey, when about to publish an edition of
+Chatterton's works for the benefit of his family, published (November
+1799) details of Croft's proceedings in the _Monthly Review_. To this
+attack Croft wrote a reply addressed to John Nichols in the _Gentleman's
+Magazine_, and afterwards printed separately as _Chatterton and Love and
+Madness ..._ (1800). This tract evades the main accusation, and contains
+much abuse of Southey. Croft, however, supplied the material for the
+exhaustive account of Chatterton in A. Kippis's _Biographia Britannica_
+(vol. iv., 1789). In 1788 he addressed a letter to William Pitt on the
+subject of a new dictionary. He criticized Samuel Johnson's efforts, and
+in 1790 he claimed to have collected 11,000 words used by excellent
+authorities but omitted by Johnson. Two years later he issued proposals
+for a revised edition of Johnson's _Dictionary_, but subscribers were
+lacking and his 200 vols. of MS. remained unused. Croft was a good
+scholar and linguist, and the author of some curious books in French.
+
+  _The Love Letters of Mr H. and Miss R. 1775-1779_ were edited from
+  Croft's book by Mr Gilbert Burgess (1895). See also John Nichols's
+  _Illustrations ..._ (1828), v. 202-218.
+
+
+
+
+CROFT, SIR JAMES (d. 1590), lord deputy of Ireland, belonged to an old
+family of Herefordshire, which county he represented in parliament in
+1541. He was made governor of Haddington in 1549, and became lord deputy
+of Ireland in 1551. There he effected little beyond gaining for himself
+the reputation of a conciliatory disposition. Croft was all his life a
+double-dealer. He was imprisoned in the Tower for treason in the reign
+of Mary, but was released and treated with consideration by Elizabeth
+after her accession. He was made governor of Berwick, where he was
+visited by John Knox in 1559, and where he busied himself actively on
+behalf of the Scottish Protestants, though in 1560 he was suspected,
+probably with good reason, of treasonable correspondence with Mary of
+Guise, the Catholic regent of Scotland; and for ten years he was out of
+public employment. But in 1570 Elizabeth, who showed the greatest
+forbearance and favour to Sir James Croft, made him a privy councillor
+and controller of her household. He was one of the commissioners for the
+trial of Mary queen of Scots, and in 1588 was sent on a diplomatic
+mission to arrange peace with the duke of Parma. Croft established
+private relations with Parma, for which on his return he was sent to the
+Tower. He was released before the end of 1589, and died on the 4th of
+September 1590.
+
+Croft's eldest son, Edward, was put on his trial in 1589 on the curious
+charge of having contrived the death of the earl of Leicester by
+witchcraft, in revenge for the earl's supposed hostility to Sir James
+Croft. Edward Croft was father of Sir Herbert Croft (d. 1622), who
+became a Roman Catholic and wrote several controversial pieces in
+defence of that faith. His son Herbert Croft (1603-1691), bishop of
+Hereford, after being for some time, like his father, a member of the
+Roman church, returned to the church of England about 1630, and about
+ten years later was chaplain to Charles I., and obtained within a few
+years a prebend's stall at Worcester, a canonry of Windsor, and the
+deanery of Hereford, all of which preferments he lost during the Civil
+War and Commonwealth. By Charles II. he was made bishop of Hereford in
+1661. Bishop Croft was the author of many books and pamphlets, several
+of them against the Roman Catholics; and one of his works, entitled _The
+Naked Truth, or the True State of the Primitive Church_ (London, 1675),
+was very celebrated in its day, and gave rise to prolonged controversy.
+The bishop died in 1691. His son Herbert was created a baronet in 1671,
+and was the ancestor of Sir Herbert Croft (q.v.), the 18th century
+writer.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_, vol.
+  i. (3 vols., London, 1885); David Lloyd, _State Worthies from the
+  Reformation to the Revolution_ (2 vols., London, 1766); John Strype,
+  _Annals of the Reformation_ (Oxford, 1824), which contains an account
+  of the trial of Edward Croft; S. L. Lee's art. "Croft, Sir James," in
+  _Dict. of National Biography_, vol. xiii.; and for Bishop Croft see
+  Anthony a Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (ed. Bliss, 1813-1820); John Le
+  Neve, _Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (ed. by T. D. Hardy, Oxford, 1854).
+
+
+
+
+CROFT (or CROFTS), WILLIAM (1678-1727), English composer, was born in
+1678, at Nether Ettington in Warwickshire. He received his musical
+education in the Chapel Royal under Dr Blow. He early obtained the place
+of organist of St Anne's, Soho, and in 1700 was admitted a gentleman
+extraordinary of the Chapel Royal. In 1707 he was appointed
+joint-organist with Blow; and upon the death of the latter in 1708 he
+became solo organist, and also master of the children and composer of
+the Chapel Royal, besides being made organist of Westminster Abbey. In
+1712 he wrote a brief introduction on the history of English church
+music to a collection of the words of anthems which he had edited under
+the title of _Divine Harmony_. In 1713 he obtained his degree of doctor
+of music in the university of Oxford. In 1724 he published an edition of
+his choral music in 2 vols. folio, under the name of _Musica Sacra, or
+Select Anthems in score, for two, three, four, five, six, seven and
+eight voices, to which is added the Burial Service, as it is
+occasionally performed in Westminster Abbey_. This handsome work
+included a portrait of the composer and was the first of the kind
+executed on pewter plates and in score. John Page, in his _Harmonia
+Sacra_, published in 1800 in 3 vols. folio, gives seven of Croft's
+anthems. Of instrumental music, Croft published six sets of airs for two
+violins and a bass, six sonatas for two flutes, six solos for a flute
+and bass. He died at Bath on the 14th of August 1727, and was buried in
+the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to
+his memory by his friend and admirer Humphrey Wyrley Birch. Burney in
+his _History of Music_ devotes several pages of his third volume (pp.
+603-612) to Dr Croft's life, and criticisms of some of his anthems.
+During the earlier period of his life Croft wrote much for the theatre,
+including overtures and incidental music for _Courtship a la mode_
+(1700), _The Funeral_ (1702) and _The Lying Lover_ (1703).
+
+
+
+
+CROFTER, a term used, more particularly in the Highlands and islands of
+Scotland, to designate a tenant who rents and cultivates a small holding
+of land or "croft." This Old English word, meaning originally an
+enclosed field, seems to correspond to the Dutch _kroft_, a field on
+high ground or downs. The ultimate origin is unknown. By the Crofters'
+Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886, a crofter is defined as the tenant of a
+holding who resides on his holding, the annual rent of which does not
+exceed L30 in money, and which is situated in a crofting parish. The
+wholesale clearances of tenants from their crofts during the 19th
+century, in violation of, as the tenants claimed, an implied security of
+tenure, has led in the past to much agitation on the part of the
+crofters to secure consideration of their grievances. They have been the
+subject of royal commissions and of considerable legislation, but the
+effect of the Crofters Act of 1886, with subsequent amending acts, has
+been to improve their condition markedly, and much of the agitation has
+now died out. A history of the legislation dealing with the crofters is
+given in the article SCOTLAND.
+
+
+
+
+CROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857), British statesman and author, was born
+at Galway on the 20th of December 1780, being the only son of John
+Croker, the surveyor-general of customs and excise in Ireland. He was
+educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1800.
+Immediately afterwards he was entered at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1802 he
+was called to the Irish bar. His interest in the French Revolution led
+him to collect a large number of valuable documents on the subject,
+which are now in the British Museum. In 1804 he published anonymously
+_Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the State of the Irish
+Stage_, a series of caustic criticisms in verse on the management of the
+Dublin theatres. The book ran through five editions in one year. Equally
+successful was the _Intercepted Letter from Canton_ (1805), also
+anonymous, a satire on Dublin society. In 1807 he published a pamphlet
+on _The State of Ireland, Past and Present_, in which he advocated
+Catholic emancipation.
+
+In the following year he entered parliament as member for Downpatrick,
+obtaining the seat on petition, though he had been unsuccessful at the
+poll. The acumen displayed in his Irish pamphlet led Spencer Perceval to
+recommend him in 1808 to Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had just been
+appointed to the command of the British forces in the Peninsula, as his
+deputy in the office of chief secretary for Ireland. This connexion led
+to a friendship which remained unbroken till Wellington's death. The
+notorious case of the duke of York in connexion with his abuse of
+military patronage furnished him with an opportunity for distinguishing
+himself. The speech which he delivered on the 14th of March 1809, in
+answer to the charges of Colonel Wardle, was regarded as the most able
+and ingenious defence of the duke that was made in the debate; and
+Croker was appointed to the office of secretary to the Admiralty, which
+he held without interruption under various administrations for more than
+twenty years. He proved an excellent public servant, and made many
+improvements which have been of permanent value in the organization of
+his office. Among the first acts of his official career was the exposure
+of a fellow-official who had misappropriated the public funds to the
+extent of L200,000.
+
+In 1827 he became the representative of the university of Dublin, having
+previously sat successively for the boroughs of Athlone, Yarmouth (Isle
+of Wight), Bodmin and Aldeburgh. He was a determined opponent of the
+Reform Bill, and vowed that he would never sit in a reformed parliament;
+his parliamentary career accordingly terminated in 1832. Two years
+earlier he had retired from his post at the admiralty on a pension of
+L1500 a year. Many of his political speeches were published in pamphlet
+form, and they show him to have been a vigorous and effective, though
+somewhat unscrupulous and often virulently personal, party debater.
+Croker had been an ardent supporter of Peel, but finally broke with him
+when he began to advocate the repeal of the Corn Laws. He is said to
+have been the first to use (Jan. 1830) the term "conservatives." He was
+for many years one of the leading contributors on literary and
+historical subjects to the _Quarterly Review_, with which he had been
+associated from its foundation. The rancorous spirit in which many of
+his articles were written did much to embitter party feeling. It also
+reacted unfavourably on Croker's reputation as a worker in the
+department of pure literature by bringing political animosities into
+literary criticism. He had no sympathy with the younger school of poets
+who were in revolt against the artificial methods of the 18th century,
+and he was responsible for the famous _Quarterly_ article on Keats. It
+is, nevertheless, unjust to judge Croker by the criticisms which
+Macaulay brought against his _magnum opus_, his edition of Boswell's
+_Life of Johnson_ (1831). With all its defects the work had merits which
+Macaulay was of course not concerned to point out, and Croker's
+researches have been of the greatest value to subsequent editors. There
+is little doubt that Macaulay had personal reasons for his attack on
+Croker, who had more than once exposed in the House the fallacies that
+lay hidden under the orator's brilliant rhetoric. Croker made no
+immediate reply to Macaulay's attack, but when the first two volumes of
+the _History_ appeared he took the opportunity of pointing out the
+inaccuracies that abounded in the work. Croker was occupied for several
+years on an annotated edition of Pope's works. It was left unfinished at
+the time of his death, but it was afterwards completed by the Rev.
+Whitwell Elwin and Mr W. J. Courthope. He died at St Albans Bank,
+Hampton, on the 10th of August 1857.
+
+Croker was generally supposed to be the original from which Disraeli
+drew the character of "Rigby" in _Coningsby_, because he had for many
+years had the sole management of the estates of the marquess of
+Hertford, the "Lord Monmouth" of the story; but the comparison is a
+great injustice to the sterling worth of Croker's character.
+
+  The chief works of Croker not already mentioned were his _Stories for
+  Children from the History of England_ (1817), which provided the model
+  for Scott's _Tales of a Grandfather_; _Letters on the Naval War with
+  America_; _A Reply to the Letters of Malachi Malagrowther_ (1826);
+  _Military Events of the French Revolution of 1830_ (1831); a
+  translation of Bassompierre's _Embassy to England_ (1819); and several
+  lyrical pieces of some merit, such as the _Songs of Trafalgar_ (1806)
+  and _The Battles of Talavera_ (1809). He also edited the _Suffolk
+  Papers_ (1823), _Hervey's Memoirs of the Court of George II._ (1817),
+  the _Letters of Mary Lepel, Lady Hervey_ (1821-1822), and _Walpole's
+  Letters to Lord Hertford_ (1824). His memoirs, diaries and
+  correspondence were edited by Louis J. Jennings in 1884 under the
+  title of _The Croker Papers_ (3 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+
+CROKER, RICHARD (1843-   ), American politician, was born at Blackrock,
+Ireland, on the 24th of November 1843. He was taken to the United States
+by his parents when two years old, and was educated in the public
+schools of New York City, where he eventually became a member of
+Tammany Hall and active in its politics. He was an alderman from 1868 to
+1870, a coroner from 1873 to 1876, a fire commissioner in 1883 and 1887,
+and city chamberlain from 1889 to 1890. After the fall of John Kelly he
+became the leader of Tammany Hall (q.v.), and for some time almost
+completely controlled the organization. His greatest political success
+was his bringing about the election of Robert A. van Wyck as first mayor
+of greater New York in 1897, and during van Wyck's administration Croker
+is popularly supposed to have dominated completely the government of the
+city. After Croker's failure to "carry" the city in the presidential
+election of 1900 and the defeat of his mayoralty candidate, Edward M.
+Shepard, in 1901, he resigned from his position of leadership in
+Tammany, and retired to a country life in England and Ireland. In 1907
+he won the Derby with his race-horse Orby.
+
+
+
+
+CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON (1798-1854), Irish antiquary and humorist, was
+born in Cork on the 15th of January 1798. He was apprenticed to a
+merchant, but in 1819, through the interest of John Wilson Croker, who
+was, however, no relation of his, he became a clerk in the Admiralty.
+Moore was indebted to him in the production of his _Irish Melodies_ for
+"many curious fragments of ancient poetry." In 1825 he produced his most
+popular book, the _Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of
+Ireland_, which he followed up by the publication of his _Legends of the
+Lakes_ (1829), his _Adventures of Barney Mahoney_ (1852), and an edition
+of the _Popular Songs of Ireland_ (1839). In 1827 he was made a member
+of the Irish Academy; in 1839 and 1840 he helped to found the Camden and
+Percy Societies, and in 1843 the British Archaeological Association. He
+wrote _Narratives Illustrative of the Contests in Ireland in 1641 and
+1688_ (1841), for the Camden Society, _Historical Songs of Ireland_, &c.
+(1841), for the Percy Society, and several other works. He was also a
+member of the Hakluyt and the Antiquarian Society. He died in London on
+the 8th of August 1854.
+
+
+
+
+CROLL, JAMES (1821-1890), Scottish man of science, was born of a peasant
+family at Little Whitefield, in the parish of Cargill, in Perthshire, on
+the 2nd of January 1821. He was regarded as an unpromising boy, but a
+trifling circumstance aroused a passion for reading, and he made great
+progress in self-education. He was apprenticed to a wheelwright at
+Collace in Perthshire, but being debarred by ill-health from manual
+labour, he became successively a shop-keeper and an insurance agent. In
+1859 he was made keeper of the Andersonian Museum in Glasgow, a humble
+appointment, which, however, gave him congenial occupation. In 1857,
+being deeply impressed by the metaphysics of Jonathan Edwards, he had
+published an anonymous volume entitled _The Philosophy of Theism_; but
+his connexion with the Museum induced him to take up physical science,
+and from 1861 onwards he studied with such perseverance that he was
+enabled to contribute papers to the _Philosophical Magazine_ and other
+journals. For that magazine in 1864 he wrote his celebrated essay "On
+the Physical Cause of the Changes of Climate during Geological Epochs."
+This led to his receiving an appointment on the Scottish Geological
+Survey in 1867, and for thirteen years he took charge of the Edinburgh
+Office. In 1875 he summed up his researches upon the ancient condition
+of the earth in his _Climate and Time, in their Geological Relations_,
+in which he contends that terrestrial revolutions are due in a measure
+to cosmical causes. This theory excited warm controversy. Croll's
+replies to his opponents are collected in his _Climate and Cosmology_
+(1885). He had been compelled by ill-health to withdraw from the public
+service in 1880; yet, working under the greatest difficulties, and
+harassed by the inadequacy of his retiring pension, he managed to
+produce _Stellar Evolution_, discussing, among other things, the age of
+the sun, in 1889; and _The Philosophical Basis of Evolution_, partly a
+critique of Herbert Spencer's philosophy, in 1890. He died on the 15th
+of December 1890. The soundness of Croll's astronomical theory regarding
+the glacial period has since been criticized by E. P. Culverwell in the
+_Geological Magazine_ for 1895, and by others; and it is now generally
+abandoned. Nevertheless it must be admitted that his character as a
+scientific worker under great discouragements was nothing less than
+heroic. The hon. degree of LL.D. was conferred on him in 1876 by the
+university of St Andrews; and he was elected F.R.S. in the same year.
+
+  An _Autobiographical Sketch of James Croll, with Memoir of his Life
+  and Work_, was prepared by J. C. Irons, and published in 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CROLY, GEORGE (1780-1860), British divine and author, son of a Dublin
+physician, was born on the 17th of August 1780. He was educated at
+Trinity College, Dublin, and after ordination was appointed to a small
+curacy in the north of Ireland. About 1810 he came to London, and
+occupied himself with literary work. A man of restless energy, he claims
+attention by his extraordinary versatility. He wrote dramatic criticisms
+for a short-lived periodical called the _New Times_; he was one of the
+earliest contributors to _Blackwood's Magazine_; and to the _Literary
+Gazette_ he contributed poems, reviews and essays on all kinds of
+subjects. In 1819 he married Margaret Helen Begbie. Efforts to secure an
+English living for Croly were frustrated, according to the _Gentleman's
+Magazine_ (Jan. 1861), because Lord Eldon confounded him with a Roman
+Catholic of the same name. Excluding his contributions to the daily and
+weekly press his chief works were:--_Paris in 1815_ (1817), a poem in
+imitation of _Childe Harold; Catiline_ (1822), a tragedy lacking in
+dramatic force; _Salathiel: A Story of the Past, the Present and the
+Future_ (1829), a successful romance of the "Wandering Jew" type; _The
+Life and Times of his late Majesty George the Fourth_ (1830); _Marston;
+or, The Soldier and Statesman_ (1846), a novel of modern life; _The
+Modern Orlando_ (1846), a satire which owes something to _Don Juan_; and
+some biographies, sermons and theological works.
+
+Croly was an effective preacher, and continued to hope for preferment
+from the Tory leaders, to whom he had rendered considerable services by
+his pen; but he eventually received, in 1835, the living of St
+Stephen's, Walbrook, London, from a Whig patron, Lord Brougham, with
+whose family he was connected. In 1847 he was made afternoon lecturer at
+the Foundling hospital, but this appointment proved unfortunate. He died
+suddenly on the 24th of November 1860, in London.
+
+  His _Poetical Works_ (2 vols.) were collected in 1830. For a list of
+  his works see Allibone's _Critical Dictionary of English Literature_
+  (1859).
+
+
+
+
+CROMAGNON RACE, the name given by Paul Broca to a type of mankind
+supposed to be represented by remains found by Lartet, Christy and
+others, in France in the Cromagnon cave at Les Eyzies, Tayac district,
+Dordogne. At the foot of a steep rock near the village this small cave,
+nearly filled with debris, was found by workmen in 1868. Towards the top
+of the loose strata three human skeletons were unearthed. They were
+those of an old man, a young man and a woman, the latter's skull bearing
+the mark of a severe wound. The skulls presented such special
+characteristics that Broca took them as types of a race. Palaeolithic
+man is exclusively long-headed, and the dolichocephalic appearance of
+the crania (they had a mean cephalic index of 73.34) supported the view
+that the "find" at Les Eyzies was palaeolithic. It is, however,
+inaccurate to state that brachycephaly appears at once with the
+neolithic age, dolichocephaly even of a pronounced type persisting far
+into neolithic times. The Cromagnon race may thus be, as many
+anthropologists believe it, early neolithic, a type of man who spread
+over and inhabited a large portion of Europe at the close of the
+Pleistocene period. Some have sought to find in it the substratum of the
+present populations of western Europe. Quatrefages identifies Cromagnon
+man with the tall, long-headed, fair Kabyles (Berbers) who still survive
+in various parts of Mauritania. He suggests the introduction of the
+Cromagnon from Siberia, "arriving in Europe simultaneously with the
+great mammals (which were driven by the cold from Siberia), and no doubt
+following their route."
+
+  See A. H. Keane's _Ethnology_ (1896); Mortillet, _Le Prehistorique_
+  (1900); Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_ (1901); Lord Avebury,
+  _Prehistoric Times_, p. 317 of 1900 edition.
+
+
+
+
+CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE, 1ST EARL OF (1630-1714), Scottish statesman,
+was the eldest son of Sir John Mackenzie, Bart., of Tarbat (d. 1654),
+and belonged to the same family as the earls of Seaforth. In 1654 he
+joined the rising in Scotland on behalf of Charles II. and after an
+exile of six years he returned to his own country and took some part in
+public affairs after the Restoration. In 1661 he became a lord of
+session as Lord Tarbat, but having been concerned in a vain attempt to
+overthrow Charles II.'s secretary, the earl of Lauderdale, he was
+dismissed from office in 1664. A period of retirement followed until
+1678 when Mackenzie was appointed lord justice general of Scotland; in
+1681 he became lord clerk register and a lord of session for the second
+time, and from 1682 to 1688 he was the chief minister of Charles II. and
+James II. in Scotland, being created viscount of Tarbat in 1685. In
+1688, however, he deserted James and soon afterwards made his peace with
+William III., his experience being very serviceable to the new
+government in settling the affairs of Scotland. From 1692 to 1695 Tarbat
+was again lord clerk register, and having served for a short time as a
+secretary of state under Queen Anne he was created earl of Cromarty in
+1703. He was again lord justice general from 1704 to 1710. He warmly
+supported the union between England and Scotland, writing some pamphlets
+in favour of this step, and he died on the 17th of August 1714. Cromarty
+was a man of much learning, and among his numerous writings may be
+mentioned his _Account of the conspiracies by the earls of Gowry and R.
+Logan_ (Edinburgh, 1713).
+
+The earl's grandson George, 3rd earl of Cromarty (c. 1703-1766),
+succeeded his father John, the 2nd earl, in February 1731. In 1745 he
+joined Charles Edward, the young pretender, and he served with the
+Jacobites until April 1746 when he was taken prisoner in
+Sutherlandshire. He was tried and sentenced to death, but he obtained a
+conditional pardon although his peerage was forfeited. He died on the
+28th of September 1766.
+
+This earl's eldest son was John Mackenzie, Lord Macleod (1727-1789), who
+shared his father's fortunes in 1745 and his fate in 1746. Having
+pleaded guilty at his trial Macleod was pardoned on condition that he
+gave up all his rights in the estates of the earldom, and he left
+England and entered the Swedish army. In this service he rose to high
+rank and was made Count Cromarty. The count returned to England in 1777
+and was successful in raising, mainly among the Mackenzies, two splendid
+battalions of Highlanders, the first of which, now the Highland Light
+Infantry, served under him in India. In 1784 he regained the family
+estates and he died on the 2nd of April 1789. Macleod wrote an account
+of the Jacobite rising of 1745, and also one of a campaign in Bohemia in
+which he took part in 1757; both are printed in Sir W. Fraser's _Earls
+of Cromartie_ (Edinburgh, 1876).
+
+Macleod left no children, and his heir was his cousin, Kenneth Mackenzie
+(d. 1796), a grandson of the 2nd earl, who also died childless. The
+estates then passed to Macleod's sister, Isabel (1725-1801), wife of
+George Murray, 6th Lord Elibank. In 1861 Isabel's descendant, Anne
+(1829-1888), wife of George, 3rd duke of Sutherland, was created
+countess of Cromartie with remainder to her second son Francis
+(1852-1893), who became earl of Cromartie in 1888. In 1895, two years
+after the death of Francis, his daughter Sibell Lilian (b. 1878) was
+granted by letters patent the title of countess of Cromartie.
+
+
+
+
+CROMARTY, a police burgh and seaport of the county of Ross and Cromarty,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1242. It is situated on the southern shore of the
+mouth of Cromarty Firth, 5 m. E. by S. of Invergordon on the opposite
+coast, with which there is daily communication by steamer, and 9 m. N.E.
+of Fortrose, the most convenient railway station. Before the union of
+the shires of Ross and Cromarty, it was the county town of
+Cromartyshire, and is one of the Wick district group of parliamentary
+burghs. Its name is variously derived from the Gaelic _crom_, crooked,
+and _bath_, bay, or _ard_, height, meaning either the "crooked bay," or
+the "bend between the heights" (the high rocks, or Sutors, which guard
+the entrance to the Firth), and gave the title to the earldom of
+Cromarty. The principal buildings are the town hall and the Hugh Miller
+Institute. The harbour, enclosed by two piers, accommodates the herring
+fleet, but the fisheries, the staple industry, have declined. The town,
+however, is in growing repute as a midsummer resort. The thatched house
+with crow-stepped gables in Church Street, in which Hugh Miller the
+geologist was born, still stands, and a statue has been erected to his
+memory. To the east of the burgh is Cromarty House, occupying the site
+of the old castle of the earls of Ross. It was the birthplace of Sir
+Thomas Urquhart, the translator of Rabelais.
+
+Cromarty, formerly a county in the north of Scotland, was incorporated
+with Ross-shire in 1889 under the designation of the county of Ross and
+Cromarty. The nucleus of the county consisted of the lands of Cromarty
+in the north of the peninsula of the Black Isle. To this were added from
+time to time the various estates scattered throughout Ross-shire--the
+most considerable of which were the districts around Ullapool and Little
+Loch Broom on the Atlantic coast, the area in which Ben Wyvis is
+situated, and a tract to the north of Loch Fannich--which had been
+acquired by the ancestors of Sir George Mackenzie (1630-1714),
+afterwards Viscount Tarbat (1685) and 1st earl of Cromarty (1703).
+Desirous of combining these sporadic properties into one shire, Viscount
+Tarbat was enabled to procure their annexation to his sheriffdom of
+Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, the area of the enlarged county amounting to
+nearly 370 sq. m. (See ROSS AND CROMARTY.)
+
+
+
+
+CROMARTY FIRTH, an arm of the North Sea, belonging to the county of Ross
+and Cromarty, Scotland. From the Moray Firth it extends inland in a
+westerly and then south-westerly direction for a distance of 19 m.
+Excepting at the Bay of Nigg, on the northern shore, and Cromarty Bay,
+on the southern, where it is about 5 m. wide (due N. and S.), and at
+Alness Bay, where it is 2 m. wide, it has an average width of 1 m. and a
+depth varying from 5 to 10 fathoms, forming one of the safest and most
+commodious anchorages in the north of Scotland. Besides other streams it
+receives the Conon, Peffery, Skiack and Alness, and the principal places
+on its shores are Dingwall near the head, Cromarty near the mouth,
+Kiltearn, Invergordon and Kilmuir on the north. The entrance is guarded
+by two precipitous rocks--the one on the north 400 ft., that on the
+south 463 ft. high--called the Sutors from a fancied resemblance to a
+couple of shoemakers (_Scotice_, souter), bending over their lasts.
+There are ferries at Cromarty, Invergordon and Dingwall.
+
+
+
+
+CROME, JOHN (1769-1821), English landscape painter, founder and chief
+representative of the "Norwich School," often called Old Crome, to
+distinguish him from his son, was born at Norwich, on the 21st of
+December 1769. His father was a weaver, and could give him only the
+scantiest education. His early years were spent in work of the humblest
+kind; and at a fit age he became apprentice to a house-painter. To this
+step he appears to have been led by an inborn love of art and the desire
+to acquaint himself by any means with its materials and processes.
+During his apprenticeship he sometimes painted signboards, and devoted
+what leisure time he had to sketching from nature. Through the influence
+of a rich art-loving friend he was enabled to exchange his occupation of
+house-painter for that of drawing-master; and in this he was engaged
+throughout his life. He took great delight in a collection of Dutch
+pictures to which he had access, and these he carefully studied. About
+1790 he was introduced to Sir William Beechey, whose house in London he
+frequently visited, and from whom he gathered additional knowledge and
+help in his art. In 1805 the Norwich Society of Artists took definite
+shape, its origin being traceable a year or two further back. Crome was
+its president and the largest contributor to its annual exhibitions.
+Among his pupils were James Stark, Vincent, Thirtle and John Bernay
+(Barney) Crome (1794-1842), his son. J. S. Cotman, too, a greater artist
+than any of these, was associated with him. Crome continued to reside at
+Norwich, and with the exception of his short visits to London had little
+or no communication with the great artists of his own time. He first
+exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1806; but in this and the following
+twelve years he exhibited there only fourteen of his works. With very
+few exceptions Crome's subjects are taken from the familiar scenery of
+his native county. Fidelity to nature was his dominant aim. "The bit of
+heath, the boat, and the slow water of the flattish land, trees most of
+all--the single tree in elaborate study, the group of trees, and how the
+growth of one affects that of another, and the characteristics of
+each,"--these, says Frederick Wedmore (_Studies in English Art_), are
+the things to which he is most constant. He still remains, says the same
+critic, of many trees the greatest draughtsman, and is especially the
+master of the oak. His most important works are--"Mousehold Heath, near
+Norwich," now in the National Gallery; "Clump of Trees, Hautbois
+Common"; "Oak at Poringland"; the "Willow"; "Coast Scene near Yarmouth";
+"Bruges, on the Ostend River"; "Slate Quarries"; the "Italian
+Boulevards"; and the "Fishmarket at Boulogne." He executed a good many
+etchings, and the great charm of these is in the beautiful and faithful
+representation of trees. Crome enjoyed a very limited reputation during
+his life, and his pictures were sold at low prices; but since his death
+they have been more and more appreciated, and have given him a high
+place among English painters of landscape. He died at Norwich on the
+22nd of April 1821. His son, J. B. Crome, was his assistant in teaching,
+and his best pictures were in the same style, his moonlight effects
+being much admired.
+
+  A collection of "Old" Crome's etchings, entitled _Norfolk Picturesque
+  Scenery_, was published in 1834, and was re-issued with a memoir by
+  Dawson Turner in 1838, but in this issue the prints were retouched by
+  other hands.
+
+
+
+
+CROMER, EVELYN BARING, 1ST EARL (1841-   ), British statesman and
+diplomatist, was born on the 26th of February 1841, the ninth son of
+Henry Baring, M.P., by Cecilia Anne, eldest daughter of Admiral Windham
+of Felbrigge Hall, Norfolk. Having joined the Royal Artillery in 1858,
+he was appointed in 1861 A.D.C. to Sir Henry Storks, high commissioner
+of the Ionian Islands, and acted as secretary to the same chief during
+the inquiry into the Jamaica outbreak in 1865. Gazetted captain in 1870,
+he went in 1872 as private secretary to his cousin Lord Northbrook,
+Viceroy of India, where he remained until 1876, when he became major,
+received the C.S.I., and was appointed British commissioner of the
+Egyptian public debt office. Up to this period Major Baring had given no
+unusual signs of promise, and the appointment of a comparatively untried
+major of artillery as the British representative on a Financial Board
+composed of representatives of all the great powers was considered a
+bold one. Within a very short time it was recognized that the
+Englishman, though keeping himself carefully in the background, was
+unmistakably the predominant factor on the board. He was mainly
+responsible for the searching report, issued in 1878, of the commission
+of inquiry that had been instituted into the financial methods of the
+Khedive Ismail; and when that able and unscrupulous Oriental had to
+submit to an enforced abdication in 1879, it was Major Baring who became
+the British controller-general and practical director of the Dual
+Control. Had he remained in Egypt, the whole course of Egyptian history
+might have been altered, but his services were deemed more necessary in
+India, and under Lord Ripon he became financial member of council in
+June 1880. He remained there till 1883, leaving an unmistakable mark on
+the Indian financial system, and then, having been rewarded by the
+K.C.S.I., he was appointed British agent and consul-general in Egypt and
+a minister plenipotentiary in the diplomatic service.
+
+Sir Evelyn Baring was at that time only a man of forty-two, who had
+gained a reputation for considerable financial ability, combined with an
+abruptness of manner and a certain autocracy of demeanour which, it was
+feared, would impede his success in a position which required
+considerable tact and diplomacy. It was a friendly colleague who wrote--
+
+  "The virtues of Patience are known,
+     But I think that, when put to the touch,
+   The people of Egypt will own, with a groan,
+     There's an Evil in Baring too much."
+
+When he arrived in Cairo in 1883 he found the administration of the
+country almost non-existent. Ismail had ruled with all the vices, but
+also with all the advantages, of autocracy. Disorder in the finances,
+brutality towards the people, had been combined with public tranquillity
+and the outer semblance of civilization. Order, at least, reigned from
+the Sudan to the Mediterranean, and such trivial military disturbances
+as had occurred had been of Ismail's own devising and for his own
+purposes. Tewfik, who had succeeded him, had neither the inclination nor
+character to be a despot. Within three years his government had been all
+but overthrown, and he was only khedive by the grace of British
+bayonets. Government by bayonets was not in accord with the views of the
+House of Commons, yet Ismail's government by the kourbash could not be
+restored. The British government, under Mr Gladstone, desired to
+establish in Egypt a sort of constitutional government; and as there
+existed no single element of a constitution, they had sent out Lord
+Dufferin (the first marquess of Dufferin) to frame one. That gifted
+nobleman, in the delightful lucidity of his picturesque report, left
+nothing to be desired except the material necessary to convert the
+flowing periods into political entities.[1] In the absence of that, the
+constitution was still-born, and Sir Evelyn Baring arrived to find, not
+indeed a clean slate, but a worn-out papyrus, disfigured by the efforts
+of centuries to describe in hieroglyph a method of rule for a docile
+people.
+
+From that date the history of Sir Evelyn Baring, who became Baron Cromer
+in 1892, G.C.B. in 1895, viscount in 1897, and earl in 1901, is the
+history of Egypt, and requires the barest mention of its salient points
+here. From the outset he realized that the task he had to perform could
+only be effected piecemeal and in detail, and his very first measure was
+one which, though severely criticized at the time, has been justified by
+events, and which in any case showed that he shirked no responsibility,
+and was capable of adopting heroic methods. He counselled the
+abandonment, at least temporarily, by Egypt of its authority in the
+Sudan provinces, already challenged by the mahdi. His views were shared
+by the British ministry of the day and the policy of abandonment
+enforced upon the Egyptian government. At the same time it was decided
+that efforts should be made to relieve the Egyptian garrisons in the
+Sudan and this resolve led to the mission of General C. G. Gordon (q.v.)
+to Khartum. Lord Cromer subsequently told the story of Gordon's mission
+at length, making clear the measure of responsibility resting upon him
+as British agent. The proposal to employ Gordon came from the British
+government and twice Sir Evelyn rejected the suggestion. Finally,
+mistrusting his own judgment, for he did not consider Gordon the proper
+person for the mission, Baring yielded to pressure from Lord Granville.
+Thereafter he gave Gordon all the support possible, and in the critical
+matter of the proposed despatch of Zobeir to Khartum, Baring--after a
+few days' hesitation--cordially endorsed Gordon's request. The request
+was refused by the British government--and the catastrophe which
+followed at Khartum rendered inevitable.
+
+The Sudan crisis being over, for the time, Sir Evelyn Baring set to work
+to reorganize Egypt itself. This work he attacked in detail. The very
+first essential was to regulate the financial situation; and in Egypt,
+where the entire revenue is based on the production of the soil,
+irrigation was of the first importance. With the assistance of Sir Colin
+Scott Moncrieff, in the public works department, and Sir Edgar Vincent,
+as financial adviser, these two great departments were practically put
+in order before he gave more than superficial attention to the rest. The
+ministry of justice was the next department seriously taken in hand,
+with the assistance of Sir John Scott, while the army had been reformed
+under Sir Evelyn Wood, who was succeeded by Sir Francis (afterwards
+Lord) Grenfell. Education, the ministry of the interior, and gradually
+every other department, came to be reorganized, or, more correctly
+speaking, formed, under Lord Cromer's carefully persistent direction,
+until it may be said to-day that the Egyptian administration can safely
+challenge comparison with that of any other state. In the meantime the
+rule of the mahdi and his successor, the khalifa, in the temporarily
+abandoned provinces of the Sudan, had been weakened by internal
+dissensions; the Italians from Massawa, the Belgians from the Congo
+State, and the French from their West African possessions, had gradually
+approached nearer to the valley of the Nile; and the moment had arrived
+at which Egypt must decide either to recover her position in the Sudan
+or allow the Upper Nile to fall into hands hostile to Great Britain and
+her position in Egypt. Lord Cromer was as quick to recognize the moment
+for action and to act as he had fifteen years earlier been prompt to
+recognize the necessity of abstention. In March-September 1896 the first
+advance was made to Dongola under the Sirdar, Sir Herbert (afterwards
+Lord) Kitchener; between July 1897 and April 1898 the advance was pushed
+forward to the Atbara; and on the 2nd of September 1898, the battle of
+Omdurman finally crushed the power of the khalifa and restored the Sudan
+to the rule of Egypt and Great Britain. In the negotiations which
+resulted in the Anglo-French Declaration of the 8th of April 1904,
+whereby France bound herself not to obstruct in any manner the action of
+Great Britain in Egypt and the Egyptian government acquired financial
+freedom, Lord Cromer took an active part. He also successfully guarded
+the interests of Egypt and Great Britain in 1906 when Turkey attempted
+by encroachments in the Sinai Peninsula to obtain a strategic position
+on the Suez Canal. To have effected all this in the face of the greatest
+difficulties--political, national and international--and at the same
+time to have raised the credit of the country from a condition of
+bankruptcy to an equality with that of the first European powers,
+entitles Lord Cromer to a very high place among the greatest
+administrators and statesmen that the British empire has produced. In
+April 1907, in consequence of the state of his health, he resigned
+office, having held the post of British agent in Egypt for twenty-four
+years. In July of the same year parliament granted L50,000 out of the
+public funds to Lord Cromer in recognition of his "eminent services" in
+Egypt. In 1908 he published, in two volumes, _Modern Egypt_, in which he
+gave an impartial narrative of events in Egypt and the Sudan since 1876,
+and dealt with the results to Egypt of the British occupation of the
+country. Lord Cromer also took part in the political controversies at
+home, joining himself to the free-trade wing of the Unionist party.
+
+Lord Cromer married in 1876 Ethel Stanley, daughter of Sir Rowland
+Stanley Errington, eleventh baronet, but was left a widower with two
+sons in 1898; and in 1901 he married Lady Katherine Thynne, daughter of
+the 4th marquess of Bath.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In 1892 Lord Dufferin wrote to Lord Cromer: "These institutions
+    were a good deal ridiculed at the time, but as it was then uncertain
+    how long we were going to remain, or rather how soon the Turks might
+    not be reinvested with their ancient supremacy, I desired to erect
+    some sort of barrier, however feeble, against their intolerable
+    tyranny." In 1906 Lord Cromer bore public testimony to the good
+    results of the measures adopted on Lord Dufferin's "statesmanlike
+    initiative." Such results were, however, only possible in consequence
+    of the continuance of the British occupation.
+
+
+
+
+CROMER, a watering-place in the northern parliamentary division of
+Norfolk, England, 139 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern
+railway; served also by the Midland and Great Northern joint line. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 3781. Standing on cliffs of considerable
+elevation, the town has repeatedly suffered from ravages of the sea. A
+wall and esplanade extend along the bottom of the cliffs, and there is a
+fine stretch of sandy beach. There is also a short pier. The church of
+St Peter and St Paul is Perpendicular (largely restored) with a lofty
+tower. On a site of three acres stands the convalescent home of the
+Norfolk and Norwich hospital. There is an excellent golf course. The
+herring, cod, lobster and crab fisheries are prosecuted. The village of
+Sheringham (pop. of urban district, 2359), lying to the west, is also
+frequented by visitors. A so-called Roman camp, on an elevation
+overlooking the sea, is actually a modern beacon.
+
+
+
+
+CROMORNE, also CRUMHORNE[1] (Ger. _Krummhorn_; Fr. _tournebout_), a wind
+instrument of wood in which a cylindrical column of air is set in
+vibration by a reed. The lower extremity is turned up in a half-circle,
+and from this peculiarity it has gained the French name _tournebout_.
+The reed of the cromorne, like that of the bassoon, is formed by a
+double tongue of cane adapted to the small end of a conical brass tube
+or crook, the large end fitting into the main bore of the instrument. It
+presents, however, this difference, that it is not, like that of the
+bassoon, in contact with the player's lips, but is covered by a cap
+pierced in the upper part with a raised slit against which the
+performer's lips rest, the air being forced through the opening into the
+cap and setting the reed in vibration. The reed itself is therefore not
+subject to the pressure of the lips. The compass of the instrument is in
+consequence limited to the simple fundamental sounds produced by the
+successive opening of the lateral holes. The length of the cromornes is
+inconsiderable in proportion to the deep sounds produced by them, which
+arises from the fact that these instruments, like all tubes of
+cylindrical bore provided with reeds, have the acoustic properties of
+the stopped pipes of an organ. That is to say, theoretically they
+require only half the length necessary for the open pipes of an organ or
+for conical tubes provided with reeds, to produce notes of the same
+pitch. Moreover, when, to obtain an harmonic, the column of air is
+divided, the cromorne will not give the octave, like the oboe and
+bassoon, but the twelfth, corresponding in this peculiarity with the
+clarinet and all stopped pipes or bourdons. In order, however, to obtain
+an harmonic on the cromorne, the cap would have to be discarded, for a
+reed only overblows to give the harmonic overtones when pressed by the
+lips. With the ordinary boring of eight lateral holes the cromorne
+possesses a limited compass of a ninth. Sometimes, however, deeper
+sounds are obtained by the addition of one or more keys. By its
+construction the cromorne is one of the oldest wind instruments; it is
+evidently derived from the Gr. aulos[2] and the Roman tibia, which
+likewise consisted of a simple cylindrical pipe of which the air column
+was set in vibration, at first by a double reed, and, we have reason to
+believe, later by a single reed (see AULOS and CLARINET). The Phrygian
+aulos was sometimes curved (see Tib. ii. i. 85 _Phrygio tibia curva
+sono_; Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 737 _curva choros indixit tibia Bacchi_).[3]
+
+  [Illustration: Bass Tournebout.]
+
+  Notwithstanding the successive improvements that were introduced in
+  the manufacture of wind instruments, the cromorne scarcely ever varied
+  in the details of its construction. Such as we see it represented in
+  the treatise by Virdung[4] we find it again about the epoch of its
+  disappearance.[5] The cromornes existed as a complete family from the
+  15th century, consisting, according to Virdung, of four instruments;
+  Praetorius[6] cites five--the deep bass, the bass, the tenor or alto,
+  the cantus or soprano and the high soprano, with compass as shown. A
+  band, or, to use the expression of Praetorius, an "accort" of
+  cromornes comprised 1 deep bass, 2 bass, 3 tenor, 2 cantus, 1 high
+  soprano = 9.
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  Mersenne[7] explains the construction of the cromorne, giving careful
+  illustrations of the instrument with and without the cap. From him we
+  learn that these instruments were made in England, where they were
+  played in concert in sets of four, five and six. Their scheme of
+  construction and especially the reed and cap is very similar to that
+  of the chalumeau of the musette (see BAG-PIPE), but its timbre is by
+  no means so pleasant. Mersenne's cromornes have ten fingerholes, Nos.
+  7 and 8 being duplicates for right and left-handed players. They were
+  probably sometimes used, as was the case with the hautbois de Poitou
+  (see BAG-PIPE), without the cap, when an extended compass was
+  required.
+
+  The cromornes were in very general use in Europe from the 14th to the
+  17th century, and are to be found in illustrations of pageants, as for
+  instance in the magnificent collection of woodcuts designed by Hans
+  Burgmair, a pupil of Albrecht Durer, representing the triumph of the
+  emperor Maximilian,[8] where a bass and a tenor Krumbhorn player
+  figure in the procession among countless other musicians. In the
+  inventory of the wardrobe, &c., belonging to Henry VIII. at
+  Westminster, made during the reign of Edward VI., we find eighteen
+  crumhornes (see British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, ff. 202b and 205).
+  The cromornes did not always form an orchestra by themselves, but were
+  also used in concert with other instruments and notably with flutes
+  and oboes, as in municipal bands and in the private bands of princes.
+  In 1685 the orchestra of the Neue Kirche at Strassburg comprised two
+  tournebouts or cromornes, and until the middle of the 18th century
+  these instruments formed part of the court band known as "Musique de
+  la Grande Ecurie" in the service of the French kings. They are first
+  mentioned in the accounts for the year 1662, together with the
+  tromba-marina, although the instrument was already highly esteemed in
+  the 16th century. In that year five players of the cromorne were
+  enrolled among the musicians of the Grande Ecurie du Roi;[9] they
+  received a yearly salary of 120 livres, which various supplementary
+  allowances brought up to about 330 livres. In 1729 one of the cromorne
+  players sold his appointment for 4000 francs. This was a sign of the
+  failing popularity of the instrument. The duties of the cromorne and
+  tromba-marina players consisted in playing in the great
+  _divertissements_ and at court functions and festivals in honour of
+  royal marriages, births and thanksgivings.
+
+  Cromornes have become of extreme rarity and are not to be found in all
+  collections. The Paris Conservatoire possesses one large bass cromorne
+  of the 16th century, the Kgl. Hochschule fur Musik,[10] Berlin, a set
+  of seven, and the Ambroser Sammlung, Vienna, a cromorne in
+  E[flat].[11] The museum of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at
+  Brussels has the good fortune to possess a complete family which is
+  said to have belonged to the duke of Ferrara, Alphonso II. d'Este, a
+  prince who reigned from 1559 to 1597. The soprano (cantus or discant)
+  has the same compass as above, while those of the alto, the tenor
+  (furnished with a key) and the bass are as shown.
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  The bass (see figure), besides having two keys, is distinguished from
+  the others by two contrivances like small bolts, which slide in
+  grooves and close the two holes that give the lowest notes of the
+  instrument. The use of these bolts, placed at the extremity of the
+  tournebout and out of reach of the fingers of the instrumentalist,
+  renders necessary the assistance of a person whose sole mission is to
+  attend to them during the performance. E. van der Straeten[12]
+  mentions a key belonging to a large cromorne bearing the date 1537, of
+  which he gives a large drawing. A cromorne appears in a musical scene
+  with a trumpet in Hermann Finck's _Practica Musica_.[13]
+
+  The "Platerspil," of which Virdung gives a drawing, is only a kind of
+  cromorne. It is characterized by having, instead of a cap to cover the
+  reed, a spherical receiver surrounding the reed, to which the tube for
+  insufflation is adapted. The Platerspiel is also frequently classified
+  among bagpipes. In the _Cantigas di Sante Maria_,[14] a MS. of the
+  13th century preserved in the Escorial, Madrid, two instruments of
+  this type are represented. One of these has two straight, parallel
+  pipes, slightly conical; the other is frankly conical with wide bore
+  turned up at the end.
+
+  Other instruments belonging by their most important characteristics of
+  cylindrical bore and double reed to the same family as the cromorne,
+  although the bore was somewhat differently disposed, are the racket
+  bassoon and the sourdine or sordelline. The latter was introduced into
+  the orchestra by Cavaliere in his opera _Rappresentazione di anima e
+  di corpo_, and is described by Giudotto[15] in his edition of the
+  score as "Flauti overo due tibie all' antica che noi chiamiamo
+  sordelline," a description which tallies with what has been said above
+  concerning the aulos and tibia.     (V. M. and K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Crumhorne need not be regarded as a corruption of the German,
+    since the two words of which it is composed were both in use in
+    medieval England. _Crumb_ = curved; _crumbe_ = hook, bend; _crome_ =
+    a staff with a hook at the end of it. See Stratmann's _Middle English
+    Dictionary_ (1891), and Halliwell, _Dictionary of Archaic and
+    Provincial Words_ (London, 1881).
+
+  [2] See A. Howard, "Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston,
+    1893).
+
+  [3] See also A. A. Howard, op. cit., "Phrygian Aulos," pp. 35-38.
+
+  [4] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [5] See Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopedie_ (Paris, 1751-1780),
+    t. 5, "Lutherie," pl. ix.
+
+  [6] _Organographia_ (Wolfenbuttel, 1618).
+
+  [7] _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), book v. pp. 289 and
+    290. Cf. "Musette," pp. 282-287 and 305.
+
+  [8] See "Triumphzug des Kaisers Maximilian I." Beilage zum II. Band
+    des _Jahrb. der Sammlungen des Allerhochsten Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna,
+    1884-1885), pl. 20. Explanatory text and part i. in Band i. of the
+    same publication, 1883-1884. A French edition with 135 plates was
+    also published in Vienna by A. Schmidt, and in London by J. Edwards
+    (1796). See also Dr August Reissmann, _Illustrierte Geschichte der
+    deutschen Musik_ (Leipzig, 1881), where a few of the plates are
+    reproduced.
+
+  [9] See J. Ecorcheville, "Quelques documents sur la musique de la
+    grande ecurie du roi," _Sammelband d. Intern. Musik. Ges._ Jahrg.
+    ii., Heft 4 (1901, Leipzig, London, &c.), pp. 630-632.
+
+  [10] Oskar Fleischer, _Fuhrer_ (Berlin, 1892), p. 29, Nos. 400 to
+    406.
+
+  [11] For an illustration see Captain C. R. Day, _Descriptive
+    Catalogue_ (London, 1891), pl. iv. E. and p. 99.
+
+  [12] _Histoire de la musique aux Pays-Bas avant le XIX^e siecle_
+    (Brussels, 1867-1888), vol. vii. p. 336, and description, p. 333 et
+    seq.
+
+  [13] Wittenberg, 1556; reproduced by A. Reissmann, op. cit., pp. 233
+    and 226.
+
+  [14] Reproduced in Riano's _Notes on Early Spanish Music_ (London,
+    1887), pp. 119-127.
+
+  [15] See Hugo Goldschmidt, "Das Orchester der italienischen Oper im
+    17. Jahrh." _Sammelband der Intern. Musikgesellschaft_, Jahrg. ii.,
+    Heft 1 (Leipzig, 1900), p. 24.
+
+
+
+
+CROMPTON, SAMUEL (1753-1827), English inventor, was born on the 3rd of
+December 1753 at Firwood near Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire. While yet a
+boy he lost his father, and had to contribute to the family resources by
+spinning yarn. The defects of the spinning jenny imbued him with the
+idea of devising something better, and for five or six years the effort
+absorbed all his spare time and money, including what he earned by
+playing the violin at the Bolton theatre. About 1779 he succeeded in
+producing a machine which span yarn suitable for use in the manufacture
+of muslin, and which was known as the muslin wheel or the
+Hall-in-the-Wood wheel (from the name of the house in which he and his
+family resided), and later as the spinning mule. After his marriage in
+1780 a good demand arose for the yarn which he himself made at
+Hall-in-the-Wood, but the prying to which his methods were subjected
+drove him, in the absence of means to take out a patent, to the choice
+of destroying his machine or making it public. He adopted the latter
+alternative on the promise of a number of manufacturers to pay him for
+the use of the mule, but all he received was about L60. He then resumed
+spinning on his own account, but with indifferent success. In 1800 a sum
+of L500 was raised for his benefit by subscription, and when in 1809
+Edmund Cartwright, the inventor of the power-loom obtained L10,000 from
+parliament, he determined also to apply for a grant. In 1811 he made a
+tour in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Scotland to
+collect evidence showing how extensively his mule was used, and in 1812
+parliament allowed him L5000. With the aid of this money he embarked in
+business, first as a bleacher and then as a cotton merchant and spinner,
+but again without success. In 1824 some friends, without his knowledge,
+bought him an annuity of L63. He died at Bolton on the 26th of June
+1827.
+
+
+
+
+CROMPTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England, 2(1/2) m. N. of
+Oldham, within the parliamentary borough of Oldham. Pop. (1901) 13,427.
+At Shaw, a populous village included within it, is a station on the
+Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Cotton mills and the collieries of the
+neighbourhood employ the large industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+CROMWELL, HENRY (1628-1674), fourth son of Oliver Cromwell, was born at
+Huntingdon on the 20th of January 1628, and served under his father
+during the latter part of the Civil War. His active life, however, was
+mainly spent in Ireland, whither he took some troops to assist Oliver
+early in 1650, and he was one of the Irish representatives in the
+Little, or Nominated, Parliament of 1653. In 1654 he was again in
+Ireland, and after making certain recommendations to his father, now
+lord protector, with regard to the government of that country, he became
+major-general of the forces in Ireland and a member of the Irish council
+of state, taking up his new duties in July 1655. Nominally Henry was
+subordinate to the lord-deputy, Charles Fleetwood, but Fleetwood's
+departure for England in September 1655 left him for all practical
+purposes the ruler of Ireland. He moderated the lord-deputy's policy of
+deporting the Irish, and unlike him he paid some attention to the
+interests of the English settlers; moreover, again unlike Fleetwood, he
+appears to have held the scales evenly between the different Protestant
+sects, and his undoubted popularity in Ireland is attested by Clarendon.
+In November 1657 Henry himself was made lord-deputy; but before this
+time he had refused a gift of property worth L1500 a year, basing his
+refusal on the grounds of the poverty of the country, a poverty which
+was not the least of his troubles. In 1657 he advised his father not to
+accept the office of king, although in 1634 he had supported a motion to
+this effect; and after the dissolution of Cromwell's second parliament
+in February 1658 he showed his anxiety that the protector should act in
+a moderate and constitutional manner. After Oliver's death Henry hailed
+with delight the succession of his brother Richard to the office of
+protector, but although he was now appointed lieutenant and governor
+general of Ireland, it was only with great reluctance that he remained
+in that country. Having rejected proposals to assist in the restoration
+of Charles II., Henry was recalled to England in June 1659 just after
+his brother's fall; quietly obeying this order he resigned his office at
+once. Although he lost some property at the Restoration, he was allowed
+after some solicitation to keep the estate he had bought in Ireland. His
+concluding years were passed at Spinney Abbey in Cambridgeshire; he was
+unmolested by the government, and he died on the 23rd of March 1674. In
+1653 Henry married Elizabeth (d. 1687), daughter of Sir Francis Russell,
+and he left five sons and two daughters.
+
+
+
+
+CROMWELL, OLIVER (1599-1658), lord protector of England, was the 5th and
+only surviving son of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon and of Elizabeth
+Steward, widow of William Lynn. His paternal grandfather was Sir Henry
+Cromwell of Hinchinbrook, a leading personage in Huntingdonshire, and
+grandson of Richard Williams, knighted by Henry VIII., nephew of Thomas
+Cromwell, earl of Essex, Henry VIII.'s minister, whose name he adopted.
+His mother was descended from a family named Styward in Norfolk, which
+was not, however, connected in any way, as has been often asserted, with
+the royal house of Stuart. Oliver was born on the 25th of April 1599,
+was educated under Dr Thomas Beard, a fervent puritan, at the free
+school at Huntingdon, and on the 23rd of April 1616 matriculated as a
+fellow-commoner at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a hotbed of
+puritanism, subsequently studying law in London. The royalist anecdotes
+relating to his youth, including charges of ill-conduct, do not deserve
+credit, the entries in the register of St John's, Huntingdon, noting
+Oliver's submission on two occasions to church censure being forgeries;
+but it is not improbable that his youth was wild and possibly
+dissolute.[1] According to Edmund Waller he was "very well read in the
+Greek and Roman story." Burnet declares he had little Latin, but he was
+able to converse with the Dutch ambassador in that language. According
+to James Heath in his _Flagellum_, "he was more famous for his exercises
+in the fields than in the schools, being one of the chief match-makers
+and players at football, cudgels, or any other boisterous game or
+sport." On the 22nd of August 1620 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir
+James Bourchier, a city merchant of Tower Hill, and of Felstead in
+Essex; and his father having died in 1617 he settled at Huntingdon and
+occupied himself in the management of his small estate. In 1628 he was
+returned to parliament as member for the borough, and on the 11th of
+February 1629 he spoke in support of puritan doctrine, complaining of
+the attempt by the king to silence Dr Beard, who had raised his voice
+against the "flat popery" inculcated by Dr Alabaster at Paul's Cross. He
+was also one of the members who refused to adjourn at the king's command
+till Sir John Eliot's resolutions had been passed.
+
+During the eleven years of government without parliament very little is
+recorded of Cromwell. His name is not connected with the resistance to
+the levy of ship-money or to the action of the ecclesiastical courts,
+but in 1630 he was one of those fined for refusing to take up
+knighthood. The same year he was named one of the justices of the peace
+for his borough; and on the grant of a new charter showed great zeal in
+defending the rights of the commoners, and succeeded in procuring an
+alteration in the charter in their favour, exhibiting much warmth of
+temper during the dispute and being committed to custody by the privy
+council for angry words spoken against the mayor, for which he
+afterwards apologized. He also defended the rights of the commoners of
+Ely threatened by the "adventurers" who had drained the Great Level, and
+he was nicknamed afterwards by a royalist newspaper "Lord of the Fens."
+He was again later the champion of the commoners of St Ives in the Long
+Parliament against enclosures by the earl of Manchester, obtaining a
+commission of the House of Commons to inquire into the case, and drawing
+upon himself the severe censure of the chairman, the future Lord
+Clarendon, by his "impetuous carriage" and "insolent behaviour," and by
+the passionate vehemence he imparted into the business. Bishop Williams,
+a kinsman of Cromwell's, relates at this time that he was "a common
+spokesman for sectaries, and maintained their part with great
+stubbornness"; and his earliest extant letter (in 1635) is an appeal for
+subscriptions for a puritan lecturer. There appears to be no foundation
+for the statement that he was stopped by an order of council when on the
+point of abandoning England for America, though there can be little
+doubt that the thoughts of emigration suggested themselves to his mind
+at this period. He viewed the "innovations in religion" with abhorrence.
+According to Clarendon he told the latter in 1641 that if the Grand
+Remonstrance had not passed "he would have sold all he had the next
+morning and never have seen England more." In 1631 he converted his
+landed property into money, and John Hampden, his cousin, a patentee of
+Connecticut in 1632, was on the point of emigrating. Cromwell was
+perhaps arrested in his project by his succession in 1636 to the estate
+of his uncle Sir Thomas Steward, and to his office of farmer of the
+cathedral tithes at Ely, whither he now removed. Meanwhile, like Bunyan
+and many other puritans, Cromwell had been passing through a trying
+period of mental and religious change and struggle, beginning with deep
+melancholy and religious doubt and depression, and ending with "seeing
+light" and with enthusiastic and convinced faith, which remained
+henceforth the chief characteristic and impulse in his career.
+
+
+  Cromwell's first parliamentary efforts.
+
+He represented Cambridge in the Short and Long Parliaments of 1640, and
+at once showed extraordinary zeal and audacity in his opposition to the
+government, taking a large share in business and serving on numerous and
+important committees. As the cousin of Hampden and St. John he was
+intimately associated with the leaders of the parliamentary party. His
+sphere of action, however, was not in parliament. He was not an orator,
+and though he could express himself forcibly on occasion, his speech was
+incoherent and devoid of any of the arts of rhetoric. Clarendon notes on
+his first appearance in parliament that "he seemed to have a person in
+no degree gracious, no ornament of discourse, none of those talents
+which use to reconcile the affections of the standers by; yet as he grew
+into place and authority his parts seemed to be renewed." He supported
+stoutly the extreme party of opposition to the king, but did not take
+the lead except on a few less important occasions, and was apparently
+silent in the debates on the Petition of Right, the Grand Remonstrance
+and the Militia. His first recorded intervention in debate in the Long
+Parliament was on the 9th of November 1640, a few days after the meeting
+of the House, when he delivered a petition from the imprisoned John
+Lilburne. He was described by Sir Philip Warwick on this occasion:--"I
+came into the House one morning well clad and perceived a gentleman
+speaking whom I knew not, very ordinarily apparelled; for it was a plain
+cloth suit which seemed to have been made by an ill country tailor; his
+linen was plain and not very clean; ... his stature was of a good size;
+his sword stuck close to his side; his countenance swollen and reddish;
+his voice sharp and untunable and his eloquence full of fervour ... I
+sincerely profess it much lessened my reverence as to that great council
+for he was very much hearkened unto." On the 30th of December he moved
+to the second reading of Strode's bill for annual parliaments. His chief
+interest from the first, however, lay in the religious question. He
+belonged to the Root and Branch party, and spoke in favour of the
+petition of the London citizens for the abolition of episcopacy on the
+9th of February 1641, and pressed upon the House the Root and Branch
+Bill in May. On the 6th of November he carried a motion entrusting the
+train-bands south of the Trent to the command of the earl of Essex. On
+the 14th of January 1642, after the king's attempt to seize the five
+members, he moved for a committee to put the kingdom in a posture of
+defence. He contributed L600 to the proposed Irish campaign and L500 for
+raising forces in England--large sums from his small estate--and on his
+own initiative in July 1642 sent arms of the value of L100 down to
+Cambridge, seized the magazine there in August, and prevented the king's
+commission of array from being executed in the county, taking these
+important steps on his own authority and receiving subsequently
+indemnity by vote of the House of Commons. Shortly afterwards he joined
+Essex with sixty horse, and was present at Edgehill, where his troop was
+one of the few not routed by Rupert's charge, Cromwell himself being
+mentioned among those officers who "never stirred from their troops but
+fought till the last minute."
+
+
+  Beginning of Civil War.
+
+During the earlier part of the year 1643 the military position of
+Charles was greatly superior to that of the parliament. Essex was
+inactive near Oxford; in the west Sir Ralph Hopton had won a series of
+victories, and in the north Newcastle defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton
+Moor, and all Yorkshire except Hull was in his hands. It seemed likely
+that the whole of the north would be laid open and the royalists be able
+to march upon London and join Charles and Hopton there. This stroke,
+which would most probably have given the victory to the king, was
+prevented by the "Eastern Association," a union of Norfolk, Suffolk,
+Essex, Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire, constituted in December 1642
+and augmented in 1643 by Huntingdonshire and Lincolnshire, of which
+Cromwell was the leading spirit. His zeal and energy met everywhere with
+conspicuous success. In January 1643 he seized the royalist high sheriff
+of Hertfordshire in the act of proclaiming the king's commission of
+array at St Albans; in February he was at Cambridge taking measures for
+the defence of the town; in March suppressing royalist risings at
+Lowestoft and Lynn; in April those of Huntingdon, when he also
+recaptured Crowland from the king's party. In May he defeated a greatly
+superior royalist force at Grantham, proceeding afterwards to Nottingham
+in accordance with Essex's plan of penetrating into Yorkshire to relieve
+the Fairfaxes; where, however, difficulties, arising from jealousies
+between the officers, and the treachery of John Hotham, whose arrest
+Cromwell was instrumental in effecting, obliged him to retire again to
+the association, leaving the Fairfaxes to be defeated at Adwalton Moor.
+He showed extraordinary energy, resource and military talent in stemming
+the advance of the royalists, who now followed up their victories by
+advancing into the association; he defeated them at Gainsborough on the
+28th of July, and managed a masterly retreat before overwhelming numbers
+to Lincoln, while the victory on the 11th of October at Winceby finally
+secured the association, and maintained the wedge which prevented the
+junction of the royalists in the north with the king in the south.
+
+
+  Cromwell's soldiers.
+
+One great source of Cromwell's strength was the military reforms he had
+initiated. At Edgehill he had observed the inferiority of the
+parliamentary to the royalist horse, composed as it was of soldiers of
+fortune and the dregs of the populace. "Do you think," he had said,
+"that the spirits of such base, mean fellows will ever be able to
+encounter gentlemen that have honour and courage and resolution in them?
+You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as gentlemen
+will go or you will be beaten still." The royalists were fighting for a
+great cause. To succeed the parliamentary soldiers must also be inspired
+by some great principle, and this was now found in religion. Cromwell
+chose his own troops, both officers and privates, from the "religious
+men," who fought not for pay or for adventure, but for their faith. He
+declared, when answering a complaint that a certain captain in his
+regiment was a better preacher than fighter, that he who prayed best
+would fight best, and that he knew nothing could "give the like courage
+and confidence as the knowledge of God in Christ will." The superiority
+of these men--more intelligent than the common soldiers, better
+disciplined, better trained, better armed, excellent horsemen and
+fighting for a great cause--not only over the other parliamentary troops
+but over the royalists, was soon observed in battle. According to
+Clarendon the latter, though frequently victorious in a charge, could
+not rally afterwards, "whereas Cromwell's troops if they prevailed, or
+though they were beaten and routed, presently rallied again and stood in
+good order till they received new orders"; and the king's military
+successes dwindled in proportion to the gradual preponderance of
+Cromwell's troops in the parliamentary army. At first these picked men
+only existed in Cromwell's own troop, which, however, by frequent
+additions became the nucleus of a regiment, and by the time of the New
+Model included about 11,000 men.
+
+In July 1643 Cromwell had been appointed governor of the Isle of Ely; on
+the 22nd of January 1644 he became second in command under the earl of
+Manchester as lieutenant-general of the Eastern Association, and on the
+16th of February 1644 a member of the Committee of Both Kingdoms with
+greatly increased influence. In March he took Hillesden House in
+Buckinghamshire; in May was at the siege of Lincoln, when he repulsed
+Goring's attempt to relieve the town, and subsequently took part in
+Manchester's campaign in the north. At Marston Moor (q.v.) on the 2nd of
+July he commanded all the horse of the Eastern Association, with some
+Scottish troops; and though for a time disabled by a wound in the neck,
+he charged and routed Rupert's troops opposed to him, and subsequently
+went to the support of the Scots, who were hard pressed by the enemy,
+and converted what appeared at one time a defeat into a decisive
+victory. It was on this occasion that he earned the nickname of
+"Ironsides," applied to him now by Prince Rupert, and afterwards to his
+soldiers, "from the impenetrable strength of his troops which could by
+no means be broken or divided."
+
+The movements of Manchester after Marston Moor were marked by great
+apathy. He was one of the moderate party who desired an accommodation
+with the king, and was opposed to Cromwell's sectaries. He remained at
+Lincoln, did nothing to prevent the defeat of Essex's army in the west,
+and when he at last advanced south to join Essex's and Waller's troops
+his management of the army led to the failure of the attack upon the
+king at Newbury on the 27th of October 1644. He delayed supporting the
+infantry till too late, and was repulsed; he allowed the royal army to
+march past his outposts; and a fortnight afterwards, without any attempt
+to prevent it, and greatly to Cromwell's vexation, permitted the moving
+of the king's artillery and the relief of Donnington Castle by Prince
+Rupert. "If you beat the king ninety-nine times," Manchester urged at
+Newbury, "yet he is king still and so will his posterity be after him;
+but if the king beat us once we shall all be hanged and our posterity be
+made slaves." "My lord," answered Cromwell, "if this be so, why did we
+take up arms at first? This is against fighting ever hereafter. If so
+let us make peace, be it ever so base." The contention brought to a
+crisis the struggle between the moderate Presbyterians and the Scots on
+the one side, who decided to maintain the monarchy and fought for an
+accommodation and to establish Presbyterianism in England, and on the
+other the republicans who would be satisfied with nothing less than the
+complete overthrow of the king, and the Independents who regarded the
+establishment of Presbyterianism as an evil almost as great as that of
+the Church of England. On the 25th of November Cromwell charged
+Manchester with "unwillingness to have the war prosecuted to a full
+victory"; which Manchester answered by accusing Cromwell of having used
+expressions against the nobility, the Scots and Presbyterianism; of
+desiring to fill the army of the Eastern Association with Independents
+to prevent any accommodation; and of having vowed if he met the king in
+battle he would as lief fire his pistol at him as at anybody else. The
+lords and the Scots vehemently took Manchester's part; but the Commons
+eventually sided with Cromwell, appointed Sir Thomas Fairfax general of
+the New Model Army, and passed two self-denying ordinances, the second
+of which, ordering all members of both houses to lay down their
+commissions within forty days, was accepted by the lords on the 3rd of
+April 1645.
+
+
+  The battle of Naseby.
+
+Meanwhile Cromwell had been ordered on the 3rd of March by the House to
+take his regiment to the assistance of Waller, under whom he served as
+an admirable subordinate. "Although he was blunt," says Waller, "he did
+not bear himself with pride or disdain. As an officer he was obedient
+and did never dispute my orders or argue upon them." He returned on the
+19th of April, and on the 23rd was sent to Oxfordshire to prevent a
+junction between Charles and Prince Rupert, in which he succeeded after
+some small engagements and the storming of Blechingdon House. His
+services were felt to be too valuable to be lost, and on the 10th of May
+his command was prolonged for forty days. On the 28th he was sent to Ely
+for the defence of the eastern counties against the king's advance; and
+on the 10th of June, upon Fairfax's petition, he was named by the
+Commons lieutenant-general, joining Fairfax on the 13th with six hundred
+horse. At the decisive battle of Naseby (the 14th of June 1645) he
+commanded the parliamentary right wing and routed the cavalry of Sir
+Marmaduke Langdale, subsequently falling upon and defeating the royalist
+centre, and pursuing the fugitives as far as the outskirts of Leicester.
+At Langport again, on the 10th of July 1645, his management of the
+troops was largely instrumental in gaining the victory. As the king had
+no longer a field army, the war after Naseby resolved itself into a
+series of sieges which Charles had no means of raising. Cromwell was
+present at the sieges of Bridgwater, Bath, Sherborne and Bristol; and
+later, in command of four regiments of foot and three of horse, he was
+employed in clearing Wiltshire and Hampshire of the royalist garrisons.
+He took Devizes and Laycock House, Winchester and Basing House, and
+rejoined Fairfax in October at Exeter, and accompanied him to Cornwall,
+where he assisted in the defeat of Hopton's forces and in the
+suppression of the royalists in the west. On the 9th of January 1646 he
+surprised Lord Wentworth's brigade at Bovey Tracey, and was present with
+Fairfax at the fall of Exeter on the 9th of April. He then went to
+London to give an account of proceedings to the parliament, was thanked
+for his services and rewarded with the estate of the marquess of
+Worcester. He was present again with Fairfax at the capitulation of
+Oxford on the 24th of June, which practically terminated the Civil War,
+when he used his influence in favour of granting lenient terms. He then
+removed with his family from Ely to Drury Lane, London, and about a year
+later to King Street, Westminster.
+
+The war being now over, the great question of the establishment of
+Presbyterianism or Independency had to be decided. Cromwell, without
+naming himself an adherent of any denomination, fought vigorously for
+Independency as a policy. In 1644 he had remonstrated at the removal by
+Crawford of an anabaptist lieutenant-colonel. "The state," he said, "in
+choosing men to serve it, takes no notice of their opinions. If they be
+willing faithfully to serve it, that satisfies. Take heed of being sharp
+... against those to whom you can object little but that they square not
+with you in every opinion concerning matters of religion." He had
+patronized Lilburne and welcomed all into his regiment, and the
+Independents had spread from his troops throughout the whole army. But
+while the sectarians were in a vast majority in the army, the parliament
+was equally strong in Presbyterianism and opposed to toleration. The
+proposed disbandment of the army in February 1647 would have placed the
+soldiers entirely in the power of the parliament; while the negotiations
+of the king, first with the Scots and then with the parliament, appeared
+to hazard all the fruits of victory. The petition from the army to the
+parliament for arrears of pay was suppressed and the petitioners
+declared enemies of the state. In consequence the army organized a
+systematic opposition, and elected representatives styled Agitators or
+Agents to urge their claims.
+
+
+  Parliament and the army.
+
+Cromwell, though greatly disliking the policy of the Presbyterians, yet
+gave little support at first to the army in resisting parliament. In May
+1647 in company with Skippon, Ireton and Fleetwood, he visited the army,
+inquired into and reported on the grievances, and endeavoured to
+persuade them to submit to the parliament. "If that authority falls to
+nothing," he said, "nothing can follow but confusion." The
+Presbyterians, however, now engaged in a plan for restoring the king
+under their own control, and by the means of a Scottish army, forced on
+their policy, and on the 27th of May ordered the immediate disbandment
+of the army, without any guarantee for the payment of arrears. A mutiny
+was the consequence. The soldiers refused to disband, and on the 3rd of
+June Cromwell, whom, it was believed, the parliament intended to arrest,
+joined the army. "If he would not forthwith come and lead them," they
+had told him, "they would go their own way without him." The supremacy
+of the army without a guiding hand meant anarchy, that of the
+Presbyterians the outbreak of another civil war.
+
+Possession of the king's person now became an important consideration.
+On the 31st of May 1647 Cromwell had ordered Cornet Joyce to prevent the
+king's removal by the parliament or the Scots from Holmby, and Joyce by
+his own authority and with the king's consent brought him to Newmarket
+to the headquarters of the army. Cromwell soon restored order, and the
+representative council, including privates as well as officers chosen to
+negotiate with the parliament, was subordinated to the council of war.
+The army with Cromwell then advanced towards London. In a letter to the
+city, possibly written by Cromwell himself, the officers repudiated any
+wish to alter the civil government or upset the establishment of
+Presbyterianism, but demanded religious toleration. Subsequently, in the
+declaration of the 14th of June, arbitrary power either in the
+parliament or in the king was denounced, and demand was made for a
+representative parliament, the speedy termination of the actual
+assembly, and the recognition of the right to petition. Cromwell used
+his influence in restraining the more eager who wished to march on
+London immediately, and in avoiding the use of force by which nothing
+permanent could be effected, urging that "whatsoever we get by treaty
+will be firm and durable. It will be conveyed over to posterity." The
+army faction gradually gathered strength in the parliament. Eleven
+Presbyterian leaders impeached by the army withdrew of their own accord
+on the 26th of June, and the parliament finally yielded. Fairfax was
+appointed sole commander-in-chief on the 19th of July, the soldiers
+levied to oppose the army were dismissed, and the command of the city
+militia was again restored to the committee approved by the army. These
+votes, however, were cancelled later, on the 26th of July, under the
+pressure of the royalist city mob which invaded the two Houses; but the
+two speakers, with eight peers and fifty-seven members of the Commons,
+themselves joined the army, which now advanced to London, overawing all
+resistance, escorting the fugitive members in triumph to Westminster on
+the 6th of August, and obliging the parliament on the 20th to cancel the
+last votes, with the threat of a regiment of cavalry drawn up by
+Cromwell in Hyde Park.
+
+Cromwell and the army now turned with hopes of a settlement to Charles.
+On the 4th of July Cromwell had had an interview with the king at
+Caversham. He was not insensible to Charles's good qualities, was
+touched by the paternal affection he showed for his children, and is
+said to have declared that Charles "was the uprightest and most
+conscientious man of his three kingdoms." The _Heads of the Proposals_,
+which, on Charles raising objections, had been modified by the influence
+of Cromwell and Ireton, demanded the control of the militia and the
+choice of ministers by parliament for ten years, a religious toleration,
+and a council of state to which much of the royal control over the army
+and foreign policy would be delegated. These proposals without doubt
+largely diminished the royal power, and were rejected by Charles with
+the hope of maintaining his sovereign rights by "playing a game," to use
+his own words, i.e. by negotiating simultaneously with army and
+parliament, by inflaming their jealousies and differences, and finally
+by these means securing his restoration with his full prerogatives
+unimpaired. On the 9th of September Charles refused once mere the
+_Newcastle Propositions_ offered him by the parliament, and Cromwell,
+together with Ireton and Vane, obtained the passing of a motion for a
+new application; but the terms asked by the parliament were higher than
+before and included a harsh condition--the exclusion from pardon of all
+the king's leading adherents, besides the indefinite establishment of
+Presbyterianism and the refusal of toleration to the Roman Catholics and
+members of the Church of England.
+
+Meanwhile the failure to come to terms with Charles and provide a
+settlement appeared to threaten a general anarchy. Cromwell's moderate
+counsels created distrust in his good faith amongst the soldiers, who
+accused him of "prostituting the liberties and persons of all the people
+at the foot of the king's interest." The agitators demanded immediate
+settlement by force by the army. The extreme republicans, anticipating
+Rousseau, put forward the _Agreement of the People_. This was strongly
+opposed by Cromwell, who declared the very consideration of it had
+dangers, that it would bring upon the country "utter confusion" and
+"make England like Switzerland." Universal suffrage he rejected as
+tending "very much to anarchy," spoke against the hasty abolition of
+either the monarchy or the Lords, and refused entirely to consider the
+abstract principles brought into the debate. Political problems were not
+to be so resolved, but practically. With Cromwell as with Burke the
+question was "whether the spirit of the people of this nation is
+prepared to go along with it." The special form of government was not
+the important point, but its possibility and its acceptability. The
+great problem was to found a stable government, an authority to keep
+order. If every man should fight for the best form of government the
+state would come to desolation. He reproached the soldiers for their
+insubordination against their officers, and the army for its rebellion
+against the parliament. He would lay hold of anything "if it had but the
+force of authority," rather than have none. Cromwell's influence
+prevailed and these extreme proposals were laid aside.
+
+
+  Flight of the king.
+
+Meanwhile all hopes of an accommodation with Charles were dispelled by
+his flight on the 11th of November from Hampton Court to Carisbroke
+Castle in the Isle of Wight, his object being to negotiate independently
+with the Scots, the parliament and the army. His action, however, in the
+event, diminished rather than increased his chances of success, owing to
+the distrust of his intentions which it inspired. Both the army and the
+parliament gave cold replies to his offers to negotiate; and Charles, on
+the 27th of December 1647, entered into the _Engagement_ with the Scots
+by which he promised the establishment of Presbyterianism for three
+years, the suppression of the Independents and their sects, together
+with privileges for the Scottish nobles, while the Scots undertook to
+invade England and restore him to his throne. This alliance, though the
+exact terms were not known to Cromwell--"the attempt to vassalize us to
+a foreign nation," to use his own words--convinced him of the
+uselessness of any plan for maintaining Charles on the throne; though he
+still appears to have clung to monarchy, proposing in January 1648 the
+transference of the crown to the prince of Wales. A week after the
+signing of the treaty he supported a proposal for the king's deposition,
+and the vote of _No Addresses_ was carried. Meanwhile the position of
+Charles's opponents had been considerably strengthened by the
+suppression of a dangerous rebellion in November 1647 by Cromwell's
+intervention, and by the return of troops to obedience. Cromwell's
+difficulties, however, were immense. His moderate and trimming attitude
+was understood neither by the extreme Independents nor by the
+Presbyterians. He made one attempt to reconcile the disputes between the
+army and the politicians by a conference, but ended the barren
+discussion on the relative merits of aristocracies, monarchies and
+democracies, interspersed with Bible texts, by throwing a cushion at the
+speaker's head and running downstairs. On the 19th of January 1648
+Cromwell was accused of high treason by Lilburne. Plots were formed for
+his assassination. He was overtaken by a dangerous illness, and on the
+2nd of March civil war in support of the king broke out.
+
+Cromwell left London in May to suppress the royalists in Wales, and took
+Pembroke Castle on the 11th of July. Meanwhile behind his back the
+royalists had risen all over England, the fleet in the Downs had
+declared for Charles, and the Scottish army under Hamilton had invaded
+the north. Immediately on the fall of Pembroke Cromwell set out to
+relieve Lambert, who was slowly retreating before Hamilton's superior
+forces; he joined him near Knaresborough on the 12th of August, and
+started next day in pursuit of Hamilton in Lancashire, placing himself
+at Stonyhurst near Preston, cutting off Hamilton from the north and his
+allies, and defeating him in detail on the 17th, 18th and 19th at
+Preston and at Warrington. He then marched north into Scotland,
+following the forces of Monro, and established a new government of the
+Argyle faction at Edinburgh; replying to the Independents who
+disapproved of his mild treatment of the Presbyterians, that he desired
+"union and right understanding between the godly people, Scots, English,
+Jews, Gentiles, Presbyterians, Anabaptists and all; ... a more glorious
+work in our eyes than if we had gotten the sacking and plunder of
+Edinburgh ... and made a conquest from the Tweed to the Orcades."
+
+
+  Cromwell supports the Remonstrance.
+
+The incident of the Second Civil War and the treaty with the Scots
+exasperated Cromwell against the king. On his return to London he found
+the parliament again negotiating with Charles, and on the eve of making
+a treaty which Charles himself had no intention of keeping and regarded
+merely as a means of regaining his power, and which would have thrown
+away in one moment all the advantages gained during years of bloodshed
+and struggle. Cromwell therefore did not hesitate to join the army in
+its opposition to the parliament, and supported the Remonstrance of the
+troops (20th of November 1648), which included the demand for the king's
+punishment as "the grand author of all our troubles," and justified the
+use of force by the army if other means failed. The parliament, however,
+continued to negotiate, and accordingly Charles was removed by the army
+to Hurst Castle on the 1st of December, the troops occupied London on
+the 2nd; while on the 6th and 7th Colonel Pride "purged" the House of
+Commons of the Presbyterians. Cromwell was not the originator of this
+act, but showed his approval of it by taking his seat among the fifty or
+sixty Independent members who remained.
+
+The disposal of the king was now the great question to be decided.
+During the next few weeks Cromwell appears to have made once more
+attempts to come to terms with Charles; but the king was inflexible in
+his refusal to part with the essential powers of the monarchy, or with
+the Church; and at the end of December it was resolved to bring him to
+trial. The exact share which Cromwell had in this decision and its
+sequel is obscure, and the later accounts of the regicides when on their
+trial at the Restoration, ascribing the whole transaction to his
+initiation and agency, cannot be altogether accepted. But it is plain
+that, once convinced of the necessity for the king's execution, he was
+the chief instrument in overcoming all scruples among his judges, and in
+resisting the protests and appeals of the Scots. To Algernon Sidney, who
+refused to take part in proceedings on the plea that neither the king
+nor any man could be tried by such a court, Cromwell replied, "I tell
+you, we will cut off his head with the crown upon it."
+
+
+  The execution of Charles I.
+
+The execution of the king took place on the 30th of January 1649. This
+event, the turning-point in Cromwell's career, casts a shadow, from one
+point of view, over the whole of his future statesmanship. He himself
+never repented of the act, regarding it, on the contrary, as "one which
+Christians in after times will mention with honour and all tyrants in
+the world look at with fear," and as one directly ordained by God.
+Opinions, no doubt, will always differ as to the wisdom or authority of
+the policy which brought Charles to the scaffold. On the one hand, there
+was no law except that of force by which an offence could be attributed
+to the sovereign, the anointed king, the source of justice. The
+ordinance establishing the special tribunal for the trial was passed by
+a remnant of the House of Commons alone, from which all dissentients
+were excluded by the army. The tribunal was composed, not of judges--for
+all unanimously refused to sit on it--but of fifty-two men drawn from
+among the king's enemies. The execution was a military and not a
+national act, and at the last scene on the scaffold the triumphant
+shouts of the soldiery could not overwhelm the groans and sobs raised by
+the populace. Whatever crimes might be charged against Charles, his past
+conduct might appear to be condoned by the act of negotiating with him.
+On the other hand, the execution seemed to Cromwell the only alternative
+to anarchy, or to a return to despotism and the abandonment of all they
+had fought for. Cromwell had exhausted every expedient for arriving at
+an arrangement with the king by which the royal authority might be
+preserved, and the repeated perfidy and inexhaustible shiftiness of
+Charles had proved the hopelessness of such attempts. The results
+produced by the king's execution were far-reaching and permanent. It is
+true that Puritan austerity and the lack of any strong central authority
+after Oliver's death produced a reaction which temporarily restored
+Charles's dynasty to the throne; but it is not less true that the
+execution of the king, at a later time when all over Europe absolute
+monarchies "by divine right" were being established on the ruins of the
+ancient popular constitutions, was an object lesson to all the world;
+and it produced a profound effect, not only in establishing
+constitutional monarchy in Great Britain after James II., with the dread
+of his father's fate before him, had abdicated by flight, but in giving
+the impulse to that revolt against the idea of "the divinity that doth
+hedge a king" which culminated in the Revolution of 1789, and of which
+the mighty effects are still evident in Europe and beyond.
+
+
+  Cromwell in Ireland.
+
+The king and the monarchy being now destroyed in England, Cromwell had
+next to turn his attention to the suppression of royalism in Ireland and
+in Scotland. In Ireland Ormonde had succeeded in uniting the English and
+the Irish in a league against the supporters of the parliament, and only
+a few scattered forts held out for the Commonwealth, while the young
+king was every day expected to land and complete the conquest of the
+island. Accordingly in March 1649 Cromwell was appointed lord-lieutenant
+and commander-in-chief for its reduction. But before starting he was
+called upon to suppress disorder at home. He treated the Levellers with
+some severity and showed his instinctive dislike to revolutionary
+proposals. "Did not that levelling principle," he said, "tend to the
+reducing of all to an equality? What was the purport of it but to make
+the tenant as liberal a fortune as the landlord, which I think if
+obtained would not have lasted long." Equally characteristic was his
+treatment of the mutinous army, in which he suppressed a rebellion in
+May. He landed at Dublin on the 13th of August. Before his arrival the
+Dublin garrison had defeated Ormonde with a loss of 5000 men, and
+Cromwell's work was limited to the capture of detached fortresses. On
+the 10th of September he stormed Drogheda, and by his order the whole of
+its 2800 defenders were put to the sword without quarter. Cromwell, who
+was as a rule especially scrupulous in protecting non-combatants from
+violence, justified his severity in this case by the cruelties
+perpetrated by the Irish in the rebellion of 1641, and as being
+necessary on military and political grounds in that it "would tend to
+prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which were the
+satisfactory grounds of such actions which otherwise cannot but work
+remorse and regret." After the fall of Drogheda Cromwell sent a few
+troops to relieve Londonderry, and marched himself to Wexford, which he
+took on the 11th of October, and where similar scenes of cruelty were
+repeated; every captured priest, to use Cromwell's own words, being
+immediately "knocked on the head," though the story of the three hundred
+women slaughtered in the market-place has no foundation.
+
+The surrender of Trim, Dundalk and Ross followed, but at Waterford
+Cromwell met with a stubborn resistance and the advent of winter obliged
+him to raise the siege. Next year Cromwell penetrated into Munster.
+Cashel, Cahir and several castles fell in February, and Kilkenny in
+March; Clonmel repulsing the assault with great loss, but surrendering
+on the 10th of May 1650. Cromwell himself sailed a fortnight later,
+leaving the reduction of the island, which was completed in 1652, to
+his generals. The re-settlement of the conquered and devastated country
+was now organized on the Tudor and Straffordian basis of colonization
+from England, conversion to Protestantism, and establishment of law and
+order. Cromwell thoroughly approved of the enormous scheme of
+confiscation and colonization, causing great privations and sufferings,
+which was carried out. The Roman Catholic landowners lost their estates,
+all or part according to their degree of guilt, and these were
+distributed among Cromwell's soldiers and the creditors of the
+government; Cromwell also invited new settlers from home and from New
+England, two-thirds of the whole land of Ireland being thus transferred
+to new proprietors. The suppression of Roman Catholicism was zealously
+pursued by Cromwell; the priests were hunted down and imprisoned or
+exiled to Spain or Barbados, the mass was everywhere forbidden, and the
+only liberty allowed was that of conscience, the Romanist not being
+obliged to attend Protestant services.
+
+These methods, together with education, "assiduous preaching ...
+humanity, good life, equal and honest dealing with men of different
+opinion," Cromwell thought, would convert the whole island to
+Protestantism. The law was ably and justly administered, and Irish trade
+was admitted to the same privileges as English, enjoying the same rights
+in foreign and colonial trade; and no attempt was made to subordinate
+the interests of the former to the latter, which was the policy adopted
+both before and after Cromwell's time, while the union of Irish and
+English interests was further recognized by the Irish representation at
+Westminster in the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and 1659. These advantages,
+however, scarcely benefited at all the Irish Roman Catholics, who were
+excluded from political life and from the corporate towns; and
+Cromwell's union meant little more than the union of the English colony
+in Ireland with England. A just administration, too, did not compensate
+for unjust laws or produce contentment; the policy of conversion and
+colonization was unsuccessful, the descendants of many of Cromwell's
+soldiers becoming merged in the Roman Catholic Irish, and the union with
+England, political and commercial, being extinguished at the
+Restoration. Cromwell's land settlement--modified by the restoration
+under Charles II. of about one-third of the estates to the
+royalists--survived, and added to the difficulties with which the
+English government was afterwards confronted in Ireland.
+
+
+  The battles of Dunbar and Worcester.
+
+Meanwhile Cromwell had hurried home to deal with the royalists in
+Scotland. He urged Fairfax to attack the Scots at once in their own
+country and to forestall their invasion; but Fairfax refused and
+resigned, and Cromwell was appointed by parliament, on the 26th of June
+1650, commander-in-chief of all the forces of the Commonwealth. He
+entered Scotland in July, and after a campaign in the neighbourhood of
+Edinburgh which proved unsuccessful in drawing out the Scots from their
+fortresses, he retreated to Dunbar to await reinforcements from Berwick.
+The Scots under Leslie followed him, occupied Doon Hill commanding the
+town, and seized the passes between Dunbar and Berwick which Cromwell
+had omitted to secure. Cromwell was outmanoeuvred and in a perilous
+situation, completely cut off from England and from his supplies except
+from the sea. But Leslie descended the hill to complete his triumph, and
+Cromwell immediately observed the disadvantages of his antagonist's new
+position, cramped by the hill behind and separated from his left wing. A
+stubborn struggle on the next day, the 3rd of September, gave Cromwell a
+decisive victory. Advancing, he occupied Edinburgh and Leith. At first
+it seemed likely that his victories and subsequent remonstrances would
+effect a peace with the Scots; but by 1651 Charles II. had succeeded in
+forming a new union of royalists and presbyterians, and another campaign
+became inevitable. Some delay was caused in beginning operations by
+Cromwell's dangerous illness, during which his life was despaired of;
+but in June he was confronting Leslie entrenched in the hills near
+Stirling, impregnable to attack and refusing an engagement. Cromwell
+determined to turn his antagonist's position. He sent 14,000 men into
+Fifeshire and marched to Perth, which he captured on the 2nd of August,
+thus cutting off Leslie from the north and his supplies. This movement,
+however, left open the way to England, and Charles immediately marched
+south, in reality thus giving Cromwell the wished-for opportunity of
+crushing the royalists finally and decisively. Cromwell followed through
+Yorkshire, and uniting with Lambert and Harrison at Evesham proceeded to
+attack the royalists at Worcester; where on the 3rd of September after a
+fierce struggle the great victory, "the crowning mercy" which terminated
+the Civil War, was obtained over Charles.
+
+Monk completed the subjugation of Scotland by 1654. The settlement here
+was made on more moderate lines than in Ireland. The estates of only
+twenty-four leaders of the defeated cause were forfeited by Cromwell,
+and the national church was left untouched though deprived of all powers
+of interference with the civil government, the general assembly being
+dissolved in 1653. Large steps were made towards the union of the two
+kingdoms by the representation of Scotland in the parliament at
+Westminster; free trade between the two countries was established, the
+administration of justice greatly improved, vassalage and heritable
+jurisdictions abolished, and security and good order maintained by the
+council of nine appointed by the Protector. In 1658 the improved
+condition of Scotland was the subject of Cromwell's special
+congratulation in addressing parliament. But as in Ireland so Cromwell's
+policy in Scotland was unpopular and was only upheld by the maintenance
+of a large army, necessitating heavy taxation and implying the loss of
+the national independence. It also vanished at the Restoration.
+
+On the 12th of September 1651 Cromwell made his triumphal entry into
+London at the conclusion of his victorious campaigns; and parliament
+granted him Hampton Court as a residence with L4000 a year. These
+triumphs, however, had all been obtained by force of arms; the more
+difficult task now awaited Cromwell of governing England by parliament
+and by law. As Milton wrote:--
+
+  "Cromwell! our chief of men, who through a cloud
+    Not of war only, but detractions rude,
+    Guided by faith and matchless fortitude,
+    To peace and truth thy glorious way hast ploughed,
+                ... Peace hath her victories
+    No less renowned than war."
+
+
+  Cromwell expels the Long Parliament.
+
+Cromwell's moderation and freedom from imperiousness were acknowledged
+even by those least friendly to his principles. Although the idol of his
+victorious army, and in a position enabling him to exercise autocratic
+power, he laboured unostentatiously for more than a year and a half as a
+member of the parliament, whose authority he supported to the best of
+his ability. While occupied with work on committees and in
+administration he pressed forward several schemes of reform, including a
+large measure of law reform prepared by a commission presided over by
+Matthew Hale, and the settlement of the church; but very little was
+accomplished by the parliament, which seemed to be almost exclusively
+taken up with the maintenance and increase of its own powers; and
+Cromwell's dissatisfaction, and that of the army which increased every
+day, was intensified by the knowledge that the parliament, instead of
+dissolving for a new election, was seeking to perpetuate its tenure of
+power. At length, in April 1653, a "bill for a new representation" was
+discussed, which provided for the retention of their seats by the
+existing members without re-election, so that they would also be the
+sole judges of the eligibility of the rest. This measure, which placed
+the whole powers of the state--executive, legislative, military and
+judicial--in the hands of one irresponsible and permanent chamber, "the
+horridest arbitrariness that ever was exercised in the world," Cromwell
+and the army determined to resist at all costs. On the 15th of April
+they proposed that the parliament should appoint a provisional
+government and dissolve itself. This compromise was refused by the
+parliament, which proceeded on the 20th to press through its last stages
+the "bill for a new representation." Cromwell hastened to the House, and
+at the last moment, on the bill being put to the vote, whispering to
+Harrison, "This is the time; I must do it," he rose, and after alluding
+to the former good services of the parliament, proceeded to overwhelm
+the members with reproaches. Striding up and down the House in a
+passion, he made no attempt to control himself, and turning towards
+individuals as he hurled significant epithets at each, he called some
+"whoremasters," others "drunkards, corrupt, unjust, scandalous to the
+profession of the Gospel." "Perhaps you think," he exclaimed, "that this
+is not parliamentary language; I confess it is not, neither are you to
+expect any such from me." In reply to a complaint of his violence he
+cried, "Come, come, I will put an end to your prating. You are no
+parliament, I say you are no parliament. I will put an end to your
+sitting." By his directions Harrison then fetched in a small band of
+Cromwell's musketeers and compelled the speaker Lenthall to vacate the
+chair. Looking at the mace he said, "What shall we do with this bauble?"
+and ordered a soldier to take it away. The members then trooped out,
+Cromwell crying after them, "It is you that have forced me to this; for
+I have sought the Lord night and day that He would rather slay me than
+put me upon the doing this work." He then snatched the obnoxious bill
+from the clerk, put it under his cloak, and commanding the doors to be
+locked went back to Whitehall. In the afternoon he dissolved the council
+in spite of John Bradshaw's remonstrances, who said, "Sir, we have heard
+what you did at the House this morning...; but you are mistaken to think
+that the parliament is dissolved, for no power under heaven can dissolve
+them but themselves; therefore take you notice of that." Cromwell had no
+patience with formal pedantry of this sort; and in point of strict
+legality "The Rump" of the Long Parliament had little better title to
+authority than the officers who expelled it from the House. After this
+Cromwell had nothing left but the army with which to govern, and
+"henceforth his life was a vain attempt to clothe that force in
+constitutional forms, and make it seem something else so that it might
+become something else."[2]
+
+By the dissolution of the Long Parliament Cromwell as commander-in-chief
+was left the sole authority in the state. He determined immediately to
+summon another parliament. This was the "Little" or "Barebones
+Parliament," consisting of one hundred and forty persons selected by the
+council of officers from among those nominated by the congregations in
+each county, which met on the 4th of July 1653. This assembly, however,
+soon showed itself impracticable and incapable, and on the 12th of
+December the speaker, followed by the more moderate members, marched to
+Whitehall and returned their powers to Cromwell, while the rest were
+expelled by the army.
+
+Cromwell, who had no desire to exercise arbitrary power and whose main
+object therefore was to devise some constitutional limit to the
+authority which circumstances had placed in his hands, now accepted the
+written constitution drawn up by some of the officers, called the
+_Instrument of Government_, the earliest example of a "fixed government"
+based on "fundamentals," or constitutional guarantees, and the only
+example of it in English history. Its authors had wished Oliver to
+assume the title of king, but this he repeatedly refused; and in the
+instrument he was named Protector, a parliament was established, limited
+in powers but whose measures were not restricted by the Protector's veto
+unless they contravened the constitution, the Protector's executive
+power being also limited by the council. The Protector and the council
+together were given a life tenure of office, with a large army and a
+settled revenue sufficient for public needs in time of peace; while the
+clauses relating to religion "are remarkable as laying down for the
+first time with authority a principle of toleration,"[3] though this
+toleration did not apply to Roman Catholics and Anglicans. On the 16th
+of December 1653 Cromwell was installed in his new office, dressed as a
+civilian in a plain black coat instead of in scarlet as a general, in
+order to demonstrate that military government had given place to civil;
+for he approached his task in the same spirit that had prompted his
+declaration to the Little Parliament of his wish "to divest the sword of
+all power in the Civil administration."
+
+
+  The government of the Protector.
+
+In the interval between his nomination as Protector and the summoning of
+his first parliament in September 1654, Cromwell was empowered together
+with his council to legislate by ordinances; and eighty-two were issued
+in all, dealing with numerous and various reforms and including the
+reorganization of the treasury, the settlement of Ireland and Scotland
+and the union of the three kingdoms, the relief of poor prisoners, and
+the maintenance of the highways. These ordinances in many instances
+showed the hand of the true statesman. Cromwell was essentially a
+conservative reformer; in his attempts to purge the court of chancery of
+its most flagrant abuses, and to settle the ecclesiastical affairs of
+the nation, he showed himself anxious to retain as much of the existing
+system as could be left untouched without doing positive evil. He was
+out-voted by his council on the question of commutation of tithes, and
+his enlightened zeal for reforming the "wicked and abominable" sentences
+of the criminal law met with complete failure. Most of these ordinances
+were subsequently confirmed by parliament, and, "on the whole, this body
+of dictatorial legislation, abnormal in form as it is, in substance was
+a real, wise and moderate set of reforms."[4] His ordinances for the
+"Reformation of Manners," the product of the puritan spirit, had but a
+transitory effect. The Long Parliament had ordered a strict observance
+of Sunday, punished swearing severely, and made adultery a capital
+crime; Cromwell issued further ordinances against duelling, swearing,
+race-meetings and cock-fights--the last as tending to the disturbance of
+the public peace and the encouragement of "dissolute practices to the
+dishonour of God." Cromwell himself was no ascetic and saw no harm in
+honest sport. He was exceedingly fond of horses and hunting, leaping
+ditches prudently avoided by the foreign ambassadors. Baxter describes
+him as full of animal spirits, "naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity
+and alacrity as another man is when he hath drunken a cup of wine too
+much," and notes his "familiar rustic carriage with his soldiers in
+sporting." He was fond of music and of art, and kept statues in Hampton
+Court Gardens which scandalized good puritans. He preferred that
+Englishmen should be free rather than sober by compulsion. Writing to
+the Scottish clergy, and rejecting their claim to suppress dissent in
+order to extirpate error, he said, "Your pretended fear lest error
+should step in is like the man who would keep all wine out of the
+country lest men should be drunk. It will be found an unjust and unwise
+jealousy to deprive a man of his natural liberty upon a supposition he
+may abuse it. When he doth abuse it, judge." It is probable that very
+little of this moral legislation was enforced in practice, though
+special efforts were made under the government of the major-generals.
+Cromwell expected more results from the effects of education and
+culture. A part of the revenue of confiscated church lands was allotted
+to the maintenance of schools, and the question of national education
+was seriously taken in hand by the Commonwealth. Cromwell was especially
+interested in the universities. In 1649 he had been elected D.C.L. at
+Oxford, and in 1651 chancellor of the University, an office which he
+held till 1657, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. He founded a
+new readership in Divinity, and presented Greek MSS. to the Bodleian. He
+appointed visitors for the universities and great public schools, and
+defended the universities from the attacks of the extreme sectaries who
+clamoured for their abolition, even Clarendon allowing that Oxford
+"yielded a harvest of extraordinary good and sound knowledge in all
+parts of learning." In 1657 he founded a new university at Durham, which
+was suppressed at the Restoration. He patronized learning. Milton and
+Marvell were his secretaries. He allowed the royalists Hobbes and Cowley
+to return to England, and lived in friendship with the poet Waller.
+
+
+  Cromwell's church policy.
+
+Cromwell's religious policy included the maintenance of a national
+church, a policy acceptable to the army but much disliked by the Scots,
+who wanted the church to control the state, not the state the church. He
+improved the incomes of poor livings by revenues derived from episcopal
+estates and the fines of delinquents. An important feature of his church
+government was the appointment on the 20th of March 1654 of the
+"Triers," thirty-eight clerical and lay commissioners, who decided upon
+the qualifications of candidates for livings, and without whose
+recommendation none could be appointed; while an ordinance of August
+1654 provided for the removal of the unfit, the latter class including
+besides immoral persons those holding "popish" or blasphemous opinions,
+those publicly using the English Prayer Book, and the disaffected to the
+government. Religious toleration was granted, but with the important
+exception that some harsh measures were enacted against Anglicans and
+Roman Catholics, to neither of whom was liberty of worship accorded. The
+acts imposing fines for recusancy, repealed in 1650, were later executed
+with great severity. In 1655 a proclamation was issued for administering
+the laws against the priests and Jesuits, and some executions were
+carried out. Complete toleration in fact was only extended to Protestant
+nonconformists, who composed the Cromwellian established church, and who
+now meted out to their antagonists the same treatment which they
+themselves were later to receive under the _Clarendon Code_ of Charles
+II.
+
+
+  His religious toleration.
+
+Cromwell himself, however, remained throughout a staunch and constant
+upholder of religious toleration. "I had rather that Mahommedanism were
+permitted amongst us," he avowed, "than that one of God's children
+should be persecuted." Far in advance of his contemporaries on this
+question, whenever his personal action is disclosed it is invariably on
+the side of forbearance and of moderation. It is probable, from the
+absence of evidence to the contrary, that much of this severe
+legislation was never executed, and it was without doubt Cromwell's
+restraining hand which moderated the narrow persecuting spirit of the
+executive. In practice Anglican private worship appears to have been
+little interfered with; and although the recusant fines were rigorously
+exacted, the same seems to have been the case with the private
+celebration of the mass. Bordeaux, the French envoy in England, wrote
+that, in spite of the severe laws, the Romanists received better
+treatment under the Protectorate than under any other government.
+Cromwell's strong personal inclination towards toleration is clearly
+seen in his treatment of the Jews and Quakers. He was unable, owing to
+the opposition of the divines and of the merchants, to secure the full
+recognition of the right to reside in England of the former who had for
+some time lived in small numbers and traded unnoticed and untroubled in
+the country; but he obtained an opinion from two judges that there was
+no law which forbade their return, and he gave them a private assurance
+of his protection, with leave to celebrate their private worship and to
+possess a cemetery.
+
+Cromwell's policy in this instance was not overturned at the
+Restoration, and the great Jewish immigration into England with all its
+important consequences may be held to date practically from these first
+concessions made by Cromwell. His personal intervention also alleviated
+the condition of the Quakers, much persecuted at this time. In an
+interview in 1654 the sincerity and enthusiasm of George Fox had greatly
+moved Cromwell and had convinced him of their freedom from dangerous
+political schemes. He ordered Fox's liberation, and in November 1657
+issued a general order directing that Quakers should be treated with
+leniency, and be discharged from confinement. Doctrines directly
+attacking Christianity Cromwell regarded, indeed, as outside toleration
+and to be punished by the civil power, but at the same time he mitigated
+the severity of the penalty ordained by the law. In general the
+toleration enjoyed under Cromwell was probably far larger than at any
+period since religion became the contending ground of political parties,
+and certainly greater than under his immediate successors. Lilburne and
+the anabaptists, and John Rogers and the Fifth Monarchy men, were
+prosecuted only on account of their direct attacks upon the government,
+and Cromwell in his broad-minded and tolerant statesmanship was himself
+in advance of his age and his administration. He believed in the
+spiritual and unseen rather than in the outward and visible unity of
+Christendom.
+
+
+  Foreign policy.
+
+In foreign policy Cromwell's chief aims appear to have been to support
+and extend the Protestant faith, to promote English trade, and to
+prevent a Stuart restoration by foreign aid--the religious mission of
+England in the world, her commercial interests, and her political
+independence being indissolubly connected in his mind. The beginning of
+his rule inherited a war with France and Holland; the former consequent
+on Cromwell's failure to obtain terms for the Huguenots or the cession
+of Dunkirk, and the latter--for which he was not responsible--the result
+of commercial rivalry, of disputes concerning the rights of neutrals, of
+bitter memories of Dutch misdeeds in the East Indies, and of dynastic
+causes arising from the stadtholder, William II. of Orange, having
+married Mary, daughter of Charles I. In 1651 the Dutch completed a
+treaty with Denmark to injure English trade in the Baltic; to which
+England replied the same year by the Navigation Act, which suppressed
+the Dutch trade with the English colonies and the Dutch fish trade with
+England, and struck at the Dutch carrying trade. War was declared in May
+1652 after a fight between Blake and Tromp off Dover, and was continued
+with signal victories and defeats on both sides till 1654. The religious
+element, however, which predominated in Cromwell's foreign policy
+inclined him to peace, and in April of that year terms were arranged by
+which England on the whole was decidedly the gainer. The Dutch
+acknowledged the supremacy of the English flag in the British seas,
+which Tromp had before refused; they accepted the Navigation Act, and
+undertook privately to exclude the princes of Orange from the command of
+their forces. The Protestant policy was further followed up by treaties
+with Sweden and Denmark which secured the passage of the Sound for
+English ships on the same conditions as the Dutch, and a treaty with
+Portugal which liberated English subjects from the Inquisition and
+allowed commerce with the Portuguese colonies. The two great Roman
+Catholic powers now both bid for Cromwell's alliance. Cromwell wisely
+inclined towards France, for Spain was then a greater menace than France
+alike to the Protestant cause and to the growth of British trade in the
+western hemisphere; but as no concessions could be gained from either
+France or Spain, the year 1654 closed without a treaty being made with
+either. In December 1654 Penn and Venables sailed for the West Indies
+with orders to attack the Spanish colonies and the French shipping; and
+for the first time since the Plantagenets an English fleet appeared in
+the Mediterranean, where Blake upheld the supremacy of the English flag,
+made a treaty with the dey of Algiers, destroyed the castles and ships
+of the dey of Tunis at Porto Farina on the 4th of April 1655, and
+liberated the English prisoners captured by the pirates.
+
+The incident of the massacre of the Protestant Vaudois at this time
+decided Cromwell's policy in favour of France. In response to Cromwell's
+splendid championship of the persecuted people--which has been well
+described as "one of the noblest memories of England"--France undertook
+to put pressure upon Savoy, in consequence of which the persecution
+ceased for a time; but Cromwell's intervention had less practical effect
+than has generally been supposed, though "never was the great conception
+of a powerful state having duties along with interests more
+magnanimously realized."[5] The treaty of Pinerolo withdrew the edict
+ordering the persecutions, but they were soon afterwards renewed, and in
+1658 formed the subject of another remonstrance by Cromwell to Louis
+XIV. in his last extant public letter before his death. The treaty of
+Westminster (24th of October 1655) dealt chiefly with commercial
+subjects, and contained a clause promising the expulsion from France of
+political exiles. Meanwhile the West Indian expedition had been defeated
+at Hispaniola, and war was declared by Spain, who now promised help to
+Charles II. for regaining his throne. Cromwell sent powerful English
+fleets to watch the coast of Spain and to prevent communications with
+the West Indies and America; on the 8th of September 1656 a fleet of
+treasure ships was destroyed off Cadiz by Stayner, and on the 20th of
+April 1657 Blake performed his last exploit in the destruction of the
+whole Spanish fleet of sixteen treasure ships in the harbour of Santa
+Cruz in Teneriffe. These naval victories were followed by a further
+military alliance with France against Spain, termed the treaty of Paris
+(the 23rd of March 1657). Cromwell furnished 6000 men with a fleet to
+join in the attack upon Spain in Flanders, and obtained as reward
+Mardyke and Dunkirk, the former being captured and handed over on the
+3rd of October 1657, and the latter after the battle of the Dunes on the
+4th of June 1658, when Cromwell's Ironsides were once more pitted
+against English royalists fighting for the Spaniards.
+
+Such was the character of Cromwell's policy abroad. The inspiring
+principle had been the defence and support of Protestantism, the
+question with Cromwell being "whether the Christian world should be all
+popery." He desired England to be everywhere the protector of the
+oppressed and the upholder of "true religion." His policy was in
+principle the policy of Elizabeth, of Gustavus Adolphus, and--in the
+following generation--of William of Orange. He appreciated, without
+over-estimating, the value of England's insular position. "You have
+accounted yourselves happy," he said in January 1658, "in being
+environed by a great ditch from all the world beside. Truly you will not
+be able to keep your ditch nor your shipping unless you turn your ships
+and shipping into troops of horse and companies of foot, and fight to
+defend yourselves on _terra firma_." He did not regard himself merely as
+the trustee of the national resources. These were not to be employed for
+the advancement of English interests alone. "God's interest in the
+world," he declared, "is more extensive than all the people of these
+three nations. God has brought us hither to consider the work we may do
+in the world as well as at home." In 1653 he had made the astonishing
+proposal to the Dutch that England and Holland should divide the
+habitable globe outside Europe between them, that all states maintaining
+the Inquisition should be treated as enemies by both the proposed
+allies, and that the latter "should send missionaries to all peoples
+willing to receive them, to inculcate the truth of Jesus Christ and the
+Holy Gospel." Great writers like Milton and Harrington supported
+Cromwell's view of the duty of a statesman; the poet Waller acclaimed
+Cromwell as "the world's protector"; but the London tradesmen complained
+of the loss of their Spanish trade and regarded Holland and not Spain as
+the national enemy. But Cromwell's dream of putting himself at the head
+of European Protestantism never even approached realization. War broke
+out between the Protestant states of Sweden, Denmark, Holland and
+Brandenburg, with whom religion was entirely subordinated to individual
+aims and interests, and who were far from rising to Cromwell's great
+conceptions; while the Vaudois were soon subjected to fresh
+persecutions. On the other hand, Cromwell could justly boast "there is
+not a nation in Europe but is very willing to ask a good understanding
+with you." He raised England to a predominant position among the Powers
+of Europe, and anticipated the triumphs of the elder Pitt. "It was hard
+to discover," wrote Clarendon, "which feared him most, France, Spain or
+the Low Countries." The vigour and success with which he organized the
+national resources and upheld the national honour, asserted the British
+sovereignty of the seas, defended the oppressed, and caused his name to
+be feared and respected in foreign courts where that of Stuart was
+despised and neglected, command praise and admiration equally from
+contemporaries and from modern critics, from his friends and from his
+opponents. "He once more joined us to the continent," wrote Marvell,
+while Dryden describes him as teaching the British lion to roar.
+"Cromwell's greatness at home," said Clarendon, "was a mere shadow of
+his greatness abroad." "It is strange," wrote Pepys in 1667 under a
+different regime, "how everybody nowadays reflect upon Oliver and
+commend him, what brave things he did, and made all the neighbour
+princes fear him." To Cromwell more than to any other British ruler
+belongs the credit of having laid the foundation of England's maritime
+supremacy and of her over-sea empire.
+
+
+  Cromwell and the empire.
+
+Cromwell's colonial policy aimed definitely at the recognition and
+extension of the British empire. By March 1652 the whole of the
+territory governed by the Stuarts had submitted to the authority of the
+Commonwealth, and the Navigation Act of the 9th of October 1651, by
+which colonial goods could only be imported to England in British ships
+and all foreign trade to the colonies was restricted to products of the
+exporting country, sought to bind the colonies to England and to support
+the interests of the shipowners and merchants, and therefore of the
+English maritime supremacy, the act being, moreover, memorable as the
+first public measure which treated the colonies as a whole and as an
+integral part of Great Britain. The hindrance, however, to the general
+development of trade which the act involved aroused at once loud
+complaints, to which Cromwell turned a deaf ear, continuing to seize
+Dutch ships trading in forbidden goods. In the internal administration
+of the colonies Cromwell interfered very little, maintaining specially
+friendly relations with the New Englanders, and showing no jealousy of
+their desire for self-government. The war with France, Holland and Spain
+offered opportunities of gaining additional territory. A small
+expedition sent by Cromwell in February 1654 to capture New Amsterdam
+(New York) from the Dutch was abandoned on the conclusion of peace, and
+the fleet turned to attack the French colonies; Major Robert Sedgwick
+taking with a handful of men the fort of St John's, Port Royal or
+Annapolis, and the French fort on the river Penobscot, the whole
+territory from this river to the mouth of the St Lawrence remaining
+British territory till its cession in 1667. In December 1654 Cromwell
+despatched Penn and Venables with a fleet of thirty-eight ships and 2500
+soldiers to the West Indies, their numbers being raised by recruits at
+the islands to 7000 men. The attack on Hispaniola, however, was a
+disastrous failure, and though a landing at Jamaica and the capture of
+the capital, Santiago de la Vega, was effected, the expedition was
+almost annihilated by disease; and Penn and Venables returned to
+England, when Cromwell threw them into the Tower. Cromwell, however,
+persevered, reminding Fortescue, who was left in command, that the war
+was one against the "Roman Babylon," that they were "fighting the Lord's
+battles"; and he sent out reinforcements under Sedgwick, offering
+inducements to the New Englanders to migrate to Jamaica. In spite of
+almost insuperable difficulties the colony took root, trade began, the
+fleet lay in wait for the Spanish treasure ships, the settlements of the
+Spaniards were raided, and their repeated attempts to retake the island
+were successfully resisted. In 1658 Colonel Edward Doyley, the governor,
+gained a decisive victory over thirty companies of Spanish foot, and
+sent ten of their flags to Cromwell. The Protector, however, did not
+live to witness the final triumph of his undertaking, which gave to
+England, as he had wished, "the mastery of those seas," ensuring the
+English colonies against Spanish attacks, and being maintained and
+followed up at the Restoration.
+
+
+  Parliamentary difficulties.
+
+  The major-generals.
+
+Meanwhile, the first parliament of the Protectorate had met in September
+1654. A scheme of electoral reform had been carried by which members
+were taken from the small and corrupt boroughs and given to the large
+hitherto unrepresented towns, and which provided for thirty
+representatives from Scotland and from Ireland. Instead, however, of
+proceeding with the work of practical legislation, accepting the
+Instrument of Government without challenge as the basis of its
+authority, the parliament immediately began to discuss and find fault
+with the constitution and to debate about "Fundamentals." About a
+hundred members who refused to engage not to attempt to change the form
+of government were excluded on the 12th of September. The rest sat on,
+discussing the constitution, drawing up lists of damnable heresies and
+of incontrovertible articles of faith, producing plans for the reduction
+of the army and demanding for themselves its control. Incensed by the
+dilatory and factious proceedings of the House, Cromwell dismissed the
+parliament on the 22nd of January 1655. Various dangerous plots against
+his government and person were at this time rife. Vane, Ludlow, Robert
+Overton, Harrison and Major Wildman, the head of the Levellers, were all
+arrested, while the royalist rising under Penruddock was crushed in
+Devonshire. Other attacks upon his authority were met with the same
+resort to force. The judges and lawyers began to question the legality
+of his ordinances, and to doubt their competency to convict royalist
+prisoners of treason. A merchant named Cony refused to pay customs not
+imposed by parliament, his counsel declaring their levy by ordinance to
+be contrary to Magna Carta, and Chief Justice Rolle resigning in order
+to avoid giving judgment. Cromwell was thus inevitably drawn farther
+along the path of arbitrary government. He arrested the persons who
+refused to pay taxes, and sent Cony's lawyers to the Tower. Hitherto he
+had been scrupulously impartial in raising the best men to the judicial
+bench, including the illustrious Matthew Hale, but he now appointed
+compliant judges, and, alluding to Magna Carta in terms impossible to
+transcribe for modern readers, declared that "it should not control his
+actions which he knew were for the safety of the Commonwealth." The
+country was now divided into twelve districts each governed by a
+major-general, to whom was entrusted the duty of maintaining order,
+stamping out disaffection and plots, and executing the laws relating to
+public morals. They had power to transport royalists and those who could
+not produce good characters, and supported themselves by a special tax
+of 10% on the incomes of the royalist gentry. Enormous numbers of
+ale-houses were closed--a proceeding which excited intense resentment
+and was probably no slight cause of the royalist reaction. Still more
+serious an encroachment upon the constitution perhaps even than the
+institution of the major-generals was Cromwell's tampering with the
+municipal franchise by confiscating the charters, depriving the
+burgesses, now hostile to his government, of their parliamentary votes,
+and limiting the franchise to the corporation; thereby corrupting the
+national liberties at their very source, and introducing an evil
+precedent only too readily followed by Charles II. and James II.
+
+
+  Refusal of the crown.
+
+It was in these embarrassed and perilous circumstances that Cromwell
+summoned a new parliament in the summer of 1656. In spite of the
+influence and interference of the major-generals a large number of
+members hostile to the government were returned, of whom Cromwell's
+council immediately excluded nearly a hundred. The major-generals were
+the object of general attack, while the special tax on the royalists was
+declared unjust, and the bill for its continuation rejected by a large
+majority. An attempt at the assassination of Cromwell by Miles
+Sindercombe added to the general feeling of anxiety and unrest. The
+military rule excited universal hostility; there was an earnest desire
+for a settled and constitutional government, and the revival of the
+monarchy in the person of Cromwell appeared the only way of obtaining
+it. On the 23rd of February 1657 the _Remonstrance_ offering Cromwell
+the crown was moved by Sir Christopher Packe in the parliament and
+violently resisted by the officers and the army party, one hundred
+officers waiting upon Cromwell on the 27th to petition against his
+acceptance of it. On the 25th of March the _Remonstrance_, now termed
+the _Petition and Advice_, and including a new scheme of government, was
+passed by a majority of 123 to 62 in spite of the opposition of the
+officers; and on the 31st it was presented to Cromwell in the Banqueting
+House at Whitehall whence Charles I. had stepped out on to the scaffold.
+Cromwell replied by requesting a brief delay to ask counsel of God and
+his own heart. On the 8th of May about thirty officers presented a
+petition to parliament against the revival of the monarchy, and
+Fleetwood, Desborough and Lambert threatened to lay down their
+commissions. Accordingly Cromwell the same day refused the crown
+definitely, greatly to the astonishment both of his followers and his
+enemies, who considered his decision a fatal neglect of an opportunity
+of consolidating his rule and power. In particular, his acceptance of
+the crown would have guaranteed his followers, under the act of Henry
+VII., from liability in the future to the charge of high treason for
+having given allegiance to himself as a _de facto_ king. Cromwell
+himself, however, seems to have regarded the question of title as of
+secondary importance, as merely (to use his own words) "a feather in the
+hat," "a shining bauble for crowds to gaze at or kneel to." "Your
+father," wrote Sir Francis Russell to Henry Cromwell, "hath of late made
+more wise men fools than ever; he laughs and is merry, but they hang
+down their heads and are pitifully out of countenance."
+
+On the 25th of May the petition was presented to Cromwell again, with
+the title of Protector substituted for that of King, and he now accepted
+it. On the 26th of June 1657 he was once more installed as Protector,
+this time, however, with regal ceremony in contrast with the simple
+formalities observed on the first occasion, the heralds proclaiming his
+accession in the same manner as that of the kings. Cromwell's government
+seemed now established on the firmer footing of law and national
+approval, he himself obtaining the powers though not the title of a
+constitutional monarch, with a permanent revenue of L1,300,000 for the
+ordinary expenses of the administration, the command of the forces, the
+right to nominate his successor and, subject to the approval of
+parliament, the members of the council and of the new second chamber now
+established, while at the same time the freedom of parliament was
+guaranteed in its elections. Difficulties, however, appeared immediately
+the parliament got to work. The republicans hostile to the Protectorate,
+excluded before, now returned, took the places vacated by strong
+supporters of Cromwell who had been removed to the Lords, and attacked
+the authority of the new chamber, opened communications with the
+disaffected in the city and army, protested against unparliamentary
+taxation and arbitrary imprisonment, and demanded again the supremacy of
+parliament. In consequence Cromwell summoned both Houses to his presence
+on the 4th of February 1658, and having pointed out the perils to which
+they were once more exposing the state, dissolved parliament, dismissing
+the members with the words, "let God be judge between me and you."
+
+During the period following the dissolution Cromwell's power appeared
+outwardly at least to be at its height. The revolts of royalists and
+sectaries against his government had been easily suppressed, and the
+various attempts to assassinate him, contemptuously referred to by
+Cromwell as "little fiddling things," were anticipated and prevented by
+an excellent system of police and spies, and by his bodyguard of 160
+men. The victory at Dunkirk increased his reputation, while Louis XIV.
+showed his respect for the ruler of England by the splendid reception
+given to the Protector's envoy, Lord Fauconberg, and by a complimentary
+mission despatched to England.
+
+The great career, the incidents of which we have been following, was
+now, however, drawing to a close. Cromwell's health had long been
+impaired by the hardships of campaigning. Now at the age of 58 he was
+already old, and his firm, strong signature had become feeble and
+trembling. The responsibilities and anxieties of government unassisted
+by parliament, and the continued struggle against the force of anarchy,
+weighed upon him and exhausted his physical powers. "It has been
+hitherto," Cromwell said, "a matter of, I think, but philosophical
+discourse, that a great place, a great authority, is a great burthen. I
+know it is." "I can say in the presence of God, in comparison of whom we
+are but like poor creeping ants upon the earth, I would have lived under
+my woodside to have kept a flock of sheep rather than undertook such a
+government as this." "I doubt not to say," declared his steward
+Maidston, "it drank up his spirits, of which his natural constitution
+afforded a vast stock, and brought him to his grave."
+
+
+  Death.
+
+Domestic bereavements added further causes of grief and of weakened
+vitality. On the 6th of February 1658 he lost his favourite daughter,
+Elizabeth Claypole, and he was much cast down by the shock of his
+bereavement and of her long sufferings. Shortly afterwards he fell ill
+of an intermittent fever, but seemed to recover. On the 20th of August
+George Fox met him riding at the head of his guards in the park at
+Hampton Court, but declared "he looked like a dead man." The next day he
+again fell ill and was removed from Hampton Court to Whitehall, where
+his condition became worse. The anecdotes believed and circulated by the
+royalists that Cromwell died in all the agonies of remorse and fear are
+entirely false. On the 31st of August he seemed to rally, and one who
+slept in his bedchamber and who heard him praying, declared, "a public
+spirit to God's cause did breathe in him to the very last." During the
+next few days he grew weaker and resigned himself to death. "I would,"
+he said, "be willing to be further serviceable to God and his people,
+but my work is done." For the first time doubts as to his spiritual
+state seemed to have troubled him. "Tell me is it possible to fall from
+grace?" he asked the attendant minister. "No, it is not possible," the
+latter replied. "Then," said Cromwell, "I am safe, for I know that I was
+once in grace." He refused medicine to induce sleep, declaring "it is
+not my design to drink or to sleep, but my design is to make what haste
+I can to be gone." Towards the morning of the 3rd of September he again
+spoke, "using divers holy expressions, implying much inward consolation
+and peace," together with "some exceeding self-debasing words,
+annihilating and judging himself." He died on the afternoon of the same
+day, his day of triumph, the anniversary both of Dunbar and of
+Worcester. His body was privately buried in the chapel of Henry VII. in
+Westminster Abbey, the public funeral taking place on the 23rd of
+November, with great ceremony and on the same scale as that of Philip
+II. of Spain, and costing the enormous sum of L60,000. At the
+Restoration his body was exhumed, and on the 30th of January 1661, the
+anniversary of the execution of Charles I., it was drawn on a sledge
+from Holborn to Tyburn, together with the bodies of Ireton and Bradshaw,
+accompanied by "the universal outcry and curses of the people." There it
+was hanged on a gallows, and in the evening taken down, when the head
+was cut off and set up upon Westminster Hall, where it remained till as
+late as 1684, the trunk being thrown into a pit underneath the gallows.
+According to various legends Cromwell's last burial place is stated to
+be Westminster Abbey, Naseby Field or Newburgh Abbey; but there appears
+to be no evidence to support them, or to create any reasonable doubt
+that the great Protector's dust lies now where it was buried, in the
+neighbourhood of the present Connaught Square.
+
+
+  Cromwell's military genius.
+
+As a military commander Cromwell was as prompt as Gustavus, as ardent as
+Conde, as exact as Turenne. These, moreover, were soldiers from their
+earliest years. Conde's fame was established in his twenty-second year,
+Gustavus was twenty-seven and Turenne thirty-three at the beginning of
+their careers as commanders-in-chief. Cromwell, on the other hand, was
+forty-three when he fought in his first battle. In less than two years
+he had taken his rank as one of the great cavalry leaders of history.
+His campaigns of 1648 and 1651 placed him still higher as a great
+commander. Worcester, his crowning victory, has been indicated by a
+German critic as the prototype of Sedan. Yet his early military
+education could have consisted at most of the perusal of the _Swedish
+Intelligencer_ and the practice of riding. It is not, therefore, strange
+that Cromwell's first essays in war were characterised more by energy
+than technical skill. It was some time before he realized the spirit of
+cavalry tactics, of which he was later so complete a master. At first he
+speaks with complacence of a _melee_, and reports that he and his men
+"agreed to charge" the enemy. But before long he came to understand, as
+no other commander of the age save Gustavus understood it, the value of
+true "shock-action." Of Marston Moor he writes, "we never charged but we
+routed them"; and thereafter his battles were decided by the shock of
+closed squadrons, the fresh impulse of a second and even a third line,
+and above all by the unquestioning discipline and complete control over
+their horses to which he trained his men. This gave them not merely
+greater steadiness, but, what was far more important, the power of
+rallying and reforming for a second effort. The Royalist cavalry was
+disorganized by victory as often as by defeat, and illustrated on
+numerous fields the now discredited maxim that cavalry cannot charge
+twice in one day. Cromwell shares with Frederick the Great the credit of
+founding the modern cavalry spirit. As a horsemaster he was far superior
+to Murat. His marches in the eastern campaign of 1643 show a daily
+average at one time of 28 m. as against the 21 of Murat's cavalry in the
+celebrated pursuit after Jena. And this result he achieved with men of
+less than two years' service, men, too, more heavily equipped and worse
+mounted than the veterans of the _Grande Armee_. It has been said that
+his battles were decided by shock action; the real emphasis should be
+laid upon the word "decided." The swift, unhesitating charge was more
+than unusual in the wars of the time, and was possible only because of
+the peculiar earnestness of the men who fought the English war. The
+professional soldiers of the Continent could rarely be brought to force
+a decision; but the English, contending for a cause, were imbued with
+the spirit of the modern "nation in arms"; and having taken up arms
+wished to decide the quarrel by arms. This feeling was not less
+conspicuous in the far-ranging rides, or raids, of the Cromwellian
+cavalry. At one time, as in the case of Blechingdon, they would perform
+strange exploits worthy of the most daring hussars; at another their
+speed and tenacity paralyses armies. Not even Sheridan's horsemen in
+1864-65 did their work more effectively than did the English squadrons
+in the Preston campaign. Cromwell appreciated this feeling at its exact
+worth, and his pre-eminence in the Civil War was due to this highest
+gift of a general, the power of feeling the pulse of his army.
+Resolution, vigour and clear sight marked his conduct as a
+commander-in-chief. He aimed at nothing less than the annihilation of
+the enemy's forces, which Clausewitz was the first to define, a hundred
+and fifty years later, as the true objective of military operations. Not
+merely as exemplifying the tactical envelopment, but also as embodying
+the central idea of grand strategy, was Worcester the prototype of
+Sedan. The contrast between a campaign of Cromwell's and one of
+Turenne's is far more than remarkable, and the observation of a military
+critic who maintains that Cromwell's art of war was two centuries in
+advance of its time, finds universal acceptance.
+
+At a time when throughout the rest of Europe armies were manoeuvring
+against one another with no more than a formal result, the English and
+Scots were fighting decisive battles; and Cromwell's battles were more
+decisive than those of any other leader. Until his fiery energy made
+itself felt, hardly any army on either side actually suffered rout; but
+at Marston Moor and Naseby the troops of the defeated party were
+completely dissolved, while at Worcester the royalist army was
+annihilated. Dunbar attested his constancy and gave proof that Cromwell
+was a master of the tactics of all arms. Preston was an example like
+Austerlitz of the two stages of a battle as defined by Napoleon, the
+first _flottante_, the second _foudroyante_.
+
+Cromwell's strategic manoeuvres, if less adroit than those of Turenne or
+Montecucculi, were, in accordance with his own genius and the temper of
+his army, directed always to forcing a decisive battle. That he was also
+capable of strategy of the other type was clear from his conduct of the
+Irish War. But his chief work was of a different kind and done on a
+different scale. The greatest feat of Turenne was the rescue of one
+province in 1674-1675; Cromwell, in 1648 and again in 1651, had
+two-thirds of England and half of Scotland for his theatre of war.
+Turenne levelled down his methods to suit the ends which he had in view.
+The task of Cromwell was far greater. Any comparison between the
+generalship of these two great commanders would therefore be misleading,
+for want of a common basis. It is when he is contrasted with other
+commanders, not of the age of Louis XIV., but of the Civil War, that
+Cromwell's greatness is most conspicuous. Whilst others busied
+themselves with the application of the accepted rules of the Dutch, the
+German, and other formal schools of tactical thought, Cromwell almost
+alone saw clearly into the heart of the questions at issue, and evolved
+the strategy, the tactics, and the training suited to the work to which
+he had set his hand.
+
+
+  Cromwell's statesmanship.
+
+Cromwell's career as a statesman has been already traced in its
+different spheres, and an endeavour has been made to show the breadth
+and wisdom of his conceptions and at the same time the cause of the
+immediate failure of his constructive policy. Whether if Cromwell had
+survived he would have succeeded in gradually establishing legal
+government is a question which can never be answered. His administration
+as it stands in history is undoubtedly open to the charge that after
+abolishing the absolutism of the ancient monarchy he substituted for it,
+not law and liberty, but a military tyranny far more despotic than the
+most arbitrary administration of Charles I. The statement of Vane and
+Ludlow, when they refused to acknowledge Cromwell's government, that it
+was "in substance a re-establishment of that which we all engaged
+against," was true. The levy of ship money and customs by Charles sinks
+into insignificance beside Cromwell's wholesale taxation by ordinances;
+the inquisitional methods of the major-generals and the unjust and
+exceptional taxation of royalists outdid the scandals of the extra-legal
+courts of the Stuarts; the shipment of British subjects by Cromwell as
+slaves to Barbados has no parallel in the Stuart administration; while
+the prying into morals, the encouragement of informers, the attempt to
+make the people religious by force, were the counterpart of the Laudian
+system, and Cromwell's drastic treatment of the Irish exceeded anything
+dreamed of by Strafford. He discovered that parliamentary government
+after all was not the easy and plain task that Pym and Vane had
+imagined, and Cromwell had in the end no better justification of his
+rule than that which Strafford had suggested to Charles I.,--"parliament
+refusing (to give support and co-operation in carrying on the
+government) you are acquitted before God and man." The fault was no
+doubt partly Cromwell's own. He had neither the patience nor the tact
+for managing loquacious parliamentary pedants. But the chief
+responsibility was not his but theirs. John Morley (_Oliver Cromwell_,
+p. 297) has truly observed of the execution of Charles I., that it was
+"an act of war, and was just as defensible or just as assailable, and on
+the same grounds, as the war itself." The parliamentary party took leave
+of legality when they took up arms against the sovereign, and it was
+therefore idle to dream of a formally legal sanction for any of their
+subsequent revolutionary proceedings. An entirely fresh start had to be
+made. A new foundation had to be laid on which a new system of legality
+might be reared. It was for this that Cromwell strove. If the Rump or
+the Little Parliament had in a business-like spirit assumed and
+discharged the functions of a constituent assembly, such a foundation
+might have been provided. It was only when five years had passed since
+the death of the king without any "settlement of the nation" being
+arrived at, that Cromwell at last accepted a constitution drafted by his
+military officers, and attempted to impose it on the parliament. And it
+was not until the parliament refused to acknowledge the Instrument as
+the required starting point for the new legality, that Cromwell in the
+last resort took arbitrary power into his hands as the only method
+remaining for carrying on the government. For much as he hated
+arbitrariness, he hated anarchy still more. While therefore Cromwell's
+administration became in practice little different from that of
+Strafford, the aims and ideals of the two statesmen had nothing in
+common. It is therefore profoundly true, as observed by S. R. Gardiner
+(_Cromwell_, p. 315), that "what makes Cromwell's biography so
+interesting in his perpetual effort to walk in the paths of legality--an
+effort always frustrated by the necessities of the situation. The
+man--it is ever so with the noblest--was greater than his work." The
+nature of Cromwell's statesmanship is to be seen rather in his struggles
+against the retrograde influences and opinions of his time, in the many
+political reforms anticipated though not originated or established by
+himself, and in his religious, perhaps fanatical, enthusiasm, than in
+the outward character of his administration, which, however, in spite of
+its despotism shows itself in its inner spirit of justice, patriotism
+and self-sacrifice, so immeasurably superior to that of the Stuarts.
+
+
+  Personal character.
+
+Cromwell's personal character has been inevitably the subject of
+unceasing controversy. According to Clarendon he was "a brave bad man,"
+with "all the wickedness against which damnation is pronounced and for
+which hell fire is prepared." Yet he cannot deny that "he had some
+virtues which have caused the memory of some men in all ages to be
+celebrated"; and admits that "he was not a man of blood," and that he
+possessed "a wonderful understanding in the natures and humour of men,"
+and "a great spirit, an admirable circumspection and sagacity and a most
+magnanimous resolution." According to contemporary republicans he was a
+mere selfish adventurer, sacrificing the national cause "to the idol of
+his own ambition." Richard Baxter thought him a good man who fell before
+a great temptation. The writers of the next century generally condemned
+him as a mixture of knave, fanatic and hypocrite, and in 1839 John
+Forster endorsed Landor's verdict that Cromwell lived a hypocrite and
+died a traitor. These crude ideas of Cromwell's character were
+extinguished by Macaulay's irresistible logic, by the publication of
+Cromwell's letters by Carlyle in 1845, which showed Cromwell clearly to
+be "not a man of falsehoods, but a man of truth"; and by Gardiner, whom,
+however, it is somewhat difficult to follow when he represents Cromwell
+as "a typical Englishman." In particular that conception which regarded
+"ambition" as the guiding motive in his career has been dispelled by a
+more intimate and accurate knowledge of his life; this shows him to have
+been very little the creator of his own career, which was largely the
+result of circumstances outside his control, the influence of past
+events and of the actions of others, the pressure of the national will,
+the natural superiority of his own genius. "A man never mounts so high,"
+Cromwell said to the French ambassador in 1647, "as when he does not
+know where he is going." "These issues and events," he said in 1656,
+"have not been forecast, but were providences in things." His
+"hypocrisy" consists principally in the Biblical language he employed,
+which with Cromwell, as with many of his contemporaries, was the most
+natural way of expressing his feelings, and in the ascription of every
+incident to the direct intervention of God's providence, which was
+really Cromwell's sincere belief and conviction. In later times
+Cromwell's character and administration have been the subject of almost
+too indiscriminate eulogy, which has found tangible shape in the statue
+erected to his memory at Westminster in 1899. Here Cromwell's effigy
+stands in the midst of the sanctuaries of the law, the church, and the
+parliament, the three foundations of the state which he subverted, and
+in sight of Whitehall where he destroyed the monarchy in blood. Yet
+Cromwell's monument is not altogether misplaced in such surroundings,
+for in him are found the true principles of piety, of justice, of
+liberty and of governance.
+
+John Maidston, Cromwell's steward, gives the "character of his person."
+"His body was compact and strong, his stature under six foot (I believe
+about two inches), his head so shaped as you might see it a storehouse
+and a shop both of a vast treasury of natural parts." "His temper
+exceeding fiery, as I have known, but the flame of it, ... kept down for
+the most part, was soon allayed with those moral endowments he had. He
+was naturally compassionate towards objects in distress even to an
+effeminate measure; though God had made him a heart wherein was left
+little room for fear, ... yet did he exceed in tenderness towards
+sufferers. A larger soul I think hath seldom dwelt in a house of clay
+than his was. I believe if his story were impartially transmitted and
+the unprejudiced world well possessed with it, she would add him to her
+nine worthies." By his wife Elizabeth Bourchier, Cromwell had four sons,
+Robert (who died in 1639), Oliver (who died in 1644 while serving in his
+father's regiment), Richard, who succeeded him as Protector, and Henry.
+He also had four daughters. Of these Bridget was the wife successively
+of Ireton and Fleetwood, Elizabeth married John Claypole, Mary was wife
+of Thomas Belasyse, Lord Fauconberg; and Frances was the wife of Sir
+Robert Rich, and secondly of Sir John Russell. The last male descendant
+of the Protector was his great-great-grandson, Oliver Cromwell of
+Cheshunt, who died in 1821. By the female line, through his children
+Henry, Bridget and Frances, the Protector has had numerous descendants,
+and is the ancestor of many well-known families.[6]
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A detailed bibliography, with the chief authorities for
+  particular periods, will be found in the article in the _Dict. of Nat.
+  Biography_, by C. H. Firth (1888). The following works may be
+  mentioned: S. R. Gardiner's _Hist. of England_ (1883-1884) and of the
+  _Great Civil War_ (1886), _Cromwell's Place in History_ (1897),
+  _Oliver Cromwell_ (1901), and _History of the Commonwealth and
+  Protectorate_ (1894-1903); _Cromwell_, by C. H. Firth (1900); _Oliver
+  Cromwell_, by J. Morley (1904); _The Last Years of the Protectorate,
+  1656-1658_, 2 vols., by C. H. Firth (1909); _Oliver Cromwell_, by
+  Fred. Harrison (1903); _Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell_, by
+  T. Carlyle, ed. by S. C. Lomas, with an introd. by C. H. Firth (the
+  best edition, rejecting the spurious Squire papers, 1904); _Oliver
+  Cromwell_, by F. Hoenig (1887); _Oliver Cromwell, the Protector_, by
+  R. F. D. Palgrave (1890); _Oliver Cromwell ... and the Royalist
+  Insurrection ... of March 1655_, by the same author (1903); _Oliver
+  Cromwell_, by Theodore Roosevelt (1900); _Oliver Cromwell_, by R.
+  Pauli (tr. 1888); _Cromwell, a Speech delivered at the Cromwell
+  Tercentenary Celebration 1899_, by Lord Rosebery (1900); _The Two
+  Protectors_, by Sir Richard Tangye (valuable for its illustrations,
+  1899); _Life of Sir Henry Vane_, by W. W. Ireland (1905); _Die Politik
+  des Protectors Oliver Cromwell in der Auffassung und Tatigkeit ... des
+  Staatssekretars John Thurloe_, by Freiherr v. Bischofshausen (1899);
+  _Cromwell as a Soldier_, by T. S. Baldock (1899); _Cromwell's Army_,
+  by C. H. Firth (1902); _The Diplomatic Relations between Cromwell and
+  Charles X. of Sweden_, by G. Jones (1897); _The Interregnum_, by F. A.
+  Inderwick (dealing with the legal aspect of Cromwell's rule, 1891);
+  _Administration of the Royal Navy_, by M. Oppenheim (1896); _History
+  of the English Church during the Civil Wars_, by W. Shaw (1900); _The
+  Protestant Interest in Cromwell's Foreign Relations_, by J. N. Bowman
+  (1900); _Cromwell's Jewish Intelligencies_ (1891), _Crypto-Jews under
+  the Commonwealth_ (1894), _Menasseh Ben Israel's Mission to Oliver
+  Cromwell_ (1901), by L. Wolf.     (P. C. Y.; C. F. A.; R. J. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+   [1] _Life of Sir H. Vane_, by W. W. Ireland, 222.
+
+   [2] C. H. Firth, Cromwell, p. 324.
+
+   [3] John Morley, Oliver Cromwell, p. 393.
+
+   [4] Frederic Harrison, _Oliver Cromwell_, p. 214.
+
+   [5] John Morley, _Oliver Cromwell_, p. 483.
+
+   [6] Frederic Harrison, _Cromwell_, p. 34.
+
+
+
+
+CROMWELL, RICHARD (1626-1712), lord protector of England, eldest
+surviving son of Oliver Cromwell and of Elizabeth Bourchier, was born on
+the 4th of October 1626. He served in the parliamentary army, and in
+1647 was admitted a member of Lincoln's Inn. In 1649 he married Dorothy,
+daughter of Richard Mayor, or Major, of Hursley in Hampshire. He
+represented Hampshire in the parliament of 1654, and Cambridge
+University in that of 1656, and in November 1655 was appointed one of
+the council of trade. But he was not brought forward by his father or
+prepared in any way for his future greatness, and lived in the country
+occupied with field sports, till after the institution of the second
+protectorate in 1657 and the recognition of Oliver's right to name his
+successor. On the 18th of July he succeeded his father as chancellor of
+the university of Oxford, on the 31st of December he was made a member
+of the council of state, and about the same time obtained a regiment and
+a seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was received generally as his
+father's successor, and was nominated by him as such on his death-bed.
+He was proclaimed on the 3rd of September 1658, and at first his
+accession was acclaimed with general favour both at home and abroad.
+Dissensions, however, soon broke out between the military faction and
+the civilians. Richard's elevation, not being "general of the army as
+his father was," was distasteful to the officers, who desired the
+appointment of a commander-in-chief from among themselves, a request
+refused by Richard. The officers in the council, moreover, showed
+jealousy of the civil members, and to settle these difficulties and to
+provide money a parliament was summoned on the 27th of January 1659,
+which declared Richard protector, and incurred the hostility of the army
+by criticizing severely the arbitrary military government of Oliver's
+last two years, and by impeaching one of the major-generals. A council
+of the army accordingly established itself in opposition to the
+parliament, and demanded on the 6th of April a justification and
+confirmation of former proceedings, to which the parliament replied by
+forbidding meetings of the army council without the permission of the
+protector, and insisting that all officers should take an oath not to
+disturb the proceedings in parliament. The army now broke into open
+rebellion and assembled at St James's. Richard was completely in their
+power; he identified himself with their cause, and the same night
+dissolved the parliament. The Long Parliament (which re-assembled on
+the 7th of May) and the heads of the army came to an agreement to effect
+his dismissal; and in the subsequent events Richard appears to have
+played a purely passive part, refusing to make any attempt to keep his
+power or to forward a restoration of the monarchy. On the 25th of May
+his submission was communicated to the House. He retired into private
+life, heavily burdened with debts incurred during his tenure of office
+and narrowly escaping arrest even before he quitted Whitehall. In the
+summer of 1660 he left England for France, where he lived in seclusion
+under the name of John Clarke, subsequently removing elsewhere, either
+(for the accounts differ) to Spain, to Italy, or to Geneva. He was long
+regarded by the government as a dangerous person, and in 1671 a strict
+search was made for him but without avail. He returned to England about
+1680 and lived at Cheshunt, in the house of Sergeant Pengelly, where he
+died on the 12th of July 1712, being buried in Hursley church in
+Hampshire. Richard Cromwell was treated with general contempt by his
+contemporaries, and invidiously compared with his great father.
+According to Mrs Hutchinson he was "gentle and virtuous but a peasant in
+his nature and became not greatness." He was nevertheless a man of
+respectable abilities, of an irreproachable private character, and a
+good speaker.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, and
+  authorities there cited; Noble's _Memoirs of the Protectoral House of
+  Cromwell_ (1787); _Memoirs of the Protector ... and of his Sons_, by
+  O. Cromwell (1820); _The Two Protectors_, by Sir R. Tangye (1899);
+  _Kebleland and a Short Life of Richard Cromwell_, by W. T. Warren
+  (1900); _Letters and Speeches of O. Cromwell_, by T. Carlyle (1904);
+  _Eng. Hist. Review_, xiii. 93 (letters) and xviii. 79; _Cal. of State
+  Papers, Domestic, Lansdowne MSS._ in British Museum.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+
+
+CROMWELL, THOMAS, EARL OF ESSEX (1485?-1540), born probably not later
+than 1485 and possibly a year or two earlier, was the only son of Walter
+Cromwell, _alias_ Smyth, a brewer, smith and fuller of Putney. His
+grandfather, John Cromwell, seems to have belonged to the
+Nottinghamshire family, of whom the most distinguished member was Ralph,
+Lord Cromwell (1394?-1456), lord treasurer; and he migrated from
+Norwell, Co. Notts, to Wimbledon some time before 1461. John's son,
+Walter, seems to have acquired the _alias_ Smyth from being apprenticed
+to his uncle, William Smyth, "armourer," of Wimbledon. He was of a
+turbulent, vicious disposition, perpetually being fined in the
+manor-court for drunkenness, for evading the assize of beer, and for
+turning more than his proper number of beasts on to Putney Common. Once
+he was punished for a sanguinary assault, and his connexion with
+Wimbledon ceased in 1514 when he "falsely and fraudulently erased the
+evidences and terrures of the lord." Till that time he had flourished
+like the bay-tree.
+
+Under these circumstances the absence of Thomas Cromwell's name from the
+Wimbledon manor rolls is almost a presumption of respectability. Perhaps
+it would be safer to attribute it to Cromwell's absence from the manor.
+He is said to have quarrelled with his father--no great crime
+considering the father's character--and fled to Italy, where he served
+as a soldier in the French army at the battle of the Garigliano (Dec.
+1503). He escaped from the battle-field to Florence, where he was
+befriended by the banker Frescobaldi, a debt which he appears to have
+repaid with superabundant interest later on. He is next heard of at
+Antwerp as a trader, and about 1510 he was induced to accompany a
+Bostonian to Rome in quest of some papal indulgences for a Boston gild;
+Cromwell secured the boon by the timely present of some choice
+sweetmeats to Julius II. In 1512 there is some slight evidence that he
+was at Middelburg, and also in London, engaged in business as a merchant
+and solicitor. His marriage must have taken place about the same time,
+judging from the age of his son Gregory. His wife was Elizabeth Wykes,
+daughter of a well-to-do shearman of Putney, whose business Cromwell
+carried on in combination with his own.
+
+For about eight years after 1512 we hear nothing of Cromwell. A letter
+to him from Cicely, marchioness of Dorset, in which he is seen in
+confidential business relations with her ladyship, is probably earlier
+than 1520, and it is possible that Cromwell owed his introduction to
+Wolsey to the Dorset family. On the other hand, it is stated that his
+cousin, Robert Cromwell, vicar of Battersea under the cardinal, gave
+Thomas the stewardship of the archiepiscopal estate of York House. At
+any rate he was advising Wolsey on legal points in 1520, and from that
+date he occurs frequently not only as mentor to the cardinal, but to
+noblemen and others when in difficulties, especially of a financial
+character; he made large sums as a money-lender.
+
+In 1523 Cromwell emerges into public life as a member of parliament. The
+official returns for this election are lost and it is not known for what
+constituency he sat, but we have a humorous letter from Cromwell
+describing its proceedings, and a remarkable speech which he wrote and
+perhaps delivered, opposing the reckless war with France and indicating
+a sounder policy which was pursued after Wolsey's fall. If, he said, war
+was to be waged, it would be better to secure Boulogne than advance on
+Paris; if the king went in person and were killed without leaving a male
+heir, he hinted there would be civil war; it would be wiser to attempt a
+union with Scotland, and in any case the proposed subsidy would be a
+fatal drain on the resources of the realm. Neither Henry nor Wolsey was
+so foolish as to resent this criticism, and Cromwell lost nothing by it.
+He was made a collector of the subsidy he had opposed--a doubtful favour
+perhaps--and in 1524 was admitted at Gray's Inn; but he now became the
+most confidential servant of the cardinal. In 1525 he was Wolsey's agent
+in the dissolution of the smaller monasteries which were designed to
+provide the endowments for Wolsey's foundations at Oxford and Ipswich, a
+task which gave Cromwell a taste and a facility for similar enterprises
+on a greater scale later on. For these foundations Cromwell drew up the
+necessary deeds, and he was receiver-general of cardinal's college,
+constantly supervising the workmen there and at Ipswich. His ruthless
+vigour and his accessibility to bribes earned him such unpopularity that
+there were rumours of his projected assassination or imprisonment. All
+this constituted a further bond of sympathy between him and his master,
+and Cromwell grew in Wolsey's favour until his fall. His wife had died
+in 1527 or 1528, and in July 1529 he made his will, in which one of the
+chief beneficiaries was his nephew, Richard Williams, alias Cromwell,
+the great-grandfather of the protector.
+
+Wolsey's disgrace reduced Cromwell to such despair that Cavendish once
+found him in tears and at his prayers "which had been a strange sight in
+him afore." Many of the cardinal's servants had been taken over by the
+king, but Cromwell had made himself particularly obnoxious. However, he
+rode to court from Esher to "make or mar," as he himself expressed it,
+and offered his services to Norfolk. Possibly he had already paved the
+way by the pensions and grants which he induced Wolsey to make through
+him, out of the lands and revenues of his bishoprics and abbeys, to
+nobles and courtiers who were hard pressed to keep up the lavish style
+of Henry's court. Cromwell could be most useful to the government in
+parliament, and the government, represented by Norfolk, undertook to use
+its influence in procuring him a seat, on the natural understanding that
+Cromwell should do his best to further government business in the House
+of Commons. This was on the 2nd of November 1529; the elections had been
+made, and parliament was to meet on the morrow. A seat was, however,
+found or made for Cromwell at Taunton. He signalized himself by a
+powerful speech in opposition to the bill of attainder against Wolsey
+which had already passed the Lords. The bill was thrown out, possibly
+with Henry's connivance, though no theory has yet explained its curious
+history so completely as the statement of Cavendish and other
+contemporaries, that its rejection was due to the arguments of Cromwell.
+Doubtless he championed his fallen chief not so much for virtue's sake
+as for the impression it would make on others. He did not feel called
+upon to accompany Wolsey on his exile from the court.
+
+Cromwell had now, according to Cardinal Pole, whose story has been too
+readily accepted, been converted into an "emissary of Satan" by the
+study of Machiavelli's _Prince_. In the one interview which Pole had
+with Cromwell, the latter, so Pole wrote ten years later in 1539,
+recommended him to read a new Italian book on politics, which Pole says
+he afterwards discovered was Machiavelli's _Prince_. But this discovery
+was not made for some years: the _Prince_ was not published until 1532,
+three years after the conversation; there is evidence that Cromwell was
+not acquainted with it until 1537 or 1539, and there is nothing in the
+_Prince_ bearing on the precise point under discussion by Pole and
+Cromwell. On the other hand, the point is discussed in Castiglione's _Il
+Cortegiano_ which had just been published in 1528, and of which Cromwell
+promised to lend Bonner a copy in 1530. The _Cortegiano_ is the
+antithesis of the _Prince_; and there is little doubt that Pole's
+account is the offspring of an imagination heated by his own perusal of
+the Prince in 1538, and by Cromwell's ruin of the Pole family at the
+same time; until then he had failed to see in Cromwell the Machiavellian
+"emissary of Satan."
+
+Equally fanciful is Pole's ascription of the whole responsibility for
+the Reformation to Cromwell's suggestion. It was impossible for Pole to
+realize the substantial causes of that perfectly natural development,
+and it was his cue to represent Henry as having acted at the diabolic
+suggestion of Satan's emissary. In reality the whole programme, the
+destruction of the liberties and confiscation of the wealth of the
+church by parliamentary agency, had been indicated before Cromwell had
+spoken to Henry. The use of Praemunire had been applied to Wolsey;
+laymen had supplanted ecclesiastics in the chief offices of state; the
+plan of getting a divorce without papal intervention had been the
+original idea, which Wolsey had induced the king to abandon, and it had
+been revived by Cranmer's suggestion about the universities. The root
+idea of the supreme authority of the king had been asserted in Tyndale's
+_Obedience of a Christian Man_ published in 1528, which Anne Boleyn
+herself had brought to Henry's notice: "this," he said, "is a book for
+me and all kings to read," and Campeggio had felt compelled to warn him
+against these notions, of which Pole imagines that he had never heard
+until they were put into his head by Cromwell late in 1530. In the same
+way Cromwell's influence over the government from 1529-1533 has been
+grossly exaggerated. It was not till 1531 that he was admitted to the
+privy council nor till 1534 that he was made secretary, though he had
+been made master of the Jewel-House, clerk of the Hanaper and master of
+the Wards in 1532, and chancellor of the exchequer (then a minor office)
+in 1533. It is not till 1533 that his name is as much as mentioned in
+the correspondence of any foreign ambassador resident in London. This
+obscurity has been attributed to deliberate suppression: but no secrecy
+was made about Cranmer's suggestion, and it was not Henry's habit to
+assume a responsibility which he could devolve upon others. It is said
+that Cromwell's life would not have been safe, had he been known as the
+author of this policy; but that is not a consideration which would have
+appealed to Henry, and he was just as able to protect his minister in
+1530 as he was in 1536. Cromwell, in fact, was not the author of that
+policy, but he was the most efficient instrument in its execution.
+
+He was Henry's parliamentary agent, but even in this capacity his power
+has been overrated, and he is supposed to have invented those
+parliamentary complaints against the clergy, which were transmuted into
+the legislation of 1532. But the complaints were old enough; many of
+them had been heard in parliament nearly twenty years before, and there
+is ample evidence to show that the petition against the clergy
+represents the "infinite clamours" of the Commons against the Church,
+which the House itself resolved should be "put in writing and delivered
+to the king." The actual drafting of the statute, as of all the
+Reformation Acts between 1532 and 1539, was largely Cromwell's work; and
+the success with which parliament was managed during this period was
+also due to him. It was not an easy task, for the House of Commons more
+than once rejected government measures, and members were heard to
+threaten Henry VIII. with the fate of Richard III.; they even complained
+of Cromwell's reporting their proceedings to the king. That was his
+business rather than conveying imaginary royal orders to the House.
+"They be contented," he wrote in one of these reports, "that deed and
+writing shall be treason," but words were only to be misprision: they
+refused to include an heir's rebellion or disobedience in the bill "as
+rebellion is already treason, and disobedience is no cause of forfeiture
+of inheritance." There was, of course, room for manipulation, which
+Cromwell extended to parliamentary elections; but parliamentary opinion
+was a force of which he had to take account, and not a negligible
+quantity.
+
+From the date of his appointment as secretary in 1534, Cromwell's
+biography belongs to the history of England, but it is necessary to
+define his personal attitude to the revolution in which he was the
+king's most conspicuous agent. He was included by Foxe in his _Book of
+Martyrs_ to the Protestant faith: more recent historians regard him as a
+sacrilegious ruffian. Now, there were two cardinal principles in the
+Protestantism of the 16th century--the supremacy of the temporal
+sovereign over the church in matters of government, and the supremacy of
+the Scriptures over the Church in matters of faith. There is no room for
+doubt as to the sincerity of Cromwell's belief in the first of these two
+articles: he paid at his own expense for an English translation of
+Marsiglio of Padua's _Defensor Pacis_, the classic medieval advocate of
+that doctrine; he had a scheme for governing England by means of
+administrative councils nominated by the king to the detriment of
+parliament; and he urged upon Henry the adoption of the maxim of the
+Roman civil law--_quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem_. He wanted,
+in his own words, "one body politic" and no rival to the king's
+authority; and he set the divine right of kings against the divine right
+of the papacy. There is more doubt about the sincerity of Cromwell's
+attachment to the second article; it is true that he set up a Bible in
+every parish church, and regarded them as invaluable; and the
+correspondents who unbosom themselves to him are all of a Protestant way
+of thinking. But Protestantism was the greatest support of absolute
+monarchy. Hence its value in Cromwell's eyes. Of religious conviction
+there is in him little trace, and still less of the religious
+temperament. He was a polished representative of the callous, secular
+middle class of that most irreligious age. Sentiment found no place, and
+feeling little, in his composition; he used the axe with as little
+passion as the surgeon does the knife, and he operated on some of the
+best and noblest in the land. He saw that it was wiser to proscribe a
+few great opponents than to fall on humbler prey; but he set law above
+justice, and law to him was simply the will of the state.
+
+In 1534 Cromwell was appointed master of the Rolls, and in 1535
+chancellor of Cambridge University and visitor-general of the
+monasteries. The policy of the Dissolution has been theoretically
+denounced, but practically approved in every civilized state, Catholic
+as well as Protestant. Every one has found it necessary, sooner or
+later, to curtail or to destroy its monastic foundations; only those
+which delayed the task longest have generally lagged farthest behind in
+national progress. The need for reform was admitted by a committee of
+cardinals appointed by Paul III. in 1535, and it had been begun by
+Wolsey. Cromwell was not affected by the iniquities of the monks except
+as arguments for the confiscation of their property. He had boasted that
+he would make Henry VIII. the richest prince in Christendom; and the
+monasteries, with their direct dependence on the pope and their
+cosmopolitan organization, were obstacles to that absolute authority of
+the national state which was Cromwell's ideal. He had learnt how to
+visit monasteries under Wolsey, and the visitation of 1535 was carried
+out with ruthless efficiency. During the storm which followed, Henry
+took the management of affairs into his own hands, but Cromwell was
+rewarded in July 1536 by being knighted, created lord privy seal, Baron
+Cromwell, and vicar-general and viceregent of the king in "Spirituals."
+
+In this last offensive capacity he sent a lay deputy to preside in
+Convocation, taking precedence of the bishops and archbishops, and
+issued his famous Injunctions of 1536 and 1538; a Bible was to be
+provided in every church; the _Paternoster_, Creed and Ten Commandments
+were to be recited by the incumbent in English; he was to preach at
+least once a quarter, and to start a register of births, marriages and
+deaths. During these years the outlook abroad grew threatening because
+of the alliance, under papal guarantee, between Charles V. and Francis
+I.; and Cromwell sought to counterbalance it by a political and
+theological union between England and the Lutheran princes of Germany.
+The theological part of the scheme broke down in 1538 when Henry
+categorically refused to concede the three reforms demanded by the
+Lutheran envoys. This was ominous, and the parliament of 1539, into
+which Cromwell tried to introduce a number of personal adherents, proved
+thoroughly reactionary. The temporal peers were unanimous in favour of
+the Six Articles, the bishops were divided, and the Commons for the most
+part agreed with the Lords. Cromwell, however, succeeded in suspending
+the execution of the act, and was allowed to proceed with his one
+independent essay in foreign policy. The friendship between Francis and
+Charles was apparently getting closer; Pole was exhorting them to a
+crusade against a king who was worse than the Turk; and anxious eyes
+searched the Channel in 1539 for signs of the coming Armada. Under these
+circumstances Henry acquiesced in Cromwell's negotiations for a marriage
+with Anne of Cleves. Anne, of course, was not a Lutheran, and the state
+religion in Cleves was at least as Catholic as Henry's own. But her
+sister was married to the elector of Saxony, and her brother had claims
+on Guelders, which Charles V. refused to recognize. Guelders was to the
+emperor's dominions in the Netherlands what Scotland was to England, and
+had often been used by France in the same way, and an alliance between
+England, Guelders, Cleves and the Schmalkaldic League would, Cromwell
+thought, make Charles's position in the Netherlands almost untenable.
+Anne herself was the weak point in the argument; Henry conceived an
+invincible repugnance to her from the first; he was restrained from an
+immediate breach with his new allies only by fear of Francis and
+Charles. In the spring of 1540 he was reassured on that score; no attack
+on him from that quarter was impending; there was a rift between the two
+Catholic sovereigns, and there was no real need for Anne and her German
+friends.
+
+From that moment Cromwell's fate was sealed; the Lords loathed him as an
+upstart even more than they had loathed Wolsey; he had no church to
+support him; Norfolk and Gardiner detested him from pique as well as on
+principle, and he had no friend in the council save Cranmer. As lay
+viceregent he had given umbrage to nearly every churchman, and he had
+put all his eggs in the one basket of royal favour, which had now failed
+him. Cromwell did not succumb without an effort, and a desperate
+struggle ensued in the council. In April the French ambassador wrote
+that he was tottering to his fall; a few days later he was created earl
+of Essex and lord great chamberlain, and two of his satellites were made
+secretaries to the king; he then despatched one bishop to the Tower, and
+threatened to send five others to join him. At last Henry struck as
+suddenly and remorselessly as a beast of prey; on the 10th of June
+Norfolk accused him of treason; the whole council joined in the attack,
+and Cromwell was sent to the Tower. A vast number of crimes was laid to
+his charge, but not submitted for trial. An act of attainder was passed
+against him without a dissentient voice, and after contributing his mite
+towards the divorce of Anne, he was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 28th
+of July, repudiating all heresy and declaring that he died in the
+Catholic faith.
+
+In estimating Cromwell's character it must be remembered that his father
+was a blackguard, and that he himself spent the formative years of his
+life in a vile school of morals. A ruffian he doubtless was, as he says,
+in his youth, and he was the last man to need the tuition of
+Machiavelli. Nevertheless he civilized himself to a certain extent; he
+was not a drunkard nor a forger like his father; from personal
+immorality he seems to have been singularly free; he was a kind master,
+and a stanch friend; and he possessed all the outward graces of the
+Renaissance period. He was not vindictive, and his atrocious acts were
+done in no private quarrel, but in what he conceived to be the interests
+of his master and the state. Where those interests were concerned he
+had no heart and no conscience and no religious faith; no man was more
+completely blighted by the 16th century worship of the state.
+
+  The authorities for the early life of Cromwell are the Wimbledon manor
+  rolls, used by Mr John Phillips of Putney in _The Antiquary_ (1880),
+  vol. ii., and the _Antiquarian Mag._ (1882), vol. ii.; Pole's
+  _Apologia_, i. 126; Bandello's _Novella_, xxxiv.; Chapuys' letter to
+  Granvelle, 21 Nov. 1535; and Foxe's _Acts and Mon._ From 1522 see
+  _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vols. iii.-xvi.; Cavendish's
+  _Life of Wolsey_; Hall's _Chron._; Wriothesley's _Chron._ These and
+  practically all other available sources have been utilized in R. B.
+  Merriman's _Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell_ (2 vols., 1902). For
+  Cromwell and Machiavelli see Paul van Dyke's _Renascence Portraits_
+  (1906), App.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS (c. 1840-   ), Boer general, was born about 1840 in
+the Transvaal and in 1881 took part in the first Boer War in the rank of
+commandant. He commanded in the siege of the British garrison at
+Potchefstroom, though he was unable to force their surrender until after
+the conclusion of the general armistice. The Boer leader was at this
+time accused of withholding knowledge of this armistice from the
+garrison (see POTCHEFSTROOM). He held various official positions in the
+years 1881-1899, and commanded the Boer force which compelled the
+surrender of the Jameson raiders at Doornkop (Jan. 2, 1896). In the war
+of 1899 Cronje was general commanding in the western theatre of war, and
+began the siege of Kimberley. He opposed the advance of the British
+division under Lord Methuen, and fought, though without success, three
+general actions at Belmont, Graspan and Modder River. At Magersfontein,
+early in December 1899, he completely repulsed a general attack made
+upon his position, and thereby checked for two months the northward
+advance of the British column. In the campaign of February 1900, Cronje
+opposed Lord Roberts's army on the Magersfontein battleground, but he
+was unable to prevent the relief of Kimberley; retreating westward, he
+was surrounded near Paardeberg, and, after a most obstinate resistance,
+was forced to surrender with the remnant of his army (Feb. 27, 1900). As
+a prisoner of war Cronje was sent to St Helena, where he remained until
+released after the conclusion of peace (see TRANSVAAL: _History_).
+
+
+
+
+CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM (1832-   ), English chemist and physicist, was born
+in London on the 17th of June 1832, and studied chemistry at the Royal
+College of Chemistry under A. W. von Hofmann, whose assistant he became
+in 1851. Three years later he was appointed an assistant in the
+meteorological department of the Radcliffe observatory, Oxford, and in
+1855 he obtained a chemical post at Chester. In 1861, while conducting a
+spectroscopic examination of the residue left in the manufacture of
+sulphuric acid, he observed a bright green line which had not been
+noticed previously, and by following up the indication thus given he
+succeeded in isolating a new element, thallium, a specimen of which was
+shown in public for the first time at the exhibition of 1862. During the
+next eight years he carried out a minute investigation of this metal and
+its properties. While determining its atomic weight, he thought it
+desirable, for the sake of accuracy, to weigh it in a vacuum, and even
+in these circumstances he found that the balance behaved in an anomalous
+manner, the metal appearing to be heavier when cold than when hot. This
+phenomenon he explained as a "repulsion from radiation," and he
+expressed his discovery in the statement that in a vessel exhausted of
+air a body tends to move away from another body hotter than itself.
+Utilizing this principle he constructed the radiometer (q.v.), which he
+was at first disposed to regard as a machine that directly transformed
+light into motion, but which was afterwards perceived to depend on
+thermal action. Thence he was led to his famous researches on the
+phenomena produced by the discharge of electricity through highly
+exhausted tubes (sometimes known as "Crookes' tubes" in consequence),
+and to the development of his theory of "radiant matter" or matter in a
+"fourth state," which led up to the modern electronic theory. In 1883 he
+began an inquiry into the nature and constitution of the rare earths. By
+repeated fractionations he was able to divide yttrium into distinct
+portions which gave different spectra when exposed in a high vacuum to
+the spark from an induction coil. This result he considered to be due,
+not to any removal of impurities, but to an actual splitting-up of the
+yttrium molecule into its constituents, and he ventured to draw the
+provisional conclusion that the so-called simple bodies are in reality
+compound molecules, at the same time suggesting that all the elements
+have been produced by a process of evolution from one primordial stuff
+or "protyle." A later result of this method of investigation was the
+discovery of a new member of the rare earths, monium or victorium, the
+spectrum of which is characterized by an isolated group of lines, only
+to be detected photographically, high up in the ultra-violet; the
+existence of this body was announced in his presidential address to the
+British Association at Bristol in 1898. In the same address he called
+attention to the conditions of the world's food supply, urging that with
+the low yield at present realized per acre the supply of wheat would
+within a comparatively short time cease to be equal to the demand caused
+by increasing population, and that since nitrogenous manures are
+essential for an increase in the yield, the hope of averting starvation,
+as regards those races for whom wheat is a staple food, depended on the
+ability of the chemist to find an artificial method for fixing the
+nitrogen of the air. An authority on precious stones, and especially the
+diamond, he succeeded in artificially making some minute specimens of
+the latter gem; and on the discovery of radium he was one of the first
+to take up the study of its properties, in particular inventing the
+spinthariscope, an instrument in which the effects of a trace of radium
+salt are manifested by the phosphorescence produced on a zinc sulphide
+screen. In addition to many other researches besides those here
+mentioned, he wrote or edited various books on chemistry and chemical
+technology, including _Select Methods of Chemical Analysis_, which went
+through a number of editions; and he also gave a certain amount of time
+to the investigation of psychic phenomena, endeavouring to effect some
+measure of correlation between them and ordinary physical laws. He was
+knighted in 1897, and received the Royal (1875), Davy (1888), and Copley
+(1904) medals of the Royal Society, besides filling the offices of
+president of the Chemical Society and of the Institution of Electrical
+Engineers. He married Ellen, daughter of W. Humphrey, of Darlington, and
+their golden wedding was celebrated in 1906.
+
+
+
+
+CROOKSTON, a city and the county-seat of Polk county, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
+on the Red Lake river in the Red River valley, about 300 m. N.W. of
+Minneapolis, and about 25 m. E. of Grand Forks, North Dakota. Pop.
+(1890) 3457; (1900) 5359; (1905, state census) 6794, 2049 being
+foreign-born, including 656 from Norway (2 Norwegian weeklies are
+published), 613 from Canada, 292 from Sweden; (1910 U.S. census) 7559.
+Crookston is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific
+railways. It has a Carnegie library, and the St Vincent and Bethesda
+hospitals, and is the seat of a Federal Land Office and of a state
+agricultural high school (with an experimental farm). Dams on the Red
+Lake river provide a fine water-power, and among the city's manufactures
+are lumber, leather, flour, farm implements, wagons and bricks. The city
+is situated in a fertile farming region, and is a market for grain,
+potatoes and other agricultural products, and lumber. Crookston was
+settled about 1872, was incorporated in 1879, received its first city
+charter in 1883, and adopted a new one in 1906. It was named in honour
+of William Crooks, an early settler.
+
+
+
+
+CROP (a word common in various forms, such as Germ. _Kropf_, to many
+Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of
+anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in
+Fr. as _croupe_, whence the English "crupper"; and in Ital. _groppo_,
+whence English "group"), the _ingluvies_, or pouched expansion of a
+bird's oesophagus, in which the food remains to undergo a preparatory
+process of digestion before being passed into the true stomach. From the
+meaning of "top" or "head," as applied to a plant, herb or flower, comes
+the common use of the word for the produce of cereals or other
+cultivated plants, the wheat-crop, the cotton-crop and the like, and
+generally, "the crops"; more particular expressions are the
+"white-crop," for such grain crops as barley or wheat, which whiten as
+they grow ripe and "green-crop" for such as roots or potatoes which do
+not, and also for those which are cut in a green state, like clover (see
+AGRICULTURE). Other uses, more or less technical, of the word are, in
+leather-dressing, for the whole untrimmed hide; in mining and geology,
+for the "outcrop" or appearance at the surface of a vein or stratum and,
+particularly in tin mining, of the best part of the ore produced after
+dressing. A "hunting-crop" is a short thick stock for a whip, with a
+small leather loop at one end, to which a thong may be attached. From
+the verb "to crop," i.e. to take off the top of anything, comes "crop"
+meaning a closely cut head of hair, found in the name "croppy" given to
+the Roundheads at the time of the Great Rebellion, to the Catholics in
+Ireland in 1688 by the Orangemen, probably with reference to the
+priests' tonsures, and to the Irish rebels of 1798, who cut their hair
+short in imitation of the French revolutionaries.
+
+
+
+
+CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS (1823-1900), American landscape painter, was
+born at Rossville, Staten Island, New York, on the 18th of February
+1823. After practising architecture for several years, he turned his
+attention to painting, studying in Italy from 1847 to 1850. In 1851 he
+was elected a member of the National Academy of Design. From 1857 to
+1863 he had a studio in London, and after his return to America enjoyed
+a considerable vogue, particularly as a painter of vivid autumnal
+effects, along the lines of the Hudson River school. He was one of the
+original members of the American Water Color Society. He continued
+actively in this profession until within a few days of his death, at
+Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, on the 22nd of June 1900. He made the
+architectural designs for the stations of the elevated railways in New
+York City.
+
+
+
+
+CROQUET (from Fr. _croc_, a crook, or crooked stick), a lawn game played
+with balls, mallets, hoops and two pegs. The game has been evolved,
+according to some writers, from the _paille-maille_ which was played in
+Languedoc at least as early as the 13th century. Under the name of _le
+jeu de la crosse_, or _la crosserie_, a similar game was at the same
+period immensely popular in Normandy, and especially at Avranches, but
+the object appears to have been to send the ball as far as possible by
+driving it with the mallet (see _Sports et jeux d'adresse_, 1904, p.
+203). Pall Mall, a fashionable game in England in the time of the
+Stuarts, was played with a ball and a mallet, and with two hoops or a
+hoop and a peg, the game being won by the player who ran the hoop or
+hoops and touched the peg under certain conditions in the fewest
+strokes. Croquet certainly has some resemblance to _paille-maille_,
+played with more hoops and more balls. It is said that the game was
+brought to Ireland from the south of France, and was first played on
+Lord Lonsdale's lawn in 1852, under the auspices of the eldest daughter
+of Sir Edmund Macnaghten. It came to England in 1856, or perhaps a few
+years earlier, and soon became popular.
+
+In 1868 the first all-comers' meeting was held at Moreton-in-the-Marsh.
+In the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed, the annual
+contest for the championship taking place on the grounds of this club at
+Wimbledon.[1] But after being for ten years or so the most popular game
+for the country house and garden party, croquet was in its turn
+practically ousted by lawn tennis, until, with improved implements and a
+more scientific form of play, it was revived about 1894-1895. In
+1896-1897 was formed the United All England Croquet Association, on the
+initiative of Mr Walter H. Peel. Under the name of the Croquet
+Association, with more than 2000 members and nearly a hundred affiliated
+clubs (1909), this body is the recognized ruling authority on croquet in
+the British Islands. Its headquarters are at the Roehampton Club, where
+the championship and champion cup competitions are held each year.
+
+_The Game and its Implements._--The requisites for croquet are a level
+grass lawn, six hoops, two posts or pegs, balls, mallets, and hoop-clips
+to mark the progress of the players. The usual game is played between
+two sides, each having two balls, the side consisting of two players in
+partnership, each playing one ball, or of one player playing both balls.
+The essential characteristic of croquet is the scientific combination
+between two balls in partnership against the other two. The balls are
+distinguished by being coloured blue, red, black and yellow, and are
+played in that order, blue and black always opposing the other two.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of croquet ground, showing setting of
+hoops and pegs, and order of play in accordance with the official Laws
+(1909) of the Croquet Association.]
+
+The ground for match play measures 35 yds. by 28 yds., and should be
+carefully marked out with white lines. In each corner a white spot is
+marked 1 yd. from each boundary. The hoops are made of round iron, not
+less than 1/2 in. and not more than 3/4 in. in diameter, and standing 12
+in. out of the ground. For match play they are 3(3/4) or 4 in. across,
+inside measurement. They are set up as in the accompanying diagram, the
+numbers and arrows indicating the order and direction in which they must
+be passed. Each hoop is run twice, and each peg struck once. The pegs
+may be struck from any direction.
+
+The pegs are 1(1/2) in. in diameter and when fixed stand 18 in. above
+the ground. The balls were formerly made of boxwood (earlier still of
+beechwood); composition balls are now in general use for tournaments.
+They must be 3-5/8 in. in diameter and 15 oz. to 16(1/2) oz. in weight.
+It will be seen that for match play the hoops are only 1/8 or at the
+most 3/8 in. wider than the diameter of the ball. The mallets may be of
+any size and weight, but the head must be made of wood (metal may be
+used only for weighting or strengthening purposes), and the ends must be
+parallel and similar. Only one mallet may be used in the course of a
+game, except in the case of _bona fide_ damage.
+
+The object of the player is to score the points of the game by striking
+his ball through each of the hoops and against each of the pegs in a
+fixed order; and the side wins which first succeeds in scoring all the
+points with both the balls of the side. A metal clip corresponding in
+colour with the player's ball is attached to the hoop or peg which that
+ball has next to make in the proper order, as a record of its progress
+in the game. No point is scored by passing through a hoop or hitting a
+peg except in the proper order. Thus, if a player has in any turn or
+turns driven his ball successively through hoops 1, 2, and 3, his clip
+is attached to hoop 4, and the next point to be made by him will be
+that hoop; and so on till all the points (hoops and pegs) have been
+scored. Each player starts in turn from any point in a "baulk" or area 3
+ft. wide along the left-hand half of the "southern" boundary, marked A
+on the diagram, of the lawn--till 1906, from a point 1 ft. in front of
+the middle of hoop 1. If he fails either to make a point or to
+"roquet"[2] (i.e. drive his ball against) another ball in play, his turn
+is at an end and the next player in order takes his turn in like manner.
+If he succeeds in scoring a point, he is entitled (as in billiards) to
+another stroke; he may then either attempt to score another point, or he
+may roquet a ball. Having roqueted a ball--provided he has not already
+roqueted the same ball in the same turn without having scored a point in
+the interval--he is entitled to two further strokes: first he must "take
+croquet," i.e. he places his own ball (which from the moment of the
+roquet is "dead" or "in hand") in contact with the roqueted ball on any
+side of it, and then strikes his own ball with his mallet, being bound
+to move or shake both balls perceptibly. If at the beginning of a turn
+the striker's ball is in contact with another ball, a "roquet" is held
+to have been made and "croquet" must be taken at once. After taking
+croquet the striker is entitled to another stroke, with which he may
+score another point, or roquet another ball not previously roqueted in
+the same turn since a point was scored, or he may play for safety. Thus,
+by skilful alternation of making points and roqueting balls, a "break"
+may be made in which point after point, and even all the points in the
+game (for the ball in play), may be scored in a single turn, in addition
+to 3 or 4 points for the partner ball. The chief skill in the game
+perhaps consists in playing the stroke called "taking croquet" (but see
+below on the "rush"). Expert players can drive both balls together from
+one end of the ground to the other, or send one to a distance while
+retaining the other, or place each with accuracy in different directions
+as desired, the player obtaining position for scoring a point or
+roqueting another ball according to the strategical requirements of his
+position. Care has, however, to be taken in playing the croquet-stroke
+that both balls are absolutely moved or perceptibly shaken, and that
+neither of them be driven over the boundary line, for in either event
+the player's next stroke is forfeited and his turn brought summarily to
+an end.
+
+There are three distinct methods of holding the mallet among good
+players. A comparatively small number still adhere to the once universal
+"side stroke," in which the player faces more or less at right angles to
+the line of aim, and strikes the ball very much like a golfer, with his
+hands close together on the mallet shaft. The majority use "front play,"
+in which the player faces in the direction in which he proposes to send
+the ball. The essential characteristic of this stroke is that eye, hand
+and ball should be in the same vertical plane, and the stroke is rather
+a swing--the "pendulum stroke"--than a hit. There are two ways of
+playing it. The majority of right-handed front players swing the mallet
+outside the right foot, holding it with the left hand as a pivot at the
+top of the shaft, while the right hand (about 12 in. lower down) applies
+the necessary force, though it must always be borne in mind that the
+heavy mallet-head, weighing from 3 to 3(1/2) lb. or even more, does the
+work by itself, and the nearer the stroke is to a simple swing, like
+that of a pendulum, the more likely it is to be accurate. Either the
+right or the left foot may be in advance, and should be roughly parallel
+to the line of aim, the player's weight being mainly on the rear foot.
+Most of the best Irish and some English players swing the mallet between
+their feet, using a grip like that of the side player or golfer, with
+the hands close together, and often interlocking. It is claimed that the
+loss of power caused by the hampered swing--usually compensated by an
+extra heavy mallet--is more than counterbalanced by the greater accuracy
+in aim. The beginner is well advised to try all these methods, and adopt
+that which comes most natural to him. Skirted players, of course, are
+unable to use the Irish stroke; and, as one of the most meritorious
+features of croquet is that it is the only out-of-door game in which men
+and women can compete on terms of real equality, this has been put
+forward as a reason for barring it, if it is actually an advantage.
+
+When a croquet ground is thoroughly smooth and level, the game gives
+scope for considerable skill; a great variety of strokes may be played
+with the mallet, each having its own well-defined effect on the
+behaviour of the balls, while a knowledge of angles is essential.
+Skilful tactics are at least as necessary as skilful execution to enable
+the player so to dispose the balls on the ground while making a break
+that they may most effectively assist him in scoring his points. The
+tactics of croquet are in this respect similar to those of billiards,
+that the player tries to make what progress he can during his own break,
+and to leave the balls "safe" at the end of it; he must also keep in
+mind the needs of the other ball of his side by leaving his own ball, or
+the last player's ball, or both, within easy roqueting distance or in
+useful positions, and that of the next player isolated. Good judgment is
+really more valuable than mechanical skill. Croquet is a game of
+combination, partners endeavouring to keep together for mutual help, and
+to keep their opponents apart. It is important always to leave the next
+player in such a position that he will be unable to score a point or
+roquet a ball; a break, however profitable, which does not end by doing
+this is often fatal. Formerly this might be done by leaving the next
+player's ball in such a position that either a hoop or a peg lay between
+it and all the other balls ("wiring"), or so near to a hoop or peg that
+there was no room for a proper stroke to be taken in the required
+direction. Under rule 36 of the _Laws of Croquet_ for 1906, a ball left
+in such a position, provided it were within a yard of the obstacle
+("close-wired"), might at the striker's option be moved one yard in any
+direction. This rule left to the striker whose ball was "wired" more
+than a yard from the hoop or peg ("distance-wired") the possibility of
+hitting his ball in such a way as to jump the obstacle. The jump-shot
+is, however, very bad for the lawn, and in 1907 a further provision was
+made by which the player whose ball is left "wired" from all the other
+balls by the stroke of an opponent may lift it and play from the "baulk"
+area. This practically means that "wiring" is impossible. The most that
+can be done is to "close-wire" the next player from two balls and leave
+him with a difficult shot at the third. If, however, the next player's
+ball has not been moved by the adversary, the adversary is entitled to
+wire the balls as best he can.
+
+The following is a specimen of elementary croquet tactics. If a player
+is going up to hoop 5 (diagram 1) in the course of a break, he should
+have contrived, if possible, to have a ball waiting for him at that hoop
+and another at hoop 6. With the aid of the first he runs hoop 5 and
+sends it on to the turning peg, stopping his ball in taking croquet
+close to the ball at 6. The corner hoops are the difficult ones, and
+after running hoop 6 the assisting ball is croqueted to 1 back, the peg
+being struck with the aid of the ball already there, which is again
+struck and driven to 2 back. If the player has been able to leave the
+fourth ball in the centre of the ground (known as a centre ball), he
+hits this after taking croquet, takes croquet, going off it to the ball
+at 1 back, and continues the break, leaving the centre ball where it
+will be useful for 3 back and 4 back. A first-class player should,
+however, be able to make a break with 3 balls almost as easily as with
+4. A useful device, especially in a losing game, is to get rid of the
+opponent's advanced ball if a "rover" (i.e. one which has run all the
+hoops and is for the winning peg) by croqueting it in such a way that it
+hits the peg and is thus out of the game. This can be done only by a
+ball which is itself also a rover. The opponent has then only one turn
+out of every three, and may be rendered practically helpless by leaving
+him always in a "safe" position. Inasmuch as a skilful player can cause
+an opponent's ball to pass through the last two or even three hoops in
+the course of his turn and then peg it out, it is considered prudent to
+leave unrun the last three hoops until the partner's ball is well
+advanced. There is a perennial agitation in the croquet world for a law
+prohibiting the player from pegging out his opponent's ball. Many good
+players also think it desirable that the four-ball break should be
+restricted or wholly forbidden, e.g. by barring the dead ball.
+
+To "rush" a ball is to roquet it hard so that it proceeds for a
+considerable distance in a desired direction. This stroke requires
+absolute accuracy and often considerable force, which must be applied in
+such a way as to drive the player's ball evenly; otherwise it is very
+liable, especially if the ground be not perfectly smooth, to jump the
+object ball. The rush stroke is absolutely essential to good play, as it
+enables croquet to be taken (e.g.) close to the required hoop, whereas
+to croquet into position from a great distance and also provide a ball
+for use after running the hoop is extremely difficult, often impossible.
+To "rush" successfully, the striker's ball must lie near the object
+ball, preferably, though not necessarily, in the line of the rush. By
+means of the rush it is possible to accomplish the complete round with
+the assistance of one ball only. To "cut" a ball is to hit it on the
+edge and cause it to move at some desired angle. "Rolling croquet" is
+made either by hitting near the top of the player's ball which gives it
+"follow," or by making the mallet so hit the ball as to keep up a
+sustained pressure. The first impact must, however, result in a
+distinctly audible single tap; if a prolonged rattle or a second tap is
+heard the stroke is foul. The passing stroke is merely an extension of
+this. Here the player's ball proceeds a greater distance than the
+croqueted ball, but in somewhat the same direction. The "stop stroke" is
+made by a short, sharp tap, the mallet being withdrawn immediately after
+contact; the player's ball only rolls a short distance, the other going
+much farther. The "jump stroke" is made by striking downwards on to the
+ball, which can thus be made to jump over another ball, or even a hoop.
+"Peeling" (a term derived from Walter H. Peel, a famous advocate of the
+policy) is the term applied to the device of putting a partner's or an
+opponent's ball through the hoops with a view to ultimately pegging it
+out.
+
+The laws of croquet, and even the arrangement of the hoops, have not
+attained complete uniformity wherever the game is played. Croquet
+grounds are not always of full size, and some degree of elasticity in
+the rules is perhaps necessary to meet local conditions. The laws by
+which matches for the championship and all tournaments are governed are
+issued annually by the Croquet Association; and though from time to time
+trifling amendments may be made, they have probably reached permanence
+in essentials.
+
+  See _The Encyclopaedia of Sport; The Complete Croquet Player_ (London,
+  1896); the latest _Laws of Croquet_, published annually by the Croquet
+  Association, and its official organ _The Croquet Gazette_. For the
+  principles of the game and its history in England, see C. D. Locock,
+  _Modern Croquet Tactics_ (London, 1907); A. Lillie, _Croquet up to
+  Date_ (London, 1900).
+
+_Croquet in the United States: Roque._--Croquet was brought to America
+from England soon after its introduction into that country, and enjoyed
+a wide popularity as a game for boys and girls before the Civil War (see
+Miss Alcott's _Little Women_, cap. 12). American croquet is quite
+distinct from the modern English game. It is played on a lawn 60 ft. by
+30, and preserves the old-fashioned English arrangement of ten hoops,
+including a central "cage" of two hoops. The balls, coloured red, white,
+blue and black, are 3(1/4) in. in diameter, and the hoops are from
+3(1/2) to 4 in. wide, according to the skill of the players. This game,
+however, is not taken seriously in the United States; the _Official
+Croquet Guide_ of Mr Charles Jacobus emphasizes "the ease with which the
+game can be established," since almost every country home has a grass
+plot, and "no elaboration is needed." The scientific game of croquet in
+the United States is known as "roque." Under this title a still greater
+departure from the English game has been elaborated on quite independent
+lines from those of the English Croquet Association since 1882, in which
+year the National Roque Association was formed. Roque also suffered from
+the popularity of lawn tennis, but since 1897 it has developed almost as
+fast as croquet in England. A great national championship tournament is
+held in Norwich, Conn., every August, and the game--which is fully as
+scientific as modern English croquet--has numerous devotees, especially
+in New England.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of roque ground, showing setting of
+arches and stakes and order of play, in accordance with the official
+laws (1906) of the National Roque Association.]
+
+Roque is played, not on grass, but on a prepared surface something like
+a cinder tennis-court. The standard ground, as adopted by the National
+Association in 1903, is hexagonal in shape, with ten arches (hoops) and
+two stakes (pegs) as shown in diagram 2. The length is 60 ft., width 30,
+and the "corner pieces" are 6 ft. long. An essential feature of the
+ground is that it is surrounded by a raised wooden border, often lined
+with india-rubber to facilitate the rebound of the ball, and it is
+permissible to play a "carom" (or rebounding shot) off this border; a
+skilful player can often thus hit a ball which is wired to a direct
+shot. A boundary line is marked 28 in. inside the border, on which a
+ball coming to rest outside it must be replaced. The hoops are run in
+the order marked on the diagram, so that the game consists of 36 points.
+Red and white are always partners against blue and black, and the
+essential features and tactics of the game are, _mutatis mutandis_, the
+same as in modern English croquet--i.e. the skilful player goes always
+for a break and utilizes one or both of the opponent's balls in making
+it. The balls are 3(1/4) in. in diameter, of hard rubber or composition,
+and the arches are 3-3/8 or 3(1/2) in. wide for first- and second-class
+players respectively; they are made of steel 1/2 in. in diameter and
+stand about 8 in. out of the ground. The stakes are 1 in. in diameter
+and only 1(1/2) in. above the ground. The mallets are much shorter than
+those commonly employed in England, the majority of players using only
+one hand, though the two-handed "pendulum stroke," played between the
+legs, finds an increasingly large number of adherents, on account of the
+greater accuracy which it gives. The "jump shot" is a necessary part of
+the player's equipment, as dead wiring is allowed; it is supplemented by
+the carom off the border or off a stake or arch, and roque players
+justly claim that their game is more like billiards than any other
+out-of-door game.
+
+The game of roque is opened by scoring (stringing) for lead from an
+imaginary line through the middle wicket (cage), the player whose ball
+rests nearest the southern boundary line having the choice of lead and
+balls. The balls are then placed on the four corner spots marked A in
+diagram, partner balls being diagonally opposite one another, and the
+starting ball having the choice of either of the upper corners. The
+leader, say red, usually begins by shooting at white; if he misses, a
+carom off the border will leave him somewhere near his partner, blue.
+White then shoots at red or blue, with probably a similar result. Blue
+is then "in," with a certain roquet and the choice of laying for red or
+going for an immediate break himself. The general strategy of the game
+corresponds to that of croquet, the most important differences being
+that "pegging out" is not allowed, and that on the small ground with its
+ten arches and two stakes the three-ball break is usually adopted, the
+next player or "danger ball" being wired at the earliest opportunity.
+
+  See Spalding's _Official Roque Guide_, edited by Mr Charles Jacobus
+  (New York, 1906).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This was largely the work of W. T. Whitmore-Jones (1831-1872),
+    generally known as W. Jones Whitmore, who subsequently formed the
+    short-lived National Croquet Club, and was largely responsible for
+    the first codification of the laws.
+
+  [2] The words "roquet" and "croquet" are pronounced as in French,
+    with the t mute.
+
+
+
+
+CRORE (Hindustani _karor_), an Anglo-Indian term for a hundred _lakhs_
+or ten million. It is in common use for statistics of trade and
+especially coinage. In the days when the rupee was worth its face value
+of 2s., a crore of rupees was exactly worth a million sterling, but now
+that the rupee is fixed at 15 to the L1, a crore is only worth L666,666.
+
+
+
+
+CROSBY, HOWARD (1826-1891), American preacher and teacher,
+great-grandson of Judge Joseph Crosby of Massachusetts and of Gen.
+William Floyd of New York, a signer of the Declaration of Independence,
+was born in New York City on the 27th of February 1826. He graduated in
+1844 from the University of the City of New York (now New York
+University); became professor of Greek there in 1851, and in 1859 became
+professor of Greek in Rutgers College, New Brunswick, New Jersey, where
+two years later he was ordained pastor of the first Presbyterian church.
+From 1870 to 1881 he was chancellor of the University of the City of New
+York; from 1872 to 1881 was one of the American revisers of the English
+version of the New Testament; and in 1873 was moderator of the general
+assembly of the Presbyterian Church. He took a prominent part in
+politics, urged excise reform, opposed "total abstinence," was one of
+the founders and was the first president of the New York Society for the
+Prevention of Crime, and pleaded for better management of Indian affairs
+and for international copyright. Among his publications are _The Lands
+of the Moslem_ (1851), _Bible Companion_ (1870), _Jesus: His Life and
+Works_ (1871), _True Temperance Reform_ (1879), _True Humanity of
+Christ_ (1880), and commentaries on the book of Joshua (1875), Nehemiah
+(1877) and the New Testament (1885).
+
+His son, ERNEST HOWARD CROSBY (1856-1907), was a social reformer, and
+was born in New York City on the 4th of November 1856. He graduated at
+the University of the City of New York in 1876 and at Columbia Law
+School in 1878; served in the New York Assembly in 1887-1889, securing
+the passage of a high-licence bill; in 1889-1894 was a judge of the
+Mixed Tribunal at Alexandria, Egypt, resigning upon coming under the
+influence of Tolstoy; and died in New York City on the 3rd of January
+1907. He was the first president (1894) of the Social Reform Club of New
+York City, and was president in 1900-1905 of the New York
+Anti-Imperialist League; was a leader in settlement work and in
+opposition to child labour, and was a disciple of Tolstoy as to
+universal peace and non-resistance, and of Henry George in his belief in
+the "single tax" principle. His writings, many of which are in the
+manner of Walt Whitman, comprise _Plain Talk in Psalm and Parable_
+(1899), _Swords and Ploughshares_ (1902), and _Broadcast_ (1905), all in
+verse; an anti-military novel, _Captain Jinks, Hero_ (1902); and essays
+on Tolstoy (1904 and 1905) and on Garrison (1905).
+
+
+
+
+CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION (Lat. _crux_, _crucis_[1]). The meaning
+ordinarily attached to the word "cross" is that of a figure composed of
+two or more lines which intersect, or touch each other transversely.
+Thus, two pieces of wood, or other material, so placed in juxtaposition
+to one another, are understood to form a cross. It should be noted,
+however, that Lipsius and other writers speak of the single upright
+stake to which criminals were bound as a cross, and to such a stake the
+name of _crux simplex_ has been applied. The usual conception, however,
+of a cross is that of a compound figure.
+
+Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient times. It is
+known to have been used by nations such as those of Assyria, Egypt,
+Persia, by the Greeks, Carthaginians, Macedonians, and from very early
+times by the Romans. It has been thought, too, that crucifixion was also
+used by the Jews themselves, and that there is an allusion to it (Deut.
+xxi. 22, 23) as a punishment to be inflicted.
+
+Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment of
+crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first of all usually
+stripped naked, and bound to an upright stake, where he was so cruelly
+scourged with an implement, formed of strips of leather having pieces of
+iron, or some other hard material, at their ends, that not merely was
+the flesh often stripped from the bones, but even the entrails partly
+protruded, and the anatomy of the body was disclosed. In this pitiable
+state he was reclothed, and, if able to do so, was made to drag the
+stake to the place of execution, where he was either fastened to it, or
+impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, where a single stake
+was employed, we have the _crux simplex_ of Lipsius. The other method is
+that with which we are more familiar, and which is described in the New
+Testament account of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. In such a case,
+after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a
+gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of
+execution, and he was then fastened to it by iron nails driven through
+the outstretched arms and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as
+the cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position. In
+other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder, and was then
+fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness, or state of collapse,
+from which the criminal must often have suffered, had much to do in
+deciding this. It is not quite clear which of these two plans was
+followed in the case of the crucifixion of Christ, but the more general
+opinion has been that He was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that
+it was then lifted into position. The contrary opinion, has, however,
+prevailed to some extent, and there are representations of the
+crucifixion which depict Him as mounting a ladder placed against the
+cross. Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious
+desire, on the part of their authors, to emphasize the voluntary
+offering of Himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as being
+intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may be noted,
+however, that among the "Emblems of the Passion," as they are called,
+and which were very favourite devices in the middle ages, the ladder is
+not infrequently found in conjunction with the crown of thorns, nails,
+spear, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+From its simplicity of form, the cross has been used both as a religious
+symbol and as an ornament, from the dawn of man's civilization. Various
+objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have
+been found, marked with crosses of different designs, in almost every
+part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded
+numberless examples, while numerous instances, dating from the later
+Stone Age to Christian times, have been found in nearly every part of
+Europe. The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian
+times, and among non-Christian peoples, may probably be regarded as
+almost universal, and in very many cases it was connected with some form
+of nature worship. Two of the forms of the pre-Christian cross which are
+perhaps most frequently met with are the tau cross, so named from its
+resemblance to the Greek capital letter [Tau], and the _svastika_ or
+_fylfot_[2] [svastika], also called "_Gammadion_" owing to its form
+being that of four Greek capital letters _gamma_ [Gamma] placed
+together. The tau cross is a common Egyptian device, and is indeed
+often called the Egyptian cross. The _svastika_ has a very wide range of
+distribution, and is found on all kinds of objects. It was used as a
+religious emblem in India and China at least ten centuries before the
+Christian era, and is met with on Buddhist coins and inscriptions from
+various parts of India. A fine sepulchral urn found at Shropham in
+Norfolk, and now in the British Museum, has three bands of cruciform
+ornaments round it. The two uppermost of these are plain circles, each
+of which contains a plain cross; the lowest band is formed of a series
+of squares, in each of which is a _svastika_. In the Vatican Museum
+there is an Etruscan fibula of gold which is marked with the _svastika_,
+but it is a device of such common occurrence on objects of pre-Christian
+origin, that it is hardly necessary to specify individual instances. The
+cross, as a device in different forms, and often enclosed in a circle,
+is of frequent occurrence on coins and medals of pre-Christian date in
+France and elsewhere. Indeed, objects marked with pre-Christian crosses
+are to be seen in every important museum.
+
+The death of Christ on a cross necessarily conferred a new significance
+on the figure, which had hitherto been associated with a conception of
+religion not merely non-Christian, but in its essence often directly
+opposed to it. The Christians of early times were wont to trace, in
+things around them, hidden prophetical allusions to the truth of their
+faith, and such a testimony they seem to have readily recognized in the
+use of the cross as a religious emblem by those whose employment of it
+betokened a belief most repugnant to their own. The adoption by them of
+such forms, for example, as the tau cross and the _svastika_ or _fylfot_
+was no doubt influenced by the idea of the occult Christian significance
+which they thought they recognized in those forms, and which they could
+use with a special meaning among themselves, without at the same time
+arousing the ill-feeling or shocking the sentiment of those among whom
+they lived.
+
+It was not till the time of Constantine that the cross was publicly used
+as the symbol of the Christian religion. Till then its employment had
+been restricted, and private among the Christians themselves. Under
+Constantine it became the acknowledged symbol of Christianity, in the
+same way in which, long afterwards, the crescent was adopted as the
+symbol of the Mahommedan religion. Constantine's action was no doubt
+influenced by the vision which he believed he saw of the cross in the
+sky with the accompanying words [Greek: en touto nika], as well as by
+the story of the discovery of the true cross by his mother St Helena in
+the year 326. The legend is that, when visiting the holy places in
+Palestine, St Helena was guided to the site of the crucifixion by an
+aged Jew who had inherited traditional knowledge as to its position.
+After the ground had been dug to a considerable depth, three crosses
+were found, as well as the superscription placed over the Saviour's head
+on the cross, and the nails with which he had been crucified. The cross
+of the Lord was distinguished from the other two by the working of a
+miracle on a crippled woman who was stretched upon it. This finding, or
+"invention," of the holy cross by St Helena is commemorated by a
+festival on the 3rd of May, called the "Invention of the Holy Cross."
+The legend was widely accepted as true, and is related by writers such
+as St Ambrose, Rufinus, Sulpicius Severus and others, but it is
+discounted by the existence of an older legend, according to which the
+true cross was found in the reign of Tiberius, and while St James the
+Great was bishop of Jerusalem, by Protonice, the wife of Claudius.
+
+In recent times an attempt has been made to reconcile the two accounts,
+by attributing to St Helena the rediscovery of the true cross,
+originally found by Protonice, and which had been buried again on the
+spot. A change was made in 1895 in the _Diario Romano_, when the word
+_Ritrovamento_ was substituted for that of _Invenzione_, in the name of
+the festival of the 3rd of May. After St Helena's discovery a church was
+built upon the site, and in it she placed the greater portion of the
+cross. The remaining portion she conveyed to Byzantium, and thence
+Constantine sent a piece to Rome, where it is said to be still preserved
+in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme, which was built to receive so
+precious a relic. It is exposed for the veneration of the faithful on
+Good Friday, 3rd of May, and the third Sunday in Lent, each year.
+
+Another festival of the holy cross is kept on the 14th of September, and
+is known as the "Exaltation of the Holy Cross." It seems to have
+originated with the dedication, in the year 335, of the churches built
+on the sites of the crucifixion and the holy sepulchre. The observance
+of this festival passed from Jerusalem to Constantinople, and thence to
+Rome, where it appears to have been introduced in the 7th century. By
+some it is thought that the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross had its
+origin in Constantine's vision of the cross in the sky in the year 317,
+but whether it originated then, or, as is more generally supposed, at
+the dedication of the churches at Jerusalem, there is no doubt that it
+was afterwards kept with much greater solemnity in consequence of the
+recovery of the portion of the cross St Helena had left at Jerusalem,
+which had been taken away in the Persian victory, and was restored to
+Jerusalem by Heraclitus in 627. Pope Clement VIII. (1592-1604) raised
+the festival of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross to the dignity,
+liturgically known as that of a Greater Double.
+
+Before leaving the story of St Helena and the cross, it may be
+convenient to allude briefly to the superscription placed over the
+Saviour's head, and the nails, which it is said that she found with the
+cross. The earlier tradition as to the superscription is obscure, but it
+would seem that it ought to be considered part of the relic which
+Constantine sent to Rome. By some means it was entirely lost sight of
+until the year 1492, when it is said that it was accidentally found in a
+vault in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme at Rome. Pope Alexander
+III. published a bull certifying to the truth of this rediscovery of the
+relic, and authenticated its character.
+
+As regards the nails, a question has arisen whether there were three or
+four. In the earliest pictures of the Crucifixion the feet are shown as
+separately nailed to the cross, but at a later period they are crossed,
+and a single nail fixes them. In the former case there would be four
+nails, and in the latter only three. Four is the number generally
+accepted, and it is said that one was cast by St Helena into the sea,
+during a storm, in order to subdue the waves, another is said (but the
+legend cannot be traced far back) to have been beaten out into the iron
+circlet of the crown of Lombardy, while the remaining two are reputed to
+be preserved among the relics at Milan and Trier respectively.
+
+The employment of the cross as the Christian symbol has been so manifold
+in its variety and application, and the different forms to which the
+figure has been adapted and elaborated are so complex, that it is only
+possible to deal with the outline of the subject.
+
+We learn from Tertullian and other early Christian writers of the
+constant use which the Christians of those days made of the sign of the
+cross. Tertullian (_De Cor. Mil._ cap. iii.) says: "At each journey and
+progress, at each coming in and going out, at the putting on of shoes,
+at the bath, at meals, at the kindling of lights, at bedtime, at sitting
+down, whatsoever occupation engages us, we mark the brow with the sign
+of the cross." With so frequent an employment of the sign of the cross
+in their domestic life, it would be strange if we did not find that it
+was very frequently used in the public worship of the church. The
+earliest liturgical forms are comparatively late, and are without
+rubrics, but the allusions by different writers in early times to the
+ceremonial use of the sign of the cross in the public services are so
+numerous, and so much importance was attached to it, that we are left in
+no manner of doubt on the point. St Augustine, indeed, speaks of the
+sacraments as not duly ministered if the use of the sign of the cross
+were absent from their ministration (_Hom. cxviii. in S. Joan._). Of the
+later liturgical use of the sign of the cross there is little need to
+speak, as a reference to the service books of the Greek and Latin
+churches will plainly indicate the frequency of, and the importance
+attached to, its employment. Its occasional use is retained by the
+Lutherans, and in the Church of England it is authoritatively used at
+baptism, and at the "sacring" or anointing of the sovereign at the
+coronation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+Passing from the sign to the material figures of the cross, a very usual
+classification distinguishes three main forms: (1) the _crux immissa_,
+or _capitata_ [Latin cross] (fig. 3) known also as the Latin cross, or
+if each limb is of the same length, + (fig. 4) as the Greek cross; (2)
+the _crux decussata_, formed like the letter X, and (3) the _crux
+commissa_ or tau cross, already mentioned. It was on a crux immissa that
+Christ is believed to have been crucified. The _crux decussata_ is known
+as St Andrew's cross, from the tradition that St Andrew was put to death
+on a cross of that form. The _crux commissa_ is often called St
+Anthony's cross, probably only because it resembles the crutch with
+which the great hermit is generally depicted.
+
+The cross in one form or other appears, appropriately, on the flags and
+ensigns of many Christian countries. The English cross of St George is a
+plain red cross on a white ground, the Scottish cross of St Andrew is a
+plain diagonal white cross on a blue ground, and the Irish cross of St
+Patrick is a plain diagonal red cross on a white ground. These three
+crosses are combined in the Union Jack (see FLAG).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+The cross has also been adopted by many orders of knighthood. Perhaps
+the best known of these is the cross of the knights of Malta. It is a
+white cross of eight points on a black ground (fig. 5) and is the proper
+Maltese cross, a name which is often wrongly applied to the cross
+_patee_ (fig. 6). The knights of the Garter use the cross of St George,
+as do those of the order of St Michael and St George, the knights of the
+Thistle use St Andrew's cross, and those of St Patrick the cross of St
+Patrick charged with a shamrock leaf. The cross of the Danish order of
+the Dannebrog (fig. 7) affords a good example of this use of the cross.
+It is in form a white cross patee, superimposed upon a red one of the
+same form, and is surmounted by the royal cipher and crown, and has upon
+its surface the royal cipher repeated, and the legend, or motto, "_Gud
+og Kongen_" = "God and the King." (For crosses of monastic orders see
+COSTUME.)
+
+Akin to the crosses of knightly orders are those which figure as charges
+on coats of arms. The science of heraldry evolved a wonderful variety of
+cross-forms during the period it held sway in the middle ages. The
+different forms of cross used in heraldry are, in fact, so numerous that
+it is only the larger works on that subject which attempt to record them
+all. For such crosses see HERALDRY.
+
+In the middle ages the cross form, in one way or another, was
+predominant everywhere, and was introduced whenever opportunity offered
+itself for doing so. The larger churches were planned on its outline, so
+that the ridge line of their roofs proclaimed it far and wide. This was
+more particularly followed in the north of Europe, but when it was first
+introduced is not quite certain. All the ancient cathedral churches of
+England and Wales are cruciform in plan, except Llandaff.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Cross of the Dannebrog.]
+
+The artistic skill and ingenuity of the medieval designer has produced
+cross designs of endless variety, and of singular elegance and beauty.
+Some of the most beautiful of these designs are the gable crosses of the
+old churches. Fig. 8 shows the west gable cross of Washburn church,
+Worcestershire; fig. 9 that of the nave of Castle Acre church, Norfolk;
+and fig. 10 the east gable cross of Hethersett church in that county.
+They may be taken as good examples of a type of cross which is often of
+great beauty, but it is overlooked, owing to its bad position for
+observation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+Other architectural crosses, of great beauty of design, are those which
+occur on the grave slabs of the middle ages. Instances of a plainer type
+occur in Saxon times, but it was not till after the 11th century that
+they were fashioned after the intricate and beautiful designs with which
+our ancient churches are, as a rule, so plentifully supplied. Sometimes
+these crosses are incised in the slab, and almost as often they are
+executed in low relief. The long shaft of the cross is most commonly
+plain, but there are a very large number of instances in which this is
+not so, and in which branches, with leaf designs, are thrown out at
+intervals the entire length of the shaft. In some cases the shaft rises
+from a series of steps at its base, and in such a case the name of a
+Calvary cross is applied to it. Fig. 11, from Stradsett church, Norfolk,
+and fig. 12 from Bosbury church, Herefordshire, are good examples of the
+designs at the head of sepulchral crosses. Often, by the side of the
+cross, an emblem or symbol is placed, denoting the calling in life of
+the person commemorated. Thus a sword is placed to indicate a knight or
+soldier, a chalice for a priest, and so forth; but it would be
+travelling beyond the scope of this article to enter into a discussion
+as to such symbols.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+Of upright standing crosses, the Irish and Iona types are well known,
+and their great artistic beauty and elaboration and excellence of
+sculpture are universally recognized. These crosses are sometimes spoken
+of as "Runic Crosses"; and the interlacing knotwork design with which
+many of them are ornamented is also at times spoken of as "Runic." This
+is an erroneous application of the word, and has arisen from the fact
+that some of these crosses bear inscriptions in Runic characters.
+Standing crosses, of different kinds, were commonly set up in every
+suitable place during the middle ages, as the mutilated bases and shafts
+still remaining readily testify. Such crosses were erected in the centre
+of the market place, in the churchyard, on the village green, or as
+boundary stones, or marks to guide the traveller. Some, like the Black
+Friars cross at Hereford, were preaching stations, others, like the
+beautiful Eleanor crosses at Northampton, Geddington and Waltham, were
+commemorative in character. Of these latter crosses, which marked the
+places where the funeral procession of Queen Eleanor halted, there were
+originally ten or more, erected between 1241 and 1294. They were placed
+at Lincoln, Northampton, Stony Stratford, Woburn, Dunstable, St Albans,
+Waltham and London (Cheapside and Charing Cross). The cross at
+Geddington differs in outline from those at Northampton and Waltham, and
+it is not recorded on the roll of accounts for the nine others, all of
+which are mentioned, but there is no real doubt that it commemorates the
+resting of the coffin of the queen in Geddington church on its way from
+Harby. These crosses, like the Black Friars cross at Hereford, are
+elaborate architectural erections, and very similar to them in this
+respect are the beautiful market crosses at Winchester, Chichester,
+Salisbury, Devizes, Shepton Mallet, Leighton Buzzard, &c. Of churchyard
+crosses, as distinguished from memorial crosses in churchyards, one only
+is believed to have escaped in a perfect condition the ravages of time,
+and the fanaticism of the past. It stands in the churchyard of Somerby,
+in Lincolnshire (Tennyson's birthplace), and is a tall shaft surmounted
+by a pedimented tabernacle, on one side of which is the crucifixion, and
+on the other the figure of the Virgin and Child. Churchyard crosses may
+have been used as occasional preaching stations, for reading the Gospel
+in the Palm Sunday procession, and generally for public proclamations,
+made usually at the conclusion of the chief Sunday morning service, much
+in the same way that market crosses were used on market days as places
+for proclamations in the towns.
+
+Of the ecclesiastical use of the sign of the cross mention has already
+been made, and it is desirable to mention briefly one or two instances
+of the ecclesiastical use of the cross itself. From a fairly early
+period it has been the prerogative of an archbishop or metropolitan, to
+have a cross borne before him within the limits of his province. The
+question urged between the archbishops of Canterbury and York about the
+carrying of their crosses before them, in each other's province, was a
+fruitful source of controversy in the middle ages. The archiepiscopal
+cross must not be confused with the crozier or pastoral staff. The
+latter, which is formed with a crook at the end, is quite distinct, and
+is used by archbishops and bishops alike, who bear it with the left hand
+in processions, and when blessing the people. The archiepiscopal cross,
+on the contrary, is always borne before the archbishop, or during the
+vacancy of the archiepiscopal see before the guardian of the
+spiritualities _sede vacante_. The bishop of Dol in Brittany, of
+ordinary diocesan bishops, alone possessed the privilege of having a
+cross borne before him in his diocese. Good illustrations of the
+archiepiscopal cross occur on the monumental brasses of Archbishop
+Waldeby, of York (1397), at Westminster Abbey, and of Archbishop
+Cranley, of Dublin (1417) in New College chapel, Oxford.
+
+The custom of carrying a cross at the head of an ecclesiastical
+procession can be traced back to the end of the 4th century. The cross
+was originally taken from the altar, and raised on a pole, and so borne
+before the procession. Afterwards a separate cross was provided for
+processions, but in poor churches, where this was not the case, the
+altar cross continued to be used till quite a late period. A direction
+to this effect occurs as late as 1829, in the _Rituel_ published for the
+diocese of La Rochelle in that year. In England altar crosses were not
+very usual in the middle ages.
+
+As a personal ornament the cross came into common use, and was usually
+worn suspended by a chain from the neck. A cross of this kind, of very
+great interest and beauty, was found about 1690, on the breast of Queen
+Dagmar, the wife of Waldemar II., king of Denmark (d. 1213). It is of
+Byzantine design and workmanship, and is of enamelled gold (fig. 13
+shows both sides of it); on one side is the Crucifixion, and on the
+other side the half figure of our Lord in the centre, with the Virgin
+and St John the Evangelist on either side, and St Chrysostom and St
+Basil above and below. From the way in which such crosses were worn,
+hanging over the chest, they are called pectoral crosses. At the present
+day a pectoral cross forms part of the recognized insignia of a Roman
+Catholic bishop, and is worn by him over his robes, but this official
+use of the pectoral cross is not ancient, and no instance is known of it
+in England before the Reformation. The custom appears to have taken
+rise in the 16th century on the continent. It was not unusual to wear
+cruciform reliquaries, as objects of personal adornment, and such a
+reliquary was found on the body of St Cuthbert, when his tomb was opened
+in 1827, but it was placed under, and not over his episcopal vestments,
+and formed no part of his bishop's attire. The custom of wearing a
+pectoral cross over ecclesiastical robes has, curiously enough, been
+copied from the comparatively modern Roman Catholic usage by the
+Lutheran bishops and superintendents in Scandinavia and Prussia; and in
+Sweden the cross is now delivered to the new bishop, on his installation
+in office, by the archbishop of Upsala, together with the mitre and
+crozier. Within the last generation the use of a pectoral cross, worn
+over their robes as part of the insignia of the episcopal office, has
+been adopted by some bishops of the Church of England, but it has no
+ancient sanction or authority.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Dagmar Cross.]
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Mortillet, _Le Signe de la croix avant le Christianisme_
+  (Paris, 1866); Bingham, _Antiquities of the Christian Church_;
+  Lipsius, _De Cruce Christi_; Lady Eastlake, _History of our Lord_,
+  vol. ii.; Cutts, _Manual of Sepulchral Slabs and Crosses_; (Anon.)
+  _Handbook to Christian and Ecclesiastical Rome_, part ii. (London,
+  1897); Veldeuer, _History of the Holy Cross_ (reprint, 1863).
+       (T. M. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Derivatives of the Latin _crux_ appear in many forms in European
+    languages, cf. Ger. _Kreuz_, Fr. _croix_, It. _croce_, &c.; the
+    English form seems Norse in origin (O.N. _Krosse_, mod. _Kors_). The
+    O.E. name was _rod_, rood (q.v.).
+
+  [2] The acceptance of this word as the English equivalent for this
+    peculiar form of the cross rests only, according to the _New English
+    Dictionary_, on a MS. of about 1500 in the Lansdowne collection,
+    which gives details for the erection of a memorial stained-glass
+    window, "... the fylfot in the nedermost pane under ther I knele
+    ..."; in the sketch given with the instructions a cross occupies the
+    space indicated. It is a question, therefore, whether "fylfot" is a
+    name for any device suitable to "fill the foot" of any design, or the
+    name peculiar to this particular form of cross. The word is not, as
+    was formerly accepted, a corruption of the O. Eng. _feowerfete_,
+    four-footed.
+
+
+
+
+CROSSBILL (Fr. _Bec-croise_, Ger. _Kreuzschnabel_), the name given to a
+genus of birds, belonging to the family _Fringillidae_, or finches, from
+the unique peculiarity they possess among the whole class of having the
+horny sheaths of the bill crossing one another obliquely,[1] whence the
+appellation _Loxia_ ([Greek: loxos], _obliquus_), conferred by Gesner on
+the group and continued by Linnaeus. At first sight this singular
+structure appears so like a deformity that writers have not been wanting
+to account it such,[2] ignorant of its being a piece of mechanism most
+beautifully adapted to the habits of the bird, enabling it to extract
+with the greatest ease, from fir-cones or fleshy fruits, the seeds which
+form its usual and almost invariable food. Its mode of using this unique
+instrument seems to have been first described by Townson (_Tracts on
+Nat. Hist._, p. 116, London, 1799), but only partially, and it was
+Yarrell who, in 1829 (_Zool. Journ._, iv. pp. 457-465, pl. xiv. figs.
+1-7), explained fully the means whereby the jaws and the muscles which
+direct their movements become so effective in riving asunder cones or
+apples, while at the proper moment the scoop-like tongue is
+instantaneously thrust out and withdrawn, conveying the hitherto
+protected seed to the bird's mouth. The articulation of the mandible to
+the quadrate-bone is such as to allow of a very considerable amount of
+lateral play, and, by a particular arrangement of the muscles which move
+the former, it comes to pass that so soon as the bird opens its mouth
+the point of the mandible is brought immediately opposite to that of the
+maxilla (which itself is movable vertically), instead of crossing or
+overlapping it--the usual position when the mouth is closed. The two
+points thus meeting, the bill is inserted between the scales or into
+the pome, but on opening the mouth still more widely, the lateral motion
+of the mandible is once more brought to bear with great force to wrench
+aside the portion of the fruit attacked, and then the action of the
+tongue completes the operation, which is so rapidly performed as to defy
+scrutiny, except on very close inspection. Fortunately the birds soon
+become tame in confinement, and a little patience will enable an
+attentive observer to satisfy himself as to the process, the result of
+which at first seems almost as unaccountable as that of a clever
+conjuring trick.
+
+The common crossbill of the Palaearctic region (_Loxia curvirostra_) is
+about the size of a skylark, but more stoutly built. The young (which on
+leaving the nest have not the tips of the bill crossed) are of a dull
+olive colour with indistinct dark stripes on the lower parts, and the
+quills of the wings and tail dusky. After the first moult the difference
+between the sexes is shown by the hens inclining to yellowish-green,
+while the cocks become diversified by orange-yellow and red, their
+plumage finally deepening into a rich crimson-red, varied in places by a
+flame-colour. Their glowing hues, are, however, speedily lost by
+examples which may be kept in confinement, and are replaced by a dull
+orange, or in some cases by a bright golden-yellow, and specimens have,
+though rarely, occurred in a wild state exhibiting the same tints. The
+cause of these changes is at present obscure, if not unknown, and it
+must be admitted that their sequence has been disputed by some excellent
+authorities, but the balance of evidence is certainly in favour of the
+above statement. Depending mainly for food on the seeds of conifers, the
+movements of crossbills are irregular beyond those of most birds, and
+they would seem to rove in any direction and at any season in quest of
+their staple sustenance. But the pips of apples are also a favourite
+dainty, and it is recorded by the old chronicler Matthew Paris (_Hist.
+Angl._ MS. fol. 252), that in 1251 the orchards of England were ravaged
+by birds, "pomorum grana, & non aliud de eisdem pomis comedentes,"
+which, from his description, "Habebant autem partes rostri cancellatas,
+per quas poma quasi forcipi vel cultello dividebant," could be none
+other but crossbills. Notice of a like visitation in 1593 is recorded,
+but of late it has become evident that not a year passes without
+crossbills being observed in some part or other of England, while in
+certain localities in Scotland they seem to breed annually. The nest is
+rather rudely constructed, and the eggs, generally four in number,
+resemble those of the greenfinch, but are larger in size. This species
+ranges throughout the continent of Europe,[3] and occurs in the islands
+of the Mediterranean and in the fir-woods of the Atlas. In Asia it would
+seem to extend to Kamtschatka and Japan, keeping mainly to the
+forest-tracts.
+
+Three other forms of the genus also inhabit the Old World--two of them
+so closely resembling the common bird that their specific validity has
+been often questioned. The first of these, of large stature, the
+parrot-crossbill (_L. pityopsittacus_), comes occasionally to Great
+Britain, presumably from Scandinavia, where it is known to breed. The
+second (_L. himalayana_), which is a good deal smaller, is only known
+from the Himalaya Mountains. The third, the two-barred crossbill (_L.
+taenioptera_), is very distinct, and its proper home seems to be the
+most northern forests of the Russian empire, but it has occasionally
+occurred in western Europe and even in England.
+
+The New World has two birds of the genus. The first (_L. americana_),
+representing the common British species, but with a smaller bill, and
+the males easily recognizable by their more scarlet plumage, ranges from
+the northern limit of coniferous trees to the highlands of Mexico, or
+even farther. The other (_L. leucoptera_) is the equivalent of the
+two-barred crossbill, but smaller. It has twice occurred in England.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This peculiarity is found as an accidental malformation in the
+    crows (_Corvidae_) and other groups; it is comparable to the
+    monstrosities seen in rabbits and other members of the order
+    _Glires_, in which the incisor teeth grow to an inordinate length.
+
+  [2] A medieval legend ascribes the conformation of bill and
+    coloration of plumage to a divine recognition of the bird's pity,
+    bestowed on Christ at the crucifixion.
+
+  [3] Dr Malmgren found a small flock on Bear Island (lat. 74(1/2) deg.
+    N.), but to this barren spot they must have been driven by stress of
+    weather.
+
+
+
+
+CROSSEN, or KROSSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on
+the Oder, here crossed by a bridge, at the influx of the Bober, 31 m.
+S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder by rail. Pop. (1900) 7369. Of the churches in
+the town three are Protestant and one Roman Catholic. Besides the
+modern school (Realprogymnasium), there are a technical school for
+viniculture and fruit-growing and a dairy school. There are
+manufactories of copper and brass ware, cloth, &c., while in the
+surrounding country the chief industries are fruit and grape growing.
+There is a brisk shipping trade, mainly in wine, fruit and fish. Crossen
+was founded in 1005 and was important during the middle ages as a point
+of passage across the Oder. It attained civic rights in 1232, was for a
+time the capital of a Silesian duchy, which, on the death of Barbara of
+Brandenburg, widow of the last duke, passed to Brandenburg (1482). In
+May 1886 the town was devastated by a whirlwind.
+
+
+
+
+CROSSING, in architecture, the term given to the intersection of the
+nave and transept, frequently surmounted by a tower or by a dome on
+pendentives.
+
+
+
+
+CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM (1826-1893), English geologist and Unitarian
+minister, was born at Lewes in Sussex, on the 7th of December 1826.
+After being trained for the ministry at Manchester New College
+(1843-1848), he became pastor of Friargate chapel, Derby, until 1852,
+when he accepted charge of a Unitarian congregation in Glasgow. In 1869
+he removed to Birmingham, where until the close of his life he was
+pastor of the Church of the Messiah. While in Glasgow his interest was
+awakened in geology by the perusal of A. C. Ramsay's _Geology of the
+Isle of Arran_, and from 1855 onwards he devoted his leisure to the
+pursuit of this science. He became an authority on glacial geology, and
+wrote much, especially in conjunction with David Robertson, on the
+post-tertiary fossiliferous beds of Scotland (_Trans. Geol. Soc.
+Glasgow_). He also prepared for the British Association a valuable
+series of Reports (1873-1892) on the erratic Blocks of England, Wales
+and Ireland. In conjunction with David Robertson and G. S. Brady he
+wrote the _Monograph of the Post Tertiary Entomostraca of Scotland_, &c.
+for the Palaeontographical Society (1874); and he edited H. Carvill
+Lewis' _Papers and Notes on the Glacial Geology of Great Britain and
+Ireland_, issued posthumously (1894). He died at Edgbaston, Birmingham,
+on the 1st of October 1893.
+
+  See _H. W. Crosskey: his Life and Work_, by R. A. Armstrong (with
+  chapter on his geological work by Prof. C. Lapworth, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+CROSS RIVER, a river of West Africa, over 500 m. long. It rises in 6
+deg. N, 10 deg. 30' E. in the mountains of Cameroon, and flows at first
+N.W. In 8 deg. 48' E., 5 deg. 50' N. are a series of rapids; below this
+point the river is navigable for shallow-draught boats. At 8 deg. 20'
+E., 6 deg. 10' N., its most northern point, the river turns S.W. and
+then S., entering the Gulf of Guinea through the Calabar estuary. The
+Calabar river, which rises about 5 deg. 30' N., 8 deg. 30' E., has a
+course parallel to, and 10 to 20 m. east of, the Cross river. Near its
+mouth, on its east bank, is the town of Calabar (q.v.). It enters the
+estuary in 4 deg. 45' N. The Cross, Calabar, Kwa and other streams
+farther east, which rise on the flanks of the Cameroon Mountains, form a
+large delta. The Calabar and Kwa rivers are wholly within the British
+protectorate of Southern Nigeria, as is the Cross river from its mouth
+to the rapids mentioned. The upper course of the river is in German
+territory.
+
+
+
+
+CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT, in former times the method of disposing of
+executed criminals and suicides. At the cross-roads a rude cross usually
+stood, and this gave rise to the belief that these spots were selected
+as the next best burying-places to consecrated ground. The real
+explanation is that the ancient Teutonic peoples often built their
+altars at the cross-roads, and as human sacrifices, especially of
+criminals, formed part of the ritual, these spots came to be regarded as
+execution grounds. Hence after the introduction of Christianity,
+criminals and suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night,
+in order to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the
+pagans. An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous
+Tyburn in London, which stood on the spot where the Oxford, Edgware and
+London roads met.
+
+
+
+
+CROSS SPRINGER, in architecture, the block from which the diagonal ribs
+of a vault spring or start: the top of the springer is known as the
+skewback (see ARCH).
+
+
+
+
+CROTCH, WILLIAM (1775-1847), English musician, was born in Green's Lane,
+Norwich, on the 5th of July 1775. His father was a master carpenter. The
+child was extraordinarily precocious, and when scarcely more than two
+years of age he played upon an organ of his parent's construction
+something like the tune of "God save the King." At the age of four he
+came to London and gave daily recitals on the organ in the rooms of a
+milliner in Piccadilly. The precocity of his musical intuition was
+almost equalled by a singularly early aptitude for drawing. In 1786 he
+went to Cambridge as assistant to Dr Randall the organist. His oratorio
+_The Captivity of Judah_ was played at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, on the
+4th of June 1789. He was then only fourteen years of age. His intention
+of entering the church carried him to Oxford in 1788, but the superior
+attractions of a musical career acquired an increasing influence over
+him, and in 1790 he was appointed organist of Christ Church. At the
+early age of twenty-two he was appointed professor of music in the
+university of Oxford, and there in 1799 he took his degree of doctor in
+that art. In 1800 and the four following years he read lectures on music
+at Oxford. Next he was appointed lecturer on music to the Royal
+Institution, and subsequently, in 1822, principal of the London Royal
+Academy of Music. His last years were passed at Taunton in the house of
+his son, the Rev. W. R. Crotch, where he died suddenly on the 29th of
+December 1847. He published a number of vocal and instrumental
+compositions, of which the best is his oratorio _Palestine_, produced in
+1812. In 1831 appeared an 8vo volume containing the substance of his
+lectures on music, delivered at Oxford and in London. Previously, he had
+published three volumes of _Specimens of Various Styles of Music_. Among
+his didactic works is _Elements of Musical Composition and
+Thorough-Bass_ (London, 1812). The oratorio bearing the title _The
+Captivity of Judah_, and produced on the occasion of the installation of
+the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the university of Oxford in
+1834, is a totally different work from that which he wrote upon the same
+subject as a boy of fourteen. He arranged for the pianoforte a number of
+Handel's oratorios and operas, besides symphonies and quartetts of
+Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. The great expectations excited by his
+infant precocity were not fulfilled; for he manifested no extraordinary
+genius for musical composition. But he was an industrious student and a
+sound artist, and his name remains familiar in English musical history.
+
+
+
+
+CROTCHET (from the Fr. _croche_, a hook; whence also the Anglicized
+"crochet," pronounced as in French, for the knitting-work done with a
+hook instead of on pins), properly a small hook, and so used of the
+hook-like _setae_ or bristles found in certain worms which burrow in
+sand. In music, a "crotchet" is a note of half the value of a minim and
+double that of a quaver; it is marked by a round black head and a line
+without a tail or hook; the French _croche_ is used of a "quaver" which
+has a tail, but in ancient music the _semiminima_, the modern crotchet,
+is marked by an open note with a hook. Derived either from an old French
+proverbial phrase, _il a des crochues en teste_, or from a meaning of
+twist or turn, as in the similar expression "crank," comes the sense of
+a whim, fancy or perverse idea, seen also in the adjective "crotchety"
+of a fussy unreasonable person.
+
+
+
+
+CROTONA, CROTO or CROTON (Gr. [Greek: Kroton], mod. Cotrone) a Greek
+town on the E. coast of the territory of the Bruttii (mod. _Calabria_),
+on a promontory 7 m. N.W. of the Lacinian promontory. It was founded by
+a colony of Achaeans led by Myscellus in 710 B.C. Its name was,
+according to the legend, that of a local prince who afforded hospitality
+to Heracles, but was accidentally killed by him and buried on the spot.
+Like Sybaris, it soon became a city of power and wealth. It was
+especially celebrated for its successes in the Olympic games from 588
+B.C. onwards, Milo being the most famous of its athletes. Pythagoras
+established himself here between 540 and 530 B.C. and formed a society
+of 300 disciples (among whom was Milo), who acquired considerable
+influence with the supreme council of 1000 by which the city was ruled.
+In 510 B.C. Crotona was strong enough to defeat the Sybarites, with whom
+it had previously been on friendly terms, and raze their city to the
+ground. Shortly afterwards, however, an insurrection took place, by
+which the disciples of Pythagoras were driven out, and a democracy
+established. The victory of the Locrians and Phlegians over Crotona in
+480 B.C. marked the beginning of its decline. It suffered after this
+from the attacks of Dionysius I., who became its master for twelve
+years, of the Bruttii, and of Agathocles, and even more from the
+invasion of Pyrrhus, after which in 277 the Romans obtained possession
+of it. Livy states that the walls had a length of 12 m. and that about
+half the area within them had at that time ceased to be inhabited. After
+the battle of Cannae Crotona revolted from Rome, and Hannibal made it
+his winter quarters for three years. It was made a colony by the Romans
+at the end of the war (194 B.C.). After that time but little is heard of
+it, though Petronius mentions the corrupt morals of its inhabitants; but
+it continues to be mentioned down to the Gothic wars. The importance of
+the city was mainly due to its harbour, which, though not a good one,
+was the only port between Tarentum and Rhegium. The original settlement
+occupied the hill above it (143 ft.) and later became the acropolis. Its
+healthy situation was famous in antiquity, and to this was ascribed its
+superiority in athletics; it was the seat also of a medical school which
+in the days of Herodotus was considered the first in Greece. Of the
+exact site of the ancient city and its remains practically nothing is
+known; a few fragments of the productions of its art preserved in
+private hands at Cotrone are described by F. von Duhn in _Notizie degli
+scavi_, 1897, 343 seq.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CROTONIC ACID (C4H6O2). Three acids of this empirical formula are known,
+viz. crotonic acid, isocrotonic acid and methacrylic acid; the
+constitutional formulae are--
+
+     HC.CO(2)H,          HC.CO2H               /CH3
+      ..                    ..           CH2:C
+     HC.CH3             CH3.CH                 \CO2H.
+  Crotonic Acid.   Isocrotonic Acid.   Methacrylic Acid.
+
+The isomerism of crotonic and isocrotonic acids is to be explained on
+the assumption of a different spatial arrangement of the atoms in the
+molecule (see STEREOCHEMISTRY).
+
+Crotonic acid, so named from the fact that it was erroneously supposed
+to be a saponification product of croton oil, may be prepared by the
+oxidation of croton-aldehyde, CH3.CH:CH.CHO, obtained by dehydrating
+aldol, or by treating acetylene successively with sulphuric acid and
+water; by boiling allyl cyanide with caustic potash; by the distillation
+of [beta]-oxybutyric acid; by heating paraldehyde with malonic acid and
+acetic acid to 100 deg. C. (T. Komnenos, _Ann._, 1883, 218, p. 149).
+
+  CH2(COOH)2 + CH3CHO -> CH3CH:C(COOH)2 -> CH3.CH:CH.COOH;
+
+or by heating pyruvic acid with an excess of acetic anhydride and sodium
+acetate to 160-180 deg. C. (B. Homolka, _Ber._, 1885, 18, p. 987). It
+crystallizes in needles (from hot water) which melt at 72 deg. C. and
+boil at 180-181 deg. C. It is moderately soluble in cold water. It
+combines directly with bromine, and, with fuming hydrobromic acid at 100
+deg. C., it gives chiefly [alpha]-brombutyric acid. With hydriodic acid
+it gives only [beta]-iodobutyric acid. Potash fusion converts it into
+acetic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acids; chromic
+acid mixture to acetaldehyde and acetic acid, and potassium permanganate
+to [alpha][beta]-dioxybutyric acid.
+
+Isocrotonic acid (Quartenylic acid) is obtained from
+[beta]-chlorisocrotonic acid, formed when acetoacetic ester is treated
+with phosphorus pentachloride and the product poured into water, by the
+action of sodium amalgam (A. Geuther). It is an oil, possessing a smell
+like that of butyric acid. It boils at 171.9 deg. C., with partial
+conversion into crotonic acid; the transformation is complete when the
+acid is heated to 170-180 deg. C. in a sealed tube. Potassium
+permanganate oxidizes it to [beta][gamma]-dioxybutyric acid.
+
+Methacrylic acid was first obtained in the form of its ethyl ester by E.
+Frankland and B. F. Duppa (_Annalen_, 1865, 136, p. 12) by acting with
+phosphorus pentachloride on oxyisobutyric ester (CH3)2.C(OH).COOC2H5. It
+is, however, more readily obtained by boiling citra- or
+meso-brompyrotartaric acids with alkalis. It crystallizes in prisms,
+which are soluble in water, melt at 16 deg. C., and boil at 160.5 deg.
+C. When fused with an alkali, it forms propionic acid; with biomine it
+yields [alpha][beta]-dibromisobutyric acid. Sodium amalgam reduces it to
+isobutyric acid. A polymeric form of methacrylic acid has been described
+by F. Engelhorn (_Ann._, 1880, 200, p. 70).
+
+
+
+
+CROTON OIL (_Crotonis Oleum_), an oil prepared from the seeds of _Croton
+Tiglium_, a tree belonging to the natural order Euphorbiaceae, and
+native or cultivated in India and the Malay Islands. The tree is from 15
+to 20 ft. in height, and has few and spreading branches, alternate,
+oval-oblong leaves, acuminate at the point, and covered when young with
+stellate hairs, and terminal racemes of small, downy, greenish-yellow,
+monoecious flowers. The male blossoms have five petals and fifteen
+stamens; the females have no petals but a large oblong ovary bearing
+three bifid styles. The fruit or capsule is obtusely three-cornered, and
+about the size of a hazel-nut; it contains three cells each enclosing a
+seed. The seeds resemble those of the castor-oil plant; they are about
+half an inch long, and two-fifths of an inch broad, and have a
+cinnamon-brown, brittle integument; between the two halves of the kernel
+lie the large cotyledons and radicle. The ocular distinction between the
+two kinds of seeds may be of great practical importance. The most
+obvious distinction is that the castor-oil seeds have a polished and
+mottled surface. The kernels contain from 50 to 60% of oil, which is
+obtained by pressing them, when bruised to a pulp, between hot plates.
+Croton oil is a transparent and viscid liquid of a brownish or
+pale-yellow tinge, and acrid, peculiar and persistent taste, a
+disagreeable odour and acid reaction. It is soluble in volatile oils,
+carbon disulphide, and ether, and to some extent in alcohol. It contains
+acetic, butyric and valeric acids, with glycerides of acids of the same
+series, and a volatile body, C5H8O2, tiglic acid, metameric with angelic
+acid, and identical with methylcrotonic acid, CH3.CH:C(CH3)(CO2H). The
+odour is due to various volatile acids, which are present to the extent
+of about 1%. A substance called crotonal appears to be responsible for
+its external, but not its internal, action. The latter is probably due
+to crotolinic acid, C9H14O2, which has active purgative properties. The
+maximum dose of croton oil is two minims, one-fourth of that quantity
+being usually ample.
+
+Applied to the skin, croton oil acts as a powerful irritant, inducing so
+much inflammation that definite pustules are formed. The destruction of
+the true skin gives rise to ugly scars which constitute, together with
+the pain caused by this application, abundant reason why croton oil
+should never be employed externally. Despite the pharmacopoeial liniment
+and the practice of a few, it may be said that this employment of croton
+oil is now entirely without justification or excuse.
+
+Taken internally, even in the minute doses already detailed, croton oil
+very soon causes much colic and the occurrence of a fluid diarrhoea
+which usually recurs several times. It is characteristic of this
+purgative that it is a hydragogue even in minimal dose, the fluid
+secretions of the bowel being most markedly increased. The drug appears
+to act only upon the small intestine. In somewhat larger doses it
+produces severe gastro-enteritis. The flow of bile is somewhat
+increased. Such effects may all be produced, even up to the discharge of
+blood, by the absorption of croton oil from the skin.
+
+The minuteness of the dose, the certainty of the action, and the large
+amount of fluid drained away constitute this the best drug for
+administration to an unconscious patient (especially in cases of
+apoplexy, when it is desirable to remove fluid from the body), or to
+insane patients who refuse to take any drug. One drop of the oil, placed
+on the back of the tongue, must inevitably be swallowed by reflex
+action. A dose should never be repeated. The characters of this drug
+obviously contra-indicate its use in all cases of organic disease or
+obstruction of the bowel, in pregnancy, or in cases of constipation in
+children or the aged.
+
+
+
+
+CROUP, a name formerly given to diseases characterized by distress in
+breathing accompanied by a metallic cough and some hoarseness of
+speech. It is now known that these symptoms are often associated with
+diphtheria (q.v.), spasmodic laryngitis (q.v.), and a third disease,
+spasmodic croup, to which the term is now alone applied. This occurs
+most frequently in children above two years of age; the child goes to
+bed quite well, and a few hours later suddenly awakes with great
+difficulty in inspiration, the chest wall becomes markedly retracted,
+and there is a metallic cough. The child becomes cyanosed, and, to the
+inexperienced nurse, seems in an almost moribund condition. In the
+course of four or five minutes, normal respiration starts again, and the
+attack is over for the time being; but it may recur several times a day.
+The seizure may be accompanied by convulsions, and death has occurred
+from dyspnoea. The best treatment is to plunge the child into a warm
+bath, and sponge the back and chest with cold water. Subsequently this
+can be done two or three times a day. Should the cyanosis become very
+severe, respiration can be restarted by making the child sick, either
+with a dose of ipecacuanha wine, or by forcing one's finger down the
+throat. Generally the bowels should be attended to; and the throat
+carefully examined for enlarged tonsils or adenoids, which if present
+should be treated.
+
+
+
+
+CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE (1663-1750), Swiss writer, was born at Lausanne.
+He was a many-sided man, whose numerous works on many subjects had a
+great vogue in their day, but are now forgotten. He has been described
+as an _initiateur plutot qu'un createur_, chiefly because he introduced
+at Lausanne the philosophy of Descartes in opposition to the reigning
+Aristotelianism, and also as a Calvinist pendant (for he was a pastor)
+of the French _abbes_ of the 18th century. He studied at Geneva, Leyden
+and Paris, before becoming (1700) professor of philosophy and
+mathematics at the academy of Lausanne, of which he was four times
+rector before 1724, when the theological disputes connected with the
+_Consensus_[1] led him to accept a chair of philosophy and mathematics
+at Groningen. In 1726 he was appointed governor to the young prince
+Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1735 returned to Lausanne with a good
+pension. In 1737 he was reinstated in his old chair, which he retained
+to his death. Gibbon, describing his first stay at Lausanne (1752-1755),
+writes in his _Autobiography_, "the logic of de Crousaz had prepared me
+to engage with his master Locke and his antagonist Bayle."
+
+  The most important of his works are: _Nouvel Essai de logique_ (1712),
+  _Geometrie des lignes et des surfaces rectilignes et circulaires_
+  (1712), _Traite du beau_ (1714), _Examen du traite de la liberte de
+  penser d'Antoine Collins_ (1718), _De l'education des enfants_ (1722,
+  dedicated to the then Princess of Wales), _Examen du pyrrhonisme
+  ancien et moderne_ (1733, an attack chiefly on Bayle), _Examen de
+  l'essai de M. Pope sur l'homme_ (1737, an attack on the Leibnitzian
+  theory of that poem), _Logique_ (6 vols., 1741), _De l'esprit humain_
+  (1741), and _Reflexions sur l'ouvrage intitule: La Belle Wolfienne_
+  (1743).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The "Consensus ecclesiarum Helveticarum reformatarum" was a
+    document drawn up in 1675 and imposed in 1722--as a test of strict
+    Protestant orthodoxy as to the doctrine of grace--by Bern on its
+    subjects in Lausanne and Vaux.
+
+
+
+
+CROW (Dutch, _kraai_, Ger. _Krahe_, Fr. _corbeau_, Lat. _corvus_), a
+name most commonly applied in Britain to the bird properly called a rook
+(_Corvus frugilegus_), but perhaps originally peculiar to its congener,
+nowadays usually distinguished as the black or carrion-crow (_C.
+corone_). By ornithologists it is also used in a far wider sense, as
+under the title crows, or _Corvidae_, is included a vast number of birds
+from almost all parts of the world, and this family is probably the most
+highly developed of the whole class _Aves_. Leaving out of account the
+best known of these, as the raven, rook, daw, pie and jay, with their
+immediate allies, our attention will here be confined to the crows in
+general; and then the species of the family to which the appellation is
+more strictly applicable may be briefly considered. All authorities
+admit that the family is very extensive, and is capable of being parted
+into several groups, but scarcely any two agree. Especially must reserve
+be exercised as regards the group _Streperinae_, or piping crows,
+belonging to the Australian Region, and referred by some writers to the
+shrikes (_Laniidae_): and the jays too have been erected into a distinct
+family (_Garrulidae_), though it seems hardly possible to separate them
+even as a subfamily from the pies (_Pica_ and its neighbours), which
+lead almost insensibly to the typical crows (_Corvinae_). Dismissing
+these subjects for the present, it will perhaps be most convenient to
+treat of the two groups which are represented by the genera
+_Pyrrhocorax_ or choughs, and _Corvus_ or true crows in the most limited
+sense.
+
+_Pyrrhocorax_ comprehends at least two very good species, which have
+been needlessly divided generically. The best known of them is the
+Cornish chough (_P. graculus_), formerly a denizen of the precipitous
+cliffs of the south coast of England, of Wales, of the west and north
+coasts of Ireland, and some of the Hebrides, but now greatly reduced in
+numbers, and only found in such places as are most free from the
+intrusion of man or of daws (_Corvus monedula_), which last seem to be
+gradually dispossessing it of its sea-girt strongholds, and its present
+scarcity is probably in the main due to its persecution by its kindred.
+In Britain, indeed, it would appear to be only one of the survivors of a
+more ancient fauna, for in other countries where it is found it has been
+driven inland, and inhabits the higher mountains of Europe and North
+Africa. In the Himalayas a larger form occurs, which has been
+specifically distinguished (_P. himalayanus_), but whether justifiably
+so may be doubted. The general colour is a glossy black, and it has the
+bill and legs bright red. The remaining species (_P. alpinus_) is
+altogether a mountaineer, and does not affect a sea-shore life.
+Otherwise it frequents much the same kind of localities, but it does not
+occur in Britain. The alpine chough is somewhat smaller than its
+congener, and is easily distinguished by its shorter and bright yellow
+bill. Remains of both have been found in French caverns the deposits in
+which were formed during the "Reindeer Age." Commonly placed by
+systematists next to _Pyrrhocorax_ is the Australian genus _Corcorax_,
+represented by a single species (_C. melanorhamphus_), but this
+assignment of the bird, which is chiefly a frequenter of woodlands,
+cannot be admitted without hesitation.
+
+Coming now to what may be literally considered crows, our attention is
+mainly directed to the black or carrion-crow (_Corvus corone_) and the
+grey, hooded or Royston crow (_C. cornix_). Both these inhabit Europe,
+but their range and the time of their appearance are very different. The
+former is, speaking generally, a summer visitant to the south-western
+part of Europe, and the latter occupies the north-eastern portion--an
+irregular line drawn diagonally from about the Firth of Clyde to the
+head of the Adriatic roughly marking their respective distribution. But
+both are essentially migrants, and hence it follows that when the black
+crow, as summer comes to an end, retires southward, the grey crow moves
+downward, and in many districts replaces it during winter. Further than
+this, it has been incontestably proved that along or near the boundary
+where these two birds march they not infrequently interbreed, and it is
+believed that the hybrids, which sometimes wholly resemble one or other
+of the parents and at other times assume an intermediate plumage, pair
+indiscriminately among themselves or with the pure stock. Hence it has
+seemed to many ornithologists who have studied the subject, that these
+two birds, so long unhesitatingly regarded as distinct species, are only
+local races of one and the same dimorphic species. No structural
+difference--or indeed any difference except that of range (already
+spoken of) and colour--can be detected, and the problem they offer is
+one of which the solution is exceedingly interesting if not important to
+zoologists in general.[1] Almost omnivorous in their diet, there is
+little edible that comes amiss to them, and, except in South America,
+they are mostly omnipresent. The fish-crow of North America (_C.
+ossifragus_) demands a few words, since it betrays a taste for maritime
+habits beyond that of other species, but the crows of Europe are not
+averse on occasion to prey cast up by the waters. The house-crow of
+India (_C. splendens_) is not very nearly allied to its European
+namesakes, from which it can be readily distinguished by its smaller
+size and the lustrous tints of its darkest feathers; while its
+confidence in the human race has been so long encouraged by its
+intercourse with an unarmed and inoffensive population that it becomes a
+plague to the European abiding or travelling where it is abundant.
+Hardly a station or camp in British India is free from a crowd of
+feathered followers of this species, ready to dispute with the kites and
+the cooks the very meat at the fire.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] As bearing upon this question may be mentioned the fact that the
+    crow of Australia (_C. australis_) is divisible into two forms or
+    races, one having the irides white, the other of a dark colour. It is
+    stated that they keep apart and do not intermix.
+
+
+
+
+CROWBERRY, or CRAKEBERRY, the English name for a low-growing heath-like
+shrub, found on heaths and rocks in Scotland, Ireland and mountainous
+parts of England. It is known botanically as _Empetrum nigrum_, and has
+slender, wiry, spreading branches covered with short, narrow, stiff
+leaves, the margins of which are recurved so as to form a hollow
+cylinder concealing the hairy under face of the leaf--a device to avoid
+excessive loss of water from the leaf under the exposed conditions in
+which the plant grows. The minute flowers are succeeded by black,
+edible, berry-like fruits, one-fourth to one-third of an inch in
+diameter. The plant has a wide distribution, occurring in suitable
+localities throughout the north temperate zone, and on the Andes of
+South America.
+
+
+
+
+CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH (Welsh _crwth_; Fr. _crout_; Ger. _Chrotta_,
+_Hrotta_), a medieval stringed instrument derived from the lyre,
+characterized by a sound-chest having a vaulted back and an open space
+left at each side of the strings to allow the hand to pass through in
+order to stop the strings on the finger-board. The Welsh crwth, which
+survived until the end of the 18th century, is best represented by a
+specimen of that date preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and
+described and illustrated by Carl Engel.[1] The instrument consists of a
+rectangular sound-chest 22 in. long, 9(1/2) in. wide and 2 in. deep; the
+body is scooped out of a single block, the flat belly being glued on.
+Right through the sound-chest on each side of the finger-board is the
+characteristic open space left for the hand to pass through. There are
+two circular sound-holes; the left foot of the flat bridge, which lies
+obliquely across the belly, passes through the left sound-hole and rests
+inside on the back of the instrument. Six catgut strings fastened to a
+tail-piece are wound round pegs at the top of the crwth; four of these
+strings lie over the sound-board and bridge, and are set in vibration by
+means of a bow, while the two others, used as drones and stretched
+across the left-hand aperture, are twanged by the thumb of the left
+hand. The shape and shallowness of the bridge make it impossible to
+sound a single string with the bow; the arrangement of the strings
+suggests that they were intended to be sounded in pairs. The instrument
+is tuned thus: [Music notes].
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Welsh Crwth, 18th century.]
+
+  At the beginning of the 19th century, William Bingley[2] heard a Welsh
+  peasant playing national airs on a crwth strung as follows:--[Music
+  notes]. Sir John Hawkins[3] relates that in his time there was still a
+  Welshman living in Anglesea who understood how to play the crwth
+  according to traditional usage. Edward Jones[4] and Daines
+  Barrington[5] both give an account of the Welsh crwth of the 18th
+  century which agrees substantially with Engel's; the illustration
+  communicated by Daines Barrington shows the strings of the crwth drawn
+  through holes at the top, and fastened on the back, as on the Persian
+  rebab and other Oriental stringed instruments. On these somewhat
+  scanty authentic records of the instrument, several historians of
+  music have based an illogical claim that the crwth, or rather chrotta
+  or rotta, mentioned by Venantius Fortunatus as a British instrument,
+  was the Welsh crwth as it was known in the 18th century, and was the
+  earliest bowed instrument, and therefore the ancestor of the violin.
+  The lines of Fortunatus, who was bishop of Poictiers during the second
+  half of the 6th century, ran thus:--[6]
+
+    "Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi Barbarus harpa,
+     Graecus Achilliaca, chrotta Britanna canat."
+
+  The bow is not mentioned by Fortunatus, and there is no ground
+  whatever for believing that the Welsh crwth was played with a bow in
+  the 6th century, or indeed for several centuries after. The stringing
+  of the Welsh crwth with the two drone strings still twanged, the form
+  of the body without incurvations, the flat bridge which rendered
+  bowing, even in the most highly developed specimens of the 18th
+  century, a difficult task, together with what is known of the early
+  history of the chrotta and rotta derived from the lyre and cithara and
+  like them twanged by fingers or plectrum, all make the claim
+  untenable. Carl Engel was probably the first to expose the fallacy in
+  his work on the violin.[7]
+
+  British lexicographers all agree in deriving the words crwth, crowd
+  and other forms of the name, from some word meaning a bulging
+  protuberant bellying form, while in German the etymology of the word
+  _Chrotta_ is given as _Chrota_ or _Chreta_, the O.H.G. for _Krote_ =
+  toad, _Schildkrote_ = tortoise. This word _Chrotta_ was undoubtedly
+  the German equivalent term for the lyre of Hermes, having as back a
+  tortoise-shell, [Greek: chelys] in Greek and _testudo_ in Latin.
+  Chrotta was also spelt _hrotta_, and it is easy to see how this became
+  rotta. A thoughtful and suggestive treatment of the whole subject will
+  be found in Engel's work, to which reference has been made. Just as
+  the lyre and cithara, which appeared to be similar to the casual
+  observer, and are indeed still confused at the present day, were
+  instruments differing essentially in construction[8]; so there were,
+  during the early middle ages, while lyre and cithara were still in
+  transition, two types of chrotta or rotta. (1) The rotta or improved
+  cithara had a body either rectangular with the corners rounded, or
+  guitar-shaped with incurvations, back and sound-board being nearly or
+  quite flat, joined as in the cithara by ribs or sides. This rotta must
+  be reckoned among the early ancestors of the violin before the advent
+  of the bow; it was known both as rotta and cithara, and with a neck
+  added it became the guitar-fiddle. (2) The tortoise or lyre chrotta
+  consisted of a protuberant, very convex back cut out of a block of
+  wood, to which was glued a flat sound-board, at first like the lyre,
+  without intermediary ribs. This instrument became the crwth, and there
+  was no further development. The first step in the transition of both
+  lyre and cithara was the incorporation of arms and cross-bar into the
+  body, the same outline being preserved; the second step was the
+  addition of a finger-board against which the strings were stopped,
+  thus increasing the compass while restricting the number of strings to
+  three or four; the third step, observed only in the rotta-cithara,
+  consisted in the addition of a neck,[9] as in the guitar. The crwth,
+  crowd, crouth did not undergo this third transition even when the bow
+  was used to set the strings in vibration.
+
+  [Illustration: Drawn from a plate in Auguste de Bastard's _Peintures
+  et ornements de la bible de Charles le Chauve_.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Early Crwth, 9th century.]
+
+  The earliest representation of the crwth yet discovered dates from the
+  Carolingian period. In the miniatures of the Bible of Charles the
+  Bald,[10] in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, one of the musicians
+  of King David is seen stopping strings on the finger-board with his
+  left hand and plucking them with the right (fig. 2); this crwth has
+  only three strings, and may be the crwth _trithant_ of Wales. A second
+  example occurs in the Bible of St Paul,[11] another of the magnificent
+  MSS. prepared for Charles the Bald, and preserved during the middle
+  ages in the monastery of St Paul _extra muros_ in Rome (now deposited
+  in that of St Calixtus in Rome). Other representations are in the
+  miniatures of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. To Edward Heron-Allen
+  (_De fidiculis opuscula_, viii., 1895) is due the discovery of a
+  representation of the Welsh crwth, showing the form still retained in
+  the 18th cent. On the seal of Roger Wade (1316) is a crwth differing
+  but little from the specimen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The
+  14th-century instrument had four strings instead of six, and the foot
+  of the bridge does not appear to pass through the sound-hole--a detail
+  which may have escaped the notice of the artist who cut the seal. The
+  original seal lies in the muniment room at Berkeley Castle in
+  Gloucestershire attached to a defeasance of a bond between the
+  _crowder_ and his debtor Warren de l'Isle, and a cast (see fig. 3) is
+  preserved at the British Museum. The British Museum also possesses two
+  interesting MSS. which concern the crwth: one of these (Add. MS. 14939
+  ff. 4 and 27) contains an extract made by Lewis Morris in 1742 from an
+  ancient Welsh MS. of "Instructions supposed to be wrote for the
+  Crowd"; the other (Add. MS. 15036 ff. 65b and 66) consists of tracings
+  from a 16th-century Welsh MS. copied in 1610 of a bagpipe, a harp and
+  a _krythe_, together with the names of those who played the last at
+  the Eisteddfod. The drawing is crude, and shows an instrument similar
+  to Roger Wade's crowd, but having three strings instead of four.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Crowd on a 14th-century Seal.]
+
+  The genealogical tree of the violin given below shows the relative
+  positions of both kinds of rotta and chrotta.
+
+               Egyptian lyre-kissar                            Assyrian ketharah
+                        |                                              |
+                        |                                   +----------+---------+
+               Greek lyre or chelys                         |                    |
+                        |                             Greek cithara      Persian cithara
+                   Roman testudo                            |                    |
+                        |                            Roman fidicula     Arab cuitra, guitra
+          +-------------+-------------+--------+            |                or cuitara
+          |             |             |        |            |                    |
+        Latin    Old High Germ.  Anglo-Saxon  Welsh    Cithara in                |
+       chrotta,     Chrota or       crowd     crwth    transition,       Moorish guitarra
+     rotta, rote      Chreta                            or rotta
+                                                            |
+                      +-------------------------------------+----------------+
+                      |                                     |                |
+              Spanish viguela or                    Guitarra Latina     Fidel, fidula,
+               vihuela de arco                     or vihuela de mano  fyella, fythele,
+                      |                                     |               &c.
+                      |                                     |                |
+                      |                              Spanish guitar          |
+              +-------+---------+---------------+                            |
+              |                 |               |                            |
+        Italian viola     French vielle   Guitar-fiddle                    Fiddle
+              |             or viole
+           Violin
+
+  The Welsh crwth was therefore obviously not an exclusively Welsh
+  instrument, but only a late 18th-century survival in Wales of an
+  archaic instrument once generally popular in Europe but long obsolete.
+  An interesting article on the subject in German by J. F. W. Wewertem
+  will be found in _Monatshefte fur Musik_ (Berlin, 1881), Nos. 7-12, p.
+  151, &c.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _Early History of the Violin Family_ (London, 1883), pp.
+    24-36.
+
+  [2] See _A Tour round North Wales_ (London, 1804), vol. ii. p. 332.
+
+  [3] _History of Music_ (London, 1766), vol. ii. bk. iii. ch. iii.,
+    description and illustration.
+
+  [4] _Musical and Poetical Relicks of Welsh Bards_ (London, 1794),
+    illustration of crwth, also reproduced by Carl Engel; see note above.
+
+  [5] _Archaeologia_, vol. iii. (London, 1775).
+
+  [6] Venantius Fortunatus, Poemata, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245; see
+    Migne's _Patrologia Sacra_, vol. 88.
+
+  [7] _Op. cit._ chapters "Crwth," "Chrotta," "Rotta."
+
+  [8] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _Orchestral Instruments_, part ii.,
+    "The Precursors of the Violin Family" (London, 1909), pp. 14 to 23,
+    with illustrations.
+
+  [9] See also Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. ch. vii., "The Cithara in
+    Transition," pp. 111-135 with illustrations.
+
+  [10] See Auguste de Bastard, _Peintures et ornements des MSS. de
+    France_, and _Peintures, ornements, &c., de la bible de Charles le
+    Chauve_, in facsimile (Paris, 1883).
+
+  [11] See J. O. Westwood, _Photographic Facsimile of the Bible of St
+    Paul_ (London, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+CROWE, EYRE EVANS (1799-1868), English journalist and historian, was
+born about the year 1799. He commenced his work as a writer for the
+London newspaper press in connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, and he
+afterwards became a leading contributor to the _Examiner_ and the _Daily
+News_. Of the latter journal he was principal editor for some time
+previous to his death. The department he specially cultivated was that
+of continental history and foreign politics. He published _Lives of
+Foreign Statesmen_ (1830), _The Greek and the Turk_ (1853), and _Reigns
+of Louis XVIII. and Charles X._ (1854). These were followed by his most
+important work, the _History of France_ (5 vols., 1858-1868). It was
+founded upon original sources, in order to consult which the author
+resided for a considerable time in Paris. He died in London on the 25th
+of February 1868.
+
+
+
+
+CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER (1828-1896), English consular official and art
+critic, son of Eyre Crowe, was born in London on the 25th of October
+1828. At an early age he showed considerable aptitude for painting and
+entered the studio of Delaroche in Paris, where his father was
+correspondent of the _Morning Chronicle_. During the Crimean War he was
+the correspondent of the _Illustrated London News_, and during the
+Austro-Italian War represented _The Times_ in Vienna. He was British
+consul-general in Leipzig from 1860 to 1872, and in Dusseldorf from 1872
+to 1880, when he was appointed commercial attache in Berlin, being
+transferred in a like capacity to Paris in 1882. In 1883 he was
+secretary to the Danube Conference in London; in 1889 plenipotentiary at
+the Samoa Conference in Berlin; and in 1890 British envoy at the
+Telegraph Congress in Paris, in which year he was made K.C.M.G. During a
+sojourn in Italy, 1846-1847, he cemented a lifelong friendship with the
+Italian critic Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (1820-1897), and together
+they produced several historical works on art of classic importance,
+notably _Early Flemish Painters_ (London, 1857); _A New History of
+Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century_ (London,
+1864-1871, 5 vols.). In 1895 Crowe published _Reminiscences of
+Thirty-Five Years of My Life_. He died at Schloss Gamburg in Bavaria on
+the 6th of September 1896.
+
+  Crowe and Cavalcaselle's great _History of Painting_ was under
+  revision by Crowe up to the time of his death, and then by S. A.
+  Strong (d. 1904) and Langton Douglas, who in 1903 brought out vols. i.
+  and ii. of Murray's new six-volume edition, the 3rd vol., edited by
+  Langton Douglas, appearing in 1909. A reprint of the original edition,
+  brought up to date by annotations by Edward Huttons, was published by
+  Dent in 3 vols. in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CROW INDIANS, or ABSAROKAS (the name for a species of hawk), a tribe of
+North American Indians of Siouan stock. They are now settled to the
+number of some 1800 on a reservation in southern Montana to the south of
+the Yellowstone river. Their original range included this reservation
+and extended eastward and southward, and no part of the country for
+hundreds of miles around was safe from their raids. They have ever been
+known as marauders and horse-stealers, and, though they have generally
+been cunning enough to avoid open war with the whites, they have robbed
+them whenever opportunity served. Physically they are tall and athletic,
+with very dark complexions.
+
+
+
+
+CROWLAND, or CROYLAND, a market-town in the S. Kesteven or Stamford
+parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; in a low fen district
+on the river Welland, 8 m. N.E. of Peterborough, and 4 m. from Postland
+station on the March-Spalding line of the Great Northern and Great
+Eastern railways, and Peakirk on the Great Northern. Pop. (1901) 2747. A
+monastery was founded here in 716 by King Aethelbald, in honour of St
+Guthlac of Mercia (d. 714), a young nobleman who became a hermit and
+lived here, and, it was said, had foretold Aethelbald's accession to the
+throne. The site of St Guthlac's cell, not far from the abbey, is known
+as Anchor (anchorite's) Church Hill. After the abbey had suffered from
+the Danish incursions in 870, and had been burnt in that year and in
+1091, a fine Norman abbey was raised in 1113. Remains of this building
+appear in the ruined nave and tower arch, but the most splendid fragment
+is the west front, of Early English date, with Perpendicular
+restoration. The west tower is principally in this style. The north
+aisle is restored and used as the parish church. Among the abbots was
+Ingulphus (1085-1109), to whom was formerly attributed the _Historia
+Monasterii Croylandensis_. A curious triangular bridge remains,
+apparently of the 14th century, but referred originally to the middle of
+the 9th century, which spanned three streams now covered, and affords
+three footways which meet at an apex in the middle.
+
+The town of Crowland grew up round the abbey. By a charter dated 716,
+Aethelbald granted the isle of Crowland, free from all secular services,
+to the abbey with a gift of money, and leave to build and enclose the
+town. The privileges thus obtained were confirmed by numerous royal
+charters extending over a period of nearly 800 years. Under Abbot
+Aegelric the fens were tilled, the monastery grew rich, and the town
+increased in size, enormous tracts of land being held by the abbey at
+the Domesday Survey. The town was nearly destroyed by fire (1469-1476),
+but the abbey tenants were given money to rebuild it. By virtue of his
+office the abbot had a seat in parliament, but the town was never a
+parliamentary borough. Abbot Ralph Mershe in 1257 obtained a grant of a
+market every Wednesday, confirmed by Henry IV. in 1421, but it was
+afterwards moved to Thorney. The annual fair of St Bartholomew, which
+originally lasted twelve days, was first mentioned in Henry III.'s
+confirmatory charter of 1227. The dissolution of the monastery in 1539
+was fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered under the
+thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the position of an
+unimportant village. The abbey lands were granted by Edward VI. to Lord
+Clinton, from whose family they passed in 1671 to the Orby family. The
+inhabitants formerly carried on considerable trade in fish and wild
+fowl.
+
+  See R. Gough, _History and Antiquities of Croyland_ (Bibl. Top. Brit.
+  iii. No. 11) (London, 1783); W. G. Searle, _Ingulf and the Historia
+  Croylandensis_ (Camb. Antiq. Soc., No. 27); Dugdale, _Monasticon_, ii.
+  91 (London, 1846; Cambridge, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CROWLEY, ROBERT (1518?-1588), English religious and social reformer, was
+born in Gloucestershire, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, of
+which he was successively demy and fellow. Coming to London, he set up a
+printing-office in Ely Rents, Holborn, where he printed many of his own
+writings. As a typographer, his most notable production was an edition
+of _Pierce Plowman_ in 1550, and some of the earliest Welsh printed
+books came from his press. As an author, his first venture seems to have
+been his "Information and Petition against the Oppressors of the poor
+Commons of this realm," which internal evidence shows to have been
+addressed to the parliament of 1547. It contains a vigorous plea for a
+further religious reformation, but is more remarkable for its attack on
+the "more than Turkish tyranny" of the landlords and capitalists of that
+day. While repudiating communism, Crowley was a Christian Socialist, and
+warmly approved the efforts of Protector Somerset to stop enclosures. In
+his _Way to Wealth_, published in 1550, he laments the failure of the
+Protector's policy, and attributes it to the organized resistance of the
+richer classes. In the same year he published (in verse) _The Voice of
+the last Trumpet blown by the seventh Angel_; it is a rebuke in twelve
+"lessons" to twelve different classes of people; and a similar
+production was his _One-and-Thirty Epigrams_ (1550). These, with
+_Pleasure and Pain_ (1551), were edited for the Early English Text
+Society in 1872 (Extra Ser. xv.). The dozen or more other works which
+Crowley published are more distinctly theological: indeed, the failure
+of the temporal policy he advocated seems to have led Crowley to take
+orders, and he was ordained deacon by Ridley on the 29th of September
+1551. During Mary's reign he was among the exiles at Frankfort. At
+Elizabeth's accession he became a popular preacher, was made archdeacon
+of Hereford in 1559, and prebendary of St Paul's in 1563, and was
+incumbent first of St Peter's the Poor in London, and then of St Giles'
+without Cripplegate. He refused to minister in the "conjuring garments
+of popery," and in 1566 was deprived and imprisoned for resisting the
+use of the surplice by his choir. He stated his case in "A brief
+Discourse against the Outward Apparel and Ministering Garments of the
+Popish Church," a tract "memorable," says Canon Dixon, "as the first
+distinct utterance of Nonconformity." He continued to preach
+occasionally, and in 1576 was presented to the living of St Lawrence
+Jewry. Nor had he abandoned his connexion with the book trade, and in
+1578 he was admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company. He died on
+the 18th of June 1588, and was buried in St Giles'. The most important
+of his works not hitherto mentioned is his continuation of Languet and
+Cooper's _Epitome of Chronicles_ (1559).
+
+  See J. M. Cowper's _Pref. to the Select Works of Crowley_ (1872);
+  Strype's Works; Gough's _General Index to Parker Soc. Publ._;
+  Machyn's _Diary_; Macray's _Reg. Magdalen College_; Newcourt's _Rep.
+  Eccles. Lond._; Hennessy's _Nov. Rep. Eccl._ (1898); Le Neve's _Fasti
+  Eccl. Angl._; Pocock's Burnet; Pollard's _England under Somerset_; R.
+  W. Dixon's _Church History_.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CROWN, an English silver coin of the value of five shillings, hence
+often used to express the sum of five shillings. It was originally of
+gold and was first coined in the reign of Henry VIII. Edward VI.
+introduced silver crowns and half-crowns, and down to the reign of
+Charles II. crowns and half-crowns and sometimes double crowns were
+struck both in gold and silver. In the reign of Edward VI. also was
+introduced the practice of dating coins and marking them with their
+current value. The "Oxford crown" struck in the reign of Charles I. was
+designed by Rawlins (see NUMISMATICS: _Medieval_). Since the reign of
+Charles II. the crown has been struck in silver only. At one time during
+the 19th century it was proposed to abandon the issue of the crown, and
+from 1861 until 1887 none was struck, but since the second issue in 1887
+it has been freely in circulation again.
+
+
+
+
+CROWN and CORONET, an official or symbolical ornament worn on or round
+the head. The crown (Lat. _corona_) at first had no regal significance.
+It was a garland, or wreath, of leaves or flowers, conferred on the
+winners in the athletic games. Afterwards it was often made of gold, and
+among the Romans was bestowed as a recognition of honourable service
+performed or distinction won, and on occasion it took such a form as to
+correspond with, or indicate the character of, the service rendered. The
+_corona obsidionalis_ was formed of grass and flowers plucked on the
+spot and given to the general who conquered a city. The _corona civica_,
+made of oak leaves with acorns, was bestowed on the soldier who in
+battle saved the life of a Roman citizen. The mural crown (_corona
+muralis_) was the decoration of the soldier who was the first to scale
+the walls of a besieged city, and was usually a circlet of gold adorned
+with a series of turrets. The naval crown (_corona navalis_), decorated
+in like manner with a series of miniature prows of ships, was the reward
+of him who gained a notable victory at sea. These latter crowns form
+charges in English heraldry (see HERALDRY).
+
+Many other forms of crown were used by the Romans, as the conqueror's
+triumphal crown of laurel, the myrtle crown, and the convivial, bridal,
+funeral and other crowns. Some of the emperors wore crowns on occasion,
+as Caligula and Domitian, at the games, and stellate or spike crowns are
+depicted on the heads of several of the emperors on their coins, but no
+idea of imperial sovereignty was indicated thereby. The Roman people,
+who had accepted imperial rule as a fact, were very jealous of the
+employment of its emblem on the part of their rulers. That emblem was
+the diadem, and although the diadem and crown are frequently confused
+with each other they were quite distinct, and it is well to bear this in
+mind. The diadem, which was of eastern origin, was a fillet or band of
+linen or silk, richly embroidered, and was worn tied round the forehead.
+Selden (_Titles of Honour_, chap. viii. sect. 8) says that the diadem
+and crown "have been from ancient times confounded, yet the diadem
+strictly was a very different thing from what a crown now is or was, and
+it was no other then than only a fillet of silk, linen, or some such
+thing." It is desirable to remember the distinction, for, although
+diadem and crown are now used as synonymous terms, the two were
+originally quite distinct. The confusion between them has, perhaps, come
+about from the fact that the modern crown seems to be rather an
+evolution from the diadem than the lineal descendant of the older
+crowns. The linen or silk diadem was eventually exchanged for a flexible
+band of gold, which was worn in its place round the forehead. The
+further development of the crown from this was readily effected by the
+addition of an upper row of ornament. Thus the medieval and modern
+crowns may be considered as radiated diadems, and so the diadem and
+crown have become, as it were, merged in one another.
+
+Among the historical crowns of Europe, the Iron Crown of Lombardy, now
+preserved at Monza, claims notice. It is a band of iron, enclosed in a
+circlet formed of six plates of gold, hinged one to the other, and
+richly jewelled and enamelled. It is regarded with great reverence,
+owing to a legend that the inner band of iron has been hammered out of
+one of the nails of the true cross. The crown is so small, the diameter
+being only 6 in., and the circlet only 2(1/2) in. in width, that doubts
+have been felt as to whether it was originally intended to be worn on
+the head or was merely meant to be a votive crown. The legend as to the
+iron being that of one of the nails of the cross is rejected by Muratori
+and others, and cannot be traced far back. How it arose or how any
+credence came to be reposed in the legend, it is difficult to surmise.
+Another historical crown is that of Charlemagne, preserved at Vienna. It
+is composed of a series of four larger and four smaller plaques of gold,
+rounded at the tops and set together alternately. The larger plaques are
+richly ornamented with emeralds and sapphires, and the smaller plaques
+have each an enamelled figure of Our Lord, David, Solomon, and Hezekiah
+respectively. A jewelled cross rises from the large front plaque, and an
+arch bearing the name of the emperor Conrad springs across from the back
+of this cross to the back of the crown.
+
+At Madrid there is preserved the crown of Svintilla, king of the
+Visigoths, 621-631. It is a circlet of thick gold set with pearls,
+sapphires and other stones. It has been given as a votive offering at
+some period to a church, as was often the custom. Attached to its upper
+rim are the chains whereby to suspend it, and from the lower rim hang
+letters of red-coloured glass or paste which read +SVINTILANVS REX
+OFFERET. Two other Visigothic crowns are also preserved with it in the
+Armeria Real.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Papal Tiara (without the _infulae_).]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 2-4 from Meyer's _Konversations Lexikon_.
+
+FIG. 2.--Crown of the Holy Roman Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Crown of the German Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Crown of the Austrian Empire.]
+
+In 1858 a most remarkable discovery was made near Toledo, of eight gold
+crowns of the 7th century, fashioned lavishly with barbaric splendour.
+They are now in the Cluny Museum at Paris, having been purchased for
+L4000, the intrinsic value of the gold, without reckoning that of the
+jewels and precious stones, being not less than L600. The largest and
+most magnificent is the crown of Reccesvinto, king of the Visigoths from
+653 to 675. It is composed of a circlet of pure gold set with pearls and
+precious stones in great profusion, which gives it a most sumptuous
+appearance. It is 9 in. in diameter and more than 1/2 in. in thickness,
+the width of the circlet being 4 in. It has also been given as a votive
+offering to a church, and has the chains to hang it by attached to the
+upper rim, while from the lower rim depend pearls, sapphires and a
+series of richly jewelled letters 2 in. each in depth, which read
++RECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. The second of these crowns in size is
+generally thought to be that of the queen of Reccesvinto. It has no
+legend, but merely a cross hanging from it. The six others are smaller,
+and are all most richly ornamented. They are believed to have been the
+crowns of Reccesvinto's children. From one of them hangs a legend which
+relates that they were an offering to a church, which has been
+identified with much probability as that of Sorbas, a small town in the
+province of Almeria. It has been surmised that in the disturbances which
+soon afterwards followed they were buried out of sight for safety, where
+they were eventually discovered absolutely unharmed centuries
+afterwards. For a detailed description of these most remarkable crowns
+the reader must be referred to a paper by the late Mr Albert Way
+(_Archaeological Journal_, xvi. 253). Mr Way, in the article alluded to,
+says of the custom of offering crowns to churches that frequent notices
+of the usage may be found in the lives of the Roman pontiffs by
+Anastasius. "They are usually described as having been placed over the
+altar, and in many instances mention is made of jewelled crosses of gold
+appended within such crowns as an accessory ornament.... The crowns
+suspended in churches suggested doubtless the sumptuous pensile
+luminaries, frequently designated from a very early period as _coronae_,
+in which the form of the royal circlet was preserved in much larger
+proportions, as exemplified by the remarkable _corona_ still to be seen
+suspended in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle over the crypt in which
+the body of Charlemagne was deposited."
+
+Of modern continental crowns the imperial crown of Austria (fig. 4) may
+be mentioned. It is composed of a circlet of gold, adorned with precious
+stones and pearls, heightened with fleurs-de-lys, and is raised above
+the circlet in the form of a cap which is opened in the middle, so that
+the lower part is crescent-shaped; across this opening from front to
+back rises an arched fillet, enriched with pearls and surmounted by an
+orb, on which is a cross of pearls.
+
+The papal _tiara_ (a Greek word, of Persian origin, for a form of
+ancient Persian popular head-dress, standing high erect, and worn
+encircled by a diadem by the kings), the triple crown worn by the popes,
+has taken various forms since the 9th century. It is important to
+remember that the tiaras in old Italian pictures are inventions of the
+artists and not copied from actual examples. In its present shape,
+dating substantially from the Renaissance, it is a peaked head-covering
+not unlike a closed mitre (q.v.), round which are placed one above the
+other three circlets or open crowns.[1] Two bands, or _infulae_, as they
+are called, hang from it as in the case of a mitre. The tiara is the
+crown of the pope as a temporal sovereign (see TIARA).
+
+Pictorial representations in early manuscripts, and the rude effigies on
+their coins, are not very helpful in deciding as to the form of crown
+worn by the Anglo-Saxon and Danish kings of England before the Norman
+Conquest. In some cases it would appear as if the diadem studded with
+pearls had been worn, and in others something more of the character of a
+crown. We reach surer ground after the Conquest, for then the great
+seals, monumental effigies, and coins become more and more serviceable
+in determining the forms the crown took.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.
+
+Royal Crowns. William I. to Henry IV.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.
+
+Royal Crowns. Henry V. to Charles I.]
+
+The crown of William the Conqueror and his immediate successors seems to
+have been a plain circlet with four uprights, which terminated in
+trefoils (fig. 5), but Henry I. enriched the circlet with pearls or gems
+(fig. 6), and on his great seal the trefoils have something of the
+character of fleurs-de-lys. The effigy of Richard I. at Fontevrault
+shows a development of the crown; the trefoil heads are expanded, and
+are chased and jewelled. The crown of John is shown on his effigy at
+Worcester, though unfortunately it is rather badly mutilated. It shows,
+however, that the upper ornament was of fleurons set with jewels. Fig. 7
+shows generally this development of the crown in a restored form. The
+crown on the effigy of Henry III. at Westminster had a beaded row below
+the circlet, which is narrow and plain, and from it rises a series of
+plain trefoils with slightly raised points between them. The tomb was
+opened in 1774, and on the king's head was found an imitation crown of
+tin or latten gilt, with trefoils rising from its upper edge. This,
+although only made of base metal for the king's burial, may nevertheless
+be taken as exhibiting the form of the royal crown at the time, and it
+may be usefully compared with that on the effigy of the king, which was
+made in Edward I.'s reign (fig. 8). Edward I. used a crown of very
+similar design. In the crown of Edward II. we have perhaps the most
+graceful and elegant of all the forms which the English medieval crown
+assumed (fig. 9), and it seems to have continued without any marked
+alteration during the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. The crown on
+the head of the effigy of Henry IV. at Canterbury evidently represents
+one of great magnificence, both of design and ornament. What is perhaps
+lost of the grace of form of the crown of Edward II. is made up for by a
+profusion of adornment and ornamentation unsurpassed at any later period
+(fig. 10). The circlet is much wider and is richly chased and jewelled,
+and from it rise eight large leaves, the intervening spaces being filled
+with fleurs-de-lys of definite outline. It will be noted that this crown
+is, like its predecessors, what is known as an open crown, without any
+arches rising from the circlet, but in the accounts of the coronation of
+Henry IV. by Froissart and Waurin it is distinctly stated that the crown
+was arched in the form of a cross. This is the earliest mention of an
+arched crown, which is not represented on the great seal till that of
+Edward IV. in 1461. The crown, as shown on Henry IV.'s effigy, very
+probably represents the celebrated "Harry crown" which was afterwards
+broken up and employed as surety for the loan required by Henry V. when
+he was about to embark on his expedition to France. Fig. 11 shows the
+crown of Henry V. The crown of Henry VI. seems to have had three
+arches, and there is the same number shown on the crown of Henry VII.,
+which ensigns the hawthorn bush badge of that king. The crown of Edward
+IV. (fig. 12) shows two arches, and a crown similarly arched appears on
+the great seal of Richard III. Crowns, both open and arched, are
+represented in sculpture and paintings until the end of the reign of
+Edward IV., and the royal arms are occasionally ensigned by an open
+crown as late as the reign of Henry VIII. The crown of Henry VII. on his
+effigy in Westminster Abbey shows a circlet surmounted by four crosses
+and four fleurs-de-lys alternately, and has two arches rising from it. A
+similar crown appears on the great seal of Henry VIII. The crown of
+Henry VII. (fig. 13), which ensigns the royal arms above the south door
+of King's College chapel, Cambridge, has the motto of the order of the
+Garter round the circlet. Fig. 14 shows the form of crown used by Edward
+VI., but a tendency (not shown in the illustration) began of flattening
+the arches of the crown, and on some of the coins of Elizabeth the
+arches are not merely flattened, but are depressed in the centre, much
+after the character of the arches of the crown on many of the silver
+coins of the 19th century prior to 1887. The crowns of James I. and
+Charles I. had four arches, springing from the alternate crosses and
+fleurs-de-lys of the circlet (fig. 15). The crown which strangely enough
+surmounts the shield with the arms of the Commonwealth on the coins of
+Oliver Cromwell (as distinguished from those of the Commonwealth itself,
+which have no crown) is a royal crown with alternate crosses and
+fleurs-de-lys round the circlet, and is surmounted by three arches,
+which, though somewhat flattened, are not bent. On them rests the orb
+and cross. The crown used by Charles II. (fig. 16) shows the arches
+depressed in the centre, a feature of the royal crown which seems to
+have been continued henceforward till 1887, when the pointed form of the
+arches was resumed, in consonance with an idea that such a form
+indicated an imperial rather than a regal crown, Queen Victoria having
+been proclaimed empress of India in 1877. In the foregoing account the
+changes of the form of the crowns of the kings have been briefly
+noticed. Those crowns were the personal crowns, worn by the different
+kings on various state occasions, but they were all crowned before the
+Commonwealth with the ancient crown of St Edward, and the queens consort
+with that of Queen Edith. There were, in fact, two sets of regalia, the
+one used for the coronations and kept at Westminster, and the other that
+used on other occasions by the kings and kept in the Tower. The crowns
+of this latter set were the personal crowns made to fit the different
+wearers, and are those which have been briefly described. The crown of
+St Edward, with which the sovereigns were crowned, had a narrow circlet
+from which rose alternately four crosses and four fleurs-de-lys, and
+from the crosses sprang two arches, which at their crossing supported an
+orb and cross. These arches must have been a later addition, and
+possibly were first added for the coronation of Henry IV. (_vide
+supra_). Queen Edith's crown had a plain circlet with, so far as can be
+determined, four crosses of pearls or gems on it, and a large cross
+patee rising from it in front, and arches of jewels or pearls
+terminating in a large pearl at the top. A valuation of these ancient
+crowns was made at the time of the Commonwealth prior to their
+destruction. From this valuation we learn that St Edward's crown was of
+gold filigree or "wirework" as it is called, and was set with stones,
+and was valued at L248. Queen Edith's crown was found to be only of
+silver-gilt, with counterfeit pearls, sapphires and other stones, and
+was only valued at L16. At the Restoration an endeavour was made to
+reproduce as well as possible the old crowns and regalia according to
+their ancient form, and a new crown of St Edward was made on the lines
+of the old one for the coronation of Charles II. The framework of this
+crown, bereft of its jewels, is in the possession of Lady Amherst of
+Hackney. The crowns of James II., William III. and Anne generally
+resembled it in form (fig. 16). The later crowns of the Georges and
+William IV. are represented in general form in fig. 17. Although the
+marginal note in the coronation order of Queen Victoria indicates "K.
+Edward's crown" as that with which the late queen was to be crowned, it
+was actually the state or imperial crown worn by the sovereign when
+leaving the church after the ceremony that was used. It had been altered
+for the coronation, and the arches were formed of oak leaves (fig. 18).
+Fig. 19 shows Queen Victoria's crown with raised arches and without the
+inner cap of estate, which since the reign of Henry VII. has been
+degraded into forming a lining to the crowns of the sovereigns and the
+coronets of the peers. Fig. 20 shows the coronation crown of King Edward
+VII. The crown of Scotland, preserved with the Scottish regalia at
+Edinburgh, is believed to be composed of the original circlet worn by
+King Robert the Bruce. James V. made additions to it in 1535, and in
+general characteristics it much resembles an English crown of that date.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.
+
+Recent Forms of the English Crown.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.
+
+Coronation Crowns of Queen Victoria and King Edward VII.]
+
+The kings of arms in England, Scotland and Ireland wear crowns, the
+ornamentation of which round the upper rim of the circlet is composed of
+a row of acanthus or oak leaves. Round the circlet is the singularly
+inappropriate text from Psalm li., "_Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam
+misericordiam tuam_." The form of these crowns seems to have been
+settled in the reign of Charles II. Before that period they varied at
+different times, according to representations given of them in grants of
+arms, &c.
+
+This brings us to the crowns of lesser dignity, known for that reason as
+coronets, and worn by the five orders of peers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.
+
+Coronets of Dukes, Marquesses and Earls.]
+
+The use of crowns by dukes originated in 1362, when Edward III. created
+his sons Lionel and John dukes of Clarence and Lancaster respectively.
+This was done by investing them with a sword, a cap of maintenance or
+estate, and with a circlet of gold set with precious stones, which was
+imposed on the head. Previous to this dukes had been invested at their
+creation by the girding on of a sword only. In 1387 Richard II. created
+Richard de Vere marquess of Dublin, and invested him by girding on a
+sword, and by placing a golden circlet on his head. The golden circlet
+was confined to dukes and marquesses till 1444, when Henry VI. created
+Henry Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, premier earl, and the letters patent
+effecting this concede that the earl and his heirs shall wear a golden
+circlet on the head on feast days, even in the royal presence. As to the
+form of these circlets we have no clear knowledge. The dignity of a
+viscount was first created by Henry VI. in 1439, but nothing is said of
+any insignia pertaining to that dignity. It is believed that a circlet
+of gold with an upper rim of pearls was first conferred on a viscount by
+James I., who conceded it to Robert Cecil, Viscount Cranborne. However,
+in 1625-1626 it is definitely recorded that the viscounts carried their
+coronets in their hands in the coronation procession from Westminster
+Hall to the Abbey church. The use of a coronet by the barons dates from
+the coronation of Charles II., and by letters patent of the 7th of
+August 1661 their coronet is described as a circle of gold with six
+pearls on it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.
+
+Coronets of Viscounts and Barons.]
+
+At the present day the coronet of a duke (fig. 21) is formed of a
+circlet of gold, from which rise eight strawberry leaves. The coronet of
+a marquess (fig. 22) differs from that of a duke in having only four
+strawberry leaves, the intervening spaces being occupied by four low
+points which are surmounted by pearls. The coronet of an earl (fig. 23)
+differs again by having eight tall rays on each of which is set a pearl,
+the intervening spaces being occupied by strawberry leaves one-fourth of
+the height of the rays. The coronet of a viscount (fig. 24) has sixteen
+small pearls fixed to the golden circlet, and the coronet of a baron
+(fig. 25) has six large pearls similarly arranged.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. G. Wickham Legg, _English Coronation Records_
+  (London, 1901); _The Ancestor_, Nos. i. and ii. (London, 1902);
+  Stothard, _The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain_ (London, 1817).
+       (T. M. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A coloured drawing, done in the first half of the 18th century,
+    of the magnificent tiara made by the celebrated goldsmith, Caradosso,
+    for Julius II., is in the Print-Room, British Museum. It was
+    re-fashioned by Pius VI., but went with other treasure as part of the
+    indemnity to Napoleon. The splendid emerald at the summit, which was
+    engraved with the arms of Gregory XIII., was restored by Napoleon and
+    now adorns another papal tiara at Rome. In this drawing the three
+    crowns (a feature introduced at the beginning of the 14th century)
+    are represented by three bands of X-shaped ornament in enamelled
+    gold.
+
+
+
+
+CROWN DEBT, in English law, a debt due to the crown. By various
+statutes--the first dating from the reign of Henry VIII. (1541)--the
+crown has priority for its debts before all other creditors. At common
+law the crown always had a lien on the lands and goods of debtors by
+record, which could be enforced even when they had passed into the hands
+of other persons. The difficulty of ascertaining whether lands were
+subject to a crown lien or not was often very great, and a remedy was
+provided by the Judgments Act 1839, and the Crown Suits Act 1865. Now
+by the Land Charges Act 1900, no debt due to the crown operates as a
+charge on land until a writ of execution for the purpose of enforcing it
+has been registered under the Land Charges Registration and Searches Act
+1888. By the Act of 1541 specialty debts were put practically on the
+same footing as debts by record. Simple contract debts due to the crown
+also become specialty debts, and the rights of the crown are enforced by
+a summary process called an _extent_ (see WRIT).
+
+
+
+
+CROWNE, JOHN (d. c. 1703), British dramatist, was a native of Nova
+Scotia. His father "Colonel" William Crowne, accompanied the earl of
+Arundel on a diplomatic mission to Vienna in 1637, and wrote an account
+of his journey. He emigrated to Nova Scotia where he received a grant of
+land from Cromwell, but the French took possession of his property, and
+the home government did nothing to uphold his rights. When the son came
+to England his poverty compelled him to act as gentleman usher to an
+Independent lady of quality, and his enemies asserted that his father
+had been an Independent minister. He began his literary career with a
+romance, _Pandion and Amphigenia, or the History of the coy Lady of
+Thessalia_ (1665). In 1671 he produced a romantic play, _Juliana, or the
+Princess of Poland_, which has, in spite of its title, no pretensions to
+rank as an historical drama. The earl of Rochester procured for him,
+apparently with the sole object of annoying Dryden by infringing on his
+rights as poet-laureate, a commission to supply a masque for performance
+at court. _Calisto_ gained him the favour of Charles II., but Rochester
+proved a fickle patron, and his favour was completely alienated by the
+success of Crowne's heroic play in two parts, _The Destruction of
+Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian_ (1677). This piece contained a thinly
+disguised satire on the Puritan party in the description of the
+Pharisees, and about 1683 he produced a distinctly political play, _The
+City Politiques_, satirizing the Whig party and containing characters
+which were readily recognized as portraits of Titus Oates and others.
+This made him many enemies, and he petitioned the king for a small place
+that would release him from the necessity of writing for the stage. The
+king exacted one more comedy, which should, he suggested, be based on
+the _No pued esser_ of Moreto. This had already been unsuccessfully
+adapted, as Crowne discovered later, by Sir Thomas St Serfe, but in
+Crowne's hands it developed into _Sir Courtly Nice, It Cannot Be_
+(1685), a comedy which kept its place as a stock piece for nearly a
+century. Unfortunately Charles II. died before the play was completed,
+and Crowne was disappointed of his reward. He continued to write plays,
+and it is stated that he was still living in 1703, but nothing is known
+of his later life.
+
+Crowne was a fertile writer of plays with an historical setting, in
+which heroic love was, in the fashion of the French romances, made the
+leading motive. The prosaic level of his style saved him as a rule from
+the rant to be found in so many contemporary heroic plays, but these
+pieces are of no particular interest. He was much more successful in
+comedy of the kind that depicts "humours."
+
+  _The History of Charles the Eighth of France, or The Invasion of
+  Naples by the French_ (1672) was dedicated to Rochester. In _Timon_,
+  generally supposed to have been written by the earl, a line from this
+  piece--"whilst sporting waves smil'd on the rising sun"--was held up
+  to ridicule. _The Ambitious Statesman, or The Loyal Favourite_ (1679),
+  one of the most extravagant of his heroic efforts, deals with the
+  history of Bernard d'Armagnac, Constable of France, after the battle
+  of Agincourt; _Thyestes, A Tragedy_ (1681), spares none of the horrors
+  of the Senecan tragedy, although an incongruous love story is
+  interpolated; _Darius, King of Persia_ (1688), _Regulus_ (acted 1692,
+  pr. 1694) and _Caligula_ (1698) complete the list of his tragedies.
+  _The Country Wit: A Comedy_ (acted 1675, pr. 1693), derived in part
+  from Moliere's _Le Sicilien, ou l'amour peintre_, is remembered for
+  the leading character, Sir Mannerly Shallow; _The English Frier; or
+  The Town Sparks_ (acted 1689, pr. 1690), perhaps suggested by
+  Moliere's _Tartuffe_, ridicules the court Catholics, and in Father
+  Finical caricatures Father Petre; and _The Married Beau; or The
+  Curious Impertinent_ (1694), is based on the _Curioso Impertinente_ in
+  Don Quixote. He also produced a version of Racine's _Andromaque_, an
+  adaptation from Shakespeare's Henry VI., and an unsuccessful comedy,
+  _Justice Busy_.
+
+  See _The Dramatic Works of John Crowne_ (4 vols., 1873), edited by
+  James Maidment and W. H. Logan for the _Dramatists of the
+  Restoration_.
+
+
+
+
+
+CROWN LAND, in the United Kingdom, land belonging to the crown, the
+hereditary revenues of which were surrendered to parliament in the reign
+of George III.
+
+In Anglo-Saxon times the property of the king consisted of (a) his
+private estate, (b) the demesne of the crown, comprising palaces, &c.,
+and (c) rights over the folkland of the kingdom. By the time of the
+Norman Conquest the three became merged into the estate of the crown,
+that is, land annexed to the crown, held by the king as king. The king,
+also, ceased to hold as a private owner,[1] but he had full power of
+disposal by grant of the crown lands, which were increased from time to
+time by confiscation, escheat, forfeiture, &c. The history of the crown
+lands to the reign of William III. was one of continuous alienation to
+favourites. Their wholesale distribution by William III. necessitated
+the intervention of parliament, and in the reign of Queen Anne an act
+was passed limiting the right of alienation of crown lands to a period
+of not more than thirty-one years or three lives. The revenue from the
+crown lands was also made to constitute part of the civil list. At the
+beginning of his reign George III. surrendered his interest in the crown
+lands in return for a fixed "civil list" (q.v.). The control and
+management of the crown lands is now regulated by the Crown Lands Act
+1829 and various amending acts. Under these acts their management is
+entrusted to the commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues, who
+have certain statutory powers as to leasing, selling, exchanging, &c.
+
+In theory, also, state lands in the British colonies are supposed to be
+vested in the crown, and they are called crown lands; actually, however,
+the various colonial legislatures have full control over them and power
+of disposal. The term "crown-lands," in Austria, is applied to the
+various provinces into which that country is divided. (See AUSTRIA.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The duchy of Lancaster, which was the private property of Henry
+    IV. before he ascended the throne, was assured to him and his heirs
+    by a special act of parliament. In the first year of Henry VII. it
+    was united to the crown, but as a separate property.
+
+
+
+
+CROWN POINT, a village of Essex county, New York, U.S.A., in a township
+of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. of Albany and about 10 m. N. of
+Ticonderoga, on the W. shore of Lake Champlain. Pop. of the township
+(1890) 3135; (1900) 2112; (1905) 1890; (1910) 1690; of the village,
+about 1000. The village is served by the Delaware & Hudson Railway and
+by the Champlain Canal. Among the manufactures are lumber and
+woodenware. Graphite has been found in the western part of the township,
+and spar is mined. In 1609 Champlain fought near here the engagement
+with the Iroquois Indians which marked the beginning of the long enmity
+between the Five (later Six) Nations and the French. Subsequently Dutch
+and English traders trafficked in the vicinity, the latter maintaining
+here for many years a regular trading-post. In 1731 the French built
+here Fort Frederic, the first military post at Crown Point, and the
+place was subsequently for many years of considerable strategic
+importance, owing to its situation on Lake Champlain, which with Lake
+George furnished a comparatively easy route from Canada to New York.
+Twice during the French and Indian War, in 1755 and again in 1756,
+English and colonial expeditions were sent against it in vain; it
+remained in French hands until 1759, when, after Lord Jeffrey Amherst's
+occupation of Ticonderoga, the garrison joined that of the latter place
+and retreated to Canada. Crown Point was then occupied by Amherst, who
+during the winter of 1759-1760 began the construction, about a quarter
+of a mile from the old Fort Frederic, of a large fort, which was
+garrisoned but was never completed; the ruins of this fort (not of Fort
+Frederic) still remain. At the outbreak of the War of Independence, on
+the 11th of May 1775, the fort, whose garrison then consisted of only a
+dozen men, was captured by Colonel Seth Warner and a force of "Green
+Mountain Boys," sent from Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen; and it remained in
+American hands save for a brief period in 1777, when it was occupied by
+a detachment of Burgoyne's invading army.
+
+
+
+
+CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI (1809?-1891), African missionary-bishop, was born
+at Ochugu in the Yoruba country, West Africa, and was sold into slavery
+in 1821. Next year he was rescued, with many other captives, by H.M.
+ship "Myrmidon," and was landed at Sierra Leone. Educated there in a
+missionary school, he was baptized on the 11th of December 1825. In time
+he became a teacher at Furah Bay, and afterwards an energetic missionary
+on the Niger. He came to England in 1842, entered the Church Missionary
+College at Islington, and in June 1843 was ordained by Bishop Blomfield.
+Returning to Africa, he laboured with great success amongst his own
+people and afterwards at Abeokuta. Here he devoted himself to the
+preparation of school-books, and the translation of the Bible and
+Prayer-Book into Yoruba and other dialects. He also established a trade
+in cotton, and improved the native agriculture. In 1857 he commenced the
+third expedition up the Niger, and after labouring with varied success,
+returned to England and was consecrated, on St Peter's Day 1864, first
+bishop of the Niger territories. Before long a commencement was made of
+the missions to the delta of the Niger, and between 1866 and 1884
+congregations of Christians were formed at Bonny, Brass and New Calabar,
+but the progress made was slow and subject to many impediments. In 1888
+the tide of persecution turned, and several chiefs embraced
+Christianity, and on Crowther's return from another visit to England,
+the large iron church known as "St Stephen's cathedral" was opened.
+Crowther died of paralysis on the 31st of December 1891, having
+displayed as a missionary for many years untiring industry, great
+practical wisdom, and deep piety.
+
+
+
+
+CROYDON, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Surrey,
+England, suburban to London, 10 m. S. of London Bridge. Pop. (1891)
+102,695; (1901) 133,895. The borough embraces a great residential
+district. Several railway stations give it communication with all parts
+of the metropolis, the principal railways serving it being the London,
+Brighton & South Coast and the South-Eastern & Chatham. It stands near
+the sources of the river Wandle, under Banstead Downs, and is a place of
+great antiquity. The original site, farther west than the present town,
+is mentioned in Domesday Book. The derivation indicated is from the O.
+Fr. _croie dune_, chalk hill. The supposition that here was the Roman
+station of _Noviomagus_ is rejected. The site is remarkable for the
+number of springs which issue from the soil. One of these, called the
+"Bourne," bursts forth a short way above the town at irregular intervals
+of one to ten years or more; and after running a torrent for two or
+three months, as quickly vanishes. Until its course was diverted it
+caused destructive floods. This phenomenon seems to arise from rains
+which, falling on the chalk hills, sink into the porous soil and
+reappear after a time from crevices at lower levels. The manor of
+Croydon was presented by William the Conqueror to Archbishop Lanfranc,
+who is believed to have founded the archiepiscopal palace there, which
+was the occasional residence of his successors till about 1750, and of
+which the chapel and hall remain. Addington Park, 3(1/2) m. from Croydon,
+was purchased for the residence, in 1807, of the archbishop of
+Canterbury, but was sold in consequence of Archbishop Temple's decision
+to reside at the palace, Canterbury. The neighbouring church, which is
+Norman and Early English, contains several memorials of archbishops.
+Near the park a group of tumuli and a circular encampment are seen.
+Croydon is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Canterbury. The
+parish church of St John the Baptist appears to have been built in the
+14th and 15th centuries, but to have contained remains of an older
+building. The church was restored or rebuilt in the 16th century, and
+again restored by Sir Gilbert Scott in 1857-1859. It was destroyed by
+fire, with the exception of the tower, on the 5th of January 1867, and
+was at once rebuilt by Scott on the old lines. In 1596 Archbishop
+Whitgift founded the hospital or almshouse which bears his name, and
+remains in its picturesque brick buildings surrounding two quadrangles.
+His grammar school was housed in new buildings in 1871, and is a
+flourishing day school. The principal public building of Croydon is that
+erected by the corporation for municipal business; it included
+court-rooms and the public library. At Addiscombe in the neighbourhood
+was formerly a mansion dating from 1702, and acquired by the East India
+Company in 1809 for a Military College, which on the abolition of the
+Company became the Royal Military College for the East Indian Army, and
+was closed in 1862. Croydon was formed into a municipal borough in 1883,
+a parliamentary borough, returning one member, in 1885, and a county
+borough in 1888. The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36
+councillors. Area, 9012 acres.
+
+
+
+
+CROZAT, PIERRE (1661-1740), French art collector, was born at Toulouse,
+one of a family who were prominent French financiers and collectors. He
+became treasurer to the king in Paris, and gradually acquired a
+magnificent collection of pictures and _objets d'art_. Between 1729 and
+1742 a finely illustrated work was published in two volumes, known as
+the _Cabinet Crozat_, including the finest pictures in French
+collections. Most of his own treasures descended to his nephews, Louis
+Francois (d. 1750), Joseph Antoine (d. 1750), and Louis Antoine (d.
+1770), and were augmented by them, being dispersed after their deaths;
+the collection of Louis Antoine Crozat went to St Petersburg.
+
+
+
+
+CROZET ISLANDS, an uninhabited group in the Indian Ocean, in 46 deg.-47
+deg. S. and 51 deg. E. They are mountainous, with summits from 4000 to
+5000 ft. high, and are disposed in two divisions--Penguin or
+Inaccessible, Hog, Possession and East Islands; and the Twelve Apostles.
+Like Kerguelen, and other clusters in these southern waters, they appear
+to be of igneous formation; but owing to the bleak climate and their
+inaccessible character they are seldom visited, and have never been
+explored since their discovery in 1772 by Marion-Dufresne, after one of
+whose officers they are named. Possession, the highest, has a snowy peak
+said to exceed 5000 ft. Hog Island takes its name from the animals which
+were here let loose by an English captain many years ago, but have since
+disappeared. Rabbits burrow in the heaps of scoria on the slopes of the
+mountains.
+
+
+
+
+CROZIER, WILLIAM (1855-   ), American artillerist and inventor, born at
+Carrollton, Carroll county, Ohio, on the 19th of February 1855, was the
+son of Robert Crozier (1827-1895), chief justice of Kansas in 1863-1866,
+and a United States senator from that state from December 1873 to
+February 1874. He graduated at West Point in 1876, was appointed a 2nd
+lieutenant in the 4th Artillery, and served on the Western frontier for
+three years against the Sioux and Bannock Indians. From 1879 to 1884 he
+was instructor in mathematics at West Point, and was superintendent of
+the Watertown (Massachusetts) Arsenal from 1884 to 1887. In 1888 he was
+sent by the war department to study recent developments in artillery in
+Europe, and upon his return he was placed in full charge of the
+construction of gun carriages for the army, and with General Adelbert R.
+Buffington (1837-   ), the chief of ordnance, he invented the
+Buffington-Crozier disappearing gun carriage (1896). He also invented a
+wire-wound gun, and perfected many appliances connected with heavy and
+field ordnance. In 1890 he attained the rank of captain. During the
+Spanish-American War he was inspector-general for the Atlantic and Gulf
+coast defences. In 1899 he was one of the American delegates to the
+Peace Conference at the Hague. He later served in the Philippine Islands
+on the staffs of Generals John C. Bates and Theodore Schwan, and in 1900
+was chief of ordnance on the staff of General A. R. Chaffee during the
+Pekin Relief Expedition. In November 1901 he was appointed
+brigadier-general and succeeded General Buffington as chief of ordnance
+of the United States army. His _Notes on the Construction of Ordnance_,
+published by the war department, are used as text-books in the schools
+for officers, and he is also the author of other important publications
+on military subjects.
+
+
+
+
+CROZIER, or pastoral staff, one of the insignia of a bishop, and
+probably derived from the _lituus_ of the Roman augurs. It is
+crook-headed, and borne by bishops and archbishops alike (see PASTORAL
+STAFF). The word "crozier" or "crosier" represents the O. Fr. _crocier_,
+Med. Lat. _crociarius_, the bearer of the episcopal crook (Med. Lat.
+_crocea_, _croccia_, &c., Fr. _croc_). The English representative of
+_crocea_ was _crose_, later _crosse_, which, becoming confused with
+"cross" (q.v.), was replaced by "crozier-staff" or "crozier's staff,"
+and then, at the beginning of the 16th century, by "crozier" (see J. T.
+Taylor, _Archaeologia_, Iii., "On the Use of the Terms Crosier, Pastoral
+Staff and Cross").
+
+
+
+
+CRUCIAL (from Lat. _crux_, a cross), that which has the form of a cross,
+as the "crucial ligaments" of the knee-joint, which cross each other,
+connecting the femur and the tibia. From Francis Bacon's expression
+_instantia crucis_ (taken, as he says, from the finger-post or _crux_ at
+cross-roads) for a phenomenon which decides between two causes which
+have each similar analogies in its favour, comes the use of "crucial"
+for that which decides between two alternatives, hence, generally, as a
+synonym for "critical." The word is also used, with a reference to the
+use of a "crucible," of something which tests and tries.
+
+
+
+
+CRUCIFERAE, or Crucifer family, a natural order of flowering plants,
+which derives its name from the cruciform arrangement of the four petals
+of the flower. It is an order of herbaceous plants, many of which, such
+as wallflower, stock, mustard, cabbage, radish and others, are
+well-known garden or field-plants. Many of the plants are annuals; among
+these are some of the commonest weeds of cultivation, shepherd's purse
+(_Capsella Bursa-pastoris_), charlock (_Brassica Sinapis_), and such
+common plants as hedge mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_),
+Jack-by-the-hedge (_S. Alliaria_ or _Alliaria officinalis_). Others are
+biennials producing a number of leaves on a very short stem in the first
+year, and in the second sending up a flowering shoot at the expense of
+the nourishment stored in the thick tap-root during the previous
+season. Under cultivation this root becomes much enlarged, as in turnip,
+swede and others. Wallflower (_Cheiranthus Cheiri_) (fig. 1) is a
+perennial. The leaves when borne on an elongated stem are arranged
+alternately and have no stipules. The flowers are arranged in racemes
+without bracts; during the life of the flower its stalk continues to
+grow so that the open flowers of an inflorescence stand on a level (that
+is, are corymbose). The flowers are regular, with four free sepals
+arranged in two pairs at right angles, four petals arranged crosswise in
+one series, and two sets of stamens, an outer with two members and an
+inner with four, in two pairs placed in the middle line of the flower
+and at right angles to the outer series. The four inner stamens are
+longer than the two outer; and the stamens are hence collectively
+described as tetradynamous. The pistil, which is above the rest of the
+members of the flower, consists of two carpels joined at their edges to
+form the ovary, which becomes two-celled by subsequent ingrowth of a
+septum from these united edges; a row of ovules springs from each edge.
+The fruit is a pod or siliqua splitting by two valves from below upwards
+and leaving the placentas with the seeds attached to the _replum_ or
+framework of the septum. The seeds are filled with the large embryo, the
+two cotyledons of which are variously folded. In germination the
+cotyledons come above ground and form the first green leaves of the
+plant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Wallflower (_Cheiranthus Cheiri_), reduced. 1,
+Flower in vertical section. 2, Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower
+in _Barbarea_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cruciferae._ Floral Diagram (_Brassica_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Cardamine pratensis._ Flower with Perianth
+removed. (After Baillon.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cruciferous Fruits. (After Baillon.)
+
+  A, _Cheiranthus Cheiri._
+  B, _Lepidium sativum._
+  C, _Capsella Bursa-pastoris._
+  D, _Lunaria biennis_, showing the septum after the carpels have fallen
+       away.
+  E, _Crambe maritima._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Seeds of _Cruciferae_ cut across to show the
+radicle and cotyledons. (After Baillon.)
+
+  A, _Cheiranthus Cheiri._
+  B, _Sisymbrium Alliaria._
+
+Figures 2-5 are from Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.]
+
+Pollination is effected by aid of insects. The petals are generally
+white or yellow, more rarely lilac or some other colour, and between the
+bases of the stamens are honey-glands. Some or all of the anthers become
+twisted so that insects in probing for honey will touch the anthers with
+one side of their head and the capitate stigma with the other. Owing,
+however, to the close proximity of stigma and anthers, very slight
+irregularity in the movements of the visiting insect will cause
+self-pollination, which may also occur by the dropping of pollen from
+the anthers of the larger stamens on to the stigma.
+
+Cruciferae is a large order containing nearly 200 genera and about 1200
+species. It has a world-wide distribution, but finds its chief
+development in the temperate and frigid zones, especially of the
+northern hemisphere, and as Alpine plants. In the subdivision of the
+order into tribes use is made of differences in the form of the fruit
+and the manner of folding of the embryo. When the fruit is several times
+longer than broad it is known as a siliqua, as in stock or wallflower;
+when about as long as broad, a silicula, as in shepherd's purse.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Honesty (_Lunaria biennis_), showing Flower and
+Fruit. Reduced.]
+
+The order is well represented in Britain--among others by _Nasturtium_
+(_N. officinale_, water-cress), _Arabis_ (rock-cress), _Cardamine_
+(bitter-cress), _Sisymbrium_ (hedge mustard, &c.; _S. Irio_ is London
+rocket, so-called because it sprang up after the fire of 1666),
+_Brassica_ (cabbage and mustard), _Diplotaxis_ (rocket), _Cochlearia_
+(scurvy-grass), _Capsella_ (shepherd's purse), _Lepidium_ (cress),
+_Thlaspi_ (penny-cress), _Cakile_ (sea rocket), _Raphanus_ (radish), and
+others. Of economic importance are species of _Brassica_, including
+mustard (_B. nigra_), white mustard, used when young in salads (_B.
+alba_), cabbage (q.v.) and its numerous forms derived from _B.
+oleracea_, turnip (_B. campestris_), and swede (_B. Napus_), _Raphanus
+sativus_ (radish), _Cochlearia Armoracia_ (horse-radish), _Nasturtium
+officinale_ (water-cress), _Lepidium sativum_ (garden cress). _Isatis_
+affords a blue dye, woad. Many of the genera are known as ornamental
+garden plants; such are _Cheiranthus_ (wallflower), _Matthiola_ (stock),
+_Iberis_ (candy-tuft), _Alyssum_ (Alison), _Hesperis_ (dame's violet),
+Lunaria (honesty) (fig. 6), _Aubrietia_ and others.
+
+
+
+
+CRUDEN, ALEXANDER (1701-1770), author of the well-known concordance
+(q.v.) to the English Bible, was born at Aberdeen on the 31st of May
+1701. He was educated at the grammar school, Aberdeen, and studied at
+Marischal College, intending to enter the ministry. He took the degree
+of master of arts, but soon after began to show signs of insanity owing
+to a disappointment in love. After a term of confinement he recovered
+and removed to London. In 1722 he had an engagement as private tutor to
+the son of a country squire living at Eton Hall, Southgate, and also
+held a similar post at Ware. Years afterwards, in an application for the
+title of bookseller to the queen, he stated that he had been for some
+years corrector for the press in Wild Court. This probably refers to
+this time. In 1729 he was employed by the 10th earl of Derby as a reader
+and secretary, but was discharged on the 7th of July for his ignorance
+of French pronunciation. He then lodged in a house in Soho frequented
+exclusively by Frenchmen, and took lessons in the language in the hope
+of getting back his post with the earl, but when he went to Knowsley in
+Lancashire, the earl would not see him. He returned to London and opened
+a bookseller's shop in the Royal Exchange. In April 1735 he obtained the
+title of bookseller to the queen by recommendation of the lord mayor and
+most of the Whig aldermen. The post was an unremunerative sinecure. In
+1737 he finished his concordance, which, he says, was the work of
+several years. It was presented to the queen on the 3rd of November
+1737, a fortnight before her death.
+
+Although Cruden's biblical labours have made his name a household word
+among English-speaking people, he was disappointed in his hopes of
+immediate profit, and his mind again became unhinged. In spite of his
+earnest and self-denying piety, and his exceptional intellectual powers,
+he developed idiosyncrasies, and his life was marred by a harmless but
+ridiculous egotism, which so nearly bordered on insanity that his
+friends sometimes thought it necessary to have him confined. He paid
+unwelcome addresses to a widow, and was confined in a madhouse in
+Bethnal Green. On his release he published a pamphlet dedicated to Lord
+H. (probably Harrington, secretary of state) entitled _The London
+Citizen exceedingly injured, or a British Inquisition Displayed_. He
+also published an account of his trial, dedicated to the king. In
+December 1740 he writes to Sir H. Sloane saying he has been employed
+since July as Latin usher in a boarding-school at Enfield. He then found
+work as a proof-reader, and several editions of Greek and Latin classics
+are said to have owed their accuracy to his care. He superintended the
+printing of one of Matthew Henry's commentaries, and in 1750 printed a
+small _Compendium of the Holy Bible_ (an abstract of the contents of
+each chapter), and also reprinted a larger edition of the _Concordance_.
+
+About this time he adopted the title of "Alexander the Corrector," and
+assumed the office of correcting the morals of the nation, especially
+with regard to swearing and Sunday observance. For this office he
+believed himself divinely commissioned, but he petitioned parliament for
+a formal appointment in this capacity. In April 1755 he printed a letter
+to the speaker and other members of the House of Commons, and about the
+same time an "Address to the King and Parliament." He was in the habit
+of carrying a sponge, with which he effaced all inscriptions which he
+thought contrary to good morals. In September 1753, through being
+involved in a street brawl, he was confined in an asylum in Chelsea for
+seventeen days at the instance of his sister, Mrs Wild. He brought an
+unsuccessful action against his friends, and seriously proposed that
+they should go into confinement as an atonement. He published an account
+of this second restraint in "The Adventures of Alexander the Corrector."
+He made attempts to present to the king in person an account of his
+trial, and to obtain the honour of knighthood, one of his predicted
+honours. In 1754 he was nominated as parliamentary candidate for the
+city of London, but did not go to the poll. In 1755 he paid unwelcome
+addresses to the daughter of Sir Thomas Abney, of Newington (1640-1722),
+and then published his letters and the history of his repulse in the
+third part of his "Adventures." In June and July 1755 he visited Oxford
+and Cambridge. He was treated with the respect due to his learning by
+officials and residents in both universities, but experienced some
+boisterous fooling at the hands of the undergraduates. At Cambridge he
+was knighted with mock ceremonies. There he appointed "deputy
+correctors" to represent him in the university. He also visited Eton,
+Windsor, Tonbridge and Westminster schools, where he appointed four boys
+to be his deputies. (An _Admonition to Cambridge_ is preserved among
+letters from J. Neville of Emmanuel to Dr Cox Macro, in the British
+Museum.) _The Corrector's Earnest Address to the Inhabitants of Great
+Britain_, published in 1756, was occasioned by the earthquake at Lisbon.
+In 1762 he saved an ignorant seaman, Richard Potter, from the gallows,
+and in 1763 published a pamphlet recording the history of the case.
+Against John Wilkes, whom he hated, he wrote a small pamphlet, and used
+to delete with his sponge the number 45 wherever he found it, this being
+the offensive number of the _North Briton_. In 1769 he lectured in
+Aberdeen as "Corrector," and distributed copies of the fourth
+commandment and various religious tracts. The wit that made his
+eccentricities palatable is illustrated by the story of how he gave to a
+conceited young minister whose appearance displeased him _A Mother's
+Catechism dedicated to the young and ignorant_. The _Scripture
+Dictionary_, compiled about this time, was printed in Aberdeen in two
+volumes shortly after his death. Alexander Chalmers, who in his boyhood
+heard Cruden lecture in Aberdeen and wrote his biography, says that a
+verbal index to Milton, which accompanied the edition of Thomas Newton,
+bishop of Bristol, in 1769, was Cruden's.
+
+The second edition of the Bible _Concordance_ was published in 1761, and
+presented to the king in person on the 21st of December. The third
+appeared in 1769. Both contain a pleasing portrait of the author. He is
+said to have gained L800 by these two editions. He returned to London
+from Aberdeen, and died suddenly while praying in his lodgings in Camden
+Passage, Islington, on the 1st of November 1770. He was buried in the
+ground of a Protestant dissenting congregation in Dead Man's Place,
+Southwark. He bequeathed a portion of his savings for a L5 bursary at
+Aberdeen, which preserves his name on the list of benefactors of the
+university.     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+CRUDEN, a village and parish on the E. coast of Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
+Pop. of parish (1901) 3444. It is situated at the head of Cruden Bay,
+29(3/4) m. N.N.E. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway
+company's branch line from Ellon to Boddam. The golf-course of 18 holes
+is one of the best in Scotland, and there is a sandy beach, with good
+bathing. There is some good fishing at Port Erroll, also called Ward of
+Cruden. Prehistoric remains have been found in the parish, and near
+Ardendraught, not far from the shore, Malcolm II. is said to have
+defeated Canute in 1014. The Water of Cruden, which rises a few miles to
+the west, flows through the village into the North Sea. Slains Castle, a
+seat of the earl of Erroll, lies to the north of Cruden, but must not be
+confounded with the old castle of Slains, about 5 m. to the south-west,
+near the point where, according to tradition, the "St Catherine" of the
+Spanish Armada foundered in 1588. The Bullers of Buchan are within 2 m.
+walk of Cruden.
+
+
+
+
+CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. _crualte_, mod. _cruaute_, from the Lat.
+_crudelitas_), the intentional infliction of pain or suffering. It is
+only necessary to deal here with the legal relations involved. Statutory
+provision for the prevention of cruelty to those who are unable to
+protect themselves has been particularly marked in the 19th century. The
+increase of legislation for the protection of children, lunatics and
+animals is a proof of the growing humanitarianism of the age. There was
+at one time a tendency among jurists to question whether, for instance,
+the prevention of cruelty to animals was not a recognition of a certain
+quasi-right in animals, or whether it was merely that such exhibitions
+as bull- and bear-baiting, cock-fights, &c., were demoralizing to the
+public generally. The true fact seems to be that the first introduction
+of such legislation was undoubtedly due to the desire for the promotion
+of humanity, but that the principle, for the recognition of which the
+time was not yet ripe, had to be excused in the eyes of the public by
+the plea that cruelty had a demoralizing effect upon spectators (see A.
+V. Dicey, _Law and Opinion in England_, p. 188; T. E. Holland,
+_Jurisprudence_, 10th ed., p. 372).
+
+_Cruelty to Animals._--The English common law has never taken cognizance
+of the commission of acts of cruelty upon animals, and direct
+legislation upon the subject, dating from the 19th century, was due in a
+great measure to public agitation, supported by the Royal Society for
+the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded in 1824). Various acts
+were passed in 1822 (known as Martin's Act), 1835 and 1837, and these
+were amended and consolidated by the Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and
+1854, which, with the Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900, are
+the main acts upon the subject. There are also, in addition, many other
+acts that impose certain liabilities in respect of animals and
+indirectly prevent cruelty. The Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and 1854
+render liable to prosecution and fine practically any act of cruelty to
+an animal; such acts as dubbing a cock, cropping the ears of a dog or
+dishorning cattle, are offences. The latter practice, however, is
+allowed both in Scotland and Ireland, the courts having held that the
+advantages to be obtained from dishorning outweigh the pain caused by
+the operation. The word "animal" is defined as meaning "any domestic
+animal" of whatever kind or species, and whether a quadruped or not. The
+act of 1849 also forbids bull- and bear-baiting, or fighting between any
+kinds of animals; requires the provision of food and water to animals
+impounded; lays down regulations as to the treatment of animals sent for
+slaughter, and imposes a penalty for improperly conveying animals. The
+Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900 extends to wild animals in
+captivity that protection which the acts of 1849 and 1854 conferred on
+domestic animals, making exception of any act done or any omission in
+the preparation of animals for the food of man or for sport. The word
+"animal" in the act includes bird, beast, fish or reptile. The Dogs Act
+1865 rendered owners of dogs liable for injuries to cattle and sheep;
+the Dogs Act 1906 extended the owner's liability for injury done to any
+cattle by a dog, and further, where a dog is proved to have injured
+cattle or chased sheep it may be treated as a dangerous dog and must be
+kept under proper control or be destroyed. The Drugging of Animals Act
+1876 imposes a penalty on giving poisonous drugs to any domestic animal
+unlawfully. The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed for the purpose
+of regulating the practice of vivisection (q.v.). The Ground Game Act
+1880, prohibits night shooting, or the use of spring traps above ground
+or poison. The Injured Animals Act 1907 enables police constables to
+cause any animal when mortally or seriously injured to be slaughtered.
+The Diseases of Animals Act 1894 and orders under it are for the purpose
+of securing animals from unnecessary suffering, as well as from disease.
+Finally, the Wild Birds Protection Acts 1880 to 1904, with various game
+acts (see GAME LAWS), extend the protection of the law to wild birds.
+The acts establish a close time for wild birds and impose penalties for
+shooting or taking them within that time; prohibit the exposing or
+offering for sale within certain dates any wild bird recently killed or
+taken unless bought or received from some person residing out of the
+United Kingdom; the taking or destroying of wild birds' eggs, the
+setting of pole traps, and the taking of a wild bird by means of a hook
+or other similar instrument.
+
+For the law relating to the prevention of cruelty to children see
+CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; for cruelty in the sense of such conduct as
+entitles a husband or wife to judicial separation see DIVORCE.
+     (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE (1792-1878), English artist, caricaturist and
+illustrator, was born in London on the 27th of September 1792. By
+natural disposition and collateral circumstances he may be accepted as
+the type of the born humoristic artist predestined for this special form
+of art. His grandfather had taken up the arts, and his father, Isaac
+Cruikshank, followed the painter's profession. Amidst these surroundings
+the children were born and brought up, their first playthings the
+materials of the arts their father practised. George followed the family
+traditions with amazing facility, easily surpassing his compeers as an
+etcher. When the father died, about 1811, George, still in his teens,
+was already a successful and popular artist. All his acquisitions were
+native gifts, and of home-growth; outside training, or the serious
+apprenticeship to art, were dispensed with, under the necessity of
+working for immediate profit. This lack of academic training the artist
+at times found cause to regret, and at some intervals he made exertions
+to cultivate the knowledge obtainable by studying from the antique and
+drawing from life at the schools. From boyhood he was accustomed to turn
+his artistic talents to ready account, disposing of designs and etchings
+to the printsellers, and helping his father in forwarding his plates.
+Before he was twenty his spirited style and talent had secured popular
+recognition; the contemporary of Gillray, Rowlandson, Alken, Heath,
+Dighton, and the established caricaturists of that generation, he
+developed great proficiency as an etcher. Gillray's matured and trained
+skill had some influence upon his executive powers, and when the older
+caricaturist passed away in 1815, George Cruikshank had already taken
+his place as a satirist. Prolific and dexterous beyond his competitors,
+for a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals with fine
+impartiality. Satirical capital came to him from every public
+event,--wars abroad, the enemies of England (for he was always fervidly
+patriotic), the camp, the court, the senate, the Church; low life, high
+life; the humours of the people, the follies of the great. In this
+wonderful gallery the student may grasp the popular side of most
+questions which for the time being engaged public attention. George
+Cruikshank's technical and manipulative skill as an etcher was such that
+Ruskin and the best judges have placed his productions in the foremost
+rank; in this respect his works have been compared favourably with the
+masterpieces of etching. He died at 263 Hampstead Road on the 1st of
+February 1878. His remains rest in St Paul's cathedral.
+
+A vast number of Cruikshank's spirited cartoons were published as
+separate caricatures, all coloured by hand; others formed series, or
+were contributed to satirical magazines, the _Satirist_, _Town Talk_,
+_The Scourge_ (1811-1816) and the like ephemeral publications. In
+conjunction with William Hone's scathing tracts, G. Cruikshank produced
+political satires to illustrate the series of facetiae and miscellanies,
+like _The Political House that Jack Built_ (1819).
+
+Of a more genially humoristic order are his well-known book
+illustrations, now so deservedly esteemed for their inimitable fun and
+frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which
+he excelled. Early in this series came _The Humorist_ (1819-1821) and
+_Life in Paris_ (1822). The well-known series of _Life in London_,
+conjointly produced by the brothers I. R. and G. Cruikshank, has enjoyed
+a prolonged reputation, and is still sought after by collectors. Grimm's
+_Collection of German Popular Stories_ (1824-1826), in two series, with
+22 inimitable etchings, are in themselves sufficient to account for G.
+Cruikshank's reputation. To the first fourteen volumes (1837-1843) of
+_Bentley's Miscellany_ Cruikshank contributed 126 of his best plates,
+etched on steel, including the famous illustrations to _Oliver Twist_,
+_Jack Sheppard_, _Guy Fawkes_ and _The Ingoldsby Legends_. For W.
+Harrison Ainsworth, Cruikshank illustrated _Rookwood_ (1836) and _The
+Tower of London_ (1840); the first six volumes of _Ainsworth's Magazine_
+(1842-1844) were illustrated by him with several of his finest suites of
+etchings. For C. Lever's _Arthur O'Leary_ he supplied 10 full-page
+etchings (1844), and 20 spirited graphic etchings for Maxwell's lurid
+_History of the Irish Rebellion in 1798_ (1845). Of his own
+speculations, mention must be made of _George Cruikshank's Omnibus_
+(1841) and _George Cruikshank's Table Book_ (1845), as well as his
+_Comic Almanack_ (1835-1853). _The Life of Sir John Falstaff_ contained
+20 full-page etchings (1857-1858). These are a few leading items amongst
+the thousands of illustrations emanating from that fertile imagination.
+As an enthusiastic teetotal advocate, G. Cruikshank produced a long
+series of pictures and illustrations, pictorial pamphlets and tracts;
+the best known of these are _The Bottle_, 8 plates (1847), with its
+sequel, _The Drunkard's Children_, 8 plates (1848), with the ambitious
+work, _The Worship of Bacchus_, published by subscription after the
+artist's oil painting, now in the National Gallery, London, to which it
+was presented by his numerous admirers.
+
+  See _Cruikshank's Water-Colours_, with introduction by Joseph Grego
+  (London, 1903).     (J. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+CRUNDEN, JOHN (d. 1828), English architectural and mobiliary designer.
+Most of his early inspiration was drawn from Chippendale and his school,
+but he fell later under the influence of a bastard classicism. He
+produced a very large number of designs which were published in numerous
+volumes; among the most ambitious were ornamental centres for ceilings
+in which he introduced cupids with bows and arrows, Fame sounding her
+trumpet, and such like motives. Sport and natural history supplied him
+with many other themes, and one of his ceilings is a hunting scene
+representing a "kill." His principal works were _Designs for Ceilings_;
+_Convenient and Ornamental Architecture_; _The Carpenter's Companion for
+Chinese Railings, Gates_, &c. (1770); _The Joiner and Cabinet-maker's
+Darling_, or _Sixty Designs for Gothic, Chinese, Mosaic and Ornamental
+Frets_ (1765); and _The Chimney Piece Maker's Daily Assistant_ (1776).
+Much of his work was either absurd or valueless.
+
+
+
+
+CRUSADES, the name given to the series of wars for delivering the Holy
+Land from the Mahommedans, so-called from the cross worn as a badge by
+the crusaders. By analogy the term "crusade" is also given to any
+campaign undertaken in the same spirit.
+
+1. _The Meaning of the Crusades._--The Crusades may be regarded partly
+as the _decumanus fluctus_ in the surge of religious revival, which had
+begun in western Europe during the 10th, and had mounted high during the
+11th century; partly as a chapter, and a most important chapter, in the
+history of the interaction of East and West. Contemporaries regarded
+them in the former of these two aspects, as "holy wars" and "pilgrims'
+progresses" towards Christ's Sepulchre; the reflective eye of history
+must perhaps regard them more exclusively from the latter point of view.
+Considered as holy wars the Crusades must be interpreted by the ideas
+of an age which was dominated by the spirit of otherworldliness, and
+accordingly ruled by the clerical power which represented the other
+world. They are a _novum salutis genus_--a new path to Heaven, to tread
+which counted "for full and complete satisfaction" _pro omni
+poenitentia_ and gave "forgiveness of sins" (_peccaminum remissio_)[1];
+they are, again, the "foreign policy" of the papacy, directing its
+faithful subjects to the great war of Christianity against the infidel.
+As such a _novum salutis genus_, the Crusades connect themselves with
+the history of the penitentiary system; as the foreign policy of the
+Church they belong to that clerical purification and direction of feudal
+society and its instincts, which appears in the institution of "God's
+Truce" and in chivalry itself. The penitentiary system, according to
+which the priest enforced a code of moral law in the confessional by the
+sanction of penance--penance which must be performed as a condition of
+admission to the sacrament of the Eucharist--had been from early times a
+great instrument in the civilization of the raw Germanic races. Penance
+might consist in fasting; it might consist in flagellation; it might
+consist in pilgrimage. The penitentiary pilgrimage, which seems to have
+been practised as early as A.D. 700, was twice blessed; not only was it
+an act of atonement in itself, like fasting and flagellation; it also
+gained for the pilgrim the merit of having stood on holy ground. Under
+the influence of the Cluniac revival, which began in the 10th century,
+pilgrimages became increasingly frequent; and the goal of pilgrimage was
+often Jerusalem. Pilgrims who were travelling to Jerusalem joined
+themselves in companies for security, and marched under arms; the
+pilgrims of 1064, who were headed by the archbishop of Mainz, numbered
+some 7000 men. When the First Crusade finally came, what was it but a
+penitentiary pilgrimage under arms--with the one additional object of
+conquering the goal of pilgrimage? That the Pilgrims' Progress should
+thus have turned into a Holy War is a fact readily explicable, when we
+turn to consider the attempts made by the Church, during the 11th
+century, to purify, or at any rate to direct, the feudal instinct for
+private war (_Fehde_). Since the close of the 10th century diocesan
+councils in France had been busily acting as legislatures, and enacting
+"forms of peace" for the maintenance of God's Peace or Truce (_Pax Dei_
+or _Treuga Dei_). In each diocese there had arisen a judicature
+(_judices pacis_) to decide when the form had been broken; and an
+executive, or _communitas pacis_, had been formed to enforce the
+decisions of the judicature. But it was an easier thing to consecrate
+the fighting instinct than to curb it; and the institution of chivalry
+represents such a clerical consecration, for ideal ends and noble
+purposes, of the martial impulses which the Church had hitherto
+endeavoured to check. In the same way the Crusades themselves may be
+regarded as a stage in the clerical reformation of the fighting laymen.
+As chivalry directed the layman to defend what was right, so the
+preaching of the Crusades directed him to attack what was wrong--the
+possession by "infidels" of the Sepulchre of Christ. The Crusades are
+the offensive side of chivalry: chivalry is their parent--as it is also
+their child. The knight who joined the Crusades might thus still indulge
+the bellicose side of his genius--under the aegis and at the bidding of
+the Church; and in so doing he would also attain what the spiritual side
+of his nature ardently sought--a perfect salvation and remission of
+sins. He might butcher all day, till he waded ankle-deep in blood, and
+then at nightfall kneel, sobbing for very joy, at the altar of the
+Sepulchre--for was he not red from the winepress of the Lord? One can
+readily understand the popularity of the Crusades, when one reflects
+that they permitted men to get to the other world by fighting hard on
+earth, and allowed them to gain the fruits of asceticism by the ways of
+hedonism. Nor was the Church merely able, through the Crusades, to
+direct the martial instincts of a feudal society; it was also able to
+pursue the object of its own immediate policy, and to attempt the
+universal diffusion of Christianity, even at the edge of the sword, over
+the whole of the known world.
+
+Thus was renewed, on a greater scale, that ancient feud of East and
+West, which has never died. For a thousand years, from the Hegira in 622
+to the siege of Vienna in 1683, the peril of a Mahommedan conquest of
+Europe was almost continually present. From this point of view, the
+Crusades appear as a reaction of the West against the pressure of the
+East--a reaction which carried the West into the East, and founded a
+Latin and Christian kingdom on the shores of Asia. They protected Europe
+from the new revival of Mahommedanism under the Turks; they gave it a
+time of rest in which the Western civilization of the middle ages
+developed. But the relation of East and West during the Crusades was not
+merely hostile or negative. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was the
+meeting-place of two civilizations: on its soil the East learned from
+the West, and--perhaps still more--the West learned from the East. The
+culture developed in the West during the 13th century was not only
+permitted to develop by the protection of the Crusades, it grew upon
+materials which the Crusades enabled it to import from the East. Yet the
+debt of Europe to the Crusades in this last respect has perhaps been
+unduly emphasized. Sicily was still more the meeting-place of East and
+West than the kingdom of Jerusalem; and the Arabs of Spain gave more to
+the culture of Europe than the Arabs of Syria.
+
+2. _Historical Causes of the Crusades._--Within fifteen years of the
+Hegira Jerusalem fell before the arms of Omar (637), and it continued to
+remain in the hands of Mahommedan rulers till the end of the First
+Crusade. For centuries, however, a lively intercourse was maintained
+between the Latin Church in Jerusalem, which the clemency of the Arab
+conquerors tolerated, and the Christians of the West. Charlemagne in
+particular was closely connected with Jerusalem: the patriarch sent him
+the keys of the city and a standard in 800; and in 807 Harun al-Rashid
+recognized this symbolical cession, and acknowledged Charlemagne as
+protector of Jerusalem and owner of the church of the Sepulchre.
+Charlemagne founded a hospital and a library in the Holy City; and later
+legend, when it made him the first of crusaders and the conqueror of the
+Holy Land, was not without some basis of fact. The connexion lasted
+during the 9th century; kings like Alfred of England and Louis of
+Germany sent contributions to Jerusalem, while the Church of Jerusalem
+acquired estates in the West. During the 10th century this intercourse
+still continued; but in the 11th century interruptions began to come.
+The fanaticism of the caliph Hakim destroyed the church of the Sepulchre
+and ended the Frankish protectorate (1010); and the patronage of the
+Holy Places, a source of strife between the Greek and the Latin Churches
+as late as the beginning of the Crimean War, passed to the Byzantine
+empire in 1021. This latter change in itself made pilgrimages from the
+West increasingly difficult: the Byzantines, especially after the schism
+of 1054, did not seek to smooth the way of the pilgrim, and Victor II.
+had to complain to the empress Theodora of the exactions practised by
+her officials. But still worse for the Latins was the capture of
+Jerusalem by the Seljukian Turks in 1071. Without being intolerant, the
+Turks were a rougher and ruder race than the Arabs of Egypt whom they
+displaced; while the wars between the Fatimites of Egypt and the
+Abbasids of Bagdad, whose cause was represented by the Seljuks, made
+Syria (one of the natural battle-grounds of history) into a troubled and
+unquiet region. The native Christians suffered; the pilgrims of the West
+found their way made still more difficult, and that at a time when
+greater numbers than ever were thronging to the East. Western Christians
+could not but feel hampered and checked in their natural movement
+towards the fountain-head of their religion, and it was natural that
+they should ultimately endeavour to clear the way. In much the same way,
+at a later date and in a lesser sphere, the closing of the trade-routes
+by the advance of the Ottoman Turks led traders to endeavour to find new
+channels, and issued in the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and the
+discovery of America. Nor, indeed, must it be forgotten that the search
+for new and more direct connexions with the routes of Oriental trade is
+one of the motives underlying the Crusades themselves, and leading to
+what may be called the 13th-century discovery of Asia.
+
+It was thus natural, for these reasons, that the conquest of the Holy
+Land should gradually become an object for the ambition of Western
+Christianity--an object which the papacy, eager to realize its dream of
+a universal Church subject to its sway, would naturally cherish and
+attempt to advance. Two causes combined to make this object still more
+natural and more definite. On the one hand, the reconquest of lost
+territories from the Mahommedans by Christian powers had been proceeding
+steadily for more than a hundred years before the First Crusade; on the
+other hand, the position of the Eastern empire after 1071 was a clear
+and definite summons to the Christian West, and proved, in the event,
+the immediate occasion of the holy war. As early as 970 the recovery of
+the territories lost to Mahommedanism in the East had been begun by
+emperors like Nicephoras Phocas and John Zimisces: they had pushed their
+conquests, if only for a time, as far as Antioch and Edessa, and the
+temporary occupation of Jerusalem is attributed to the East Roman arms.
+At the opposite end of the Mediterranean, in Spain, the Omayyad
+caliphate was verging to its fall: the long Spanish crusade against the
+Moor had begun; and in 1018 Roger de Toeni was already leading Normans
+into Catalonia to the aid of the native Spaniard. In the centre of the
+Mediterranean the fight between Christian and Mahommedan had been long,
+but was finally inclining in favour of the Christian. The Arabs had
+begun the conquest of Sicily from the East Roman empire in 827, and they
+had attacked the mainland of Italy as early as 840. The popes had put
+themselves at the head of Italian resistance: in 848 Leo IV. is already
+promising a sure and certain hope of salvation to those who die in
+defence of the cross; and by 916, with the capture of the Arab fortress
+on the Garigliano, Italy was safe. Then came the reconquest of the
+Mediterranean islands near Italy. The Pisans conquered Sardinia at the
+instigation of Benedict VIII. about 1016; and, in a thirty years' war
+which lasted from 1060 to 1090, the Normans, under a banner blessed by
+Pope Alexander II., wrested Sicily from the Arabs. The Norman conquest
+of Sicily may with justice be called a crusade before the Crusades; and
+it cannot but have given some impulse to that later attempt to wrest
+Syria from the Mahommedans, in which the virtual leader was Bohemund, a
+scion of the same house which had conquered Sicily. But while the
+Christians of the West were thus winning fresh ground from the
+Mahommedans, in the course of the 11th century, the East Roman empire
+had now to bear the brunt of a Mahommedan revival under the Seljuks--a
+revival which, while it crushed for a time the Greeks, only acted as a
+new incentive to the Latins to carry their arms to the East. The
+Seljukian Turks, first the mercenaries and then the masters of the
+caliph, had given new life to the decadent caliphate of Bagdad. Under
+the rule of their sultans, who assumed the role of mayors of the palace
+in Bagdad about the middle of the 11th century, they pushed westwards
+towards the caliphate of Egypt and the East Roman empire. While they
+wrested Jerusalem from the former (1071), in the same year they
+inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern emperor at Manzikert. The
+result of the defeat was the loss of almost the whole of Asia Minor; the
+dominions of the Turks extended to the sea of Marmora. An appeal for
+assistance, such as was often to be heard again in succeeding centuries,
+was sent by Michael VII. of Constantinople to Gregory VII. in 1073.
+Gregory listened to the appeal; he projected--not, indeed, as has often
+been said, a crusade,[2] but a great expedition, which should recover
+Asia Minor for the Eastern empire, in return for a union of the Eastern
+with the Western Church. In 1074 Gregory actually assembled a
+considerable army; but his disagreement with Robert Guiscard, followed
+by the outbreak of the war of investitures, hindered the realization of
+his plans, and the only result was a precedent and a suggestion for the
+events of 1095. The appeal of Michael VII. was re-echoed by Alexius
+Comnenus himself. Brave and sage as he was, he could hardly cope at one
+and the same time with the hostility of the Normans on the west, of the
+Petchenegs (Patzinaks) on the north, and of the Seljuks on the east and
+south. Already in 1087 and 1088 he had appealed to Baldwin of Flanders,
+verbally and by letter,[3] for troops; and Baldwin had answered the
+appeal. The same appeal was made, more than once, to Urban II.; and the
+answer was the First Crusade. The First Crusade was not, indeed, what
+Alexius had asked or expected to receive. He had appealed for
+reinforcements to recover Asia Minor; he received hundreds of thousands
+of troops, independent of him, and intending to conquer Jerusalem for
+themselves, though they might incidentally recover Asia Minor for the
+Eastern empire on their way. Alexius may almost be compared to a
+magician, who has uttered a charm to summon a ministering spirit, and is
+surrounded on the instant by legions of demons. In truth the appeal of
+Alexius had set free forces in the West which were independent of, and
+even ultimately hostile to, the interests of the Eastern empire.
+
+The primary force, which thus transmuted an appeal for reinforcements
+into a holy war for the conquest of Palestine, was the Church. The
+creative thought of the middle ages is clerical thought. It is the
+Church which creates the Carolingian empire, because the clergy thinks
+in terms of empire. It is the Church which creates the First Crusade,
+because the clergy believes in penitentiary pilgrimages, and the war
+against the Seljuks can be turned into a pilgrimage to the Sepulchre;
+because, again, it wishes to direct the fighting instinct of the laity,
+and the consecrating name of Jerusalem provides an unimpeachable
+channel; above all, because the papacy desires a perfect and universal
+Church, and a perfect and universal Church must rule in the Holy Land.
+But it would be a mistake to regard the Crusades (as it would be a
+mistake to regard the Carolingian empire) as a _pure_ creation of the
+Church, or as _merely_ due to the policy of a theocracy directing men to
+the holy war which is the only war possible for a theocracy. It would be
+almost truer, though only half the truth, to say that the clergy gave
+the name of Crusade to sanctify interests and ambitions which, while set
+on other ends than those of the Church, happened to coincide in their
+choice of means. There was, for instance, the ambition of the adventurer
+prince, the younger son, eager to carve a principality in the far East,
+of whom Bohemund is the type; there was the interest of Italian towns,
+anxious to acquire the products of the East more directly and cheaply,
+by erecting their own emporia in the eastern Mediterranean. The former
+was the driving force which made the First Crusade successful, where
+later Crusades, without its stimulus, for the most part failed; the
+latter was the one staunch ally which alone enabled Baldwin I. and
+Baldwin II. to create the kingdom of Jerusalem. So far as the Crusades
+led to permanent material results in the East, they did so in virtue of
+these two forces. Unregulated enthusiasm might of itself have achieved
+little or nothing; enthusiasm caught and guided by the astute Norman,
+and the no less astute Venetian or Genoese, could not but achieve
+tangible results. The principality or the emporium, it is true, would
+supply motives to the prince and the merchant only; and it may be urged
+that to the mass of the crusaders the religious motive was all in all.
+In this way we may return to the view that the First Crusade, at any
+rate, was _un fait ecclesiastique_. It is indeed true that to thousands
+the hope of acquiring spiritual merit must have been a great motive; it
+is also true, as the records of crusading sermons show, that there was a
+strong element of "revivalism" in the Crusades, and that thousands were
+hurried into taking the cross by a gust of that uncontrollable
+enthusiasm which is excited by revivalist meetings to-day. But it must
+also be admitted that there were motives of this world to attract the
+masses to the Crusades. Famine and pestilence at home drove men to
+emigrate hopefully to the golden East. In 1094 there was pestilence from
+Flanders to Bohemia: in 1095 there was famine in Lorraine. _Francigenis
+occidentalibus facile persuaderi poterat sua rura relinquere; nam
+Gallias per annos aliquot nunc seditio civilis, nunc fames, nunc
+mortalitas nimis afflixerat._[4] No wonder that a stream of emigration
+set towards the East, such as would in modern times flow towards a newly
+discovered gold-field--a stream carrying in its turbid waters much
+refuse, tramps and bankrupts, camp-followers and hucksters, fugitive
+monks and escaped villeins, and marked by the same motley grouping, the
+same fever of life, the same alternations of affluence and beggary,
+which mark the rush for a gold-field to-day.
+
+Such were the forces set in movement by Urban II., when, after holding a
+synod at Piacenza (March, 1095), and receiving there fresh appeals from
+Alexius, he moved to Clermont, in the S.E. of France, and there on the
+26th of November delivered the great speech which was followed by the
+First Crusade. In this speech he appealed, indeed, for help for the
+Greeks, _auxilio ... saepe acclamato indigis_ (Fulcher i. c. i.); but
+the gist of his speech was the need of Jerusalem. Let the truce of God
+be observed at home; and let the arms of Christians be directed to the
+winning of Jerusalem in an expedition which should count for full and
+complete penance. Like Gregory, Urban had thus sought for aid for the
+Eastern empire; unlike Gregory, who had only mentioned the Holy
+Sepulchre in a single letter, and then casually, he had struck the note
+of Jerusalem. The instant cries of _Deus vult_ which answered the note
+showed that Urban had struck aright. Thousands at once took the cross;
+the first was Bishop Adhemar of Puy, whom Urban named his legate and
+made leader of the First Crusade (for the holy war, according to Urban's
+original conception, must needs be led by a clerk). Fixing the 15th of
+August 1096 as the time for the departure of the crusaders, and
+Constantinople as the general rendezvous, Urban returned from France to
+Italy. It is noticeable that it was on French soil that the seed had
+been sown.[5] Preached on French soil by a pope of French descent, the
+Crusades began--and they continued--as essentially a French (or perhaps
+better Norman-French) enterprise; and the kingdom which they established
+in the East was essentially a French kingdom, in its speech and its
+customs, its virtues and its vices. It was natural that France should be
+the home of the Crusades. She was already the home of the Cluniac
+movement, the centre from which radiated the truce of God, the chosen
+place of chivalry; she could supply a host of feudal nobles, somewhat
+loosely tied to their place in society, and ready to break loose for a
+great enterprise; she had suffered from battle and murder, pestilence
+and famine, from which any escape was welcome. To the Normans
+particularly the Crusades had an intimate appeal. They appealed to the
+old Norse instinct for wandering--an instinct which, as it had long
+before sent the Norseman eastward to find his El Dorado of Micklegarth,
+could now find a natural outlet in the expedition to Jerusalem: they
+appealed to the Norman religiosity, which had made them a people of
+pilgrims, the allies of the papacy, and, in England and Sicily,
+crusaders before the Crusades: finally, they appealed to that desire to
+gain fresh territory, upon which Malaterra remarks as characteristic of
+Norman princes.[6] No wonder, then, that the crusading armies were
+recruited in France, or that they were led by men of the stock of the
+d'Hautevilles. Meanwhile newly-conquered England had its own problems to
+solve; and Germany, torn by civil war, and not naturally quick to
+kindle, could only deride the "delirium" of the crusader.[7]
+
+3. _Course of the First Crusade._--The First Crusade falls naturally
+into two parts. One of these may be called the Crusade of the people:
+the other may be termed the Crusade of the princes. Of these the
+people's Crusade--prior in order of time, if only secondary in point of
+importance--may naturally be studied first. The sermon of Urban II. at
+Clermont became the staple for wandering preachers, among whom Peter the
+Hermit distinguished himself by his fiery zeal.[8] Riding on an ass from
+place to place through France and along the Rhine, he carried away by
+his eloquence thousands of the poor. Some three or four months before
+the term fixed by Urban II., in April and May 1096, five divisions of
+_pauperes_ had already collected. Three of these, led by Fulcher of
+Orleans, Gottschalk and William the Carpenter respectively, failed to
+reach even Constantinople. The armies of Fulcher and Gottschalk were
+destroyed by the Hungarians in just revenge for their excesses (June);
+the third, after joining in a wild _Judenhetze_ in the towns of the
+valley of the Rhine, during which some 10,000 Jews perished as the
+first-fruits of crusading zeal, was scattered to the winds in Hungary
+(August). Two other divisions, however, reached Constantinople in
+safety. The first of these, under Walter the Penniless, passed through
+Hungary in May, and reached Constantinople, where it halted to wait for
+the Hermit, in the middle of July. The second, led by Peter himself,
+passed safely through Hungary, but suffered severely in Bulgaria, and
+only attained Constantinople with sadly diminished numbers at the end of
+July. These two divisions (which in spite of good treatment by Alexius
+began to commit excesses against the Greeks) united and crossed the
+Bosporus in August, Peter himself remaining in Constantinople. By the
+end of October they had perished utterly at the hands of the Seljuks; a
+heap of whitening bones also remained to testify to the later crusaders,
+when they passed in the spring of 1097, of the fate of the people's
+Crusade.
+
+Meanwhile the knights had already begun to assemble in March 1096. In
+small bands, and by divers ways, they streamed gradually southward and
+eastward, in a steady flow, throughout 1096. But three large divisions,
+under three considerable leaders, were pre-eminent among the rest.
+Godfrey of Bouillon, with his brother Baldwin, led the crusaders of
+Lorraine along "the road of Charles the Great," through Hungary, to
+Constantinople, where he arrived on the 23rd of December. Raymund of
+Toulouse (the first prince to join the crusading movement) along with
+Bishop Adhemar, the papal commissary, led the Provencals down the coast
+of Illyria, and then due east to Constantinople, arriving towards the
+end of April 1097. Bohemund of Otranto, the destined leader of the
+Crusade, with his nephew Tancred, led a fine force of Normans by sea to
+Durazzo, and thence by land to Constantinople, which he reached about
+the same time as Raymund. To the same great rendezvous other leaders
+also gathered, some of higher rank than Godfrey or Raymund or Bohemund,
+but none destined to exercise an equal influence on the fate of the
+Crusade. Hugh of Vermandois, younger brother of Philip I. of France, had
+reached Constantinople in November 1096, in a species of honourable
+captivity, and had done Alexius homage; Robert of Normandy and Stephen
+of Blois, to whom Urban II. had given St Peter's banner at Lucca, only
+arrived--the last of the crusaders--in May 1097 (their original
+companion in arms, Count Robert of Flanders, having left them to winter
+at Bari, and crossed to Constantinople before the end of 1096).
+
+Thus was gathered at Constantinople, in the spring of 1097, a great
+host, which Fulcher computes at 600,000 men (I. c. iv.), Urban II. at
+300,000, and which was probably some 150,000 strong.[9] Before we follow
+this host into Asia, we may pause to inquire into the various factors
+which would determine its course, or condition its activity. On the
+Western side, and among the crusaders themselves, there were two factors
+of importance, already mentioned above--the aims of the adventurer
+prince, and the interests of the Italian merchant; while on the Eastern
+side there are again two--the policy of the Greeks, and the condition of
+the Mahommedan East. We have already seen that among the princes who
+joined the First Crusade there were some who were rather _politiques_
+than _devots_, and who aimed at the acquisition of temporal profit as
+well as of spiritual merit. Of these the type--and, it may almost be
+said, the inspirer of the rest--was Bohemund. From the first he had an
+Eastern principality in his mind's eye; and if we may judge from the
+follower of Bohemund who wrote the _Gesta Francorum_, there had already
+been some talk at Constantinople of Antioch as the seat of this
+principality. Bohemund's policy seems to have inspired Baldwin, the
+brother of Godfrey of Bouillon to emulation; on the one hand he strove
+to thwart the endeavours of Tancred, the nephew of Bohemund, to begin
+the foundation of the Eastern principality for his uncle by conquering
+Cilicia, and, on the other, he founded a principality for himself in
+Edessa. Raymond of Provence, the third and last of the great
+_politiques_ of the First Crusade, was, like Baldwin, envious of
+Bohemund; and jealousy drove him first to attempt to wrest Antioch from
+Bohemund, and then to found a principality of Tripoli to the south of
+Antioch, which would check the growth of his power. The political
+motives of these three princes, and the interaction of their different
+policies, was thus a great factor in determining the course and the
+results of the First Crusade. The influence of the Italian towns did not
+make itself greatly felt till after the end of the First Crusade, when
+it made possible the foundation of a kingdom in Jerusalem, in addition
+to the three principalities established by Bohemund, Baldwin and
+Raymond; but during the course of the Crusade itself the Italian ships
+which hugged the shores of Syria were able to supply the crusaders with
+provisions and munition of war, and to render help in the sieges of
+Antioch and Jerusalem.[10] Sea-power had thus some influence in
+determining the victory of the crusaders.
+
+In the East the conditions were, on the whole, favourable to the
+crusaders. The one difficulty--and it was serious--was the attitude
+adopted by Alexius. Confronted by crusaders where he had asked for
+auxiliaries, Alexius had two alternative policies presented to his
+choice. He might, in the first place, have frankly admitted that the
+crusaders were independent allies, and treating them as equals, he might
+have waged war in concert with them, and divided the conquests achieved
+in the war. A boundary line might have been drawn somewhere to the N.W.
+of Antioch; and the crusaders might have been left to acquire what they
+could to the south and east of that line. Unhappily, clinging to the
+conviction that all the lands which the crusaders would traverse were
+the "lost provinces" of his empire, he induced the crusaders to do him
+homage, so that, whatever they conquered, they would conquer in his
+name, and whatever they held, they would hold by his grant and as his
+vassals. Thus Hugh of Vermandois became the man of Alexius in November
+1096; Godfrey of Bouillon was induced, not without difficulty, to do
+homage in January 1097; and in April and May the other leaders,
+including Bohemund and the obstinate Raymond himself, followed his
+example. The policy of Alexius was destined to produce evil results,
+both for the Eastern empire and for the crusading movement. The West had
+already its grievances against the East: the Greek emperors had taken
+advantage of their protectorate of the Holy Places to lay charges on
+the pilgrims, against which the Papacy had already been forced to
+remonstrate; nor were the Italian towns, with the exception of favoured
+Venice, disposed to be friendly to the great monopolist city of
+Constantinople. The old dissension of the Eastern and Western Churches
+had blazed out afresh in 1054; and the policy of Alexius only added new
+rancours to an old grudge, which culminated in the Latin conquest of
+Constantinople in 1204. On the other hand, the success of the crusading
+movement was imperilled, both now and afterwards, by the jealousy of the
+Comneni. Always hostile to the principality, which Bohemund established
+in spite of his oath, they helped by their hostility to cause the loss
+of Edessa in 1144, and thus to hasten the disintegration of the Latin
+kingdom of Jerusalem. Yet one must remember, in justice to Alexius, the
+gravity of the problem by which he was confronted; nor was the conduct
+of the crusaders themselves such that he could readily make them his
+brethren in arms.
+
+The condition of Asia Minor and Syria in 1097 was almost altogether such
+as to favour the success of the crusaders. The Seljukian sultans had
+only achieved a military occupation of the country which they had
+conquered. There were Seljukian garrisons in towns like Nicaea and
+Antioch, ready to offer an obstinate resistance to the crusaders; and
+here and there in the country there were Seljukian armies, either
+cantoned or nomadic. But the inhabitants of the towns were often hostile
+to the garrisons, and over wide tracts of country there were no forces
+at all. Accordingly, when the crusaders had captured the town at Nicaea,
+and defeated the Seljukian field-army at Dorylaeum their way lay clear
+before them through Asia Minor. Not only so, but they could count, at
+the very least, on a benevolent neutrality from the native population;
+while from the Armenian principalities in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which
+survived unsubdued in the general deluge of Seljukian conquest, they
+could expect active assistance (the hope of which will explain the
+north-easterly line of march which they followed after leaving
+Heraclea). But the purely military character of the Seljukian occupation
+helped the crusaders in yet another way. Strong generals were needed in
+the separate divisions of the empire, and these, as has always been the
+case in Eastern empires, made themselves independent in their spheres of
+command, because there was no organization to keep them together under a
+single control. On the death of Malik Shah, the last of the great
+Seljukian emperors (1092), the empire dissolved. A new sultan,
+Barkiyaroq or Barkiarok, ruled in Bagdad (1094-1104); but in Asia Minor
+Kilij Arslan held sway as the independent sultan of Konia (Iconium),
+while the whole of Syria was also practically independent. Not only was
+Syria thus weakened by being detached from the body of the Seljukian
+empire; it was divided by dissensions within, and assailed by the
+Fatimite caliph of Egypt from without. In 1095 two brothers, Ridwan and
+Dekak, ruled in Aleppo and Damascus respectively; but they were at war
+with one another, and Yagi-sian, the ruler of Antioch, was a party to
+their dissensions. Ridwan and Yagi-sian were only stopped in an attack
+on Damascus by news of the approach of the crusaders, which led the
+latter to throw himself hastily into Antioch, in the autumn of 1097.
+Meanwhile the Fatimites were not slow to take advantage of these
+dissensions. A great religious difference divided the Fatimite caliph of
+Cairo, the head of the Shiite sect, from the Abbasid caliph of Bagdad,
+who was the head of the Sunnites. The difference may be compared to the
+dissension between the Greek and the Latin Churches; but it had perhaps
+more of the nature of a political difference. In any case, it hampered
+the Mahommedans as much as the jealousy between Alexius and the Latins
+hampered the progress of the Crusade. The crusading princes were well
+enough aware of the gulf which divided the caliph of Cairo from the
+Sunnite princes of Syria; and they sought by envoys to put themselves
+into connexion with him, hoping by his aid to gain Jerusalem (which was
+then ruled for the Turks by Sokman, the son of the amir Ortok).[11] But
+the caliph preferred to act for himself, and took advantage of the wars
+of the Syrian princes, and of the terror inspired by the advance of the
+crusaders to conquer Jerusalem (August 1098). But though the leaders of
+the First Crusade did not succeed in utilizing the dissensions of the
+Mahommedans as fully as they desired, it still remains true that these
+dissensions very largely explain their success. It was the disunion of
+the Syrian amirs, and the division between the Abbasids and the
+Fatimites, that made possible the conquest of the Holy City and the
+foundation of the kingdom of Jerusalem. When a power arose in Mosul,
+about 1130, which was able to unify Syria--when, again, in the hands of
+Saladin, unified Syria was in turn united to Egypt--the cause of Latin
+Christianity in the East was doomed.
+
+We are now in a position to follow the history of the First Crusade. By
+the beginning of May 1097 the crusaders were crossing the Bosporus, and
+entering the dominions of Kilij Arslan. Their first operation was the
+siege of Nicaea, defended by a Seljuk garrison, but eventually captured,
+with the aid of Alexius, after a month's siege (June 18). Alexius took
+possession of the town; and though he rewarded the crusading princes
+richly, some discontent was excited by his action. After the capture of
+Nicaea, the field-army of Kilij Arslan had to be met. In a long and
+obstinate encounter, it was defeated at Dorylaeum (July 1); and the
+crusaders marched unmolested in a south-easterly direction to Heraclea.
+Here Tancred, followed by Baldwin, turned into Cilicia, and began to
+take possession of the Cilician towns, and especially of Tarsus--thus
+beginning, it would seem, the creation of the Norman principality of
+Antioch. The main army turned to the N.E., in the direction of Caesarea
+(in order to bring itself into touch with the Armenian princes of this
+district), and then marched southward again to Antioch. At Marash, half
+way between Caesarea and Antioch, Baldwin, who had meanwhile wrested
+Tarsus from Tancred, rejoined the ranks; but he soon left the main body
+again, and struck eastward towards Edessa, to found a principality
+there. At the end of October the crusaders came into position before
+Antioch, which was held by Yagi-sian, and began the siege of the city,
+which lasted from October 21, 1097, to June 3, 1098. The great figure in
+the siege was naturally Bohemund (who had also been the hero of
+Dorylaeum). He repelled attempts at relief made by Dekak (Dec. 31, 1097)
+and Ridwan (Feb. 9, 1098); he put the besiegers in touch with the
+Genoese ships lying in the harbour of St Simeon, the port of Antioch
+(March 1098)--a move which at once served to remedy the want of
+provisions from which the crusaders suffered, and secured materials for
+the building of castles, with which Bohemund sought--in the Norman
+fashion--to overawe the besieged city. But it was finally by the
+treachery of one of Yagi-sian's commanders, the amir Firuz, that
+Bohemund was able to effect its capture. The other leaders had, however,
+to promise him possession of the city, before he would bring his
+negotiations with Firuz to a conclusion; and the matter was so long
+protracted that an army of relief under Kerbogha of Mosul was only at a
+distance of three days' march, when the city was taken (June 3, 1098).
+The besiegers were no sooner in the city, than they were besieged in
+their turn by Kerbogha; and the twenty-five days which followed were the
+worst period of stress and strain which the crusaders had to encounter.
+Under the pressure of this strain "spiritualistic" phenomena began to
+appear. It was in the ranks of the Provencals, where the religiosity of
+Count Raymund seems to have extended to his followers, that these
+phenomena appeared; and they culminated in the discovery of the Holy
+Lance, which had pierced the side of the Saviour. The excitement
+communicated itself to the whole army; and the nervous strength which it
+gave enabled the crusaders to meet and defeat Kerbogha in the open
+(June 28), but not before many of their number, including even Count
+Stephen of Blois, had deserted and fled.
+
+With the discovery of the Lance, which became as it were a Provencal
+asset, Count Raymund assumes a new importance. Mingled with the
+religiosity of his nature there was much obstinacy and self-seeking; and
+when Kerbogha was finally repelled, he began to dispute the possession
+of Antioch with Bohemund, pleading in excuse his oath to Alexius. The
+struggle lasted for some months, and helped to delay the further
+progress of the crusaders. Raymund, indeed, left Antioch in November,
+and moved S.E. to Marra; but his men still held two positions in
+Antioch, from which they were not dislodged by Bohemund till January
+1099. Expelled from Antioch, the obstinate Raymund endeavoured to
+recompense himself in the south (where indeed he subsequently created
+the county of Tripoli); and from February to May 1099 he occupied
+himself with the siege of Arca, to the N.E. of Tripoli. It was during
+the siege of Arca that Peter Bartholomew, to whom the vision of the Holy
+Lance had first appeared, was subjected, with no definite result, to the
+ordeal of fire--the hard-headed Normans doubting the genuine character
+of any Provencal vision, the more when, as in this case, it turned to
+the political advantage of the Provencals. The siege was long
+protracted; the mass of the pilgrims were anxious to proceed to
+Jerusalem, and, as the altered tone of the author of the _Gesta_
+sufficiently indicates, thoroughly weary of the obstinate political
+bickerings of Raymund and Bohemund. Here Godfrey of Bouillon finally
+came to the front, and placing himself at the head of the discontented
+pilgrims, he forced Raymund to accept the offers of the amir of Tripoli,
+to desist from the siege, and to march to Jerusalem (in the middle of
+May 1099). Bohemund remained in Antioch: the other leaders pressed
+forward, and following the coast route, arrived before Jerusalem in the
+beginning of June. After a little more than a month's siege, the city
+was finally captured (July 15). The slaughter was terrible; the blood of
+the conquered ran down the streets, until men splashed in blood as they
+rode. At nightfall, "sobbing for excess of joy," the crusaders came to
+the Sepulchre from their treading of the winepress, and put their
+blood-stained hands together in prayer. So, on that day of July, the
+First Crusade came to an end.
+
+It remained to determine the future government of Jerusalem; and here
+the eternal problem of the relations of Church and State emerged. It
+might seem natural that the Holy City, conquered in a holy war by an
+army of which the pope had made a churchman, Bishop Adhemar, the leader,
+should be left to the government of the Church. But Adhemar had died in
+August 1098 (whence, in large part, the confusion and bickerings which
+followed in the end of 1098 and the beginning of 1099); nor were there
+any churchmen left of sufficient dignity or weight to secure the triumph
+of the ecclesiastical cause. In the meeting of the crusaders on the 22nd
+of July, some few voices were raised in support of the view that a
+"spiritual vicar" should first be chosen in the place of the late
+patriarch of Jerusalem (who had just died in Cyprus), before the
+election of any lay ruler was taken in hand. But the voices were not
+heard; and the princes proceeded at once to elect a lay ruler. Raymund
+of Provence refused to accept their nomination, nominally on the pious
+ground that he did not wish to reign where Christ had suffered on the
+cross; though one may suspect that the establishment of a principality
+in Tripoli--in which he had been interrupted by the pressure of the
+pilgrims--was still the first object of his ambition. The refusal of
+Raymund meant the choice of Godfrey of Bouillon, who had, as we have
+seen, become prominent since the siege of Arca; and Godfrey accordingly
+became--not king, but "advocate of the Holy Sepulchre," while a few days
+afterwards Arnulf, the chaplain of Robert of Normandy, and one of the
+sceptics in the matter of the Holy Lance, became "vicar" of the vacant
+patriarchate. Godfrey's first business was to repel an Egyptian attack,
+which he accomplished successfully at Ascalon, with the aid of the other
+crusaders (August 12). At the end of August the other crusaders
+returned,[12] and Godfrey was left with a small army of 2000 men, and
+the support of Tancred, now prince of Galilee, to rule in some four
+isolated districts--Jaffa, Jerusalem, Ramlah and Haifa. At the end of
+the year came Bohemund and Godfrey's brother Baldwin (now count of
+Edessa) on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The result of Bohemund's visit was
+new trouble for Godfrey. Bohemund procured the election of Dagobert, the
+archbishop of Pisa, to the vacant patriarchate, disliking Arnulf, and
+perhaps hoping to find in the new patriarch a political supporter.
+Bohemund and Godfrey together became Dagobert's vassals; and in the
+spring Godfrey even seems to have entered into an agreement with the
+patriarch to cede Jerusalem and Jaffa into his hands, in the event of
+acquiring other lands or towns, especially Cairo, or dying without
+direct heirs. When Godfrey died in July 1100 (after successful forays
+against the Mahommedans which took him as far as Damascus), it might
+seem as if a theocracy were after all to be established in Jerusalem, in
+spite of the events of 1099.
+
+4. _The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem under the First Three Kings,[13]
+1100-1143._--The theocracy, however, was not destined to be established.
+Godfrey had died without direct heirs; but in far Edessa there was his
+brother Baldwin, ready to take his place. Dagobert had at first
+consented to the dying Godfrey's wish that Baldwin should be his
+successor; but when Godfrey died he saw an opportunity too precious to
+be missed, and opposed Baldwin, counting on the support of Bohemund, to
+whom he sent an appeal for assistance.[14] But a party in Jerusalem,
+headed by the late "vicar" Arnulf, opposed itself to the hierarchical
+pretensions of Dagobert and the Norman influence by which they were
+backed; and this party, representing the Lotharingian laity, carried the
+day. Baldwin was summoned from Edessa; and when he arrived, towards the
+end of the year, he was crowned king by Dagobert himself. Thus was
+founded, on Christmas day 1100, the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem; and thus
+was the possibility of a theocracy finally annihilated. A feudal kingdom
+of Frankish seigneurs was to be planted on the soil of Palestine,
+instead of a _dominium temporale_ of the patriarch like that of the pope
+in central Italy. Nor were any great difficulties with the Church to
+hamper the growth of this kingdom. For two years, indeed, a struggle
+raged between Baldwin I. and Dagobert: Baldwin accused the patriarch of
+treachery, and attempted to force him to contribute to the defence of
+the kingdom. But in 1102 the struggle ceased with the deposition of the
+patriarch and the victory of the king; and though it was renewed for a
+time by the patriarch Stephen in the reign of Baldwin II. (1128-1130),
+the new struggle was of short duration, and was soon ended by Stephen's
+death.
+
+The establishment of a kingdom in Jerusalem in 1100 was a blow, not only
+to the Church but to the Normans of Antioch. At the end of 1099 any
+contemporary observer must have believed that the capital of Latin
+Christianity in the East was destined to be Antioch. Antioch lay in one
+of the most fertile regions of the East; Bohemund was almost, if not
+quite, the greatest genius of his generation; and when he visited
+Jerusalem at the end of 1099, he led an army of 25,000 men--and those
+men, at any rate in large part, Normans. What could Godfrey avail
+against such a force? Yet the principality of Godfrey was destined to
+higher things than that of Bohemund. Jerusalem, like Rome, had the
+shadow of a mighty name to lend prestige to its ruler; and as residence
+in Rome was one great reason of the strength of the medieval papacy, so
+was residence in Jerusalem a reason for the ultimate supremacy of the
+Lotharingian kings. Jerusalem attracted the flow of pilgrims from the
+West as Antioch never could; and though the great majority of the
+pilgrims were only birds of passage, there were always many who stayed
+in the East. There was thus a steady immigration into the kingdom, to
+strengthen its armies and recruit with new blood the vigour of its
+inhabitants. Still more important perhaps was the fact that the ports of
+the kingdom attracted the Italian towns; and it was therefore to the
+kingdom that they lent the strength of their armies and the skill of
+their siege-artillery--in return, it is true, for concessions of
+privileges so considerable as to weaken the resources of the kingdom
+they helped to create. While Jerusalem possessed these advantages,
+Antioch was not without its defects. It had to meet--or perhaps it would
+be more true to say, it brought upon itself--the hostility of strong
+Mahommedan powers in the vicinity. As early as 1100 Bohemund was
+captured in battle by Danishmend of Sivas; and it was his captivity,
+depriving the patriarch as it did of Norman assistance, which allowed
+the uncontested accession of Baldwin I. Again, in 1104, the Normans,
+while attempting to capture Harran, were badly defeated on the river
+Balikh, near Rakka; and this defeat may be said to have been fatal to
+the chance of a great Norman principality.[15] But the hostility of
+Alexius, aided and abetted by the jealousy of Raymund of Toulouse, was
+almost equally fatal. Alexius claimed Antioch; was it not the old
+possession of his empire, and had not Bohemund done him homage? Raymund
+was ready to defend the claims of Alexius; was not Bohemund a successful
+rival? Thus it came about that Alexius and Raymund became allies; and by
+the aid of Alexius Raymund established, from 1102 onwards, the
+principality which, with the capture of Tripoli in 1109, became the
+principality of Tripoli, and barred the advance of Antioch to the south.
+Meanwhile the armies of Alexius not only prevented any farther advance
+to the N.W., but conquered the Cilician towns (1104). No wonder that
+Bohemund flung himself in revenge on the Eastern empire in 1108--only,
+however, to meet with a humiliating defeat at Durazzo.
+
+Thus it was that Baldwin waxed while Bohemund waned. The growth of
+Baldwin's kingdom, as it was suggested above, owed more to the interests
+of Italian traders than it did to crusading zeal. In 1100, indeed, it
+might appear that a new Crusade from the West, which the capture of
+Antioch in 1098 had begun, and the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 had
+finally set in motion, was destined to achieve great things for the
+nascent kingdom. Thousands had joined this new Crusade, which should
+deal the final blow to Mahommedanism: among the rest came the first of
+the troubadours, William IX., Count of Poitiers, to gather copy for his
+muse, and even some, like Stephen of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois, who
+had joined the First Crusade, but had failed to reach Jerusalem. The new
+crusaders cherished high plans; they would free Bohemund and capture
+Bagdad. But each of the three sections of their army was routed in turn
+in Asia Minor by the princes of Sivas, Aleppo and Harran, in the middle
+of 1101; and only a few escaped to report the crushing disaster. Baldwin
+I. had thus no assistance to expect from the West, save that of the
+Italian towns. From an early date Italian ships had followed the
+crusaders. There were Genoese ships in St Simeon's harbour in the spring
+of 1098 and at Jaffa in 1099; in 1099 Dagobert, the archbishop of Pisa,
+led a fleet from his city to the Holy Land; and in 1100 there came to
+Jaffa a Venetian fleet of 200 sail, whose leaders promised Venetian
+assistance in return for freedom from tolls and a third of each town
+they helped to conquer. But it was the Genoese who helped Baldwin I.
+most. The Venetians already enjoyed, since 1080, a favoured position in
+Constantinople, and had the less reason to find a new emporium in the
+East; while Pisa connected itself, through Dagobert, with Antioch[16]
+rather than with Jerusalem, and was further, in 1111, invested by
+Alexius with privileges, which made an outlet in the Holy Land no longer
+necessary. But the Genoese, who had helped with provisions and
+siege-tackle in the capture of Antioch and of Jerusalem, had both a
+stronger claim on the crusaders, and a greater interest in acquiring an
+eastern emporium. An alliance was accordingly struck in 1101 (Fulcher
+II. c. vii.), by which the Genoese promised their assistance, in return
+for a third of all booty, a quarter in each town captured, and a grant
+of freedom from tolls. In this way Baldwin I. was able to take Arsuf and
+Caesarea in 1101 and Acre in 1104. But Genoese aid was given to others
+beside Baldwin (it enabled Raymund to capture Byblus in 1104, and his
+successor, William, to win Tripoli in 1109); while, on the other hand,
+Baldwin enjoyed other aid besides that of the Genoese. In 1110, for
+example, he was enabled to capture Sidon by the aid of Sigurd of Norway,
+the Jorsalafari, who came to the Holy Land with a fleet of 55 ships,
+starting in 1107, and in a three years' "wandering," after the old Norse
+fashion, fighting the Moors in Spain, and fraternizing with the Normans
+in Sicily. At a later date, in the reign of Baldwin II., Venice also
+gave her aid to the kings of Jerusalem. Irritated by the concessions
+made by Alexius to the Pisans in 1111, and furious at the revocation of
+her own privileges by John Comnenus in 1118, the republic naturally
+sought a new outlet in the Holy Land. A Venetian fleet of 120 sail came
+in 1123, and after aiding in the repulse of an attack, which the
+Egyptians had taken advantage of Baldwin II.'s captivity to deliver,
+they helped the regent Eustace to capture Tyre (1124), in return for
+considerable privileges--freedom from toils throughout the kingdom, a
+quarter in Jerusalem, baths and ovens in Acre, and in Tyre one-third of
+the city and its suburbs, with their own court of justice and their own
+church. After thus gaining a new footing in Tyre, the Venetians could
+afford to attack the islands of the Aegean as they returned, in revenge
+for the loss of their privileges in Constantinople; but the hostility
+between Venice and the Eastern empire was soon afterwards appeased, when
+John Comnenus restored the old privileges of the Venetians. The
+Venetians, however, maintained their position in Palestine; and their
+quarters remained, along with those of the Genoese, as privileged
+commercial franchises in an otherwise feudal state.
+
+In this way the kingdom of Jerusalem expanded until it came to embrace a
+territory stretching along the coast from Beirut (captured in 1110[17])
+to el-Arish on the confines of Egypt--a territory whose strength lay not
+in Judaea, like the ancient kingdom of David, but, somewhat
+paradoxically (though commercial motives explain the paradox), in
+Phoenicia and the land of the Philistines. With all its length, the
+territory had but little breadth: towards the north it was bounded by
+the amirate of Damascus; in the centre, it spread little, if at all,
+beyond the Jordan; and it was only in the south that it had any real
+extension. Here there were two considerable annexes. To the south of the
+Dead Sea stretched a tongue of land, reaching to Aila, at the head of
+the eastern arm of the Red Sea. This had been won by Baldwin I., by way
+of revenge for the attacks of the Egyptians on his kingdom; and here, as
+early as 1116, he had built the fort of Monreal, half way between Aila
+and the Dead Sea. To the east of the Dead Sea, again, lay a second strip
+of territory, in which the great fortress was Krak (Kerak) of the
+Desert, planted somewhere about 1140 by the royal butler, Paganus, in
+the reign of Fulk of Jerusalem. These extensions in the south and east
+had also, it is easy to see, a commercial motive. They gave the kingdom
+a connexion of its own with the Red Sea and its shipping; and they
+enabled the Franks to control the routes of the caravans, especially
+the route from Damascus to Egypt and the Red Sea. Thus, it would appear,
+the whole of the expansion of the Latin kingdom (which may be said to
+have attained its height in 1131, at the death of Baldwin II.) may be
+shown to have been dictated, at any rate in large part, by economic
+motives; and thus, too, it would seem that two of the most powerful
+motives which sway the mind of man--the religious motive and the desire
+for gain--conspired to elevate the kingdom of Jerusalem (at once the
+country of Christ, and a natural centre of trade) to a position of
+supremacy in Latin Syria. During this process of growth the kingdom
+stood in relation to two sects of powers--the three Frankish
+principalities in northern Syria, and the Mahommedan powers both of the
+Euphrates and the Nile--whose action affected its growth and character.
+
+Of the three Frankish principalities, Edessa, founded in 1098 by Baldwin
+I. himself, was a natural fief of Jerusalem. Baldwin de Burgh, the
+future Baldwin II., ruled in Edessa as the vassal of Baldwin I. from
+1100 to 1118; and thereafter the county was held in succession by the
+two Joscelins of Tell-bashir until the conquest of Edessa by Zengi in
+1144. Lying to the east of the Euphrates, at once in close contact with
+the Armenians, and in near proximity to the great route of trade which
+came up the Euphrates to Rakka, and thence diverged to Antioch and
+Damascus, the county of Edessa had an eventful if brief life. The county
+of Tripoli, the second of these principalities, had also come under the
+aegis of Jerusalem at an early date. Founded by Raymund of Toulouse,
+between 1102 and 1105, with the favour of Alexius and the alliance of
+the Genoese, it did not acquire its capital of Tripoli till 1109. Even
+before the conquest of Tripoli, there had been dissensions between
+William, the nephew and successor of Raymund, and Bertrand, Raymund's
+eldest son, which it had needed the interference of Baldwin I. to
+compose; and it was only by the aid of the king that the town of Tripoli
+had been taken. At an early date therefore the county of Tripoli had
+already come under the influence of the kingdom. Meanwhile the
+principality of Antioch, ruled by Tancred, after the departure of
+Bohemund (1104-1112), and then by Roger his kinsman (1112-1119), was,
+during the reign of Baldwin I., busily engaged in disputes both with its
+Christian neighbours at Edessa and Tripoli, and with the Mahommedan
+princes of Mardin and Mosul. On the death of Roger in 1119, the
+principality came under the regency of Baldwin II. of Jerusalem, until
+1126, when Bohemund II. came of age. Bohemund had married a daughter of
+Baldwin; and on his death in 1130 Baldwin II. had once more become the
+guardian of Antioch. From his reign therefore Antioch may be regarded as
+a dependency of Jerusalem; and thus the end of Baldwin's reign (1131)
+may be said to mark the time when the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem stands
+complete, with its own boundaries stretching from Beirut in the north to
+el-Arish and Aila in the south, and with the three Frankish powers of
+the north admitting its suzerainty.
+
+The Latin power thus established and organized in the East had to face
+in the north a number of Mahommedan amirs, in the south the caliph of
+Egypt. The disunion between the Mahommedans of northern Syria and the
+Fatimites of Egypt, and the political disintegration of the former, were
+both favourable to the success of the Franks; but they had nevertheless
+to maintain their ground vigorously both in the north and the south
+against almost incessant attacks. The hostility of the decadent
+caliphate of Cairo was the less dangerous; and though Baldwin I. had at
+the beginning of his reign to meet annual attacks from Egypt, by the end
+he had pushed his power to the Red Sea, and in the very year of his
+death (1118) he had penetrated along the north coast of Egypt as far as
+Farama (Pelusium). The plan of conquering Egypt had indeed presented
+itself to the Franks from the first, as it continued to attract them to
+the end; and it is significant that Godfrey himself, in 1100, promised
+Jerusalem to the patriarch, "as soon as he should have conquered some
+other great city, and especially Cairo." But the real menace to the
+Latin kingdom lay in northern Syria; and here a power was eventually
+destined to rise, which outstripped the kings of Jerusalem in the race
+for Cairo, and then--with the northern and southern boundaries of
+Jerusalem in its control--was able to crush the kingdom as it were
+between the two arms of a vice. Until 1127, however, the Mahommedans of
+northern Syria were disunited among themselves. The beginning of the
+12th century was the age of the atabegs (regents or stadtholders). The
+atabegs formed a number of dynasties, which displaced the descendants of
+the Seljukian amirs in their various principalities. These dynasties
+were founded by emancipated mamelukes, who had held high office at court
+and in camp under powerful amirs, and who, on their death, first became
+stadtholders for their descendants, and then usurped the throne of their
+masters. There was an atabeg dynasty in Damascus founded by Tughtigin
+(1103-1128): there was another to the N.E., that of the Ortokids,
+represented by Sokman, who established himself at Kaifa in Diarbekr
+about 1101, and by his brother Ilghazi, who received Mardin from Sokman
+about 1108, and added to it Aleppo in 1117.[18] But the greatest of the
+atabegs were those of Mosul on the Tigris--Maudud, who died in 1113;
+Aksunkur, his successor; and finally, greatest of all, Zengi himself,
+who ruled in Mosul from 1127 onwards.
+
+Before the accession of Zengi, there had been constant fighting, which
+had led, however, to no definite result, between the various Mahommedan
+princes and the Franks of northern Syria. The constant pressure of
+Tancred of Antioch and Baldwin de Burgh of Edessa led to a series of
+retaliations between 1110 and 1115; Edessa was attacked in 1110, 1111,
+1112 and 1114; and in 1113 Maudud of Mosul had even penetrated as far as
+the vicinity of Acre and Jerusalem.[19] But the dissensions of the
+Mahommedans made their attacks unavailing; in 1115, for instance, we
+find Antioch actually aided by Ilghazi and Tughtigin against Aksunkur of
+Mosul. Again, in the reign of Baldwin II., there was steady fighting in
+the north; Roger of Antioch was defeated by Ilghazi at Balat in 1119,
+and Baldwin II. himself was captured by Balak, the successor of Ilghazi,
+in 1123, but on the whole the Franks held the upper hand. Baldwin
+conquered part of the territory of Aleppo (in 1121 and the following
+years), and extorted a tribute from Damascus (1126). But when Zengi
+established himself in Mosul in 1127, the tide gradually began to turn.
+He created for himself a great and united principality, comprising not
+only Mosul, but also Aleppo,[20] Harran, Nisibin and other districts;
+and in 1130, Alice, the widow of Bohemund II., sought his alliance in
+order to maintain herself in power at Antioch. In the beginning of the
+reign of Fulk of Jerusalem (1131-1143) the progress of Zengi was steady.
+He conquered in 1135 several fortresses in the east of the principality
+of Antioch, and in this year and the next pressed the count of Tripoli
+hard; while in 1137 he defeated Fulk at Barin, and forced the king to
+capitulate and surrender the town. If Fulk had been left alone to wage
+the struggle against Zengi, and if Zengi had enjoyed a clear field
+against the Franks, the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem might have come
+far sooner than it did.[21] But there were two powers which aided Fulk,
+and impeded the progress of Zengi--the amirate of Damascus and the
+emperors of Constantinople. The position of Damascus is a position of
+crucial importance from 1130 to 1154. Lying between Mosul and Jerusalem,
+and important both strategically and from its position on the great
+route of commerce from the Euphrates to Egypt, Damascus became the
+arbiter of Syrian politics. During the greater part of the period
+between 1130 and 1154 the policy of Damascus was guided by the vizier
+Muin-eddin Anar, who ruled on behalf of the descendants of the atabeg
+Tughtigin. He saw the importance of finding an ally against the ambition
+of Zengi, who had already attacked Damascus in 1130. The natural ally
+was Jerusalem. As early as 1133 the alliance of the two powers had been
+concluded; and in 1140 the alliance was solemnly renewed between Fulk
+and the vizier. Henceforth this alliance was a dominant factor in
+politics. One of the great mistakes made by the Franks was the breach of
+the alliance in 1147--a breach which was widened by the attack directed
+against Damascus during the Second Crusade; and the conquest of Damascus
+by Nureddin in 1154 was ultimately fatal to the Latin kingdom, removing
+as it did the one possible ally of the Franks, and opening the way to
+Egypt for the atabegs of Mosul.
+
+The alliance of the emperors of Constantinople was of far more dubious
+value to the kings of Jerusalem. We have already seen that it was the
+theory of the Eastern emperors--a theory which logically followed from
+the homage of the crusaders to Alexius--that the conquests of the
+crusaders belonged to their empire, and were held by the crusading
+princes as fiefs. We have seen that the action of Bohemund at Antioch
+was the negation of this theory, and that Alexius in consequence helped
+Raymund to establish himself in Tripoli as a thorn in the side of
+Bohemund, and sent an army and a fleet which wrested from the Normans
+the towns of Cilicia (1104). The defeat of Bohemund at Durazzo in 1108
+had resulted in a treaty, which made Antioch a fief of Alexius; but
+Tancred (who in 1107 had recovered Cilicia from the Greeks) refused to
+fulfil the terms of the treaty, and Alexius (who attempted--but in
+vain--to induce Baldwin I. to join an alliance against Tancred in 1112)
+was forced to leave Antioch independent. Thus, although Alexius had been
+able, in the wake of the crusading armies, to recover a large belt of
+land round the whole coast of Asia Minor,--the interior remaining
+subject to the sultans of Konia (Iconium) and the princes of Sivas,--he
+left the territories to the east of the western boundary of Cilicia in
+the hands of the Latins when he died in 1118. Not for 20 years after his
+death did the Eastern empire make any attempt to gain Cilicia or wrest
+homage from Antioch. But in 1137 John Comnenus appeared, instigated by
+the opportunity of dissensions in Antioch, and received its long-denied
+homage, as well as that of Tripoli; while in the following year he
+entered into hostilities with Zengi, without, however, achieving any
+considerable result. In 1142 he returned again, anxious to create a
+principality in Cilicia and Antioch for his younger son Manuel. The
+people of Antioch refused to submit; a projected visit to Jerusalem,
+during which John was to unite with Fulk in a great alliance against the
+Moslem, fell through; and in the spring of 1143 the emperor died in
+Cilicia, with nothing accomplished. On the whole, the interference of
+the Comneni, if it checked Zengi for the moment in 1138, may be said to
+have ultimately weakened and distracted the Franks, and to have helped
+to cause the loss of Edessa (1144), which marks the turning-point in the
+history of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
+
+5. _Organization of the Kingdom._--Before we turn to describe the Second
+Crusade, which the loss of Edessa provoked, and to trace the fall of the
+kingdom, which the Second Crusade rather hastened than hindered, we may
+pause at this point to consider the organization of the Frankish
+colonies in Syria. The first question which arises is that of the
+relation of the kingdom of Jerusalem to the three counties or
+principalities of Antioch, Tripoli and Edessa, which acknowledged their
+dependence upon it. The degree of this dependence was always a matter of
+dispute. The rights of the king of Jerusalem chiefly appear when there
+is a vacancy or a minority in one of the principalities, or when there
+is dissension either inside one of the principalities or between two of
+the princes. On the death of one of the princes without heirs of full
+age, the kings of Jerusalem were entitled to act as regents, as Baldwin
+II. did twice at Antioch, in 1119 and 1130; but the kings regarded this
+right of regency as a burden rather than a privilege, and it is indeed
+characteristic of the relation of the king to the three princes, that it
+imposes upon him duties without any corresponding rights. It is his duty
+to act as regent; it is his duty to compose the dissensions in the
+principality of Antioch, and to repress the violences of the prince
+towards his patriarch (1154); it is his duty to reconcile Antioch with
+Edessa, when the two fall to fighting. The princes on their side acted
+independently: if they joined the king with their armies, it was as
+equals doing a favour; and they sometimes refused to join until they
+were coerced. They made their own treaties with the Mahommedans, or
+attacked them in spite of the king's treaties; they dated their
+documents by the year of their own reign, and they had each their
+separate laws or assizes. There was, in a word, co-ordination rather
+than subordination; nor did the kings ever attempt to embark on a policy
+of centralization.
+
+The relation of the king to his own barons within his immediate kingdom
+of Jerusalem is not unlike the relation of the king to the three
+princes. In Norman England the king insisted on his rights; in Frankish
+Jerusalem the barons insisted on his duties. The circumstances of the
+foundation of the kingdom explain its characteristics. As the crusaders
+advanced to Jerusalem, says Raymund of Agiles (c. xxxiii.), it was their
+rule that the first-comer had the right to each castle or town, provided
+that he hoisted his standard and planted a garrison there. The feudal
+nobility was thus the first to establish itself, and the king only came
+after its institution--the reverse of Norman England, where the king
+first conquered the country, and then plotted it out among his nobles.
+The predominance of the nobility in this way became as characteristic of
+feudalism in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem as the supremacy of the
+crown was of contemporary feudalism in England; and that predominance
+expressed itself in the position and powers of the high court, in which
+the ultimate sovereignty resided. The kingdom of Jerusalem consisted of
+a society of peers, in which the king might be _primus_, but in which he
+was none the less subject to a punctilious law, regulating his position
+equally with that of every member of the society. In such a society the
+election of the head by the members may seem natural; and in the case of
+Godfrey and the first two Baldwins this was the case. But the conception
+of the equality of the king and his peers in the long run led to
+hereditary monarchy; for if the king held his kingdom as a fief, like
+other nobles, the laws of descent which applied to a fief applied to the
+kingdom, and those laws demanded heredity. Yet the high court, which
+decided all problems of descent, would naturally intervene if a problem
+of descent arose, as it frequently did, in the kingdom; and thus the
+barons had the right of deciding between different claimants, and also
+of formally "approving" each new successor to the throne. The conception
+of the kingdom as a fief not only subjected it to the jurisdiction of
+the high court; it involved the more disastrous result that the kingdom,
+like other fiefs, might be carried by an heiress to her husband; and the
+proximate causes of the collapse of the kingdom in 1187 depend on this
+fact and the dissensions which it occasioned.
+
+Thus conceived as the holder of a great fief, the king had only the
+rights of _suzerain_ over the four great baronies and the twelve minor
+fiefs of his kingdom. He had not those rights of sovereign which the
+Norman kings of England inherited from their Anglo-Saxon predecessors,
+or the Capetian kings of France from the Carolings; nor was he able
+therefore to come into direct touch with each of his subjects, which
+William I., in virtue of his sovereign rights, was able to attain by the
+Salisbury oath of 1086. Amalric I. indeed, by his _assise sur la
+ligece_, attempted to reach the vassals of his vassals; he admitted
+arriere-vassaux to the _haute cour_, and encouraged them to carry their
+cases to it in the first instance. But this is the only attempt at that
+policy of _immediatisation_ which in contemporary England was carried to
+far greater lengths; and even this attempt was unsuccessful. No alliance
+was actually formed between the king and the mesne nobility against the
+immediate baronage. The body of the tenants-in-chief continued to limit
+the power of the crown: their consent was necessary to legislation, and
+grants of fiefs could not be made without their permission. Nor was the
+crown only limited in this way. The _duties_ of the king towards his
+tenants are prominent in the _assises_. The king's oath to his men binds
+him to respect and maintain their rights, which are as prominent as are
+his duties; and if the men feel that the royal oath has not been kept,
+they may lawfully refuse military service (_gager le roi_), and may even
+rise in authorized and legal rebellion. The system of military service
+and the organization of justice corresponded to the part which the
+monarchy was thus constrained to play. The vassal was bound to pay
+military service, not, as in western Europe, for a limited period of
+forty days, but for the whole year--the Holy Land being, as it were, in
+a perpetual state of siege. On the other hand, the vassal was not bound
+to render service, unless he were _paid_ for his service; and it was
+only famine, or Saracen devastation, which freed the king from the
+obligation of paying his men. The king was also bound to insure the
+horses of his men by a system called the _restor_: if a vassal lost his
+horse otherwise than by his own fault, it must be replaced by the
+treasury (which was termed, as it also was in Norman Sicily, the
+_secretum_).[22] But the king had another force in addition to the
+feudal levy--a paid force of _soudoyers_,[23] holding fiefs, not of
+land, but of pay (_fiefs de soudee_). Along with this paid cavalry went
+another branch of the army, the Turcopuli, a body of light cavalry,
+recruited from the Syrians and Mahommedans, and using the tactics of the
+Arabs; while an infantry was found among the Armenians, the best
+soldiers of the East, and the Maronites, who furnished the kingdom with
+archers. To all these various forces must be added the knights and
+native levies of the great orders, whose masters were practically
+independent sovereigns like the princes of Antioch and Tripoli;[24] and
+with these the total levy of the kingdom may be reckoned at some 25,000
+men. But the strength of the kingdom lay less perhaps in the army than
+in the magnificent fortresses which the nobility, and especially the two
+orders, had built; and the most visible relic of the crusades to-day is
+the towering ruins of a fortress like Krak (Kerak) des Chevaliers, the
+fortress of the Knights of St John in the principality of Tripoli. These
+fortresses, garrisoned not by the king, as in Norman England, but by
+their possessors, would only strengthen the power of the feudatories,
+and help to dissipate the kingdom into a number of local units.
+
+In the organization of its system of justice the kingdom showed its most
+characteristic features. Two great central courts sat in Jerusalem to do
+justice--the high court of the nobles, and the court of burgesses for
+the rest of the Franks. (1) The high court was the supreme source of
+justice for the military class; and in its composition and procedure the
+same limitation of the crown, which appears in regard to military
+service, is again evident. The high court is not a _curia regis_, but a
+_curia baronum_, in which the theory of _judicium parium_ is fully
+realized. If the king presides in the court, the motive of its action is
+none the less the preservation of the rights of the nobles, and not, as
+in England, the extension of the rights of the crown. It is a court of
+the king's peers: it tries cases of dispute between the king and his
+peers--with regard, for instance, to military service--and it settles
+the descent of the title of king. (2) The court of burgesses was almost
+equally sovereign within its sphere. While the body of the noblesse
+formed the high court, the court of the burgesses was composed of twelve
+legists (probably named by the king) under the presidency of the
+_vicomte_--a knight also named by the king, who was a great financial as
+well as a judicial officer. The province of the court included all acts
+and contracts between burgesses, and extended to criminal cases in which
+burgesses were involved. Like the high court, the court of burgesses had
+also its assizes[25]--a body of unwritten legal custom. The independent
+position of the burgesses, who thus assumed a position of equality by
+the side of the feudal class, is one of the peculiarities of the kingdom
+of Jerusalem. It may be explained by reference to the peculiar
+conditions of the kingdom. Burgesses and nobles, however different in
+status, were both of the same Frankish stock, and both occupied the same
+superior position with regard to the native Syrians. The commercial
+motive, again, had been one of the great motives of the crusade; and the
+class which was impelled by that motive would be both large and, in view
+of the quality of the Eastern goods in which it dealt, exceptionally
+prosperous. Finally, when one remembers how, during the First Crusade,
+the _pedites_ had marched side by side with the _principes_, and how,
+from the beginning of 1099, they had practically risen in revolt against
+the selfish ambitions of princes like Count Raymund, it becomes easy to
+understand the independent position which the burgesses assumed in the
+organization of the kingdom. Burgesses could buy and possess property in
+towns, which knights were forbidden to acquire; and though they could
+not intermarry with the feudal classes, it was easy and regular for a
+burgess to thrive to knighthood. Like the nobles, again, the burgesses
+had the right of confirming royal grants and of taking part in
+legislation; and they may be said to have formed--socially, politically
+and judicially--an independent and powerful estate. Yet (with the
+exception of Antioch, Tripoli and Acre in the course of the 13th
+century) the Frankish towns never developed a communal government: the
+domain of their development was private law and commercial life.
+
+Locally, the consideration of the system of justice administered in the
+kingdom involves some account of three things--the organization of the
+fiefs, the position of the Italian traders in their quarters, and the
+privileges of the Church. Each fief was organized like the kingdom. In
+each there was a court for the noblesse, and a court (or courts) for the
+bourgeoisie. There were some thirty-seven _cours de bourgeoisie_
+(several of the fiefs having more than one), each of which was under the
+presidency of a _vicomte_, while all were independent of the court of
+burgesses at Jerusalem. Of the feudal courts there were some twenty-two.
+Each of these followed the procedure and the law of the high court; but
+each was independent of the high court, and formed a sovereign court
+without any appeal. On the other hand, the revolution wrought by Amalric
+I. in the status of the _arriere-vassaux_, which made them members of
+the high court, allowed them to carry their cases to Jerusalem in the
+first instance, if they desired. Apart from this, the characteristic of
+seignorial justice is its independence and its freedom from the central
+court; though, when we reflect that the central court is a court of
+seigneurs, this characteristic is seen to be the logical result of the
+whole system. Midway between the seignorial _cours de bourgeoisie_ and
+the privileged jurisdictions of the Italian quarter, there were two
+kinds of courts of a commercial character--the _cours de la fonde_ in
+towns where trade was busy, and the _cours de la chaine_ in the
+sea-ports. The former courts, under their bailiffs, gradually absorbed
+the separate courts which the Syrians had at first been permitted to
+enjoy under their own _reis_; and the bailiff with his 6 assessors (4
+Syrians and 2 Franks) thus came to judge both commercial cases and cases
+in which Syrians were involved. The _cours de la chaine_, whose
+institution is assigned to Amalric I. (1162-1174), had a civil
+jurisdiction in admiralty cases, and, like the _cours de la fonde_, they
+were composed of a bailiff and his assessors. Distinct from all these
+courts, if similar in its sphere, is the court which the Italian quarter
+generally enjoyed in each town under its own consuls--a court privileged
+to try all but the graver cases, like murder, theft and forgery. The
+court was part of the general immunity which made these quarters
+_imperia in imperio_: their exemptions from tolls and from financial
+contributions is parallel to their judicial privileges. Regulated by
+their mother-town, both in their trade and their government, these
+Italian quarters outlasted the collapse of the kingdom, and continued to
+exist under Mahommedan rulers. The Church had its separate courts, as in
+the West; but their province was perhaps greater than elsewhere. The
+church courts could not indeed decide cases of perjury; but, on the
+other hand, they tried all matters in which clerical property was
+concerned, and all cases of dispute between husband and wife. In other
+spheres the immunities and exemptions of the Church offered a far more
+serious problem, and especially in the sphere of finance. Perhaps the
+supreme defect of the kingdom of Jerusalem was its want of any financial
+basis. It is true that the king had a revenue, collected by the vicomte
+and paid into the _secretum_ or treasury--a revenue composed of tolls on
+the caravans and customs from the ports, of the profits of monopolies
+and the proceeds of justice, of poll-taxes on Jews and Mahommedans, and
+of the tributes paid by Mahommedan powers. But his expenditure was
+large: he had to pay his feudatories; and he had to provide fiefs in
+money and kind to those who had not fiefs of land. The contributions
+sent to the Holy Land by the monarchs of western Europe, as commutations
+in lieu of personal participation in crusades, might help; the fatal
+policy of razzias against the neighbouring Mahommedan powers might
+procure temporary resources; but what was really necessary was a wide
+measure of native taxation, such as was once, and once only, attempted
+in 1183. To any such measure the privileges of the Italian quarters, and
+still more those of the Church, were inimical. In spite of provisions
+somewhat parallel to those of the English statute of mortmain, the
+clergy continued to acquire fresh lands at the same time that they
+refused to contribute to the defence of the kingdom, and rigorously
+exacted the full quota of tithe from every source which they could tap,
+and even from booty captured in war. The richest proprietor in the Holy
+Land,[26] but practically immune from any charges on its property, the
+Church helped, unconsciously, to ruin the kingdom which it should have
+supported above all others. It refused to throw its weight into the
+scale, and to strengthen the hands of the king against an over-mighty
+nobility. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the Church did
+not, after the first struggle between Dagobert and Baldwin I., actively
+oppose by any hierarchical pretensions the authority of the crown. The
+assizes may speak of patriarch and king as conjoint seigneurs in
+Jerusalem; but as a matter of fact the king could secure the nomination
+of his own patriarch, and after Dagobert the patriarchs are, with the
+temporary exception of Stephen in 1128, the confidants and supporters of
+the kings. It was the two great orders of the Templars and the
+Hospitallers which were, in reality, most dangerous to the kingdom.
+Honeycombed as it was by immunities--of seigneurs, of Italian quarters,
+of the clergy--the kingdom was most seriously impaired by these
+overweening immunists, who, half-lay and half-clerical, took advantage
+of their ambiguous position to escape from the duties of either
+character. They built up great estates, especially in the principality
+of Tripoli; they quarrelled with one another, until their dissensions
+prevented any vigorous action; they struggled against the claims of the
+clergy to tithes and to rights of jurisdiction; they negotiated with the
+Mahommedans as separate powers; they conducted themselves towards the
+kings as independent sovereigns. Yet their aid was as necessary as their
+influence was noxious. Continually recruited from the West, they
+retained the vigour which the native Franks of Palestine gradually lost;
+and their corporate strength gave a weight to their arms which made them
+indispensable.
+
+In describing the organization of the kingdom, we have also been
+describing the causes of its fall. It fell because it had not the
+financial or political strength to survive. "Les vices du gouvernement
+avaient ete plus puissants que les vertus des gouvernants." But the
+vices were not only vices of the government: they were also vices,
+partly inevitable, partly moral, in the governing race itself. The
+climate was no doubt responsible for much. The Franks of northern Europe
+attempted to live a life that suited a northern climate under a southern
+sun. They rode incessantly to battle over burning sands, in full
+armour--chain mail, long shield and heavy casque--as if they were on
+their native French soil. The ruling population was already spread too
+thin for the work which it had to do; and exhausted by its efforts, it
+gradually became extinct. A constant immigration from the West, bringing
+new blood and recruiting the stock, could alone have maintained its
+vigour; and such immigration never came. Little driblets of men might
+indeed be added to the numbers of the Franks; but the great bodies of
+crusaders either perished in Asia Minor, as in 1101 and 1147, or found
+themselves thwarted and distrusted by the native Franks. It was indeed
+one of the misfortunes of the kingdom that its inhabitants could never
+welcome the reinforcements which came to their aid.[27] The barons
+suspected the crusaders of ulterior motives, and of designing to get new
+principalities for themselves. In any case the native Frank, accustomed
+to commercial intercourse and diplomatic negotiations with the
+Mahommedans, could hardly share the unreasoning passion to make a dash
+for the "infidel." As with the barons, so with the burgesses: they
+profited too much by their intercourse with the Mahommedans to abandon
+readily the way of peaceful commerce, and they were far more ready to
+hinder than to help any martial enterprise. Left to itself, the native
+population lost physical and moral vigour. The barons alternated between
+the extravagances of Western chivalry and the attractions of Eastern
+luxury: they returned from the field to divans with frescoed walls and
+floors of mosaic, Persian rugs and embroidered silk hangings. Their
+houses, at any rate those in the towns, had thus the characteristics of
+Moorish villas; and in them they lived a Moorish life. Their sideboards
+were covered with the copper and silver work of Eastern smiths and the
+confectioneries of Damascus. They dressed in flowing robes of silk, and
+their women wore oriental gauzes covered with sequins. Into these divans
+where figures of this kind moved to the music of Saracen instruments,
+there entered an inevitable voluptuousness and corruption of manners.
+The hardships of war and the excesses of peace shortened the lives of
+the men; the kingdom of Jerusalem had eleven kings within a century.
+While the men died, the women, living in comparative indolence, lived
+longer lives. They became regents to their young children; and the
+experience of all medieval minorities reiterates the lesson--woe to the
+land where the king is a child and the regent a woman. Still worse was
+the frequent remarriage of widowed princesses and heiresses. By the
+assizes of the high court, the widow, on the death of her husband, took
+half of the estate for herself, and half in guardianship for her
+children. _Liberae ire cum terra_, widows carried their estates or
+titles to three or four husbands; and as in 15th-century England, the
+influence of the heiress was fatal to the peace of the country. At
+Antioch, for instance, after the death of Bohemund II. in 1130, his
+widow Alice headed a party in favour of the marriage of the heiress
+Constance to Manuel of Constantinople, and did not scruple to enter into
+negotiations with Zengi of Mosul. Her policy failed; and Constance
+successively married Raymund of Antioch and Raynald of Chatillon. The
+result was the renewed enmity of the Greek empire, while the French
+adventurers who won the prize ruined the prospects of the Franks by
+their conduct. In the kingdom matters were almost worse. There was
+hardly any regular succession to the throne; and Jerusalem, as Stubbs
+writes, "suffered from the weakness of hereditary right and the
+jealousies of the elective system" at one and the same time. With the
+frequent remarriages of the heiresses of the kingdom, relationships grew
+confused and family quarrels frequent; and when Sibylla carried the
+crown to Guy de Lusignan, a newcomer disliked by all the relatives of
+the crown, she sealed the fate of the kingdom.
+
+It may be doubted--though it seems a harsh verdict to pass on a kingdom
+founded by religious zeal on holy soil--whether the kingdom possessed
+that moral basis which alone can give a right of survival to any
+institution or organization. The crusading states had been founded by
+adventurers who thirsted for gain; and the primitive appetite did not
+lose its edge with the progress of time. We cannot be certain, indeed,
+how far the Frankish lords oppressed their Syrian tenants: the stories
+of such oppression have been discredited; while if we may trust the
+evidence of a Mahommedan traveller, Ibn Jubair, the lot of the
+Mahommedan who lived on Frankish manors was better than it had been
+under their native lords.[28] But the habits of the Franks were none the
+less habits of lawless greed: they swooped down from their castles, as
+Raynald of Chatillon did from Krak of the Desert, to capture Saracens
+and hold them to ransom or to plunder caravans. The lust of unlawful
+gain had infected the Frankish blood, as it seems to have infected
+England during the Hundred Years' War; and in either case nemesis
+infallibly came. The Moslems might have endured a state of "infidels";
+they could not endure a state of brigands.
+
+6. _The History of the Kingdom and the Crusades from the Loss of Edessa
+in 1144 to the Fall of Jerusalem in 1187._--The years 1143-1144 are in
+many ways the turning point in the history of the Latin East. In 1143
+began the reign of the first native king;[29] and about this date may be
+placed the final organization of the kingdom, witnessed by the
+completion of its body of customary law. At the same date, however, the
+decline of the kingdom also begins; the fall of Edessa is the beginning
+of the end. In 1143 John Comnenus and Fulk had just died, and Zengi,
+seeing his way clear, threw himself on the great Christian outpost,
+against which the tides of Mahommedan attack had so often vainly surged,
+and finally entered on Christmas Day 1144. Two years later Zengi died;
+but he left an able successor in his son, Nureddin, and an attempt to
+recover Edessa was successfully repelled in November 1146. Not only so,
+but in the spring of 1147 the Franks were unwise enough to allow the
+hope of gaining two small towns to induce them to break the vital
+alliance with Damascus. Thus, in itself, the position of affairs in the
+Holy Land in 1147 was certainly ominous; and the kingdom might well seem
+dependent for its safety on such aid as it might receive from the West.
+
+Early in 1145 news had come from Antioch to Eugenius III. of the fall of
+Edessa, and at the end of the year he had sent an encyclical to
+France--the natural soil, as we have seen, of crusading zeal. The
+response was instantaneous: the king of France himself, who bore on his
+conscience the burden of an unpunished massacre by his troops at Vitry
+in 1142,[30] took the crusading vow on the Christmas day of 1145. But
+the greatest success was attained when St Bernard--no great believer in
+pilgrimages, and naturally disposed to doubt the policy of a second
+Crusade--was induced by the pope to become the preacher of the new
+movement. To the crusading king of France St Bernard added the king of
+Germany, when, in Christmas week of 1146, he induced Conrad III. to take
+the vow by his sermon in the cathedral of Spires. Thus was begun the
+Second Crusade,[31] under auspices still more favourable than those
+which attended the beginning of the First, seeing that kings now took
+the place of knights, while the new crusaders would no longer be
+penetrating into the wilds, but would find a friendly basis of
+operations ready to their hands in Frankish Syria. But the more
+favourable the auspices, the greater proved the failure. Already at the
+final meeting at Etampes, in 1147, difficulties arose. Manuel Comnenus
+demanded that all conquests made by the crusaders should be his fiefs;
+and the question was debated whether the crusaders should follow the
+land route through Hungary, along the old road of Charlemagne, or should
+go by sea to the Holy Land. In this question the envoys of Manuel and of
+Roger of Sicily, who were engaged in hostilities with one another, took
+opposite sides. Conrad, related by marriage to Manuel, decided in favour
+of the land route, which Manuel desired because it brought the Crusade
+more under his direction, and because, if the route by sea were
+followed, Roger of Sicily might be able to divert the crusading ships
+against Constantinople. As it was, a struggle raged between Roger and
+Manuel during the whole progress of the Crusade, which greatly
+contributed towards its failure, preventing, as it did, any assistance
+from the Eastern empire. Nor was there any real unity among the
+crusaders themselves. The crusaders of northern Germany never went to
+the Holy Land at all; they were allowed the crusaders' privileges for
+attacking the Wends to the east of the Elbe--a fact which at once
+attests the cleavage between northern and southern Germany (intensified
+of late years by the war of investitures), and anticipates the age of
+the Teutonic knights and their long Crusade on the Baltic. The crusaders
+of the Low Countries and of England took the sea route, and attacked and
+captured Lisbon on their way, thus helping to found the kingdom of
+Portugal, and achieving the one real success which was gained by the
+Second Crusade.[32] Among the great army of crusaders who actually
+marched to Jerusalem there was little real unity. Conrad and Louis VII.
+started separately, and at different times, in order to avoid
+dissensions between their armies; and when they reached Asia Minor
+(after encountering some difficulties in Greek territory) they still
+acted separately. Eager to win the first spoils, the German crusaders,
+who were in advance of the French, attempted a raid into the sultanate
+of Iconium; but after a stern fight at Dorylaeum they were forced to
+retreat (October 1147), and for the most part perished by the way. Louis
+VII., who now appeared, was induced by this failure to take the long and
+circuitous route by the west coast of Asia Minor; but even so he had
+lost the majority of his troops when he reached the Holy Land in 1148.
+Here he joined Conrad (who had come by sea from Constantinople) and
+Baldwin III., and after some deliberation the three sovereigns resolved
+to attack Damascus. The attack was impolitic: Damascus was the one ally
+which could help the Franks to stem the advance of Nureddin. It proved
+as futile as it was impolitic; for the vizier of Damascus,
+Muin-eddin-Anar, was able to sow dissension between the native Franks
+and the crusaders; and by bribes and promises of tribute he succeeded in
+inducing the former to make the siege an absolute failure, at the end of
+only four days (July 28th, 1148). The Second Crusade now collapsed.
+Conrad returned to Constantinople in the autumn of 1148, and Louis VII.
+returned by sea to France in the spring of 1149. The only effects of
+this great movement were effects prejudicial to the ends towards which
+it was directed. The position of the Franks in the Holy Land was not
+improved by the attack on Damascus; while the ignominious failure of a
+Crusade led by two kings brought the whole crusading movement into
+discredit in western Europe, and it was utterly in vain that Suger and
+St Bernard attempted to gather a fresh Crusade in 1150.
+
+The result of the failure of the Second Crusade was the renewal of
+Nureddin's attacks. The rest of the county of Edessa, including
+Tell-bashir on the west, was now conquered (1150); while Raymund of
+Antioch was defeated and killed (in 1149), and several towns in the east
+of his principality were captured. Baldwin III. attempted to make head
+against these troubles, partly by renewing the old alliance with
+Damascus, partly by drawing closer to Manuel of Constantinople. For the
+next twenty years, during the reigns of Baldwin and his brother Amalric
+I., there is indeed a close connexion between the kingdom of Jerusalem
+and the East Roman empire. Baldwin and Amalric both married into the
+Comnenian house, while Manuel married Mary of Antioch, the daughter of
+Raymund. In the north Manuel enjoyed the homage of Antioch, which his
+father had gained in 1137, and the nominal possession of Tell-bashir,
+which had been ceded to him by Baldwin III.: in the south he joined with
+Amalric I. in the attempt to acquire Egypt (1168-1171). In this way he
+acquired a certain ascendancy over the Latin kings: Baldwin III. rode
+behind him at Antioch in 1159 without any of the insignia of royalty,
+and in an inscription at Bethlehem of 1172 Amalric I. had the name of
+the emperor written above his own.[33] The patronage of Constantinople,
+to which Jerusalem was thus practically surrendered, contributed to some
+slight extent in maintaining the kingdom against Nureddin. But there
+were dissensions within, both between Baldwin and his mother, Melisinda,
+who sought to protract her regency unduly, and between contending
+parties in Antioch, where the hand of Constance, Raymund's widow, was a
+desirable prize[34]; while from without the horns of the crescent were
+slowly closing in on the kingdom. Nureddin pursued in his policy the
+tactics which the Mahommedans used against the Franks in battle: he
+sought to envelop their territories on every side. In 1154 fell
+Damascus, and the crescent closed perceptibly in the north: the most
+valuable ally of the kingdom was lost, and the way seemed clear from
+Aleppo (the peculiar seat of Nureddin's power) into Egypt. On the other
+hand, in 1153 Baldwin III. had taken Ascalon, which for fifty years had
+mocked the efforts of successive kings, and by this stroke he might
+appear to have closed for Nureddin the route to Egypt, and to have
+opened a path for its conquest by the Franks. For the future, events
+hinged on the situation of affairs in Egypt, and in Egypt the fate of
+the kingdom of Jerusalem was finally decided (see EGYPT: _History_,
+"Mahommedan Period"). There was a race for the possession of the country
+between Nureddin's lieutenant Shirguh or Shirkuh and Amalric I., the
+brother and successor of Baldwin III.; and in the race Shirkuh proved
+the winner.
+
+Since the days of Godfrey and Baldwin I., Egypt had been a goal of
+Latin ambition, and the capture of Ascalon must obviously have given
+form and strength to the projects for its conquest. Plans of attack were
+sketched: routes were traced: distances were measured; and finally in
+1163 there came the impulse from within which turned these plans into
+action. The Shiite caliphs of Egypt were by this time the playthings of
+contending viziers, as the Sunnite caliphs of Bagdad had long been the
+puppets of Turkish sultans or amirs; and in 1164 Amalric I. and Nureddin
+were fighting in Egypt in support of two rival viziers, Dirgham and
+Shawar. For Nureddin the fight meant the acquisition of an heretical
+country for the true faith of the Sunnite, and the final enveloping of
+the Latin kingdom:[35] for Amalric it meant the escape from Nureddin's
+net, and a more direct and lucrative contact with Eastern trade. Into
+the vicissitudes of the fight it is not necessary here to enter; but in
+the issue Nureddin won, in spite of the support which Manuel gave to
+Amalric. Nureddin's Kurdish lieutenant, Shirguh, succeeded in
+establishing in power the vizier whom he favoured, and finally in
+becoming vizier himself (January 1169); and when he died, his nephew
+Saladin (Sala-ed-din) succeeded to his position (March 1169), and made
+himself, on the death of the caliph in 1171, sole ruler in Egypt. Thus
+the Shiite caliphate became extinct: in the mosques of Cairo the name of
+the caliph of Bagdad was now used; and the long-disunited Mahommedans at
+last faced the Christians as a solid body. But nevertheless the kingdom
+of Jerusalem continued almost unmenaced, and practically undiminished,
+for the next sixteen years. If a religious union had been effected
+between Egypt and northern Syria, political disunion still remained; and
+the Franks were safe as long as it lasted. Saladin acted as the peer of
+Nureddin rather than as his subject; and the jealousy between the two
+kept both inactive till the death of Nureddin in 1174. Nureddin only
+left a minor in his place: Amalric, who died in the same year, left a
+son (Baldwin IV.) who was not only a minor but also a leper; and thus
+the stage seemed cleared for Saladin. He was confronted, however, by
+Raymund, count of Tripoli, the one man of ability among the decadent
+Franks, who acted as guardian of the kingdom; while he was also occupied
+in trying to win for himself the Syrian possessions of Nureddin. The
+task engaged his attention for nine years. Damascus he acquired as early
+as 1174; but Raymund supported the heir of Nureddin in his capital at
+Aleppo, and it was not until 1183 that Saladin entered the city, and
+finally brought Egypt and northern Syria under a single rule.
+
+The hour of peril for the Latin kingdom had now at last struck. It had
+done little to prepare itself for that hour. Repeated appeals had been
+sent to the West from the beginning of the Egyptian affair (1163)
+onwards; while in 1184-1185 a great mission, on which the patriarch of
+Jerusalem and the masters of the Templars and the Hospitallers were all
+present, came to France and England, and offered the crown of Jerusalem
+to Philip Augustus and Henry II. in turn, in order to secure their
+presence in the Holy Land.[36] The only result of these appeals was the
+rise of a regular system of taxation in France and England, _ad
+sustentationem Jerosolimitanae terrae_, which starts about 1185 (though
+there had already been isolated taxes in 1147 and 1166), and which has
+been described as the beginning of modern taxation. In the East itself,
+with the exception of the tax of 1183,[37] nothing was done that was
+good, and two things were done which were evil. Sibylla married her
+second husband, Guy de Lusignan, in 1180--a marriage destined to be the
+cause of many dissensions; for Sibylla, the eldest daughter of Amalric
+I., carried to her husband--a French adventurer--a presumptive title to
+the crown, which would never be admitted without dispute. In 1186 Guy
+eventually became king, after the death of Baldwin V. (Sibylla's son by
+her first marriage); but his coronation was in violation of the promise
+given to Raymund of Tripoli (that in the event of the death of Baldwin
+V. without issue the succession should be determined by the pope, the
+emperor and the kings of France and England), and Guy, with a weak
+title, was unable to exercise any real control over the kingdom. At this
+point another French adventurer, who had already made himself somewhat
+of a name in Antioch, gave the final blow to the kingdom. Raynald of
+Chatillon, the second husband of Constance of Antioch, after languishing
+in captivity from 1159 to 1176, had been granted the seignory of Krak,
+to the east and south of the Dead Sea. From this point of vantage he
+began depredations on the Red Sea (1182), building a fleet, and seeking
+to attack Medina and Mecca--a policy which may be interpreted either as
+mere buccaneering, or as a calculated attempt to deal a blow at
+Mahommedanism in its very centre. Driven from the Red Sea by Saladin, he
+turned from buccaneering to brigandage, and infested the great
+trade-route from Damascus to Egypt, which passed close by his seignory.
+In 1186 he attacked a caravan in which the sister of Saladin was
+travelling, thus violating a four years' truce, which, after some two
+years' skirmishing, Saladin and Raymund of Tripoli had made in the
+previous year owing to the general prevalence of famine.[38] The
+coronation of one French adventurer and the conduct of another, whom the
+first was unable to control, meant the ruin of the kingdom; and Saladin
+at last delivered in full force his long-deferred attack. The Crusade
+was now at last answered by the counter-Crusade--the _jihad_; for though
+for many years past Saladin had, in his attempt to acquire all the
+inheritance of Nureddin, left Palestine unmenaced and intact, his
+ultimate aim was always the holy war and the recovery of Jerusalem. The
+acquisition of Aleppo could only make that supreme object more readily
+attainable; and so Saladin had spent his time in acquiring Aleppo, but
+only in order that he might ultimately "attain the goal of his desires,
+and set the mosque of Asha free, to which Allah once led in the night
+his servant Mahomet." Thus it was on a kingdom of crusaders who had lost
+the crusading spirit that a new Crusade swept down; and Saladin's army
+in 1187 had the spirit and the fire of the Latin crusaders of 1099. The
+tables were turned; and fighting on their own soil for the recovery of
+what was to them too a holy place, the Mahommedans easily carried the
+day. At Tiberias a little squadron of the brethren of the two Orders
+went down before Saladin's cavalry in May; at Hattin the levy _en masse_
+of the kingdom, some 20,000 strong, foolishly marching over a sandy
+plain under the heat of a July sun, was utterly defeated; and after a
+fortnight's siege Jerusalem capitulated (October 2nd, 1187). In the
+kingdom itself nothing was left to the Latins by the end of 1189 except
+the city of Tyre; and to the north of the kingdom they only held Antioch
+and Tripoli, with the Hospitallers' fortress at Margat. The fingers of
+the clock had been pushed back; once more things were as they had been
+at the time of the First Crusade; once more the West must arm itself for
+the holy war and the recovery of Jerusalem--but now it must face a
+united Mahommedan world, where in 1096 it had found political and
+religious dissension, and it must attempt its vastly heavier task
+without the morning freshness of a new religious impulse, and with
+something of the weariness of a hundred years of struggle upon its
+shoulders.
+
+7. _The Forty Years' Crusade for the Recovery of Jerusalem,
+1189-1229._--The forty years from 1189 to 1229 form a period of
+incessant crusading, occupied by Crusades of every kind. There are the
+Third, Fifth and Sixth Crusades against the "infidel" Mahommedans
+encamped in the Holy Land; there is the Albigensian Crusade against the
+heretic Cathars; there is the Fourth Crusade, directed in the issue
+against the schismatic Greeks; lastly, there are the Crusades waged by
+the papacy against revolted Christians--John of England and Frederick
+II. Our concern lies with the first kind of Crusade, and with the other
+three only so far as they bear on the first, and as they illustrate the
+immense widening which the term "Crusade" now underwent--a widening
+accompanied by its inevitable corollary of shallowness of motive and
+degradation of impulse.
+
+_The Third Crusade, 1189-1192._--Conrad of Montferrat was, as much as
+any one man, responsible for the Third Crusade. Compelled to leave the
+court of Constantinople, which he had been serving, he had sailed for
+the Holy Land and reached Tyre about three weeks after the battle of
+Hattin. He had saved Tyre; and from it he sent his appeals to the West.
+Not the least effective of these appeals was a great poster which he had
+circulated in Europe, and which represented the Holy Sepulchre denied by
+the horses of the Mahommedans. Meanwhile the papacy, as soon as the news
+reached Rome, despatched encyclicals throughout Europe; and soon a new
+Crusade was in full swing. But the Third Crusade, unlike the First, does
+not spring from the papacy, which was passing through one of its epochs
+of depression; it springs from the lay power, which, represented by the
+three strong monarchies of Germany, England and France, was at this time
+dominant in Europe. In Germany it was the solemn national diet of Mainz
+(Easter 1188) which "swore the expedition" to the Holy Land; in France
+and England the agreement of the two kings decided upon a joint Crusade.
+The very means which Philip Augustus and Henry II. took, in order to
+further the Crusade, show its lay aspect. A scheme of taxation--the
+Saladin tithe--was imposed on all who did not take the cross; and this
+taxation, while on the one hand it drove many to take the cross in order
+to escape its incidence, on the other hand provided a necessary
+financial basis for military operations.[39] The lay basis of the Third
+Crusade made it, in one sense, the greatest of all Crusades, in which
+all the three great monarchs of western Europe participated; but it also
+made it a failure, for the kings of France and England, changing
+_caelum_, _non animum_, carried their political rivalries into the
+movement, in which it had been agreed that they should be sunk.
+Spiritually, therefore, the Third Crusade is inferior to the First,
+however imposing it may be in its material aspects. Yet it must be
+admitted that the idea of a spiritual regeneration accompanied the
+crusading movement of 1188. Europe had sinned in the face of God;
+otherwise Jerusalem would never have fallen; and the idea of a spiritual
+reform from within, as the necessary corollary and accompaniment of the
+expedition of Christianity without, breathes in some of the papal
+letters, just as, during the conciliar movement, the _causa
+reformationis_ was blended with the _causa unionis_.
+
+We may conceive of the Third Crusade under the figure of a number of
+converging lines, all seeking to reach a common centre. That centre is
+Acre. The siege of Acre, as arduous and heroic in many of its episodes
+as the siege of Troy, had been begun in the summer of 1189 by Guy de
+Lusignan, who, captured by Saladin at the battle of Hattin, and released
+on parole, had at once broken his word and returned to the attack. The
+army which was besieging Acre was soon joined by various contingents;
+for Acre, after all, was the vital point, and its capture would open the
+way to Jerusalem. Two of these contingents alone concern us here--the
+German and the Anglo-French. Frederick I. of Germany, using a diplomacy
+which corresponds to the lay character of the Third Crusade, had sought
+to prepare his way by embassies to the king of Hungary, the Eastern
+emperor and the sultan of Iconium. Starting from Regensburg in May 1189,
+the German army marched quietly through Hungary; but difficulties arose,
+as they had arisen in 1147, as soon as the frontiers of the Eastern
+empire were reached. The emperor Isaac Angelus had not only the old
+grudge of all Eastern emperors against the "upstart" emperor of the
+West; he had also allied himself with Saladin, in order to acquire for
+his empire the patronage of the Holy Places and religious supremacy in
+the Levant. The difficulties between Frederick and Isaac Angelus became
+acute: in November 1189 Frederick wrote to his son Henry, asking him to
+induce the pope to preach a Crusade against the schismatic Greeks. But
+terms were at last arranged, and by the end of March 1190 the Germans
+had all crossed to the shores of Asia Minor. Taking a route midway
+between the eastern route of the crusaders of 1097 and the western route
+of Louis VII. in 1148, Frederick marched by Philadelphia and Iconium,
+not without dust and heat, until he reached the river Salof, in Armenian
+territory. Here, with the burden of the day now past, the fine old
+crusader--he had joined before in the Second Crusade, forty years
+ago--perished by accident in the river; and of all his fine army only a
+thousand men won their way through, under his son, Frederick of Swabia,
+to join the ranks before Acre (October 1190). The Anglo-French
+detachment achieved a far greater immediate success. War had indeed
+disturbed the original agreement of Gisors between Philip Augustus and
+Henry II., but a new agreement was made between Henry's successor,
+Richard I., and the French king at Nonancourt (December 1189), by which
+the two monarchs were to meet at Vezelay next year, and then follow the
+sea route to the Holy Land together. They met, and by different routes
+they both reached Sicily, where they wintered together (1190-1191). The
+enforced inactivity of a whole winter was the mother of disputes and bad
+blood; and when Philip sailed for the Holy Land, at the end of March
+1191, the failure of the Crusade was already decided. Richard soon
+followed; but while Philip sailed straight for Acre, Richard occupied
+himself by the way in conquering Cyprus--partly out of knight-errantry,
+and in order to avenge an insult offered to his betrothed wife
+Berengaria by the despot of the island, partly perhaps out of policy,
+and in order to provide a basis of supplies and of operations for the
+armies attempting to recover Palestine. In any case, he is the founder
+of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus (for he afterwards sold his new
+acquisition to Guy de Lusignan, who established a dynasty in the
+island); and thereby he made possible the survival of the institutions
+and assizes of Jerusalem, which were continued in Cyprus until it was
+conquered by the Ottoman Turks. From Cyprus Richard sailed to Acre,
+arriving on the 8th of June, and in little more than a month he was
+able, in virtue of the large reinforcements he brought, and in spite of
+dissensions in the Christian camp which he helped to foment, to bring
+the two years' siege to a successful issue (July 12th, 1191). It was
+indeed time; the privations of the besiegers during the previous winter
+had been terrible; and the position of affairs had only been made worse
+by the dissensions between Guy de Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, who
+had begun to claim the crown in return for his services, and had, on the
+death of Sibylla, the wife of Guy, reinforced his claim by a marriage
+with her younger sister, Isabella. In these dissensions it was
+inevitable that Philip Augustus and Richard I., already discordant,
+should take contrary sides; and while Richard naturally sided with Guy
+de Lusignan, who came from his own county of Poitou, Philip as naturally
+sided with Conrad. At the end of July it was decided that Guy should
+remain king for his life, and Conrad should be his successor; but as
+three days afterwards Philip Augustus began his return to France
+(pleading ill-health, but in reality eager to gain possession of
+Flanders), the settlement availed little for the success of the Crusade.
+Richard stayed in the Holy Land for another year, during which he won a
+battle at Arsuf and refortified Jaffa. But far more important than any
+hostilities are the negotiations which, for the whole year, Richard
+conducted with Saladin. They show the lay aspect of the Third Crusade;
+they anticipate the Crusade of Frederick II.--for Richard was attempting
+to secure the same concessions which Frederick secured by the same means
+which he used. They show again the closer approximation and better
+understanding with the Mahommedans, which marks this Crusade. Nothing is
+more striking in these respects than Richard's proposal that Saladin's
+brother should marry his own sister Johanna and receive Jerusalem and
+the contiguous towns on the coast. In the event, a peace was made for
+three years (September 2nd, 1192), by which Lydda and Ramlah were to be
+equally divided, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and small bodies of
+crusaders were to be allowed to visit the Holy Sepulchre. Meanwhile
+Conrad of Montferrat, at the very instant when his superior ability had
+finally forced Richard to recognize him as king, had been assassinated
+(April 1192): Guy de Lusignan had bought Cyprus from Richard, and had
+sailed away to establish himself there;[40] and Henry of Champagne,
+Richard's nephew, had been called to the throne of Jerusalem, and had
+given himself a title by marrying Conrad's widow, Isabella. In this
+condition Richard left the Holy Land, when he began his eventful return,
+in October 1192. The Crusade had failed--failed because a leaderless
+army, torn by political dissensions and fighting on a foreign soil,
+could not succeed against forces united by religious zeal under the
+banner of a leader like Saladin. Yet it had at any rate saved for the
+Christians the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, and some
+of the coast towns of the kingdom;[41] and if it had failed to
+accomplish its object, it had left behind, none the less, many important
+results. The difficulties which had arisen between Isaac Angelus and
+Frederick Barbarossa contain the germs of the Fourth Crusade; the
+negotiations between Richard and Saladin contain the germs of the Sixth.
+National rivalries had been accentuated and national differences brought
+into prominence by the meeting of the nations in a common enterprise;
+while, on the other hand, Mahommedans and Christians had fraternized as
+they had never done before during the progress of a Crusade. But what
+the Third Crusade showed most clearly was that the crusading movement
+was being lost to the papacy, and becoming part of the demesne of the
+secular state--organized by the state on its own basis of taxation, and
+conducted by the state according to its own method of negotiation. This
+after all is the great change; and even the genius of an Innocent III.
+"could not make undone what had once been done." On the contrary, the
+thing once done would go further; and the state would take up the name
+of Crusade in order to cover, and under such cover to achieve, its own
+objects and ambitions, as in the future it was destined again and again
+to do.
+
+_The Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204._--The history of the Fourth Crusade is a
+history of the predominance of the lay motive, of the attempt of the
+papacy to escape from that predominance, and to establish its old
+direction of the Crusade, and of the complete failure of its attempt.
+Until the accession of Innocent III. in 1198 the lay motive was supreme;
+and its representative was Henry VI.--the greatest politician of his
+day, and in many ways the greatest emperor since Charlemagne. In 1195
+Amalric, the brother of Guy de Lusignan, and his successor in Cyprus,
+sought the title of king from Henry and did homage; and at the same time
+Leo of Lesser Armenia, in order to escape from dependence on the Eastern
+empire, took the same course. Henry thus gained a basis in the Levant;
+while the death of Saladin in 1193, followed by a civil war between his
+brother, Malik-al-Adil, and his sons for the possession of his
+dominions, weakened the position of the Mahommedans. As emperor, Henry
+was eager to resume the imperial Crusade which had been stopped by his
+father's death; while both as Frederick's successor and as heir to the
+Norman kings of Sicily, who had again and again waged war against the
+Eastern empire, he had an account to settle with the rulers of
+Constantinople. The project of a Crusade and of an attack on
+Constantinople wove themselves into a single thread, in a way which very
+definitely anticipates the Fourth Crusade of 1202-1204. In 1195 Henry
+took the cross; some time before, he had already sent to Isaac Angelus
+to demand compensation for the injuries done to Frederick I., along with
+the cession of all territories ever conquered by the Norman kings of
+Sicily, and a fleet to co-operate with the new Crusade. In the same
+year, however, Isaac was dethroned by his brother, Alexius III.; but
+Henry married Isaac's daughter Irene to his brother, Philip of Swabia,
+and thus attempted to give the Hohenstaufen a new title and a valid
+claim against the usurper Alexius. Thus armed he pushed forward the
+preparations for the Crusade in Germany--a Crusade whose first object
+would have been an attack on Alexius III.; but in the middle of his
+preparations he died in Sicily in the autumn of 1197, and the Crusade
+collapsed. Some results were, however, achieved by a body of German
+crusaders which had sailed in advance of Henry; by its influence Amalric
+of Cyprus succeeded Henry of Champagne, who died in 1197, as king of
+Jerusalem, and a vassal of the emperor thus became ruler in the Holy
+Land; while the Teutonic order, which had begun as a hospital during the
+siege of Acre (1190-1191), now received its organization. Some of the
+coast towns, too, were recovered by the German crusaders, especially
+Beirut; and in 1198 the new king Amalric II. was able to make a truce
+with Malik-al-Adil for the next five years.
+
+"The true heir of Henry VI.," Ranke has said, "is Innocent III.," and
+nowhere is this more true than in respect of the crusading movement.
+Throughout the course of his crowded and magnificent pontificate,
+Innocent III. made the Crusade his ultimate object, and attempted to
+bring it back to its old religious basis and under its old papal
+direction. By the spring of 1200, owing to Innocent's exertions, a new
+Crusade was in full progress, especially in France, where Fulk of
+Neuilly played the part once played by Peter the Hermit. Like the First
+Crusade, the Fourth Crusade also--in its personnel, but not its
+direction--was a French enterprise; and its leading members were French
+feudatories like Theobald of Champagne (who was chosen leader of the
+Crusade), Baldwin of Flanders (the future emperor of Constantinople),
+and the count of Blois. The objective, which these three original chiefs
+of the Fourth Crusade proposed to themselves, was Egypt.[42] Since 1163
+the importance of acquiring Egypt had, as we have seen, been definitely
+understood, and in the summer of 1192 Richard I. had been advised by
+his counsellors that Cairo and not Jerusalem was the true point of
+attack; while in 1200 there was the additional reason for preferring an
+attack on Egypt, that the truce in the Holy Land between Amalric II. and
+Malik-al-Adil had still three years to run. It is Egypt therefore--to
+which, it must be remembered, the centre of Mahommedan power had now
+been virtually shifted, and to which motives of trade impelled the
+Italian towns (since from it they could easily reach the Red Sea, and
+the commerce of the Indian Ocean)--it is Egypt which is henceforth the
+normal goal of the Crusades. This is one of the many facts which
+differentiate the Crusades of the 13th from those of the preceding
+century. But, with Syria in the hands of the Mahommedans, the attack on
+Egypt must necessarily be directed by sea; and thus the Crusade
+henceforth becomes--what the Third Crusade, here as elsewhere the
+turning-point in crusading history, had already in part been--a maritime
+enterprise. Accordingly, early in 1201, envoys from each of the three
+chiefs of the Fourth Crusade (among whom was Villehardouin, the
+historian of the Crusade) came to Venice to negotiate for a passage to
+Egypt. An agreement was made between the doge and the envoys, by which
+transport and active help were to be given by Venice in return for
+85,000 marks and the cession of half of the conquests made by the
+crusaders. But the Fourth Crusade was not to be plain sailing to Egypt.
+It became involved in a maelstrom of conflicting political motives, by
+which it was swept to Constantinople. Here we must distinguish between
+cause and occasion. There were three great causes which made for an
+attack on Constantinople by the West. There was first of all the old
+crusading grudge against the Eastern empire, and its fatal policy of
+regarding the whole of the Levant as its lost provinces, to be restored
+as soon as conquered, or at any rate held in fee, by the Western
+crusaders--a policy which led the Eastern emperors either to give
+niggardly aid or to pursue obstructive tactics, and caused them to be
+blamed for the failure of the Crusades in 1101, and 1149, and in 1190.
+It is significant of the final result of these things that already in
+1147 Roger of Sicily, engaged in war with Manuel, had proposed the
+sea-route for the Second Crusade, perhaps with some intention of
+diverting it against Constantinople; and in the winter of 1189-1190
+Barbarossa, as we have seen, had actually thought and spoken of an
+attack on Constantinople. In the second place, there was the commercial
+grudge of Venice, which had only been given large privileges by the
+Eastern empire to desire still larger, and had, moreover, been annoyed
+not only by alterations or revocations of those privileges, such as the
+usurper Alexius III. had but recently attempted, but also by the
+temporary destruction of their colony in Constantinople in 1171. Lastly,
+and perhaps most of all, there is the old Norman blood-feud with
+Constantinople, as old as the old Norse seeking for Micklegarth, and
+keen and deadly ever since the Norman conquest of the Greek themes in
+South Italy (1041 onwards). The heirs of the Norman kings were the
+Hohenstaufen; and we have already seen Henry VI. planning a Crusade
+which would primarily have been directed against Constantinople. It is
+this Hohenstaufen policy which becomes the primary occasion of the
+diversion of the Fourth Crusade. Philip of Swabia, engaged in a struggle
+with the papacy, found Innocent III. planning a Guelph Crusade, which
+should be under the direction of the church; and to this Guelph project
+he opposed the Ghibelline plan of Henry VI., with such success that he
+transmuted the Fourth Crusade into a political expedition against
+Constantinople. To such a policy of transmutation he was urged by two
+things. On the one hand, the death of the count of Champagne (May 1201)
+had induced the crusaders to elect as their leader Boniface of
+Montferrat, the brother of Conrad; and Boniface was the cousin of
+Philip, and interested in Constantinople, where not only Conrad, but
+another brother as well, had served, and suffered for their service at
+the hands of their masters. On the other hand Alexius, the son of the
+dethroned Isaac Angelus, was related to Philip through his marriage with
+Irene; and Alexius had escaped to the German court to urge the
+restoration of his father. On Christmas day 1201, Philip, Alexius and
+Boniface all met at Hagenau[43] and formulated (one may suppose) a plan
+for the diversion of the Crusade. Events played into their hands. When
+the crusaders gathered at Venice in the autumn of 1202, it was found
+impossible to get together the 85,000 marks promised to Venice. The
+Venetians--already, perhaps, indoctrinated in the Hohenstaufen
+plan--indicated to the leaders a way of meeting the difficulty: they had
+only to lend their services to the republic for certain ends which it
+desired to compass, and the debt was settled. The conquest of Zara, a
+port on the Adriatic claimed by the Venetians from the king of Hungary,
+was the only object overtly mentioned; but the idea of the expedition to
+Constantinople was in the air, and the crusaders knew what was
+ultimately expected. It took time and effort to bring them round to the
+diversion: the pope--naturally enough--set his face sternly against the
+project, the more as the usurper, Alexius III., was in negotiation with
+him in order to win his support against the Hohenstaufen, and Innocent
+hoped to find, as Alexius promised, a support and a reinforcement for
+the Crusade in an alliance with the Greek empire. But they came round
+none the less, in spite of Innocent's renewed prohibitions. In November
+1202 Zara was taken; and at Zara the fatal decision was made. The young
+Alexius joined the army; and in spite of the opposition of stern
+crusaders like Simon de Montfort, who sailed away ultimately to
+Palestine, he succeeded by large promises in inducing the army to follow
+in his train to Constantinople. By the middle of July 1203
+Constantinople was reached, the usurper was in flight, and Isaac Angelus
+was restored to his throne. But when the time came for Alexius to fulfil
+his promises, the difficulty which had arisen at Venice in the autumn of
+1202 repeated itself. Alexius's resources were insufficient, and he had
+to beg the crusaders to wait at Constantinople for a year in order that
+he might have time. They waited; but the closer contact of a prolonged
+stay only brought into fuller play the essential antipathy of the Greek
+and the Latin. Continual friction developed at last into the open fire
+of war; and in March 1204 the crusaders resolved to storm
+Constantinople, and to divide among themselves the Eastern empire. In
+April Constantinople was captured; in May Baldwin of Flanders became the
+first Latin emperor of Constantinople. Venice had her own reward; a
+Venetian, Thomas Morosini, became patriarch; and the doge of Venice
+added "a quarter and a half" of the Eastern empire--chiefly the coasts
+and the islands--to the sphere of his sway. If Venetian cupidity had not
+originally deflected the Crusade (and it was the view of contemporary
+writers that Venice had committed her first treason against Christianity
+by diverting the Crusade from Egypt in order to get commercial
+concessions from Malik-al-Adil,[44]) yet it had at any rate profited
+exceedingly from that deflection; and the Hohenstaufen and their protege
+Alexius only reaped dust and ashes. For, however Ghibelline might be the
+original intention, the result was not commensurate with the subtlety of
+the design, and the power of the pope was rather increased than
+diminished by the event of the Crusade. The crusaders appealed to
+Innocent to ratify the subjugation of a schismatic people, and the union
+of the Eastern and Western Churches; and Innocent, dazzled by the magic
+of the _fait accompli_, not unwillingly acquiesced. He might soothe
+himself by reflecting that the basis for the Crusade, which he had hoped
+to find in Alexius III., was still more securely offered by Baldwin; he
+could not but feel with pride that he had become "as it were pope and
+apostolicus of a second world." Yet the result of the Fourth Crusade was
+on the whole disastrous both for the papacy and for the crusading
+movement. The pope had been forced to see the helm of the Crusades
+wrenched from his grasp; and the Albigensian Crusade against the
+heretics of southern France was soon afterwards to show that the example
+could be followed, and that the land-hunger of the north French baronage
+could exploit a Crusade as successfully as ever did Hohenstaufen policy
+leagued with Venetian cupidity. The Crusade lost its _elan_ when it
+became a move in a political game. If the Third Crusade had been
+directed by the lay power towards the true spiritual end of all
+Crusades, the Fourth was directed by the lay power to its own lay ends;
+and the political and commercial motives, winch were deeply implicit
+even in the First Crusade, had now become dominantly explicit. In a
+simpler and more immediate sense, the capture of Constantinople was
+detrimental to the movement from which it sprang. The precarious empire
+which had been founded in 1204 drained away all the vigorous adventurers
+of the West for its support for many years to come, and the Holy Land
+was starved to feed a land less holy, but equally greedy of men.[45] No
+basis for the Crusades was ever to be found in the Latin empire of the
+East; and Innocent, after vainly hoping for the new Crusade which was to
+emerge from Constantinople, was by 1208 compelled to return to the old
+idea of a Crusade proceeding simply and immediately from the West to the
+East.
+
+_The Fifth Crusade, 1218-1221._--The glow and the glamour of the
+Crusades disappear save for the pathetic sunset splendours of St Louis,
+as Dandolo dies, and gallant Villehardouin drops his pen. But before St
+Louis sailed for Damietta there intervened the miserable failure of one
+Crusade, and the secular and diplomatic success of another. The Fifth
+Crusade is the last which is started in that pontificate of
+Crusades--the pontificate of Innocent III. It owed its origin to his
+feverish zeal for the recovery of Jerusalem, rather than to any pressing
+need in the Holy Land. Here there reigned, during the forty years of the
+loss of Jerusalem, an almost unbroken peace. Malik-al-Adil, the brother
+of Saladin, had by 1200 succeeded to his brother's possessions not only
+in Egypt but also in Syria, and he granted the Christians a series of
+truces (1198-1203, 1204-1210, 1211-1217). While the Holy Land was thus
+at peace, crusaders were also being drawn elsewhere by the needs of the
+Latin empire of Constantinople, or the attractions of the Albigensian
+Crusade.[46] But Innocent could never consent to forget Jerusalem, as
+long as his right hand retained its cunning. The pathos of the
+Children's Crusade of 1212 only nerved him to fresh efforts. A shepherd
+boy named Stephen had appeared in France, and had induced thousands to
+follow his guidance: with his boyish army he rode on a wagon southward
+to Marseilles, promising to lead his followers dry-shod through the
+seas. In Germany a child from Cologne, named Nicolas, gathered some
+20,000 young crusaders by the like promises, and led them into Italy.
+Stephen's army was kidnapped by slave-dealers and sold into Egypt; while
+Nicolas's expedition left nothing behind it but an after-echo in the
+legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. But for Innocent these outbursts of
+the revivalist element, which always accompanied the Crusades, had their
+moral: "the very children put us to shame," he wrote; "while we sleep
+they go forth gladly to conquer the Holy Land." In the fourth Lateran
+council of 1215 Innocent found his opportunity to rekindle the
+flickering fires. Before this great gathering of all Christian Europe he
+proclaimed a Crusade for the year 1217, and in common deliberation it
+was resolved that a truce of God should reign for the next four years,
+while for the same time all trade with the Levant should cease. Here
+were two things attempted--neither, indeed, for the first
+time[47]--which 14th century pamphleteers on the subject of the Crusades
+unanimously advocate as the necessary conditions of success; there was
+to be peace in Europe and a commercial war with Egypt. This
+statesmanlike beginning of a Crusade, preached, as no Crusade had ever
+been preached before, in a general council of all Europe, presaged well
+for its success. In Germany (where Frederick II. himself took the cross
+in this same year) a large body of crusaders gathered together: in 1217
+the south-east sent the duke of Austria and the king of Hungary to the
+Holy Land; while in 1218 an army from the north-west joined at Acre the
+forces of the previous year. Egypt had already been indicated by
+Innocent III. in 1215 as the goal of attack, and it was accordingly
+resolved to begin the Crusade by the siege of Damietta, on the eastern
+delta of the Nile. The original leader of the Crusade was John of
+Brienne, king of Jerusalem (who had succeeded Amalric II., marrying
+Maria, the daughter of Amalric's wife Isabella by her former husband,
+Conrad of Montferrat); but after the end of 1218 the cardinal legate
+Pelagius, fortified by papal letters, claimed the command. In spite of
+dissensions between the cardinal and the king, and in spite of the
+offers of Malik-al-Kamil (who succeeded Malik-al-Adil at the end of
+1218), the crusaders finally carried the siege to a successful
+conclusion by the end of 1219. The capture of Damietta was a
+considerable feat of arms, but nothing was done to clinch the advantage
+which had been won, and the whole of the year 1220 was spent by the
+crusaders in Damietta, partly in consolidating their immediate position,
+and partly in waiting for the arrival of Frederick II., who had promised
+to appear in 1221. In 1221 Hermann of Salza, the master of the Teutonic
+order, along with the duke of Bavaria, appeared in the camp before
+Damietta; and as it seemed useless to wait any longer for Frederick
+II.,[48] the cardinal, in spite of the opposition of King John, gave the
+signal for the march on Cairo. The army reached a fortress erected by
+the sultan in 1219 (afterwards, from 1221, the town of Mansura), and
+encamped there at the end of July. Here the sultan reiterated terms
+which he had already offered several times before--the cession of most
+of the kingdom of Jerusalem, the surrender of the cross (captured by
+Saladin in 1187), and the restoration of all prisoners. King John urged
+the acceptance of these terms. The legate insisted on a large indemnity
+in addition: the negotiations failed, and the sultan prepared for war.
+The crusaders were driven back towards Damietta; and at the end of
+August 1221 Pelagius had to make a treaty with Malik-al-Kamil, by which
+he gained a free retreat and the surrender of the Holy Cross at the
+price of the restoration of Damietta. The treaty was to last for eight
+years, and could only be broken on the coming of a king or emperor to
+the East. In pursuance of its terms the crusaders evacuated Egypt, and
+the Fifth Crusade was at an end. It is difficult to decide whether to
+blame the legate or the emperor more for its failure. If Frederick had
+only come in person, a single month of his presence might have meant
+everything: if Pelagius had only listened to King John, the sultan was
+ready to concede practically everything which was at issue. Unhappily
+Frederick preferred to put his Sicilian house in order, and the legate
+preferred to listen to the Italians, who had their own commercial
+reasons for wishing to establish a strong position in Egypt, and to the
+Templars and Hospitallers, who did not feel satisfied by the terms
+offered by the sultan, because he wished to retain in his hands the two
+fortresses of Krak and Monreal.
+
+_The Sixth Crusade_ (1228-1229) succeeded as signally as the Fifth
+Crusade had failed; but the circumstances under which it took place and
+the means by which it was conducted made its success still more
+disastrous than the failure of 1221. The last Crusade had, after all,
+been under papal control: if Richard I. had directed the Third Crusade,
+and the policy of the Hohenstaufen and the Venetians had directed the
+Fourth, it was a papal legate who had steered the Fifth to its ultimate
+fate. The Crusade of Frederick II. in 1228-1229 finds its analogy in the
+projected Crusade of Henry VI.; it is essentially lay. It is unique in
+the annals of the Crusades. Alone of all Crusades (though the Fourth
+Crusade offers some analogy) it was not blessed but cursed by the
+papacy: alone of all the Crusades it was conducted without a single act
+of hostility against the Mahommedan. St Louis, the true type of the
+religious crusader, once said that a layman ought only to argue with a
+blasphemer against Christian law by running his sword into the bowels of
+the blasphemer as far as it would go:[49] Frederick II. talked amicably
+with all unbelievers, if one may trust Arabic accounts, and he achieved
+by mere negotiation the recovery of Jerusalem, for which men had vainly
+striven with the sword for the forty years since 1187. It was in 1215
+that the leader of this strange Crusade had first taken the vow; it was
+twelve years afterwards when he finally attempted to carry the vow into
+effective execution. Again and again he had excused himself to the pope,
+and been excused by the pope, because the exigencies of his policy in
+Germany or Sicily tied his hands. After the failure of the Fifth
+Crusade--for which these delays were in part responsible--Honorius III.
+had attempted to bind him more intimately to the Holy Land by arranging
+a marriage with Isabella, the daughter of John of Brienne, and the
+heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1225 Frederick married Isabella,
+and immediately after the marriage he assumed the title of king in right
+of his wife, and exacted homage from the vassals of the kingdom.[50] It
+was thus as king of Jerusalem that Frederick began his Crusade in the
+autumn of 1227. Scarcely, however, had he sailed from Brindisi when he
+fell sick of a fever which had been raging for some time among the ranks
+of his army, while they waited for the crossing. He sailed back to
+Otranto in order to recover his health, but the new pope, Gregory IX.,
+launched in hot anger the bolt of excommunication, in the belief that
+Frederick was malingering once more. None the less the emperor sailed on
+his Crusade in the summer of 1228, affording to astonished Europe the
+spectacle of an excommunicated crusader, and leaving his territories to
+be invaded by papal soldiers, whom Gregory IX. professed to regard as
+crusaders against a non-Christian king, and for whom he accordingly
+levied a tithe from the churches of Europe. The paradox of Frederick's
+Crusade is indeed astonishing. Here was a crusader against whom a
+Crusade was proclaimed in his own territories; and when he arrived in
+the Holy Land he found little obedience and many insults from all but
+his own immediate followers. Yet by adroit use of his powers of
+diplomacy, and by playing upon the dissensions which raged between the
+descendants of Saladin's brother (Malik-al-Adil), he was able, without
+striking a blow, to conclude a treaty with the sultan of Egypt which
+gave him all that Richard I. had vainly attempted to secure by arduous
+fighting and patient negotiations. By the treaty of the 18th of February
+1229, which was to last for ten years, the sultan conceded to Frederick,
+in addition to the coast towns already in the possession of the
+Christians, Nazareth, Bethlehem and Jerusalem, with a strip of territory
+connecting Jerusalem with the port of Acre. As king of Jerusalem
+Frederick was now able to enter his capital: as one under
+excommunication, he had to see an interdict immediately fall on the
+city, and it was with his own hands--for no churchman could perform the
+office--that he had to take his crown from the altar of the church of
+the Sepulchre, and crown himself king of his new kingdom. He stayed in
+the Holy Land little more than a month after his coronation; and leaving
+in May he soon overcame the papal armies in Italy, and secured
+absolution from Gregory IX. (August 1229). By his treaty with the sultan
+he had secured for Christianity the last fifteen years of its possession
+of Jerusalem (1229-1244): no man since Frederick II. has ever recovered
+the holy places for the religion which holds them most holy. Yet the
+church might ask, with some justice, whether the means he had used were
+excused by the end which he had attained. After all, there was nothing
+of the holy war about the Sixth Crusade: there was simply huckstering,
+as in an Eastern bazaar, between a free-thinking, semi-oriental king of
+Sicily and an Egyptian sultan. It was indeed in the spirit of a king of
+Sicily, and not in the spirit--though it was in the role--of a king of
+Jerusalem, that Frederick had acted. It was from his Sicilian
+predecessors, who had made trade treaties with Egypt, that he had
+learned to make even the Crusade a matter of treaty. The Norman line of
+Sicilian kings might be extinct; their policy lived after them in their
+Hohenstaufen successors, and that policy, as it had helped to divert the
+Fourth Crusade to the old Norman objective of Constantinople, helped
+still more to give the Sixth Crusade its secular, diplomatic,
+non-religious aspect.
+
+Forty years of struggle ended in fifteen years' possession of Jerusalem.
+During those fifteen years the kingdom of Jerusalem was agitated by a
+struggle between the native barons, championing the principle that
+sovereignty resided in the collective baronage, and taking their stand
+on the assizes, and Frederick II., claiming sovereignty for himself, and
+opposing to the assizes the feudal law of Sicily. It is a struggle
+between the king and the _haute cour_: it is a struggle between the
+aristocratic feudalism of the Franks and the monarchical feudalism of
+the Normans. Already in Cyprus, in the summer of 1228, Frederick II. had
+insisted on the right of wardship which he enjoyed as overlord of the
+island,[51] and he had appointed a commission of five barons to exercise
+his rights. In 1229 this commission was overthrown by John of Ibelin,
+lord of Beirut, against whom it had taken proceedings. John of Beirut,
+like many of the Cypriot barons, was also a baron of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem; and resistance in the one kingdom could only produce
+difficulties in the other. Difficulties quickly arose when Frederick, in
+1231, sent Marshal Richard to Syria as his legate. This in itself was a
+serious matter; according to the assizes, the barons maintained, the
+king must either personally reside in the kingdom, or, in the event of
+his absence, be replaced by a regency. The position became more
+difficult, when the legate took steps against John of Beirut without any
+authorization from the high court. A gild was formed at Acre--the gild
+of St Adrian--which, if nominally religious in its origin, soon came to
+represent the political opposition to Frederick, as was significantly
+proved by its reception of the rebellious John of Beirut as a member
+(1232). The opposition was successful: by 1233 Frederick had lost all
+hold on Cyprus, and only retained Tyre in his own kingdom of Jerusalem.
+In 1236 he had to promise to recognize fully the laws of the kingdom:
+and when, in 1239, he was again excommunicated by Gregory IX., and a new
+quarrel of papacy and empire began, he soon lost the last vestiges of
+his power. Till 1243 the party of Frederick had been successful in
+retaining Tyre, and the baronial demand for a regency had remained
+without effect; but in that year the opposition, headed by the great
+family of Ibelin, succeeded, under cover of asserting the rights of
+Alice of Cyprus to the regency, in securing possession of Tyre, and the
+kingdom of Jerusalem thus fell back into the power of the baronage. The
+very next year (1244) Jerusalem was finally and for ever lost. Its loss
+was the natural corollary of these dissensions. The treaty of Frederick
+with Malik-al-Kamil (d. 1238) had now expired, and new succours and new
+measures were needed for the Holy Land. Theobald of Champagne had taken
+the cross as early as 1230, and 1239 he sailed to Acre in spite of the
+express prohibition of the pope, who, having quarrelled with Frederick
+II., was eager to divert any succour from Jerusalem itself, so long as
+Jerusalem belonged to his enemy. Theobald was followed (1240-1241) by
+Richard of Cornwall, the brother of Henry III., who, like his
+predecessor, had to sail in the teeth of papal prohibitions; but neither
+of the two achieved any permanent result, except the fortification of
+Ascalon. It was, however, by their own folly that the Franks lost
+Jerusalem in 1244. They consented to ally themselves with the ruler of
+Damascus against the sultan of Egypt; but in the battle of Gaza they
+were deserted by their allies and heavily defeated by Bibars, the
+Egyptian general and future Mameluke sultan of Egypt. Jerusalem, which
+had already been plundered and destroyed earlier in the year by
+Chorasmians (Khwarizmians), was the prize of victory, and Ascalon also
+fell in 1247.
+
+8. _The Crusades of St Louis._--As the loss of Jerusalem in 1187
+produced the Third Crusade, so its loss in 1244 produced the Seventh: as
+the preaching of the Fifth Crusade had taken place in the Lateran
+council of 1215, so that of the Seventh Crusade began in the council of
+Lyons of 1245. But the preaching of the Crusade by Innocent IV. at Lyons
+was a curious thing. On the one hand he repeated the provisions of the
+Fourth Lateran council on behalf of the Crusade to the Holy Land; on the
+other hand he preached a Crusade against Frederick II., and promised to
+all who would join the full benefits of absolution and remission of
+sins. While the papacy thus bent its energies to the destruction of the
+Crusades in their genuine sense, and preferred to use for its own
+political objects what was meant for Jerusalem, a layman took up the
+derelict cause with all the religious zeal which any pope had ever
+displayed. Paradoxically enough, it was now the turn for the papacy to
+exploit the name of Crusade for political ends, as the laity had done
+before; and it was left to the laity to champion the spiritual meaning
+of the Crusade even against the papacy.[52] It was at the end of the
+year in which Jerusalem had fallen that St Louis had taken the cross,
+and by all the means in his power he attempted to ensure the success of
+his projected Crusade. He sought to mediate, though with no success,
+between the pope and the emperor; he descended to a whimsical piety, and
+took his courtiers by guile in distributing to them, at Christmas,
+clothing on which a cross had been secretly stitched. He started in 1248
+with a gallant company, which contained his three brothers and the sieur
+de Joinville, his biographer; and after wintering in Cyprus he directed
+his army in the spring of 1249 against Egypt. The objective was
+unexpected: it may have been chosen by St Louis, because he knew how
+seriously the power of the sultan was undermined by the Mamelukes, who
+were in the very next year to depose the Ayyubite dynasty, which had
+reigned since 1171, and to substitute one of their number as sultan.
+Damietta was taken without a blow, and the march for Cairo was begun, as
+it had been begun by the legate Pelagius in 1221. Again the invading
+army halted before Mansura (December 1249); again it had to retreat.
+The retreat became a rout. St Louis was captured, and a treaty was made
+by which he had to consent to evacuate Damietta and pay a ransom of
+800,000 pieces of gold. Eventually St Louis was released on surrendering
+Damietta and paying one-half of his ransom, and by the middle of May
+1230 he reached Acre, having abandoned the Egyptian expedition. For the
+next four years he stayed in the Holy Land, seeking to do what he could
+for the establishing of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He was able to do but
+little. The struggle of papacy and empire paralysed Europe, and even in
+France itself there were few ready to answer the calls for help which St
+Louis sent home from Acre. The one answer was the Shepherds' Crusade, or
+Crusade of the Pastoureaux--"a religious Jacquerie," as it has been
+called by Dean Milman. It had some of the features of the Children's
+Crusade of 1212. That, too, had begun with a shepherd boy: the leader of
+the Pastoureaux, like the leader of the children, promised to lead his
+followers dry-shod through the seas; and tradition even said that this
+leader, "the master of Hungary," as he was called, was the Stephen of
+the Children's Crusade. But the anti-clerical feeling and action of the
+Shepherds was new and ominous; and moved by its enormities the
+government suppressed the new movement ruthlessly. None came to the aid
+of St Louis; and in 1254, on the death of his mother Blanche, the
+regent, he had to return to France.
+
+The final collapse of the kingdom of Jerusalem had been really
+determined by the battle of Gaza in 1244, and by the deposition of the
+Ayyubite dynasty by the Mamelukes. The Ayyubites had always been, on the
+whole, chivalrous and tolerant: Saladin and his successors,
+Malik-al-Adil and Malik-al-Kamil, had none of them shown an implacable
+enmity to the Christians. The Mamelukes, who are analogous to the
+janissaries of the Ottoman Turks, were made of sterner and more
+fanatical stuff; and Bibars, the greatest of these Mamelukes, who had
+commanded at Gaza in 1244, had been one of the leaders in 1250, and was
+destined to become sultan in 1260, was the sternest and most fanatical
+of them all. The Christians were, however, able to maintain a footing in
+Syria for forty years after St Louis' departure, not by reason of their
+own strength, but owing to two powers which checked the advance of the
+Mamelukes. The first of these was Damascus. The kingdom of Jerusalem, as
+we have seen, had profited by the alliance of Damascus as early as 1130,
+when the fear of the atabegs of Mosul had first drawn the two together;
+and when Damascus had been acquired by the rule of Mosul, the hostility
+between the house of Nureddin in Damascus and Saladin in Egypt had still
+for a time preserved the kingdom (from 1171 onwards). Saladin had united
+Egypt and Damascus; but after his death dissensions broke out among the
+members of his family,[53] which more than once led to wars between
+Damascus and Cairo. It has already been noticed that such a war between
+the sons of Malik-al-Adil accounts in large measure for the success of
+the Sixth Crusade; and it has been seen that the battle of Gaza was an
+act in the long drama of strife between Egypt and northern Syria. The
+revolution in Egypt in 1250 separated Damascus from Cairo more
+trenchantly than they had ever been separated since 1171: while a
+Mameluke ruled in Cairo, Malik-al-Nasir of Aleppo was elected as sultan
+by the emirs of Damascus. But an entirely new and far more important
+factor in the affairs of the Levant was the extension of the empire of
+the Mongols during the 13th century. That empire had been founded by
+Jenghiz Khan in the first quarter of the century; it stretched from
+Peking on the east to the Euphrates and the Dnieper on the west. Two
+things gave the Mongols an influence on the history of the Holy Land and
+the fate of the Crusades. In the first place, the south-western division
+of the empire, comprising Persia and Armenia, and governed about 1250 by
+the Khan Hulaku or Hulagu, was inevitably brought into relations, which
+were naturally hostile, with the Mahommedan powers of Syria and Egypt.
+In the second place, the Mongols of the 13th century were not as yet, in
+any great numbers, Mahommedans; the official religion was "Shamanism,"
+but in the Mongol army there were many Christians, the results of early
+Nestorian missions to the far East. This last fact in particular caused
+western Europe to dream of an alliance with the great khan "Prester
+John," who should aid in the reconquest of Jerusalem and the final
+conversion to Christianity of the whole continent of Asia. The Crusades
+thus widen out, towards their close, into a general scheme for the
+christianization of all the known world.[54] About 1220 James of Vitry
+was already hoping that 4000 knights would, with the assistance of the
+Mongols, recover Jerusalem; but it is in 1245 that the first definite
+sign of an alliance with the Mongols appears. In that year Innocent IV.
+sent a Franciscan friar, Joannes de Piano Carpini, to the Mongols of
+southern Russia, and despatched a Dominican mission to Persia. Nothing
+came of either of these missions; but through them Europe first began to
+know the interior of Asia, for Carpini was conducted by the Mongols as
+far as Karakorum, the capital of the great khan, on the borders of
+China. Again in 1252 St Louis (who had already begun to negotiate with
+the Mongols in the winter of 1248-1249) sent the friar William of
+Rubruquis to the court of the great khan; but again nothing came of the
+mission save an increase of geographical knowledge. It was in the year
+1260 when it first seemed likely that any results definitely affecting
+the course of the Crusades would flow from the action of the Mongols. In
+that year Hulagu, the khan of Persia, invaded Syria and captured
+Damascus. His general, a Christian named Kitboga, marched southwards to
+attack the Mamelukes of Egypt, but he was beaten by Bibars (who in the
+same year became sultan of Egypt), and Damascus fell into the hands of
+the Mamelukes. Once more, in spite of Mongol intervention, Damascus and
+Cairo were united, as they had been united in the hands of Saladin; once
+more they were united in the hands of a devout Mahommedan, who was
+resolved to extirpate the Christians from Syria.
+
+While these things were taking place around them, the Christians of the
+kingdom of Jerusalem only hastened their own fall by internal
+dissensions which repeated the history of the period preceding 1187. In
+part the war of Guelph and Ghibelline fought itself out in the East; and
+while one party demanded a regency, as in 1243, another argued for the
+recognition of Conrad, the son of Frederick II., as king. In part,
+again, a commercial war raged between Venice and Genoa, which attracted
+into its orbit all the various feuds and animosities of the Levant
+(1257). Beaten in the war, the Genoese avenged themselves for their
+defeat by an alliance with the Palaeologi, which led to the loss of
+Constantinople by the Latins (1261), and to the collapse of the Latin
+empire after sixty years of infirm and precarious existence. On a
+kingdom thus divided against itself, and deprived of allies, the arm of
+Bibars soon fell with crushing weight. The sultan, who had risen from a
+Mongolian slave to become a second Saladin, and who combined the
+physique and audacity of a Danton with the tenacity and religiosity of a
+Philip II., dealt blow after blow to the Franks of the East. In 1265
+fell Caesarea and Arsuf; in 1268 Antioch was taken, and the principality
+of Bohemund and Tancred ceased to exist.[55] In the years which followed
+on the loss of Antioch several attempts were made in the West to meet
+the progress of the new conqueror. In 1269 James the Conqueror of
+Aragon, at the bidding of the pope, turned from the long Spanish Crusade
+to a Crusade in the East in order to atone for his offences against the
+law matrimonial. An opportune storm, however, gave the king an excuse
+for returning home, as Frederick II. had done in 1227; and though his
+followers reached Acre, they hardly dared venture outside its walls, and
+returned home promptly in the beginning of 1270. More serious were the
+plans and the attempts of Charles of Anjou and Louis IX., in which the
+Crusades may be said to have finally ended, save for sundry disjointed
+epilogues in the 14th and 15th centuries.
+
+Charles of Anjou had succeeded, as a result of the long "crusade" waged
+by the papacy against the Hohenstaufen from the council of Lyons to the
+battle of Tagliacozzo (1245-1268), in establishing himself in the
+kingdom of Sicily. With the kingdom of Frederick II. and Henry VI. he
+also took over their policy--the "forward" policy in the East which had
+also been followed by the old Norman kings. On the one hand he aimed at
+the conquest of Constantinople as Henry VI. had done before; and by the
+treaty of Viterbo of 1267 he secured from the last Latin emperor of the
+East, Baldwin II., a right of eventual succession. On the other hand,
+like Frederick II., he aimed at uniting the kingdom of Jerusalem with
+that of Sicily; and here, too, he was able to provide himself with a
+title. On the death of Conradin, Hugh of Cyprus had been recognized in
+the East as king of Jerusalem (1269); but his pretensions were opposed
+by Mary of Antioch, a granddaughter of Amalric II., who was prepared to
+bequeath her claims to Charles of Anjou, and was therefore naturally
+supported by him. But the policy of Charles, which thus prepared the way
+for a Crusade similar to those of 1197 and 1202, was crossed by that of
+his brother Louis IX. Already in 1267 St Louis had taken the cross a
+second time, moved by the news of Bibars' conquests; and though the
+French baronage, including even Joinville himself, refused to follow the
+lead of their king, Prince Edward of England imitated his example. Louis
+had been led to think that the bey of Tunis might be converted, and in
+that hope he resolved to begin this eighth and last of the Crusades by
+an expedition to Tunis. Charles, as anxious to attack Constantinople as
+he was reluctant to attack Tunis, with which Sicily had long had
+commercial relations, was forced to abandon his own plans and to join in
+those of his brother.[56] St Louis had barely landed in Tunis when he
+sickened and died, murmuring "Jerusalem, Jerusalem" (August 1270); but
+Charles, who appeared immediately after his brother's death, was able to
+conduct the Crusade to a successful conclusion. Negotiating in the
+spirit of a Frederick II., and acting not as a Crusader but as a king of
+Sicily, he not only wrested a large indemnity from the bey for himself
+and the new king of France, but also secured a large annual tribute for
+his Sicilian exchequer. So ended the Eighth Crusade--much as the Sixth
+had done--to the profound disgust of many of the crusaders, including
+Prince Edward of England, who only arrived on the eve of the conclusion
+of the treaty. Baulked of any opportunity of joining in the main
+Crusade, Edward, after wintering in Sicily, conducted a Crusade of his
+own to Acre in the spring of 1271. For over a year he stayed in the Holy
+Land, making little sallies from Acre, and negotiating with the
+Mongols, but achieving no permanent results. He returned home at the end
+of 1272, the last of the western crusaders; and thus all the attempts of
+St Louis and Charles of Anjou, of James of Aragon and Edward of England
+left Bibars still in possession of all his conquests.
+
+Two projects of Crusades were started before the final expulsion of the
+Latins from Syria. In 1274, at the council of Lyons, Gregory X., who had
+been the companion of Edward in the Holy Land, preached the Crusade to
+an assembly which contained envoys from the Mongol khan and Michael
+Palaeologus as well as from many western princes. All the princes of
+western Europe took the cross; not only so, but Gregory was successful
+in uniting the Eastern and Western churches for the moment, and in
+securing for the new Crusade the aid of the Palaeologi, now thoroughly
+alarmed by the plans of Charles of Anjou. Thus was a papal Crusade
+begun, backed by an alliance with Constantinople, and thus were the
+plans of Charles of Anjou temporarily thwarted. But in 1276 Gregory X.
+died, and all his plans died with him; there was to be no union of the
+monarchs of the West with the emperor of the East in a common Crusade.
+Charles was able to resume his plans. In 1277 Mary of Antioch ceded to
+him her claims, and he was able to establish himself in Acre; in 1278 he
+took possession of the principality of Achaea. With these bases at his
+disposal he began to prepare a new Crusade, to be directed primarily
+(like that of Henry VI. in 1197, and like his own projected Crusade of
+1270) against Constantinople. Once more his plans were crossed finally
+and fatally: the Sicilian Vespers, and the coronation of Peter of Aragon
+as Sicilian king (1282), gave him troubles at home which occupied him
+for the rest of his days. This was the last serious attempt at a Crusade
+on behalf of the dying kingdom of Jerusalem which was made in the West;
+and its collapse was quickly followed by the final extinction of the
+kingdom. A precarious peace had reigned in the Holy Land since 1272,
+when Bibars had granted a truce of ten years; but the fall of the great
+power of Charles of Anjou set free Kala'un the successor of Bibars' son
+(who reigned little more than two years), to complete the work of the
+great sultan. In 1289 Kala'un took Tripoli, and the county of Tripoli
+was extinguished; in 1290 he died while preparing to besiege Acre, which
+was captured after a brave defence by his son and successor Khalil in
+1291. Thus the kingdom of Jerusalem came to an end. The Franks evacuated
+Syria altogether, leaving behind them only the ruins of their castles to
+bear witness, to this very day, of the Crusades they had waged and the
+kingdom they had founded and lost.
+
+9. _The Ghost of the Crusades._--The loss of Acre failed to stimulate
+the powers of Europe to any new effort. France, always the natural home
+of the Crusades, was too fully occupied, first by war with England and
+then by a struggle with the papacy, to turn her energies towards the
+East. But it is often the case that theory develops as practice fails;
+and as the theory of the Holy Roman Empire was never more vigorous than
+in the days of its decrepitude, so it was with the Crusades.
+Particularly in the first quarter of the 14th century, writers were busy
+in explaining the causes of the failures of past Crusades, and in laying
+down the lines along which a new Crusade must proceed. Several causes
+are recognized by these writers as accounting for the failure of the
+Crusades. Some of them lay the blame on the papacy; and it is true that
+the papacy had contributed towards the decay of the Crusades when it had
+allowed its own particular interests to overbear the general welfare of
+Christianity, and had dignified with the name and the benefits of a
+Crusade its own political war against the Hohenstaufen. Others again
+find in the princes of Europe the authors of the ruin of the Crusades;
+they too had preferred their own national or dynastic interests to the
+cause of a common Christianity. They had indeed, as has been already
+noticed, done even more; they had used the name of Crusade, from the
+days of Henry VI. onwards, as a cover and an excuse for secular
+ambitions of their own; and in this way they had certainly helped, in
+very large measure, to discourage the old religious zeal for the Holy
+War. Other writers, again, blame the commercial cupidity of the Italian
+towns; of what avail, they asked with no little justice, was the
+Crusade, when Venice and Genoa destroyed the naval bases necessary for
+its success by their internecine quarrels in the Levant (as in 1257),
+or--still worse--entered into commercial treaties with the common enemy
+against whom the Crusades were directed? On the very eve of the Fifth
+Crusade, Venice had concluded a commercial treaty with Malik-al-Kamil of
+Egypt; just before the fall of Acre the Genoese, the king of Aragon and
+the king of Sicily had all concluded advantageous treaties with the
+sultan Kala'un. A fourth cause, on which many writers dwelt,
+particularly at the time when the suppression of the Templars was in
+question, was the dissensions between the two orders of Templars and
+Hospitallers, and the selfish policy of merely pursuing their own
+interest which was followed by both in common. But one might enumerate
+_ad infinitum_ the causes of the failure of the Crusades. It is
+simplest, as it is truest, to say that the Crusades did not fail--they
+simply ceased; and they ceased because they were no longer in joint with
+the times. The moral character of Europe in 1300 was no longer the moral
+character of Europe in 1100; and the Crusades, which had been the active
+and objective embodiment of the other worldly Europe of 1100, were alien
+to the secular, legal, scholastic Europe of 1300. While Edward I. was
+seeking to found a united kingdom in Great Britain; while the Habsburgs
+were entrenching themselves in Austria; above all, while Philippe le Bel
+and his legists were consolidating the French monarchy on an absolutist
+basis, there could be little thought of the holy war. These were
+hard-headed men of affairs--men who would not lightly embark on joyous
+ventures, or seek for an ideal San Grail; nor were the popes, doomed to
+the Babylonian captivity for seventy long years at Avignon, able to call
+down the spark from on high which should consume all earthly ambitions
+in one great act of sacrifice.
+
+But it is long before the death of any institution is recognized; and it
+was inevitable that men should busy themselves in trying to rekindle the
+dead embers into new life. Pierre Dubois, in a pamphlet "_De
+recuperatione Sanctae Terrae_," addressed to Edward I. in 1307,
+advocates a general council of Europe to maintain peace and prevent the
+dissensions which--as, for instance, in 1192--had helped to cause the
+failure of past Crusades. Along with this advocacy of internationalism
+goes a plea for the disendowment of the Church, in order to provide an
+adequate financial basis for the future Crusade. Other proposals, made
+by men well acquainted with the East, are more definitely practical and
+less political in their intention. A blockade of Egypt by an
+international fleet, an alliance with the Mongols, the union of the two
+great orders--these are the three staple heads of these proposals.
+Something, indeed, was attempted, if little was actually done, under
+each of these three heads. The plan of an international fleet to coerce
+the Mahommedan is even to this day ineffective; but the Hospitallers,
+who acquired a new basis by the conquest of Rhodes in 1310, used their
+fleet to enforce a partial and, on the whole, ineffective blockade of
+the coast of the Levant. The union of the two orders, already suggested
+at the council of Lyons in 1245, was nominally achieved by the council
+of Vienne in 1311; but the so-called "union" was in reality the
+suppression of the Templars, and the confiscation of all their resources
+by the cupidity of Philippe le Bel. The alliance with the Mongols
+remained, from the first to the last, something of a chimera; and the
+last visionary hope vanished when the Mongols finally embraced
+Mahommedanism, as, by the end of the 14th century, they had almost
+universally done.
+
+Isolated enterprises somewhat of the character of a Crusade, but hardly
+serious enough to be dignified by that name, recur during the 14th
+century. The French kings are all crusaders--in name--until the
+beginning of the Hundred Years' War; but the only crusader who ever
+carried war in Palestine and sought to shake the hold of the Mamelukes
+on the Holy Land was Peter I., king of Cyprus from 1359 to 1369. Peter
+founded the order of the Sword for the delivery of Jerusalem; and
+instigated by his chancellor, P. de Mezieres (one of the last of the
+theorists who speculated and wrote on the Crusades), he attempted to
+revive the old crusading spirit throughout the west of Europe. The
+mission which he undertook with his chancellor for this purpose
+(1362-1365) only produced a crop of promises or excuses from sovereigns
+like Edward III. or the Emperor Charles IV.; and Peter was forced to
+begin the Crusade with such volunteers as he could collect for himself.
+In the autumn of 1365 he sacked Alexandria; in 1367 he ravaged the coast
+of Syria, and inflicted serious damages on the sultan of Egypt. But in
+1369 he was assassinated, and the last romantic figure of the Crusades
+died, leaving only the legacy of his memory to his chancellor de
+Mezieres, who for nearly forty years longer continued to be the preacher
+of the Crusades to Europe, advocating--what always continued to be the
+"dream of the old pilgrim"--a new order of knights of the Passion of
+Christ for the recovery and defence of Jerusalem. De Mezieres was the
+last to advocate seriously, as Peter I. was the last to attempt, a
+Crusade after the old fashion--an offensive war against Egypt for the
+recovery of the Holy Sepulchre.[57] From 1350 onwards the Crusade
+assumes a new aspect; it becomes defensive, and it is directed against
+the Ottoman Turks, a tribe of Turcomans who had established themselves
+in the sultanate of Iconium at the end of the 13th century, during the
+confusion and displacement of peoples which attended the Mongol
+invasions. As early as 1308 the Ottoman Turks had begun to settle in
+Europe; by 1350 they had organized their terrible army of janissaries.
+They threatened at once the debris of the old Latin empire in Greece and
+the archipelago, and the relics of the Byzantine empire round
+Constantinople; they menaced the Hospitallers in Rhodes and the
+Lusignans in Cyprus. It was natural that the popes should endeavour to
+form a coalition between the various Christian powers which were
+threatened by the Turks; and Venice, anxious to preserve her possessions
+in the Aegean, zealously seconded their efforts. In 1344 a Crusade, in
+which Venice, the Cypriots, and the Hospitallers all joined, ended in
+the conquest of Smyrna; in 1345 another Crusade, led by Humbert, dauphin
+of Vienne, ended in failure. The Turks continued their progress; in 1363
+they captured Philippopolis, and in 1365 they entered Adrianople; the
+whole Balkan peninsula was threatened, and even Hungary itself seemed
+doomed. Already in 1365 Urban VI. sought to unite the king of Hungary
+and the king of Cyprus in a common Crusade against the Turks; but it was
+not till 1396 that an attempt was at last made to supplement by a land
+Crusade the naval Crusades of 1344 and 1345. Master of Servia and of
+Bulgaria, as well as of Asia Minor, the sultan Bayezid was now
+threatening Constantinople itself. To arrest his progress, a Crusade,
+preached by Boniface IX., led by John the Fearless of Burgundy, and
+joined chiefly by French knights, was directed down the valley of the
+Danube into the Balkans; but the old faults stigmatized by de Mezieres,
+_divisio_ and _propria voluntas_, were the ruin of the crusading army,
+and at the battle of Nicopolis it was signally defeated. Not the Western
+Crusades but an Eastern rival, Timur (Tamerlane), king of Transoxiana
+and conqueror of southern Russia and India, was destined to arrest the
+progress of Bayezid; and from the battle of Angora (1402) till the days
+of Murad II. (1422) the Ottoman power was paralysed. Under Murad,
+however, it rose to its old height. To meet the new danger a new union
+of the churches of the East and the West was attempted. As in 1074
+Gregory VII. had dreamed of such a union, to be followed by a joint
+attack of East and West on the Seljuks, so in 1439, at the council of
+Florence, a new union of the two churches was again attempted and
+temporarily secured, in order that a united Christendom might face the
+new Turkish danger.[58] The logical result of the union was the Crusade
+of 1443. An army of cosmopolitan adventurers, led by the Cardinal
+Caesarini, joined the forces of Wladislaus of Poland and John Hunyadi
+of Transylvania, and succeeded in forcing on Murad II. a truce of ten
+years at Szegedin in 1444. But the crusaders broke the truce, to which
+Caesarini had never consented; and, attempting to better what was
+already good enough, they were defeated at Varna. Here the last Crusade
+ended; and nine years afterwards, in 1453, Mahommed II., the successor
+of Murad, captured Constantinople. It was in vain that the popes sought
+to gather a new Crusade for its recovery; Pius II., who had vowed to
+join the crusade in person, only reached Ancona in 1464 to find the
+crusaders deserting and to die. Yet the ghost of the Crusades still
+lingered. It became a convention of diplomacy, designed to cover any
+particularly sharp piece of policy which needed some excuse; and the
+treaty of Granada, formed between Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Aragon for
+the partition of Naples in 1500, was excused as a thing necessary in the
+interests of the Crusades. In a more noble fashion the Crusade survived
+in the minds of the navigators; "Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus,
+Albuquerque, and many others dreamed, and not insincerely, that they
+were labouring for the deliverance of the Holy Land, and they bore the
+Cross on their breasts."[59] "Don Henrique's scheme," it has been said,
+"represents the final effort of the crusading spirit; and the naval
+campaigns against the Moslem in the Indian seas, in which it culminated,
+forty years after Don Henrique's death, may be described as the last
+Crusade."[60]
+
+10. _Results of the Crusades._--In one vital respect the result of the
+Crusades may be written down as failure. They ended, not in the
+occupation of the East by the Christian West, but in the conquest of the
+West by the Mahommedan East. The Crusades began with the Seljukian Turk
+planted at Nicaea; they ended with the Ottoman Turk entrenched by the
+Danube. Nothing is more striking in history than the recession of
+Christianity in the East after the 13th century. In the 13th century the
+whole of Europe was Christian; part of Asia Minor still belonged to
+Greek Christianity, and there was a Christian kingdom in Palestine. Nor
+was this all. A wide missionary activity had begun in the 13th
+century--an activity which was the product of the Crusades and the
+contact with the Moslem which they brought, but which yet helped to
+check the Crusades, substituting as it did peaceful and spiritual
+conquests of souls for the violence and materialism of even a Holy War.
+The Eastern mission had been begun by St Francis, who had visited and
+attempted to convert the sultan of Egypt during the Fifth Crusade
+(1220); within a hundred years the little seed had grown into a great
+tree. A great field for missionary enterprise opened itself in the
+Mongol empire, in which, as has already been mentioned, there were many
+Christians to be found; and by 1350 this field had been so well worked
+that Christian missions and Christian bishops were established from
+Persia to Peking, and from the Dnieper to Tibet itself. But a Mahommedan
+reaction came, thanks in large measure to the zeal of Timur; and central
+Asia was lost to Christianity. Everywhere in the 15th century, in Europe
+and in Asia, the crescent was victorious over the cross; and Crusade and
+mission, whether one regards them as complementary or inimical, perished
+together.[61]
+
+But the history of the Crusades must be viewed rather as a chapter in
+the history of civilization in the West itself, than as an extension of
+Western dominion or religion to the East. It is a chapter very difficult
+to write, for while on the one hand an ingenious and speculative
+historian may refer to the influence of the Crusades almost everything
+which was thought or done between 1100 and 1300, a cautious writer who
+seeks to find documentary evidence for every assertion may be rather
+inclined to attribute to that influence little or nothing.[62] The
+dissolution of feudalism, the development of towns, the growth of
+scholasticism, all these and much more have been ascribed to the
+Crusades, when in truth they were concomitants rather than results, or
+at any rate, if in part the results of the Crusades, were in far larger
+part the results of other things. At most, therefore, it may be admitted
+that the Crusades _contributed_ to the dissolution of feudalism by
+putting property on the market and disturbing the validity of titles;
+that they aided the development of towns by vastly increasing the volume
+of trade; and that they furthered the growth of scholasticism by
+bringing the West into contact with the mind of the East. If we seek the
+peculiar and definite results of the Crusades, we must turn to narrower
+issues. In the first place, the Crusades represent the attempt of a
+feudal system, bound under the law of primogeniture to dispose of its
+younger sons. They are attempts at feudal colonization; and as such they
+resulted in a number of colonies--the kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingdom
+of Cyprus, the Latin empire of Constantinople. They resulted too in a
+number of "chartered companies"--that is to say, the three military
+orders, which, beginning as charitable societies, developed into
+military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into chartered
+companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable territories. In
+the second place, as has already been noticed, the Crusades represent
+the attempt of Western commerce to find new and more easy routes to the
+wealth of the East; and in this respect they led to various results. On
+the one hand they led to the establishment of emporia in the East--for
+instance, Acre, and after the fall of Acre Famagusta, both in their day
+great centres of Levantine trade. On the other hand, the commodities
+which poured into Venice and Genoa from the East had to find a route for
+their diffusion through Europe. The great route was that which led from
+Venice over the Brenner and up the Rhine to Bruges; and this route
+became the long red line of municipal development, along which--in
+Lombardy, Germany and Flanders--the great towns of the middle ages
+sprang to life. Partly as a result of this trade, ever pushing its way
+farther east, and partly as a result of the Asiatic missions, which were
+themselves an accompaniment and effect of the Crusades, a third great
+result of the Crusades came to light in the 13th century--the discovery
+of the interior of Asia, and an immense accession to the sphere of
+geography. When one remembers that missionaries like Piano Carpini, and
+traders like the Venetian Polos, either penetrated by land from Acre to
+Peking, or circumnavigated southern Asia from Basra to Canton, one
+realizes that there was, about 1300, a discovery of Asia as new and
+tremendous as the discovery of America by Columbus two centuries later.
+At the same time the old knowledge of nearer Asia was immensely
+deepened. It has already been noticed how military reconnaissances of
+the routes to Egypt came to be made; but more important were the
+guide-books, of which a great number were written to guide the pilgrims
+from one sacred spot of Bible history to another. There were medieval
+Baedekers in abundance for the use of the annual flow of tourists, who
+were carried every Easter by the vessels of the Italian towns or of the
+Orders to visit the Holy Land and to bathe in Jordan, to gather palms,
+and to see the miracle of fire at the Sepulchre.
+
+Colonization, trade, geography--these then are three things closely
+connected with the history of the Crusades. The development of the art
+of war, and the growth of a systematic taxation, are two debts which
+medieval Europe also owed to the Crusades. Partly by contact with the
+Byzantines, partly by conflict with the Mahommedans, the Franks learned
+new methods both of building and of attacking fortifications. The
+concentric castle, with its rings of walls, began to displace the old
+keep and bailey with their single wall, as the crusaders brought back
+news from the East.[63] The art of the sapper and miner, the use of
+siege instruments like the mangonel, and the employment of various
+"fires" as missiles, were all known among the Mahommedans; and in all
+these respects the Franks learned from their enemies. The common use of
+armorial bearings, and the practice of the tournament, may be Oriental
+in their origin; the latter has its affinities with the equestrian
+exercises of the Jerid, and the former, though of prehistoric antiquity,
+may have received a new impulse from contact with the Arabs. The
+military development which sprang from the Crusades is thus largely a
+matter of borrowing; the financial development is independent and
+indigenous in the West. As early as 1147 Louis VII. had imposed a tax in
+the interests of the Crusades; and that tax had been repeated by Louis,
+and imitated by Henry II. in 1166, while it had been still further
+extended in the Saladin tithe of 1188. The taxation of 1166 is important
+as the first to fall on "moveables"; the whole scheme of taxation may be
+regarded as the beginning of a modern system of taxation. But it was not
+only to the lay power that the Crusades gave an excuse for taxation; the
+papacy also profited. Tithes for the Crusades were first imposed on the
+clergy by Innocent III. at the Lateran council of 1215; and clerical
+taxation was thus part of the whole statesmanlike project of the Fifth
+Crusade as it was sketched by the great pope. Henceforth tithes for the
+Crusades are regular; under Gregory IX. they become a great part of the
+papal resources in the Crusade against the Hohenstaufen; and in the 16th
+century they are still a normal part of the government of the Church.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Syria in the 12th cetury, before the conquests of
+Saladin.]
+
+In many other ways the Europe over which the Crusades had passed was
+different from the Europe of the 11th century. In the first place, many
+political changes had been wrought, largely under its influence. Always
+in large part French, the Crusades had on the whole contributed to exalt
+the prestige of France, until it stood at the end of the 13th century
+the most considerable power in Europe. It was France which had colonized
+the Levant; it was the French tongue which was used in the Levant; and
+the results of the ancient and continuous connexion with the East are
+still to be traced to-day. Of the other great powers of Europe, England
+and Germany had been little changed by the Crusades, save that Germany
+had been extended towards the East by the conquests of the Teutonic
+Order; but the Eastern empire had been profoundly modified, and the
+papacy had suffered a great change. The Eastern empire had been for a
+time annihilated by the movement which in 1095 it had helped to evoke;
+and if it rose from its ashes in 1261 for two centuries of renewed life,
+it was never more than the shadow of its old self, with little hold on
+Asia Minor and less on Greece and the Archipelago, which the Latins
+still continued to occupy until they were finally conquered by the
+Ottoman Turks. The papacy, on the other hand, had grown as a result of
+the Crusades. Popes had preached them; popes had financed them; popes
+had sent their legates to lead them. Through them the popes had deposed
+the emperors of the West from their headship of the world, partly
+because through the Crusades the popes were able to direct the common
+Christianity of Europe in a foreign policy of their own without
+consultation with the emperor, partly because in the 13th century they
+were ultimately able to direct the Crusade itself against the empire.
+Yet while they had magnified, the Crusades had also corrupted the
+papacy. They became an instrument in its hands which it used to its own
+undoing. It cried Crusade when there was no Crusade; and the long
+Crusade against the Hohenstaufen, if it gave the papacy an apparent
+victory, only served in the long run to lower its prestige in the eyes
+of Europe. When we turn from the sphere of politics to the history of
+civilization and culture, we find the effects of the Crusades as deeply
+impressed, if not so definitely marked. The Crusades had sprung from the
+policy of a theocratic government counting on the motive of
+otherworldliness; they had helped in their course to overthrow that
+motive, and with it the government which it had made possible. In part
+they had provided a field in which the layman could prove that he too
+was a priest; in part they had brought the West into a living and
+continuous contact with a new faith and a new civilization. They had
+torn men loose from the ancestral custom of home to walk in new ways and
+see new things and hear new thoughts; and some broadening of view, some
+lessening in the intensity of the old one-sidedness, was the inevitable
+result. It is not so much that the West came into contact with a
+particular civilization in the East, or borrowed from that civilization;
+it is simply that the West came into contact with something unlike
+itself, yet in many ways as high as, if not higher than, itself. The
+spirit of _Nathan der Weise_ may not have been exactly the spirit
+engendered by the Crusades; and yet it is not without reason that
+Lessing stages the fable which teaches toleration in the Latin kingdom
+of Jerusalem. In any case the accusations made against the Templars at
+the time of their suppression prove that there was, at any rate in the
+ranks of those who knew the East, too little of absolute orthodoxy.
+While a new spirit which compares and tolerates thus sprang from the
+Crusades, the large sphere of new knowledge and experience which they
+gave brought new material at once for scientific thought and poetic
+imagination. Not only was geography more studied; the Crusades gave a
+great impulse to the writing of history, and produced, besides
+innumerable other works, the greatest historical work of the middle
+ages--the _Historia transmarina_ of William of Tyre. Mathematics
+received an impulse, largely, it is true, from the Arabs of Spain, but
+also from the East; Leonardo Fibonacci, the first Christian algebraist,
+had travelled in Syria and Egypt. The study of Oriental languages began
+in connexion with the Christian missions of the East; Raymond Lull, the
+indefatigable missionary, induced the council of Vienne to decide on the
+creation of six schools of Oriental languages in Europe (1311). But the
+new field of poetic literature afforded by the Crusades is still more
+striking than this development of science. New poems in abundance dealt
+with the history of the Crusades, either in a faithful narrative, like
+that of the _Chanson_ of Ambroise, which narrates the Third Crusade, or
+in a free and poetical spirit, such as breathes in the _Chanson
+d'Antioche_. Nor was this all. The Crusades afforded new details which
+might be inserted into old matters, and a new spirit which might be
+infused into old subjects; and a crusading complexion thus came to be
+put upon old tales like those of Arthur and Charlemagne. By the side of
+these greater things it may seem little, and yet, just because it is
+little, it is all the more significant that the Crusades should have
+familiarized Europe with new plants, new fruits, new manufactures, new
+colours, and new fashions in dress. Sugar and maize; lemons, apricots
+and melons; cotton, muslin and damask; lilac and purple (azure and gules
+are words derived from the Arabic); the use of powder and of glass
+mirrors, and also of the rosary itself--all these things came to Europe
+from the East and as a result of the Crusades. To this day there are
+many Arabic words in the vocabulary of the languages of western Europe
+which are a standing witness of the Crusades--words relating to trade
+and seafaring, like tariff and corvette, or words for musical
+instruments, like lute or the Elizabethan word "naker."
+
+
+GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF JERUSALEM
+
+        Godfrey,             Baldwin I.,          Baldwin II.,
+  advocatus 1099-1100.   brother of Godfrey,   nephew of Godfrey
+                           king 1100-1118.       and Baldwin I.,
+                                               and king 1118-1131.
+                                                       |
+                                  +--------------------+--+
+                                  |                       |
+             Fulk of Anjou, = Melisinda                Alice = Bohemund II.
+            king 1131-1143. |                                    of Antioch
+                            |                                    (q.v.)
+                            |
+               +------------+---------------------------------------+
+               |                                                    |
+         Baldwin III.,                                         Amalric I.,
+         king 1143-1162.                                    king 1162-1174.
+                                                                    |
+         +-----------+----------------------------------------------+
+         |           |                                              |
+    Baldwin IV.,  Sibylla = (1) William of   (2) Guy de Lusignan,   |
+  king 1174-1183.               Montferrat;      king 1186-1192.    |
+                                    |                               |
+                               Baldwin V.,                          |
+                             king 1183-1186.                        |
+                                                                    |
+      +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+      |
+  Isabella = (1) Humfred    (2) Conrad of   (3) Henry of   (4) Amalric II.,
+                 of Turon.    Montferrat,     Champagne,      brother of Guy
+                             acknowledged   king 1192-1197.   de Lusignan,
+                             king in 1192.         |          king 1197-1205
+                                   |               |          (also king of
+                  +----------------+               |          Cyprus).
+                  |                                |                  |
+                Mary,      = John of Brienne,      |                  |
+             queen under   |  king 1210-1225.      |                  |
+              a regency    |                       |                  |
+              from 1205-   |                       |                  |
+                1210.      |                       |                  |
+         +-----------------+                       |                  |
+         |                                         |                  |
+      Isabella = Frederick II.,                    |                  |
+               |   emperor of the West             |                  |
+               |   and king of Jerusalem           |                  |
+               |   1225-1250.                      |                  |
+               |                                   |                  |
+        Conrad IV., king                           |                  |
+          of Germany and                           |                  |
+          of Jerusalem 1250-1255.                  |                  |
+               |                                   |                  |
+         Conradin, king                            |                  |
+            1254-1268.                             |                  |
+                                                   |                  |
+     +---------------------------------------------+                  |
+     |                              +---------------------------------+
+     |                              |
+   Alice = Hugh I. of Cyprus,   Melisinda = Bohemund IV.
+         | son of Amalric II.             |
+         | by his first wife.      Mary of Antioch,
+         |                         who died 1277,
+         |                         leaving her claims
+         |                         to Charles of Anjou
+         |                         (king of Sicily).
+         |
+      +--+------------------------------------------+
+      |                                             |
+   Henry I. of Cyprus = Plaisance of Antioch.   Isabella = John de Lusignan.
+                      |                                  |
+              Hugh II. of Cyprus.                        |
+                                              Hugh (III. of Cyprus and)
+                                                  I. of Jerusalem,
+                                                     1269-1284.
+                                                         |
+                              +--------------------------+---+
+                              |                              |
+                          John I.,              Henry (III. of Cyprus and)
+                       king of Cyprus,            II. of Jerusalem,
+                         1284-1285.               king from 1285 to the
+                                                  fall of the kingdom in
+                                                  1291.
+
+
+When all is said, the Crusades remain a wonderful and perpetually
+astonishing act in the great drama of human life. They touched the
+summits of daring and devotion, if they also sank into the deep abysms
+of shame. Motives of self-interest may have lurked in them--otherworldly
+motives of buying salvation for a little price, or worldly motives of
+achieving riches and acquiring lands. Yet it would be treason to the
+majesty of man's incessant struggle towards an ideal good, if one were
+to deny that in and through the Crusades men strove for righteousness'
+sake to extend the kingdom of God upon earth. Therefore the tears and
+the blood that were shed were not unavailing; the heroism and the
+chivalry were not wasted. Humanity is the richer for the memory of those
+millions of men, who followed the pillar of cloud and fire in the sure
+and certain hope of an eternal reward. The ages were not dark in which
+Christianity could gather itself together in a common cause, and carry
+the flag of its faith to the grave of its Redeemer; nor can we but give
+thanks for their memory, even if for us religion is of the spirit, and
+Jerusalem in the heart of every man who believes in Christ.
+
+  LITERATURE.--In dealing with the literature of the Crusades, it is
+  perhaps better, though ideally less scientific, to begin with
+  chronicles and narratives rather than with documents. One of the
+  results of the Crusades, as has just been suggested above, was a great
+  increase in the writing of history. Crusaders themselves kept diaries
+  or _itineraria_; while home-keeping ecclesiastics in the West--monks
+  like Robert of Reims, abbots like Guibert of Nogent, archbishops like
+  Balderich of Dol--found a fertile subject for their pens in the
+  history of the Crusades. The history of a series of actions like the
+  Crusades must primarily be based on these accounts, and more
+  particularly on the former: narratives must precede documents where
+  one is dealing, not with the continuous life of an organized kingdom,
+  but with a number of enterprises--especially when those enterprises
+  have been, as in this case, excellently narrated by contemporary
+  writers.
+
+  I. _Chronicles and Narratives of the Crusades_--(1) Collections. The
+  authorities for the Crusades have been collected in Bongars, _Gesta
+  Dei per Francos_ (Hanover, 1611) (incomplete); Michaud, _Bibliotheque
+  des croisades_ (Paris, 1829) (containing translations of select
+  passages in the authorities); the _Recueil des historiens des
+  croisades_, published by the Academie des Inscriptions (Paris, 1841
+  onwards) (the best general collection, containing many of the Latin,
+  Greek, Arabic and Armenian authorities, and also the text of the
+  assizes; but sometimes poorly edited and still incomplete); and the
+  publications of the Societe de l'Orient Latin (founded in 1875),
+  especially the _Archives_, of which two volumes were published in 1881
+  and 1884, and the volumes of the _Revue_, published yearly from 1893
+  to 1902, and containing not only new texts, but articles and reviews
+  of books which are of great service. (2) Particular authorities. The
+  Crusades--a movement which engaged all Europe and brought the East
+  into contact with the West--must necessarily be studied not only in
+  the Latin authorities of Europe and of Palestine, but also in
+  Byzantine, Armenian and Arabic writers. There are thus some four or
+  five different points of view to be considered.
+
+  The _First Crusade_, far more than any other, became the theme of a
+  multitude of writings, whose different degrees of value it is
+  all-important to distinguish. Until about 1840 the authority followed
+  for its history was naturally the great work of William of Tyre. For
+  the First Crusade William had followed Albert of Aix; and he had
+  consequently depicted Peter the Hermit as the prime mover in the
+  Crusade. But about 1840 Ranke suggested, and von Sybel in his
+  _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ proved, that Albert of Aix was
+  _not_ a good authority, and that consequently William of Tyre must be
+  set aside for the history of the First Crusade, and other and more
+  contemporary authorities used. In writing his account of the First
+  Crusade, von Sybel accordingly based himself on the three contemporary
+  Western authorities--the _Gesta Francorum_, Raymond of Agiles, and
+  Fulcher. His view of the value of Albert of Aix, and his account of
+  the First Crusade, have been generally followed (Kugler alone having
+  attempted, to some extent, to rehabilitate Albert of Aix); and thus
+  von Sybel's work may be said to mark a revolution in the history of
+  the First Crusade, when its legendary features were stripped away, and
+  its real progress was first properly discovered.
+
+  Taking the Western authorities for the First Crusade separately, one
+  may divide them, in the light of von Sybel's work, into four
+  kinds--the accounts of eye-witnesses; later compilations based on
+  these accounts; semi-legendary and legendary narratives; and lastly,
+  in a class by itself, the "History" of William of Tyre, who is rather
+  a scientific historian than a chronicler.
+
+  (a) The three chief eye-witnesses are the anonymous author of the
+  _Gesta Francorum_, Raymund of Agiles, and Fulcher. The anonymous
+  author of the _Gesta_ (see Hagenmeyer's edition, Heidelberg, 1890) was
+  a Norman of South Italy, who followed Bohemund, and accordingly
+  depicts the progress of the First Crusade from a Norman point of view.
+  He was a layman, marching and fighting in the ranks; and thus he is
+  additionally valuable as representing the opinion of the ordinary
+  crusader. Finally he was an eye-witness throughout, and absolutely
+  contemporary, in the sense that he wrote his account of each great
+  event practically at the time of the event. He is the primary
+  authority for the First Crusade. Raymund of Agiles, a Provencal clerk
+  and a follower of Raymund of Toulouse, writes his _Historia Francorum
+  qui ceperunt Jerusalem_ from the Provencal point of view. He gives an
+  ecclesiastic's account of the First Crusade, and is specially full on
+  the spiritualistic phenomena which accompanied and followed the
+  finding of the Holy Lance. His book might almost be called the
+  "Visions of Peter Bartholomew and others," and it is written in the
+  plain matter-of-fact manner of Defoe's narratives. He too was an
+  eye-witness throughout, and thoroughly honest; and his account ranks
+  second to the _Gesta_. Fulcher of Chartres originally followed Robert
+  of Normandy, but in October 1097 he joined Baldwin of Lorraine in his
+  expedition to Edessa, and afterwards followed his fortunes. His
+  _Historia Hierosolymitana_, which extends to 1127, and embraces not
+  only the history of the First Crusade, but also that of the foundation
+  of the kingdom of Jerusalem, is written on the whole from a
+  Lotharingian point of view, and is thus a natural complement to the
+  accounts of the Anonymus and Raymund. His account of the First Crusade
+  itself is poor (he was absent at Edessa during its course), but
+  otherwise he is an excellent authority. A kindly old pedant, Fulcher
+  interlards his history with much discourse on geography, zoology and
+  sacred history. Besides these three chief eye-witnesses we may also
+  mention the _Annales Genuenses_ by the Genoese consul Caffarus,[64]
+  and the _Annales Pisani_ of Bernardus Marago, useful as giving the
+  mercantile and Italian side of the Crusade; the _Hierosolymita_ of
+  Ekkehard, the German abbot of Aura, who first came to Jerusalem about
+  1101 (partly based on the _Gesta_, but also of independent value: see
+  Hagenmeyer's edition, Tubingen, 1877); and Raoul of Caen's _Gesta
+  Tancredi_, composed on the basis of information supplied by Tancred
+  himself. The last two works, if not actually the works of
+  eye-witnesses, are at any rate first-hand, and belong to the category
+  of primary writers rather than to that of later compilations. Finally,
+  to contemporary writers we may add contemporary letters, especially
+  those written by Stephen of Blois and Anselm of Ribemont, and the
+  three letters sent to the West by the crusading princes during the
+  First Crusade (see Hagenmeyer, _Epistulae et Chartae_, &c., Innsbruck,
+  1901).[65]
+
+  (b) The later compilations are chiefly based on the _Gesta_, whose
+  uncouth style many writers set themselves to mend. In the first place,
+  there is the _Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere_ of Tudebod, which
+  according to Besly, writing in 1641, is the original from which the
+  _Gesta_ was a mere plagiarism--an absolute inversion of the truth, as
+  von Sybel first proved two centuries later. Secondly, besides the
+  plagiarist Tudebod, there are the artistic _redacteurs_ of the
+  _Gesta_, who confess their indebtedness, but plead the bad style of
+  their original--Guibert of Nogent, Balderich of Dol, Robert of Reims
+  (all c. 1120-1130), and Fulco, the author of a Virgilian poem on the
+  Crusades, continued by Gilo (_ob. c._ 1142). Of these, the monk Robert
+  was more popular in the middle ages than either the pompous abbot
+  Guibert or the quiet garden-loving archbishop of Dol.
+
+  (c) The growth of a legend, or perhaps better, a saga of the First
+  Crusade began, according to von Sybel, even during the Crusade itself.
+  The basis of this growth is partly the story-telling instinct innate
+  in all men, which loves to heighten an effect, sharpen a point or
+  increase a contrast--the instinct which breathes in Icelandic sagas
+  like that of _Burnt Njal_; partly the instinct of idolization, if it
+  may be so called, which leads to the perversion into impossible
+  greatness of an approved character, and has created, in this instance,
+  the legendary figures of Peter the Hermit and Godfrey of Bouillon
+  (qq.v.); partly the religious impulse, which counted nothing wonderful
+  in a holy war, and imported miraculous elements even into the sober
+  pages of the _Gesta_. These instincts and impulses would be at work
+  already among the soldiers during the Crusade, producing a saga all
+  the more readily, as there were poets in the camp; for we know that a
+  certain Richard, who joined the First Crusade, sang its exploits in
+  verse, while still more famous is the princely troubadour, William of
+  Aquitaine, who joined the Crusade of 1100. If we are to follow von
+  Sybel rather than Kugler, this saga of the First Crusade found one of
+  its earliest expressions (c. 1120) in the prose work of Albert of Aix
+  (_Historia Hierosolymitana_)--genuine saga in its inconsistencies,
+  its errors of chronology and topography, its poetical colour, and its
+  living descriptions of battles. Kugler, however, regards Albert as a
+  copyist, somewhat in the manner of Tudebod, of an unknown writer of
+  value, who belonged to the Lotharingian ranks during the Crusade, and
+  settled in the kingdom of Jerusalem afterwards (see Kugler, _Albert
+  von Aachen_, Stuttgart, 1885).[66] In the _Chanson des chetifs_ and
+  the _Chanson d'Antioche_ the legend of the Crusades more certainly
+  finds its expression. The former, composed at Antioch about 1130,
+  contained an idolization of the Hermit: the latter is a poem written
+  about 1180 by Graindor of Douai, who used as his basis the verses of
+  the crusader Richard (see the edition of P. Paris, 1848). It shows the
+  growth of the legend that Graindor regards the vision of the Hermit as
+  responsible for the Crusade, and makes the Crusade led by him precede,
+  and indeed occasion by its failure, the meeting at Clermont (which is
+  dated in May instead of November). Into the legendary overgrowth of
+  the First Crusade we cannot here enter any further[67]; but it is
+  perhaps worth while to mention that the French legend of the Third
+  Crusade equally perverted the truth, making Richard I. return home in
+  disgrace, while Philip Augustus stays, captures Damascus and mortally
+  wounds Saladin (cf. G. Paris, _L'Estoire de la guerre sainte_, Paris,
+  1897; Introduction).
+
+  (d) William of Tyre is the scientific historian and rationalizer,
+  weaving into a harmonious account, which was followed by historians
+  for centuries, the sober accounts of eye-witnesses and the picturesque
+  details of the saga--with somewhat of a bias towards the latter in
+  regard to the First Crusade. He was a native of Palestine, born about
+  1130, and educated in the West. On his return he was happy in winning
+  the good opinion of Amalric I.; he was made first canon and then
+  archdeacon of Tyre, and tutor of the future Baldwin IV. (1170); while
+  on Baldwin's accession he became chancellor of the kingdom and
+  archbishop of Tyre (1174-1175). He was a man often employed on
+  missions and negotiations, and as chancellor he had in his care the
+  archives of the kingdom. His temper was naturally that of a trimmer;
+  and he had thus many qualifications for the writing of well-informed
+  and unbiassed history. He knew Greek and Arabic; and he was well
+  acquainted with the affairs of Constantinople, to which he went at
+  least twice on political business, and with the history of the
+  Mahommedan powers, on which he had written a work (now lost) at the
+  command of Amalric. It was Amalric also who set him to write the
+  history of the Crusades which we still possess (in twenty-two books,
+  with a fragment of a twenty-third)--the _Historia rerum in partibus
+  transmarinis gestarum_. He wrote the book at different times between
+  1170 and 1183, when it abruptly ends, and its author as abruptly
+  disappears from sight. The book falls into two parts, the first (books
+  i.-xv.) derivative, the second (books xvi.-xxiii.) original. In the
+  second part he had his own knowledge of events and the information of
+  his contemporaries as his source: in the first he used the same
+  authorities which we still possess--the _Gesta_, Fulcher, and Albert
+  of Aix--in somewhat of an eclectic spirit, choosing now here, now
+  there, according as he could best weave a pleasant narrative, but not
+  according to any real critical principle. His book thus begins to be a
+  real authority only from the date of the Second Crusade onwards; but
+  the perfection of his form (for he is one of the greatest stylists of
+  the middle ages) and the prestige of his position conspired to make
+  his book the one authority for the whole history of the first century
+  of the Crusades. Nor was he (apart from his reception of legendary
+  elements into his narrative) unworthy of the honour in which he was
+  held; for he is really a great historian, in the form of his matter
+  and in his conception of his subject--diligent, impartial,
+  well-informed and interesting, if somewhat rhetorical in style and
+  vague in chronology.
+
+  [During the middle ages his work was current in a French translation,
+  known as the _Chronique d'outre-mer_, or the _Livre_ or _Roman
+  d'Eracles_ (so called from the reference at the beginning to the
+  emperor Heraclius). This translation also contained a continuation by
+  various hands down to 1277; while besides the continuation embedded in
+  the _Livre d'Eracles_, there are separate continuations, of the nature
+  of independent works, by Ernoul and Bernard the Treasurer. These
+  latter cover the period from 1183 to 1228; and of the two Ernoul's
+  account seems primary, while that of Bernard is in large part a mere
+  copy of Ernoul. But the whole subject of the continuators of William
+  of Tyre is dubious.]
+
+  To the Western authorities for the First Crusade must be added the
+  Eastern--Byzantine, Arabic and Armenian. Of these the Byzantine
+  authority, the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena, is most important, partly
+  from the position of the authoress, partly from the many points of
+  contact between the Byzantine empire and the crusaders. Anna's
+  narrative both furnishes a useful corrective of the prejudiced
+  Western accounts of Alexius, and serves to bring Bohemund forward into
+  his proper prominence. The Armenian view of the First Crusade and of
+  Baldwin's principality of Edessa is presented in the _Armenian
+  Chronicle_ of Matthew of Edessa. There is little in Arabic bearing on
+  the First Crusade: the Arabic authorities only begin to be of value
+  with the rise of the atabegs of Mosul (c. 1127). But Kemal-ud-din's
+  _History of Aleppo_ (composed in the 13th century) contains some
+  details on the history of the First Crusade; and the _Vie d'Ousama_
+  (the autobiography of a sheik at Caesarea in northern Syria, edited
+  and paraphrased by Derenbourg in the _Publications de l'Ecole des
+  langues orientales vivantes_) presents the point of view of an Arab
+  whose life covered the first century of the Crusades (1095-1188).
+
+  For the _Second Crusade_ the primary authority in the West is the work
+  of Odo de Deuil, _De profectione Ludovici VII regis Francorum in
+  Orientem_. Odo was a monk attached by Suger to Louis VII. during the
+  Second Crusade; and he wrote home to Suger during the Crusade seven
+  short letters, afterwards pieced together in a single work. The _Gesta
+  Friderici Primi_ of Otto of Freising (who joined in the Second
+  Crusade) gives some details from the German point of view (i. c. 44
+  sqq.). The former is supplemented by the letters of Louis VII. to
+  Suger; the latter by the letters of Conrad III. to Wibald, abbot of
+  Stablo and Corvey. The Byzantine point of view is presented in the
+  [Greek: 'Epitome] of Cinnamus, the private secretary of Manuel, who
+  continued the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena in a work describing the
+  reigns of John and Manuel. It is from the Second Crusade that William
+  of Tyre, representing the attitude of the Franks of Jerusalem, begins
+  to be a primary authority; while on the Mahommedan side a considerable
+  authority emerges in Ibn Athir. His history of the Atabegs was written
+  about 1200, and it presents in a light favourable to Zengi and
+  Nureddin, but unfavourable to Saladin (who thrust Nureddin's
+  descendants aside), the history of the great Mahommedan power which
+  finally crushed the kingdom of Jerusalem.[68]
+
+  Side by side with Beha-ud-din's life of Saladin, Ibn Athir's work is
+  the most considerable historical record written by the Arabs.
+  Generally speaking the Arabic writings are late in point of date, and
+  cold and jejune in style; while it must also be remembered that they
+  are set religious works written to defend Islam. On the other hand
+  they are generally written by men of affairs--governors, secretaries
+  or ambassadors; and a fatalistic temper leads their authors to a
+  certain impartial recording of everything, good or evil, which seems
+  of moment.
+
+  The _Third Crusade_ was narrated in the West from very different
+  points of view by Anglo-Norman, French and German authorities. The
+  primary Anglo-Norman authority is the _Carmen Ambrosii_, or, as it is
+  called by M. Gaston Paris, _L'Estoire de la guerre sainte_. This is an
+  octosyllabic poem in French verse, written by Ambroise, a Norman
+  _trouvere_ who followed Richard I. to the Holy Land. The poem first
+  came to be known by scholars about 1873, and has been edited by M.
+  Gaston Paris (Paris, 1897). The _Itinerarium Peregrinorum_, a work in
+  ornate Latin prose, is (except for the first book) a translation of
+  the _Carmen_ masquerading under the guise of an independent work.
+  There seems no doubt that it is a piece of plagiary, and that its
+  writer, Richard, "canon of the Holy Trinity" in London, stands to the
+  _Carmen_ as Tudebod to the _Gesta_, or Albert of Aix to his supposed
+  original. The Third Crusade is also described from the English point
+  of view by all contemporary writers of history in England, e.g. Ralph
+  of Coggeshall, who used information gained from crusaders, and William
+  of Newburgh, who had access to a work by Richard I.'s chaplain Anselm,
+  which is now lost.[69] The French side is presented in Rigord's _Gesta
+  Philippi Augusti_ and in the _Gesta_ (an abridgment and continuation
+  of Rigord) and the _Philippeis_ of William the Breton. The two French
+  writers represent Richard as a faithless vassal: in the German
+  writers--Tagino, dean of Passau, who wrote a _Descriptio_ of
+  Barbarossa's Crusade (1189-1190); and Ansbert, an Austrian clerk, who
+  wrote _De expeditione Friderici Imperatoris_ (1187-1196)--Richard
+  appears rather as a monster of pride and arrogance. From the Arabic
+  point of view the life of Richard's rival, Saladin, is described by
+  Beha-ud-din, a high official under Saladin, who writes a panegyric on
+  his master, somewhat confused in chronology and partial in its
+  sympathies, but nevertheless of great value. The various continuations
+  of William of Tyre above mentioned represent the opinion of the native
+  Franks (which is hostile to Richard I.); while in Nicetas, who wrote a
+  history of the Eastern empire from 1118 to 1206, we have a Byzantine
+  authority who, as Professor Bury remarks, "differs from Anna and
+  Cinnamus in his tone towards the crusaders, to whom he is surprisingly
+  fair."
+
+  For the _Fourth Crusade_ the primary authority is Villehardouin's _La
+  Conquete de Constantinople_, an official apology for the diversion of
+  the Crusade written by one of its leaders, and concealing the arcana
+  under an appearance of frank naivete. His work is usefully
+  supplemented by the narrative (_La Prise de Constantinople_) of
+  Robert de Clary, a knight from Picardy, who presents the non-official
+  view of the Crusade, as it appeared to an ordinary soldier. The
+  [Greek: Chronikon ton en Rhomania] (composed in Greek verse some time
+  after 1300, apparently by an author of mixed Frankish and Greek
+  parentage, and translated into French at an early date under the title
+  "The Book of the Conquest of Constantinople and the Empire of
+  Rumania") narrates in a prologue the events of the Fourth (as indeed
+  also of the First) Crusade. The _Chronicle of the Morea_ (as this work
+  is generally called) is written from the Frankish point of view, in
+  spite of its Greek verse; and the Byzantine point of view must be
+  sought in Nicetas.[70]
+
+  The history of the later Crusades, from the Fifth to the Eighth,
+  enters into the continuations of William of Tyre above mentioned;
+  while the _Historia orientalis_ of Jacques de Vitry, who had taken
+  part in the Fifth Crusade, and died in 1240, embraces the history of
+  events till 1218 (the third book being a later addition). The _Secreta
+  fidelium Crucis_ of Marino Sanudo, a history of the Crusades written
+  by a Venetian noble between 1306 and 1321, is also of value,
+  particularly for the Crusade of Frederick II. The minor authorities
+  for the Fifth Crusade have been collected by Rohricht, in the
+  publications of the Societe de l'Orient Latin for 1879 and 1882; the
+  ten valuable letters of Oliver, bishop of Paderborn, and the _Historia
+  Damiettina_, based on these letters, have also been edited by Rohricht
+  in the _Westdeutsche Zeitschrift fur Geschichte und Kunst_ (1891). The
+  Sixth Crusade, that of Frederick II., is described in the chronicle of
+  Richard of San Germano, a notary of the emperor, and in other Western
+  authorities, e.g. Roger of Wendover. For the Crusades of St Louis the
+  chief authorities are Joinville's life of his master (whom he
+  accompanied to Egypt on the Seventh Crusade), and de Nangis' _Gesta
+  Ludovici regis_. Several works were written on the capture of Acre in
+  1291, especially the _Excidium urbis Acconensis_, a treatise which
+  emerges to throw light, after many years of darkness, on the last
+  hours of the kingdom. The Oriental point of view for the 13th century
+  appears in Jelaleddin's history of the Ayyubite sultans of Egypt,
+  written towards the end of the 13th century; in Maqrizi's history of
+  Egypt, written in the middle of the 15th century; and in the
+  compendium of the history of the human race by Abulfeda (+1332); while
+  the omniscient Abulfaragius (whom Rey calls the Eastern St Thomas)
+  wrote, in the latter half of the 13th century, a chronicle of
+  universal history in Syriac, which he also issued, in an Arabic
+  recension, as a _Compendious History of the Dynasties_.
+
+  II. The documents bearing on the history of the Crusades and the Latin
+  kingdom of Jerusalem are various. Under the head of charters come the
+  _Regesta regni Hierosolymitani_, published by Rohricht, Innsbruck,
+  1893 (with an Additamentum in 1904); the _Cartulaire generale des
+  Hospitaliers_, by Delaville Leroulx (Paris, 1894 onwards); and the
+  _Cartulaire de l'eglise du St Sepulcre_, by de Roziere (Paris, 1849).
+  Under the head of laws come the assizes of the Kingdom, edited by
+  Beugnot in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_; and the assizes
+  of Antioch, printed at Venice in 1876. G. Schlumberger has written on
+  the coins and seals of the Latin East in various publications; while
+  Rey has written an _Etude sur les monuments de l'architecture
+  militaire_ (Paris, 1871). The genealogy of the Levant is given in _Le
+  Livre des lignages d'outre-mer_ (published along with the assizes).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHIES.--The best modern account of the original authorities
+  for the Crusades is that of A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de
+  France_, vols. ii. and iii. W. Wattenbach's _Deutschlands
+  Geschichtsquellen_ gives an account of Albert of Aix (vol. ii., ed.
+  1894, pp. 170-180) and of Ekkehard of Aura (ibid. pp. 189-198). Von
+  Sybel's _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ contains a full study of
+  the authorities for the First Crusade; while the prefaces to
+  Hagenmeyer's editions of the _Gesta_ and of Ekkehard are also
+  valuable. Gaston Dodu, in the work mentioned below, begins by a brief
+  account of the original authorities, which is chiefly of value so far
+  as it deals with William of Tyre and the history of the assizes; and
+  H. Prutz has also a short account of some of the historians of the
+  Crusades (_Kulturgeschichte_, pp. 453-469). Finally reference may be
+  made to the works of Kugler and Klimke above mentioned, and to J. F.
+  Michaud's _Bibliographie des croisades_ (Paris, 1822).
+
+  _Modern Writers._--The various works of R. Rohricht present the
+  soundest, if not the brightest, account of the Crusades. There is a
+  _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs_ (Innsbruck, 1901), a _Geschichte des
+  Konigreichs Jerusalem_ (ibid. 1898) and a _Geschichte der Kreuzzuge in
+  Umris_ (ibid. 1898). For the First Crusade von Sybel's work and
+  Chalandon's _Alexis I^er Comnene_ may also be mentioned; for the
+  Fourth A. Luchaire's volume on _Innocent III: La Question d'Orient_;
+  while for the whole of the Crusades Norden's _Papstum und Byzanz_ is
+  of value. B. Kugler's _Geschichte der Kreuzzuge_ (in Oncken's series)
+  still remains a suggestive and valuable work; and L. Brehier's
+  _L'Eglise et l'orient au moyen age_ (Paris, 1907) contains not only an
+  up-to-date account of the Crusades, but also a full and useful
+  bibliography, which should be consulted for fuller information. On
+  points of chronology, and on the relations between the crusaders and
+  their Mahommedan neighbours, W. B. Stevenson's _The Crusaders in the
+  East_ (Cambridge, 1907) is very valuable. On the constitutional and
+  social history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem Dodu's _Histoire des
+  institutions du royaume latin de Jerusalem_ is very useful; E. G.
+  Rey's _Les Colonies franques en Syrie_ contains many interesting
+  details; and Prutz's _Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzuge_ contains both an
+  account of the Latin East and an attempt to sketch the effects of the
+  Crusades on the progress of civilization. The works of Gmelin and J.
+  Delaville-Leroulx on the Templars and Hospitallers respectively are
+  worth consulting; while for Eastern affairs the English reader may be
+  referred to G. Lestrange's _Palestine under the Moslem_, and to
+  Stanley Lane-Poole's _Life of Saladin_ and his _Mahommedan Dynasties_
+  (the latter a valuable work of reference).     (E. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Fulcher of Chartres, 1, i. For what follows, with regard to the
+    Church's conversion of _guerra_ into the Holy War, cf. especially the
+    passage--"Procedant contra infideles ad pugnam jam incipi dignam ...
+    qui abusive _privatum certamen_ contra fideles consuescebant
+    distendere quondam."
+
+  [2] Tradition credits a pope still earlier than Gregory VII. with the
+    idea of a crusade. Silvester II. is said to have preached a general
+    expedition for the recovery of Jerusalem; and the same preaching is
+    attributed to Sergius IV. in 1011. But the supposed letter of
+    Silvester is a later forgery; and in 1000 the way of the Christian to
+    Jerusalem was still free and open.
+
+  [3] The comte de Riant impugned the authenticity of Alexius' letter
+    to the count of Flanders. It is very probable that the versions of
+    this letter which we possess, and which are to be found only in later
+    writings like Guibert de Nogent, are apocryphal; Alexius can hardly
+    have held out the bait of the beauty of Greek women, or have written
+    that he preferred to fall under the yoke of the Latins rather than
+    that of the Turks. But it is also probable that these apocryphal
+    versions are based on a genuine original.
+
+  [4] Ekkehard, _Chronica_, p. 213.
+
+  [5] The _Chanson de Roland_, which cannot be posterior to the First
+    Crusade--for the poem never alludes to it--already contains the idea
+    of the Holy War against Islam. The idea of the crusade had thus
+    already ripened in French poetry, before Urban preached his sermon.
+
+  [6] Book i. c. iii. (in Muratori, _S.R.I._, v. 550).
+
+  [7] Ekkehard, _Chronica_, 214.
+
+  [8] Later legend ascribed the origin of the First Crusade to the
+    preaching of Peter the Hermit. The legend has been followed by modern
+    historians; but in point of fact Peter is a figure of secondary
+    importance.(See PETER THE HERMIT.)
+
+  [9] Godfrey's army numbered some 30,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry
+    (Rohricht, _Erst. Kreuzz._ 61): Urban II. reckons Bohemund's knights
+    as 7000 in number (_ibid._ 71, n. 7).
+
+  [10] The Genoese had been invited by Urban II. in September 1096 "to
+    go with their gallies to Eastern parts in order to set free the path
+    to the Lord's Sepulchre."
+
+  [11] Thus already on the First Crusade the path of negotiation is
+    attempted simultaneously with the Holy War. On the Third Crusade, and
+    above all on the Sixth, this path was still more seriously attempted.
+    It is interesting, too, to notice the part which the laity already
+    plays in directing the course of the Crusade. From the first the
+    Crusade, however clerical in its conception, was largely secular in
+    its conduct; and thus, somewhat paradoxically, a religious enterprise
+    aided the growth of the secular motive, and contributed to the escape
+    of the laity from that tendency towards a papal theocracy, which was
+    evident in the pontificate of Gregory VII.
+
+  [12] Before he left, Raymund had played in Jerusalem the same part of
+    dog in the manger which he had also played at Antioch, and had given
+    Godfrey considerable trouble. See the articles, GODFREY OF BOUILLON
+    and RAYMUND OF TOULOUSE.
+
+  [13] For an account of the kings of Jerusalem see the articles on the
+    five BALDWINS, on the two AMALRICS, on FULK and JOHN OF BRIENNE and
+    on the LUSIGNAN (family).
+
+  [14] The genuineness of the letter (on which, by the way, depends the
+    story of Godfrey's agreement with Dagobert) has been impeached by
+    Prutz and Kugler, and doubted by Rohricht. It is accepted by von
+    Sybel and Hagenmeyer.
+
+  [15] Yet the north always continued to be more populous than the
+    south; and the Latins maintained themselves in Antioch and Tripoli a
+    century after the loss of Jerusalem. The land was richer in the
+    north: it was protected by its connexion with Cyprus and Armenia: it
+    was more remote from Egypt--the basis of Mahommedan power from the
+    reign of Saladin onwards.
+
+  [16] Pisa naturally connected itself with Antioch, because Antioch
+    was hostile to Constantinople, and Pisa cherished the same hostility,
+    since Alexius I. had in 1080 given preferential treatment to Venice,
+    the enemy of Pisa.
+
+  [17] This is the year in which the kingdom may be regarded as
+    definitely founded. The period of conquest practically ends at this
+    date, though isolated gains were afterwards made. The year 1110 is
+    additionally important by reason of the accession of Maudud al Mosul,
+    which marks the beginning of a Moslem reaction.
+
+  [18] Ilghazi died in 1122. His successor was Balak, who ruled from
+    1122 to 1124, and succeeded in capturing in 1123 Baldwin II. of
+    Jerusalem. The union of Mardin and Aleppo under the sway of these two
+    amirs, connecting as it did Mesopotamia with Syria, marks an
+    important stage in the revival of Mahommedan power (Stevenson,
+    _Crusades in the East_, p. 109).
+
+  [19] Maudud (the brother of the sultan Mahommed) may be regarded as
+    the first to begin the _jihad_, or counter-crusade, and his attack
+    expedition of 1113, which carried him so far into the heart of
+    Palestine, may be considered as the first act of the _jihad_
+    (Stevenson, op. cit. pp. 87, 96).
+
+  [20] Aleppo had passed from the rule of Timurtash (son of Ilghazi and
+    successor of Balak) into the possession of Aksunkur, 1125.
+
+  [21] Stevenson, however, believes that Zengi was _not_ animated by
+    the idea of recovering Jerusalem. He thinks that his principal aim
+    was simply the formation of a compact Mahommedan state, which was,
+    indeed, in the issue destined to be the instrument of the _jihad_,
+    but was not so intended by Zengi (op. cit. pp. 123-124).
+
+  [22] There are certain connexions and analogies between the kingdom
+    of Sicily and that of Jerusalem during the twelfth century. In either
+    case there is an importation of Western feudalism into a country
+    originally possessed of Byzantine institutions, but affected by an
+    Arabic occupation. The subject deserves investigation.
+
+  [23] The holders of fiefs (_sodeers_) both held fiefs of land and
+    received pay; the paid force of _soudoyers_ only received pay. An
+    instance of the latter is furnished by John of Margat, a vassal of
+    the seignory of Arsuf. He has 200 bezants along with a quantity of
+    wheat, barley, lentils and oil; and in return he must march with four
+    horses (Rey, _Les Colonies franques en Syrie_, p. 24).
+
+  [24] For the history of the orders see the articles on the TEMPLARS;
+    ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; KNIGHTS, and the TEUTONIC ORDER.
+    The Templars were founded about the year 1118 by a Burgundian knight,
+    Hugh de Paganis; the Hospitallers sprang from a foundation in
+    Jerusalem erected by merchants of Amalfi before the First Crusade,
+    and were reorganized under Gerard le Puy, master until 1120. The
+    Teutonic knights date from the Third Crusade.
+
+  [25] As was noticed above, there were apparently separate assizes for
+    the three principalities, in addition to the assizes of the kingdom.
+    The assizes of Antioch have been discovered and published. The
+    assizes of the kingdom itself are twofold--the assizes of the high
+    court and the assizes of the court of burgesses. (1) The assizes of
+    the high court are preserved for us in works by legists--John of
+    Ibelin, Philip of Novara and Geoffrey of Tort--composed in the 13th
+    century. We possess, in other words, _law-books_ (like Bracton's
+    treatise _De legibus_), but not _laws_--and law-books made after the
+    loss of the kingdom to which the laws belonged. There are two vexed
+    questions with regard to these law-books. (a) The first concerns the
+    origin and character of the laws which the law-books profess to
+    expound. According to the story of the legists who wrote these
+    books--e.g. John of Ibelin--the laws of the kingdom were laid down by
+    Godfrey, who is thus regarded as the great [Greek: nomothetes] of the
+    kingdom. These laws (progressively modified, it is admitted) were
+    kept in Jerusalem, under the name of "Letters of the Sepulchre,"
+    until 1187. In that year they were lost; and the legists tell us that
+    they are attempting to reconstruct _par oir dire_ the gist of the
+    lost archetype. The story of the legists is now generally rejected.
+    Godfrey never legislated: the customs of the kingdom gradually grew,
+    and were gradually defined, especially under kings like Baldwin III.
+    and Amalric I. If there was thus only a customary and unwritten law
+    (and William of Tyre definitely speaks of a _jus consuetudinarium_
+    under Baldwin III., _quo regnum regebatur_), then the "Letters of the
+    Sepulchre" are a myth--or rather, if they ever existed, they existed
+    not as a code of written law, but, perhaps, as a register of fiefs,
+    like the Sicilian _Defetarii_. Thus the story of the legists shrinks
+    down to the regular myth of the primitive legislator, used to give an
+    air of respectability to law-books, which really record an unwritten
+    custom. The fact is that until the 13th century the Franks lived
+    _consuetudinibus antiquis et jure non scripto_. They preferred an
+    unwritten law, as Prutz suggests, partly because it suited the
+    barristers (who often belonged to the baronage, for the Frankish
+    nobles were "great pleaders in court and out of court"), and partly
+    because the high court was left unbound so long as there was no
+    written code. In the 13th century it became necessary for the legists
+    to codify, as it were, the unwritten law, because the upheavals of
+    the times necessitated the fixing of some rules in writing, and
+    especially because it was necessary to oppose a definite custom of
+    the kingdom to Frederick II., who sought, as king of Jerusalem, to
+    take advantage of the want of a written law, to substitute his own
+    conceptions of law in the teeth of the high court. (b) The second
+    difficulty concerns the text of the law-books themselves. The text of
+    Ibelin became a _textus receptus_--but it also became overlaid by
+    glosses, for it was used as authoritative in the kingdom of Cyprus
+    after the loss of the kingdom of Jerusalem, and it needed expounding.
+    Recensions and revisions were twice made, in 1368 and 1531; but how
+    far the true Ibelin was recovered, and what additions or alterations
+    were made at these two dates, we cannot tell. We can only say that we
+    have the text of Ibelin which was used in Cyprus in the later middle
+    ages. At the same time, if our text is thus late, it must be
+    remembered that its content gives us the earliest and purest
+    exposition of French feudalism, and describes for us the organization
+    of a kingdom, where all rights and duties were connected with the
+    fief, and the monarch was only a suzerain of feudatories. (2) The
+    assizes of the court of burgesses became the basis of a treatise at
+    an earlier date than the assizes of the high court. The date of the
+    redaction (which was probably made by some learned burgess) may well
+    have been the reign of Baldwin III., as Kugler suggests: he was the
+    first native king, and a king learned in the law; but Beugnot would
+    refer the assizes to the years immediately preceding Saladin's
+    capture of Jerusalem. These assizes do not, of course, appear in
+    Ibelin, who was only concerned with the feudal law of the high court.
+    They were used, like the assizes of the high court, in Cyprus; and,
+    like the other assizes, they were made the subject of investigation
+    in 1531, with the object of discovering a good text. The law which is
+    expounded in these assizes is a mixture of Frankish law with the
+    Graeco-Roman law of the Eastern empire which prevailed among the
+    native population of Syria.
+
+    In regard to both assizes, it is most important to bear in mind that
+    we possess not laws, but law-books or custumals--records made by
+    lawyers for their fellows of what they conceived to be the law, and
+    supported by legal arguments and citations of cases. But, as Prutz
+    remarks, Philip of Novara _lehrt nicht die Wissenschaft des Rechts,
+    sondern die des Unrechts_: he does not explain the law so much as the
+    ways of getting round it.
+
+  [26] For instance, the abbey of Mount Sion had large possessions, not
+    only in the Holy Land (at Ascalon, Jaffa, Acre, Tyre, Caesarea and
+    Tarsus), but also in Sicily, Calabria, Lombardy, Spain and France (at
+    Orleans, Bourges and Poitiers).
+
+  [27] One must remember that these reinforcements would often consist
+    of desperate characters. It was one of the misfortunes of Palestine
+    that it served as a Botany Bay, to which the criminals of the West
+    were transported for penance. The natives, already prone to the
+    immorality which must infect a mixed population living under a hot
+    sun, the immorality which still infects a place like Aden, were not
+    improved by the addition of convicts.
+
+  [28] The manorial system in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was a
+    continuation of the village system as it had existed under the Arabs.
+    In each village (_casale)_ the _rustici_ were grouped in families
+    (_foci_): the tenants paid from 1/4 to 1\3 of the crop, besides a
+    poll-tax and labour-dues. The villages were mostly inhabited by
+    Syrians: it was rarely that Franks settled down as tillers of the
+    soil. Prutz regards the manorial system as oppressive. Absentee
+    landlords, he thinks, rack-rented the soil (p. 167), while the
+    "inhuman severity" of their treatment of villeins led to a
+    progressive decay of agriculture, destroyed the economic basis of the
+    Latin kingdom, and led the natives to welcome the invasion of Saladin
+    (pp. 327-331).
+
+    The French writers Rey and Dodu are more kind to the Franks; and the
+    testimony of contemporary Arabic writers, who seem favourably
+    impressed by the treatment of their subjects by the Franks, bears out
+    their view, while the tone of the assizes is admittedly favourable to
+    the Syrians. One must not forget that there was a brisk native
+    manufacture of carpets, pottery, ironwork, gold-work and soap; or
+    that the Syrians of the towns had a definite legal position.
+
+  [29] After 1143 one may therefore speak of the period of the
+    Epigoni--the native Franks, ready to view the Moslems as joint
+    occupants of Syria, and to imitate the dress and habits of their
+    neighbours.
+
+  [30] Doubt has been cast on the view that a troubled conscience drove
+    Louis to take the cross; and his action has been ascribed to simple
+    religious zeal (cf. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, iii. 12).
+
+  [31] We speak of First, Second and Third Crusades, but, more exactly,
+    the Crusades were one continuous process. Scarcely a year passed in
+    which new bands did not come to the Holy Land. We have already
+    noticed the great if disastrous Crusade of 1100-1101, and the
+    Venetian Crusade of 1123-1124; and we may also refer to the Crusade
+    of Henry the Lion in 1172, and to that of Edward I. in 1271-1272--all
+    famous Crusades, which are not reckoned in the usual numbering.
+    Crusades appear to have been dignified by numbers when they followed
+    some crushing disaster--the loss of Edessa in 1144, or the fall of
+    Jerusalem in 1187--and were led by kings and emperors; or when, like
+    the Fourth and Fifth Crusades, they achieved some conspicuous success
+    or failure. But it is important to bear in mind the continuity of the
+    Crusades--the constant flow of new forces eastward and back again
+    westward; for this alone explains why the Crusades formed a great
+    epoch in civilization, familiarizing, as they did, the West with the
+    East.
+
+  [32] This body of crusaders ultimately reached the Holy Land, where
+    it joined Conrad (who had lost his own original forces), and helped
+    in the fruitless siege of Damascus. The services which it rendered to
+    Portugal were repeated by later crusaders. Crusaders from the Low
+    Countries, England and the Scandinavian north took the coast route
+    round western Europe; and it was natural that, landing for provisions
+    and water, they should be asked, and should consent, to lend their
+    aid to the natives against the Moors. Such aid is recorded to have
+    been given on the Third and the Fifth Crusades.
+
+  [33] Manuel was an ambitious sovereign, apparently aiming at a
+    world-monarchy, such as was afterwards attempted from the other side
+    by Henry VI. As Henry VI. had designs on Constantinople and the
+    Eastern empire, so Manuel cherished the ambition of acquiring Italy
+    and the Western empire, and he negotiated with Alexander III. to that
+    end in 1167 and 1169: cf. the life of Alexander III. in Muratori, _S.
+    R. I._ iii. 460.
+
+  [34] The prize was won by Raynald of Chatillon (q.v.).
+
+  [35] Nureddin, unlike his father, was definitely animated by a
+    religious motive: he fought first and foremost against the Latins
+    (and not, like his father, against Moslem states), and he did so as a
+    matter of religious duty.
+
+  [36] Henry II., as an Angevin, was the natural heir of the kingdom of
+    Jerusalem on the extinction of the line descended from Fulk of Anjou.
+    This explains the part played by Richard I. in deciding the question
+    of the succession during the Third Crusade.
+
+  [37] The taxation levied in the West was also attempted in the East,
+    and in 1183 a universal tax was levied in the kingdom of Jerusalem,
+    at the rate of 1% on movables and 2% on rents and revenues. Cf. Dr A.
+    Cartellieri, _Philipp II. August_, ii. pp. 3-18 and p. 85.
+
+  [38] Stevenson argues (op. cit. p. 240) that this truce was already
+    practically dissolved before Raynald struck, and that Raynald's
+    "action may reasonably be viewed as the practical outcome of the
+    feeling of a party."
+
+  [39] The "economic" motive for taking the cross was strengthened by
+    the papal regulations in favour of debtors who joined the Crusade.
+    Thousands must have joined the Third Crusade in order to escape
+    paying either their taxes or the interest on their debts; and the
+    atmosphere of the gold-digger's camp (or of the cave of Adullam) must
+    have begun more than ever to characterize the crusading armies.
+
+  [40] The Crusades in their course established a number of new states
+    or kingdoms. The First Crusade established the kingdom of Jerusalem
+    (1100); the Third, the kingdom of Cyprus (1195); the Fourth, the
+    Latin empire of Constantinople (1204); while the long Crusade of the
+    Teutonic knights on the coast of the Baltic led to the rise of a new
+    state east of the Vistula. The kingdom of Lesser Armenia, established
+    in 1195, may also be regarded as a result of the Crusades. The
+    history of the kingdom of Jerusalem is part of the history of the
+    Crusades: the history of the other kingdoms or states touches the
+    history of the Crusades less vitally. But the history of Cyprus is
+    particularly important--and for two reasons. In the first place,
+    Cyprus was a natural and excellent basis of operations; it sent
+    provisions to the crusaders in 1191, and again at the siege of
+    Damietta in 1219, while its advantages as a strategic basis were
+    proved by the exploits of Peter of Cyprus in the 14th century. In the
+    second place, as the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem fell, its
+    institutions and assizes were transplanted bodily to Cyprus, where
+    they survived until the island was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.
+    But the monarchy was stronger in Cyprus than in Jerusalem: the fiefs
+    were distributed by the monarch, and were smaller in extent; while
+    the feudatories had neither the collective powers of the haute cour
+    of Jerusalem, nor the individual privileges (such as jurisdiction
+    over the bourgeoisie), which had been enjoyed by the feudatories of
+    the old kingdom. Till 1489 the kingdom of Cyprus survived as an
+    independent monarchy, and its capital, Famagusta, was an important
+    centre of trade after the loss of the coast-towns in the kingdom of
+    Jerusalem. In 1489 it was acquired by Venice, which claimed the
+    island on the death of the last king, having adopted his widow (a
+    Venetian lady named Catarina Cornaro) as a daughter of the republic.
+    On the history of Cyprus, see Stubbs, _Lectures on Medieval and
+    Modern History_, 156-208. The history of the kingdom of Armenia is
+    closely connected with that of Cyprus. The Armenians in the
+    south-east of Asia Minor borrowed feudal institutions from the Franks
+    and the feudal vocabulary itself. The kingdom was involved in a
+    struggle with Antioch in the early part of the 13th century. Later,
+    it allied itself with the Mongols and fought against the Mamelukes,
+    to whom, however, it finally succumbed in 1375.
+
+  [41] The kingdom of Jerusalem is thus from 1192 to its final fall a
+    strip of coast, to which it is the object of kings and crusaders to
+    annex Jerusalem and a line of communication connecting it with the
+    coast. This was practically the aim of Richard I.'s negotiations; and
+    this was what Frederick II. for a time secured.
+
+  [42] M. Luchaire, in the volume of his biography of Innocent III.
+    called _La Question d'Orient_, shows how, in spite of the pope, the
+    Fourth Crusade was in its very beginnings a lay enterprise. The
+    crusading barons of France chose their own leader, and determined
+    their own route, without consulting Innocent.
+
+  [43] As a matter of fact, there is some doubt whether Alexius arrived
+    in Germany before the spring of 1202. But there seems to be little
+    doubt of Philip's complicity in the diversion of the Fourth Crusade
+    to Constantinople (cf. M. Luchaire, _La Question d'Orient_, pp.
+    84-86).
+
+  [44] It is true that in 1208 Venice received commercial concessions
+    from the court of Cairo. But this _ex post facto_ argument is the
+    sole proof of this view; and it is quite insufficient to prove the
+    accusation. Venice is _not_ the primary agent in the deflection of
+    the Fourth Crusade.
+
+  [45] Already under Innocent III. the benefits of the Crusade were
+    promised to those who went to the assistance of the Latin empire of
+    the East.
+
+  [46] In 1208 Innocent excommunicated Raymund VI. of Toulouse on
+    account of the murder of a papal legate who was attempting to
+    suppress Manichaeism, and offered all Catholics the right to occupy
+    and guard his territories. Thus was begun the First Crusade against
+    heresy. Raymund at once submitted to the pope, but the Crusade
+    continued none the less, because, as Luchaire says, "the baronage of
+    the north and centre of France had finished their preparations," and
+    were resolved to annex the rich lands of the south. In this way
+    land-hunger exploited the Albigensian, as political and commercial
+    motives had helped to exploit the Fourth Crusade; and in the former,
+    as in the latter, Innocent had reluctantly to consent to the results
+    of the secular motives which had infected a spiritual enterprise. The
+    Albigensian Crusades, however, belong to French history; and it can
+    only be noted here that their ultimate result was the absorption of
+    the fertile lands, and the extinction of the peculiar civilization,
+    of southern France by the northern monarchy. (See the article
+    ALBIGENSES.)
+
+  [47] A canon of the third Lateran council (1179) forbade traffic with
+    the Saracens in munitions of war; and this canon had been renewed by
+    Innocent in the beginning of his pontificate.
+
+  [48] He had promised the pope, at his coronation in 1220, to begin
+    his Crusade in August 1221. But he declared himself exhausted by the
+    expenses of his coronation; and Honorius III. consented to defer his
+    Crusade until March 1222. The letter of the pope informing Pelagius
+    of this delay is dated the 20th of June: it would probably reach his
+    hands _after_ his departure from Damietta; and thus the Cardinal gave
+    the signal for the march, when, as he thought, the emperor's coming
+    was imminent.
+
+  [49] Joinville, ch. x.
+
+  [50] John of Brienne had only ruled in right of his wife Mary. On her
+    death (1212) John might be regarded as only ruling "by the courtesy
+    of the kingdom" until her daughter Isabella was married, when the
+    husband would succeed. That, at any rate, was the view Frederick II.
+    took.
+
+  [51] Amalric I. of Cyprus had done homage to Henry VI., from whom he
+    had received the title of king (1195).
+
+  [52] It may be argued that the Crusade against a revolted Christian
+    like Frederick II. was not misplaced, and that the pope had a true
+    sense of religious values when he attacked Frederick. The answer is
+    partly that men like St Louis _did_ think that the Crusade was
+    misplaced, and partly that Frederick was really attacked _not_ as a
+    revolted Christian, but as the would-be unifier of Italy, the enemy
+    of the states of the church.
+
+  [53] The following table of the Ayyubite rulers serves to illustrate
+    the text:--
+
+           Shadhy.
+              |
+         +----+----+
+         |         |
+      Shirguh.   Ayyub (both generals in the army of the Atabegs of Mosul).
+                   |
+         +---------+---------------+
+         |                         |
+      Saladin               Malik-al-Adil I.
+      + 1193                    + 1218.
+                                   |
+              +----------------+---+--------------+---------------------+
+              |                |                  |                     |
+      Malik-al-Kamil,   Malik-al-Muazzam,  Malik-al-Ashraf,   Malik-al-Salih Isma'il
+      Sultan of Egypt  Sultan of Damascus    ruler of Khelat,   sultan of Damascus,
+           + 1238.          + 1227.          and after 1227     1237-1244. From
+              |                |             of Damascus,       him Damascus passed
+              |                |             + 1237.            to Malik-al-Salih
+              |          Malik-al-Nasir                         Ayyub of Egypt at
+              |            of Kerak                             the battle of Gaza.
+              |
+              +--+--------------------+
+                 |                    |
+         Malik-al-Adil II.   Malik-al-Salih Najm
+            deposed 1240.      al-din Ayyub, sultan
+                               of Egypt, and after
+                               1244 of Damascus,
+                               + 1249.
+                                      |
+                          +-----------+
+                          |
+             Turanshah, deposed 1250, and
+            succeeded by the Mameluke Aibek.
+
+  [54] Though Europe indulged in dreams of Mongol aid, the eventual
+    results of the extension of the Mongol Empire were prejudicial to the
+    Latin East. The sultans of Egypt were stirred to fresh activity by
+    the attacks of the Mongols; and as Syria became the battleground of
+    the two, the Latin principalities of Syria were fated to fall as the
+    prize of victory to one or other of the combatants.
+
+  [55] Of the four Latin principalities of the East, Edessa was the
+    first to fall, being extinguished between 1144 and 1150. Antioch fell
+    in 1268; Tripoli in 1289; and the kingdom itself may be said to end
+    with the capture of Acre, 1291.
+
+  [56] Michael Palaeologus had actually appealed to Louis IX. against
+    Charles of Anjou, who in 1270 had actively begun preparations for the
+    attack on Constantinople.
+
+  [57] The dream of a Crusade to Jerusalem survived de Mezieres; a
+    society which read "romaunts" of the Crusades, could not but dream
+    the dream. Henry V., whose father had fought with the Teutonic
+    knights on the Baltic, dreamed of a voyage to Jerusalem.
+
+  [58] The union of 1274, conceded by the Palaeologi at the council of
+    Lyons in order to defeat the plans of Charles of Anjou, had only been
+    temporary.
+
+  [59] Brehier, _L'Eglise el l'Orient_, p. 347.
+
+  [60] _Cambridge Modern History_, i. 11. It is perhaps worth remarking
+    that something of the old crusading spirit seems still to linger in
+    the movement of Russia towards Constantinople.
+
+  [61] While from this point of view the Crusades appear as a failure,
+    it must not be forgotten that elsewhere than in the East Crusades did
+    attain some success. A Crusade won for Christianity the coast of the
+    eastern Baltic (see TEUTONIC ORDER); and the centuries of the Spanish
+    Crusade ended in the conquest of the whole of Spain for Christianity.
+
+  [62] Authors like Heeren (_Versuch einer Entwickelung der Folgen der
+    Kreuzzuge_) and Michaud (in the last volume of his _Histoire des
+    croisades_) fall into the error of assigning all things to the
+    Crusades. Even Prutz, in his _Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzuge_,
+    over-estimates the influence of the Crusades as a chapter in the
+    history of civilization. He depreciates unduly the Western
+    civilization of the early middle ages, and exalts the civilization of
+    the Arabs; and starting from these two premises, he concludes that
+    modern civilization is the offspring of the Crusades, which first
+    brought East and West together.
+
+  [63] It is difficult to decide how far Arabic models influenced
+    ecclesiastical architecture in the West as a result of the Crusades.
+    Greater freedom of moulding and the use of trefoil and cinquefoil may
+    be, but need not be, explained in this way. The pointed arch owes
+    nothing to the Arabs; it is already used in England in early Norman
+    work. Generally, one may say that Western architecture is independent
+    of the East.
+
+  [64] His somewhat legendary treatise, _De liberatione civitatum
+    Orientis_, was only composed about 1155.
+
+  [65] There is also an _Inventaire critique_ of these letters by the
+    comte de Riant (Paris, 1880).
+
+  [66] Von Sybel's view must be modified by that of Kugler, to which a
+    scholar like Hagenmeyer has to some extent given his adhesion (cf.
+    his edition of the _Gesta_, pp. 62-68). Hagenmeyer inclines to
+    believe in an original author, distinct from Albert the copyist; and
+    he thinks that this original author (whether or no he was present
+    during the Crusade) used the _Gesta_ and also Fulcher, though he had
+    probably also "_eigene Notizen und Aufzeichnungen_."
+
+  [67] See Pigonneau, _Le Cycle de la croisade_, &c. (Paris, 1877); and
+    Hagenmeyer, _Peter der Eremite_ (Leipzig, 1879).
+
+  [68] On the bibliography of the Second Crusade see Kugler, _Studien
+    zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzuges_ (Stuttgart, 1866).
+
+  [69] Of these writers see Archer's _Crusade of Richard I._, Appendix
+    (in Nutt's series of Histories from Contemporary Writers).
+
+  [70] The bibliography of the Fourth Crusade is discussed in Klimke,
+    _Die Quellen zur Geschichte des vierten Kreuzzuges_ (Breslau, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB (1795-1865), Swedish historian, early became
+famous both as a political and a historical writer. His first important
+work was a _History of the Early Years of the Life of King Gustavus IV.
+Adolphus_, which was followed by a series of monographs and by some
+politico-historical novels, of which _The House of Holstein-Gottorp in
+Sweden_ is considered the best. He obtained a great influence over King
+Charles XIV. (Bernadotte), who during the years 1830-1833 gave him his
+fullest confidence, and sanctioned the official character of
+Crusenstolpe's newspaper _Faderneslandet_. In the last-mentioned year,
+however, the historian suddenly became the king's bitterest enemy, and
+used his acrid pen on all occasions in attacking him. In 1838 he was
+condemned, for one of these angry utterances, to be imprisoned three
+years in the castle of Waxholm. He continued his literary labours until
+his death in 1865. Few Swedish writers have wielded so pure and so
+incisive a style as Crusenstolpe, but his historical work is vitiated by
+political and personal bias.
+
+
+
+
+CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1715-1775), German philosopher and
+theologian, was born on the 10th of January 1715 at Lenau near Merseburg
+in Saxony. He was educated at Leipzig, and became professor of theology
+there in 1750, and principal of the university in 1773. He died on the
+18th of October 1775. Crusius first came into notice as an opponent of
+the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff from the standpoint of religious
+orthodoxy. He attacked it mainly on the score of the moral evils that
+must flow from any system of determinism, and exerted himself in
+particular to vindicate the freedom of the will. The most important
+works of this period of his life are _Entwurf der nothwendigen
+Vernunftwahrheiten_ (1745), and _Weg zur Gewissheit und Zuverlassigkeit
+der menschlichen Erkenntniss_ (1747). Though diffusely written, and
+neither brilliant nor profound, Crusius' philosophical books had a great
+but short-lived popularity. His criticism of Wolff, which is generally
+based on sound sense, had much influence upon Kant at the time when his
+system was forming; and his ethical doctrines are mentioned with respect
+in the _Kritik of Practical Reason_. Crusius's later life was devoted to
+theology. In this capacity his sincere piety and amiable character
+gained him great influence, and he led the party in the university which
+became known as the "Crusianer" as opposed to the "Ernestianer," the
+followers of J. A. Ernesti. The two professors adopted opposite methods
+of exegesis. Ernesti wished to subject the Scripture to the same laws of
+exposition as are applied to other ancient books; Crusius held firmly to
+orthodox ecclesiastical tradition. Crusius's chief theological works are
+_Hypomnemata ad theologiam propheticam_ (1764-1778), and _Kurzer Entwurf
+der Moraltheologie_ (1772-1773). He sets his face against innovation in
+such matters as the accepted authorship of canonical writings, verbal
+inspiration, and the treatment of persons and events in the Old
+Testament as types of the New. His views, unscholarly and uncritical as
+they seem to us now, have had influence on later evangelical students of
+the Old Testament, such as E. W. Hengstenberg and F. Delitzsch.
+
+  There is a full notice of Crusius in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopadie_. Consult also J. E. Erdmann's _History of Philosophy_;
+  A. Marquardt, _Kant und Crusius_; and art. in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (1898).     (H. St.)
+
+
+
+
+CRUSTACEA, a very large division of the animal kingdom, comprising the
+familiar crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps and prawns, the sandhoppers
+and woodlice, the strangely modified barnacles and the minute
+water-fleas. Besides these the group also includes a multitude of
+related forms which, from their aquatic habits and generally
+inconspicuous size, and from the fact that they are commonly neither
+edible nor noxious, are little known except to naturalists and are
+undistinguished by any popular names. Collectively, they are ranked as
+one of the classes forming the sub-phylum ARTHROPODA, and their
+distinguishing characters are discussed under that heading. It will be
+sufficient here to define them as Arthropoda for the most part of
+aquatic habits, having typically two pairs of antenniform appendages in
+front of the mouth and at least three pairs of post-oral limbs acting as
+jaws.
+
+As a matter of fact, however, the range of structural variation within
+the group is so wide, and the modifications due to parasitism and other
+causes are so profound, that it is almost impossible to frame a
+definition which shall be applicable to all the members of the class. In
+certain parasites, for instance, the adults have lost every trace not
+only of Crustacean but even of Arthropodous structure, and the only clue
+to their zoological position is that afforded by the study of their
+development. In point of size also the Crustacea vary within very wide
+limits. Certain water-fleas (Cladocera) fall short of one-hundredth of
+an inch in total length; the giant Japanese crab (_Macrocheira_) can
+span over 10 ft. between its outstretched claws.
+
+The habits of the Crustacea are no less diversified than their
+structure. Most of them inhabit the sea, but representatives of all the
+chief groups are found in fresh water (though the Cirripedia have hardly
+gained a footing there), and this is the chief home of the primitive
+Phyllopoda. A terrestrial habitat is less common, but the
+widely-distributed land Isopoda or woodlice and the land-crabs of
+tropical regions have solved the problem of adaptation to a subaerial
+life.
+
+Swimming is perhaps the commonest mode of locomotion, but numerous forms
+have taken to creeping or walking, and the robber-crab (_Birgus latro_)
+of the Indo-Pacific islands even climbs palm-trees. None has the power
+of flight, though certain pelagic Copepoda are said to leap from the
+surface of the sea like flying-fish. Apart from the numerous parasitic
+forms, the only Crustacea which have adopted a strictly sedentary habit
+of life are the Cirripedia, and here, as elsewhere, profound
+modifications of structure have resulted, leading ultimately to a
+partial assumption of the radial type of symmetry which is so often
+associated with a sedentary life.
+
+Many, perhaps the majority, of the Crustacea are omnivorous or
+carrion-feeders, but many are actively predatory in their habits, and
+are provided with more or less complex and efficient instruments for
+capturing their prey, and there are also many plant-eaters. Besides the
+sedentary Cirripedia, numbers of the smaller forms, especially among the
+Entomostraca, subsist on floating particles of organic matter swept
+within reach of the jaws by the movements of the other limbs.
+
+Symbiotic association with other animals, in varying degrees of
+interdependence, is frequent. Sometimes the one partner affords the
+other merely a convenient means of transport, as in the case of the
+barnacles which grow on, or of the gulf-weed crab which clings to, the
+carapace of marine turtles. From this we may pass through various grades
+of "commensalism," like that of the hermit-crab with its protective
+anemones, to the cases of actual parasitism. The parasitic habit is most
+common among the Copepoda and Isopoda, where it leads to complex
+modifications of structure and life-history. Perhaps the most complete
+degeneration is found in the Rhizocephala, which are parasitic on other
+Crustacea. In these the adult consists of a simple saccular body
+containing the reproductive organs and attached by root-like filaments
+which ramify throughout the body of the host and serve for the
+absorption of nourishment (fig. 1).
+
+Many of the larger species of Crustacea are used as food by man, the
+most valuable being the lobster, which is caught in large quantities on
+both sides of the North Atlantic. Perhaps the most important of all
+Crustacea, however, with respect to the part which they play in the
+economy of nature, are the minute pelagic Copepoda, of which
+incalculable myriads form an important constituent of the "plankton" in
+all the seas of the globe. It is on the plankton that a great part of
+the higher animal life of the sea ultimately depends for food. The
+Copepoda live upon the diatoms and other important microscopic vegetable
+life at the surface of the sea, and in their turn serve as food for
+fishes and other larger forms and thus, indirectly, for man himself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+
+  A, Group of _Peltogaster socialis_ on the abdomen of a small
+    hermit-crab; in one of them the fasciculately ramified roots, r, in
+    the liver of the crab are shown (Fritz Muller).
+  B, Young of _Sacculina purpurea_ with its roots. (Fritz Muller.)]
+
+_Historical Sketch._--In common with most branches of natural history,
+the science of Carcinology may be traced back to its beginnings in the
+writings of Aristotle. It received additions of varying importance at
+the hands of medieval and later naturalists, and first began to assume
+systematic form under the influence of Linnaeus. The application of the
+morphological method to the Crustacea may perhaps be dated from the work
+of J. C. Fabricius towards the end of the 18th century.
+
+In the first quarter of the 19th century important advances in
+classification were made by P. A. Latreille, W. E. Leach and others, and
+J. Vaughan Thompson demonstrated the existence of metamorphosis in the
+development of the higher Crustacea. A new epoch may be said to begin
+with H. Milne-Edwards' classical _Histoire naturelle des crustaces_
+(1834-1840). It is noteworthy that even at this late date the Cirripedia
+(Thyrostraca) were still excluded from the Crustacea, though Darwin's
+Monograph (1851-1854) was soon to make them known with a wealth of
+anatomical and systematic detail such as was available, at that time,
+for few other groups of Crustacea. About the same period three authors
+call for special mention, W. de Haan, J. D. Dana and H. Kroyer. The new
+impulse given to biological research by the publication of the _Origin
+of Species_ bore fruit in Fritz Muller's _Fur Darwin_, in which an
+attempt was made to reconstruct the phylogenetic history of the class.
+The same line of work was followed in the long series of important
+memoirs from the pen of K. F. W. Claus, and noteworthy contributions
+were made, among many others, by A. Dohrn, Ray Lankester and Huxley. In
+more recent years the long and constantly increasing list of writers on
+Crustacea contains no name more honoured than that of the veteran G. O.
+Sars of Christiania.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Abdominal Somite of a Lobster, separated and
+viewed from in front. t, tergum; s, sternum; pl, pleuron.]
+
+
+  _Morphology._
+
+  _External Structure: Body._--As in all Arthropoda the body consists of
+  a series of segments or somites which may be free or more or less
+  coalesced together. In its simplest form the exoskeleton of a typical
+  somite is a ring of chitin defined from the rings in front and behind
+  by areas of thinner integument forming moveable joints, and having a
+  pair of appendages articulated to its ventral surface on either side
+  of the middle line. Frequently, however, this exoskeletal somite may
+  be differentiated into various regions. A dorsal and a ventral plate
+  are often distinguished, known respectively as the tergum and the
+  sternum, and the tergum may overhang the insertion of the limb on each
+  side as a free plate called the pleuron. The name epimeron is
+  sometimes applied to what is here called the pleuron, but the word has
+  been used in widely different senses and it seems better to abandon
+  it. The typical form of a somite is well seen, for example, in the
+  segments which make up the abdomen or "tail" of a lobster or crayfish
+  (fig. 2). The posterior terminal segment of the body, on which the
+  opening of the anus is situated, never bears appendages. The nature of
+  this segment, which is known as the "anal segment" or telson (fig. 3,
+  T), has been much discussed, some authorities holding that it is a
+  true somite, homologous with those which precede it. Others have
+  regarded it as representing the fusion of a number of somites, and
+  others again as a "median appendage" or as a pair of appendages fused.
+  Its morphological nature, however, is clearly shown by its
+  development. In the larval development of the more primitive
+  Crustacea, the number of somites, at first small, increases by the
+  successive appearance of new somites between the last-formed somite
+  and the terminal region which bears the anus. The "growing point" of
+  the trunk is, in fact, situated in front of this region, and, when the
+  full number of somites has been reached, the unsegmented part
+  remaining forms the telson of the adult.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Separated Somites and Appendages of the
+  Common Lobster (_Homarus gammarus_).
+
+    C, carapace covering the cephalothorax.
+    Ab, abdominal somites.
+    T, telson, having the uropods or appendages of the last abdominal
+      somite spread out on either side of it, forming the "tail-fan."
+    l, labrum, or upper lip.
+    m, metastoma, or lower lip.
+    1, eyes.
+    2, antennule (the arrow points to the opening of the so-called
+      auditory organ).
+    3, antenna.
+    4, mandible.
+    5, maxillula (or first maxilla).
+    6, maxilla (second maxilla).
+    7-9, first, second and third maxillipeds.
+    ex, exopodite.
+    ep, epipodite.
+    g, gill.
+    10, sixth thoracic limb (second walking-leg) of female.
+    11, last thoracic limb of male. In 10 and 11 the arrows indicate the
+      genital apertures.
+    13, sterna of the thoracic somites, from within.
+    14, third abdominal somite, with appendages or "swimmerets."]
+
+  In no Crustacean, however, do all the somites of the body remain
+  distinct. Coalescence, or suppression of segmentation ("lipomerism"),
+  may involve more or less extensive regions. This is especially the
+  case in the anterior part of the body, where, in correlation with the
+  "adaptational shifting of the oral aperture" (see ARTHROPODA), a
+  varying number of somites unite to form the "cephalon" or head. Apart
+  from the possible existence of an ocular somite corresponding to the
+  eyes (the morphological nature of which is discussed below), the
+  smallest number of head-somites so united in any Crustacean is five.
+  Even where a large number of the somites have fused, there is
+  generally a marked change in the character of the appendages after the
+  fifth pair, and since the integumental fold which forms the carapace
+  seems to originate from this point, it is usual to take the fifth
+  somite as the morphological limit of the cephalon throughout the
+  class. It is quite probable, however, that in the primitive ancestors
+  of existing Crustacea a still smaller number of somites formed the
+  head. The three pairs of appendages present in the "nauplius" larva
+  show certain peculiarities of structure and development which seem to
+  place them in a different category from the other limbs, and there is
+  some ground for regarding the three corresponding somites as
+  constituting a "primary cephalon." For practical purposes, however, it
+  is convenient to include the two following somites also as cephalic.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of an Amphipod. (After Spence Bate and
+  Westwood.)
+
+    C, cephalon.
+    Th, thorax. (Only seven of the eight thoracic somites are visible,
+      the first being fused with the cephalon.)
+    Ab, abdomen.
+
+    The numbers appended to the somites do not correspond to the
+    enumeration adopted in the text. 21 is the telson.]
+
+  A remarkable feature found only in the Stomatopoda is the reappearance
+  of segmentation in the anterior part of the cephalic region. Whether
+  the movably articulated segments which bear the eye-stalks and the
+  antennules in this aberrant group correspond to the primitive head
+  somites or not, their distinctness is certainly a secondarily acquired
+  character, for it is not found in the larvae, nor in any of the more
+  primitive groups of Malacostraca.
+
+  The body proper is usually divisible into two regions to which the
+  names _thorax_ and _abdomen_ are applied. Throughout the whole of the
+  Malacostraca the thorax consists of eight and the abdomen of six
+  somites (fig. 4), and the two regions are sharply distinguished by the
+  character of their appendages. In the various groups of the
+  Entomostraca, on the other hand, the terms thorax and abdomen, though
+  conveniently employed for purposes of systematic description, do not
+  imply any homology with the regions so named in the Malacostraca.
+  Sometimes they are applied, as in the Copepoda, to the limb-bearing
+  and limbless regions of the trunk, while in other cases, as in the
+  Phyllopoda, they denote, respectively, the regions in front of and
+  behind the genital apertures.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Phyllopoda and Phyllocarida.
+
+    1, _Ceratiocaris papilio_, U. Silurian, Lanark.
+    2, _Nebalia bipes_(one side of carapace removed).
+    3, _Lepidurus Angassi_: a, dorsal aspect; b, ventral aspect of head
+      showing the labrum and mouth-parts.
+    4, larva of _Apus cancriformis_.
+    5, _Branchipus stagnalis_: a, adult female; b, first larval stage
+      (Nauplius); c, second larval stage.
+    6, Nauplius of _Artemia salina_.]
+
+  A character which recurs in the most diverse groups of the Crustacea,
+  and which is probably to be regarded as a primitive attribute of the
+  class, is the possession of a carapace or shell, arising as a dorsal
+  fold of the integument from the posterior margin of the head-region.
+  In its most primitive form, as seen in the _Apodidae_ (fig. 5, 3) and
+  in _Nebalia_ (fig. 5, 2), this shell-fold remains free from the trunk,
+  which it envelops more or less completely. It may assume the form of a
+  bivalve shell entirely enclosing the body and limbs, as in many
+  Phyllopoda (fig. 6) and in the Ostracoda. In the Cirripedia it forms
+  a fleshy "mantle" strengthened by shelly plates or valves which may
+  assume a very complex structure. In many cases, however, the
+  shell-fold coalesces with some of the succeeding somites. In the
+  Decapoda (fig. 3), this coalescence affects only the dorsal region of
+  the thoracic somites, and the lateral portions of the carapace
+  overhang on each side, enclosing a pair of chambers within which lie
+  the gills. The arrangement is similar in Schizopoda and Stomatopoda
+  (fig. 7), except that the coalescence does not usually involve the
+  posterior thoracic somites, several of which remain free, though they
+  may be overlapped by the carapace.
+
+  [Illustration: From Morse's _Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 6.--_Estheria_, sp.; D from Dubuque, Iowa; (e) the eye. L from
+  Lynn, Massachusetts (nat. size). S presents a highly magnified section
+  of one of the valves to show the successive moults. B an enlarged
+  portion of the edge of the shell along the back, showing the overlap
+  of each growth.]
+
+  In the Isopoda and Amphipoda, where, as a rule, all the thoracic
+  somites except the first are distinct (fig. 4), there seems at first
+  sight to be no shell-fold. A comparison with the related Tanaidacea
+  (fig. 8) and Cumacea (or Sympoda), however, leads to the conclusion
+  that the coalescence of the first thoracic somite with the cephalon
+  really involves a vestigial shell-fold, and, indeed, traces of this
+  are said to be observed in the embryonic development of some Isopoda.
+  It seems likely that a similar explanation is to be applied to the
+  coalescence of one or two trunk-somites with the head in the Copepoda,
+  and, if this be so, the only Crustacea remaining in which no trace of
+  a shell-fold is found in the adult are the Anostracous Phyllopoda such
+  as Branchipus (fig. 5, 5).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Squilla mantis_ (Stomatopoda), showing the
+  last four thoracic (leg-bearing) somites free from the carapace.]
+
+  _General Morphology of Appendages._--Amid the great variety of forms
+  assumed by the appendages of the Crustacea, it is possible to trace,
+  more or less plainly, the modifications of a fundamental type
+  consisting of a peduncle, the protopodite, bearing two branches, the
+  endopodite and exopodite. This simple biramous form is shown in the
+  swimming-feet of the Copepoda and Branchiura, the "cirri" of the
+  Cirripedia, and the abdominal appendages of the Malacostraca (fig. 3,
+  14). It is also found in the earliest and most primitive form of
+  larva, known as the _Nauplius_. As a rule the protopodite is composed
+  of two segments, though one may be reduced or suppressed and
+  occasionally three may be present. In many cases, one of the branches,
+  generally the endopodite, is more strongly developed than the other.
+  Thus, in the thoracic limbs of the Malacostraca, the endopodite
+  generally forms a walking-leg while the exopodite becomes a
+  swimming-branch or may disappear altogether. Very often the basal
+  segment of the protopodite bears, on the outer side, a lamellar
+  appendage (more rarely, two), the epipodite, which may function as a
+  gill. In the appendages near the mouth one or both of the protopodal
+  segments may bear inwardly-turned processes, assisting in mastication
+  and known as gnathobases. The frequent occurrence of epipodites and
+  gnathobases tends to show that the primitive type of appendage was
+  more complex than the simple biramous limb, and some authorities have
+  regarded the leaf-like appendages of the Phyllopoda as nearer the
+  original form from which the various modifications found in other
+  groups have been derived. In a Phyllopod such as _Apus_ the limbs of
+  the trunk consist of a flattened, unsegmented or obscurely segmented
+  axis or corm having a series of lobes or processes known as endites
+  and exites on its inner and outer margins respectively. In all the
+  Phyllopoda the number of endites is six, and the proximal one is more
+  or less distinctly specialized as a gnathobase, working against its
+  fellow of the opposite side in seizing food and transferring it to the
+  mouth. The Phyllopoda are the only Crustacea in which distinct and
+  functional gnathobasic processes are found on appendages far removed
+  from the mouth. The two distal endites are regarded as corresponding
+  to the endopodite and exopodite of the higher Crustacea, the axis or
+  corm of the Phyllopod limb representing the protopodite. The number of
+  exites is less constant, but, in _Apus_, two are present, the proximal
+  branchial in function and the distal forming a stiffer plate which
+  probably aids in swimming. It is not altogether easy to recognize the
+  homologies of the endites and exites even within the order Phyllopoda,
+  and the identification of the two distal endites as corresponding to
+  the endopodite and exopodite of higher Crustacea is not free from
+  difficulty. It is highly probable, however, that the biramous limb is
+  a simplification of a more complex primitive type, to which the
+  Phyllopod limb is a more or less close approximation.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Tanais dubius_ (?) Kr. [female], showing the
+  orifice of entrance (x) into the cavity overarched by the carapace in
+  which an appendage of the maxilliped (f) plays. On four feet (i, k, l,
+  m) are the rudiments of the lamellae which subsequently form the
+  brood-cavity. (Fritz Muller.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, _Balanus_ (young), side view with cirri
+  protruded. B, Upper surface of same; valves closed. C, Highly
+  magnified view of one of the cirri. (Morse.)]
+
+  The modifications which this original type undergoes are usually more
+  or less plainly correlated with the functions which the appendages
+  have to discharge. Thus, when acting as swimming organs, the
+  appendages, or their rami, are more or less flattened, or oar-like,
+  and often have the margins fringed with long plumose hairs. When used
+  for walking, one of the rami, usually the inner, is stout and
+  cylindrical, terminating in a claw, and having the segments united by
+  definite hinge-joints. The jaws have the gnathobasic endites developed
+  at the expense of the rest of the limb, the endopodite and exopodite
+  persisting only as sensory "palps" or disappearing altogether. When
+  specialized as bearers of sensory (olfactory or tactile) organs, the
+  rami are generally elongated, many-jointed and flagelliform. This
+  modification is usually only found in the antennules and antennae, but
+  it may exceptionally be found in the appendages of the trunk, as, for
+  instance, in the thoracic legs of some Decapods (e.g.
+  _Mastigocheirus_). Very often one or other of the appendages may be
+  modified for prehension, the seizing of prey or the holding of a mate.
+  In this case, the claw-like terminal segment may be simply flexed
+  against the preceding in the same way as the blade of a penknife shuts
+  up against the handle. The penultimate segment is often broadened, so
+  that the terminal claw shuts against a transverse edge (fig. 4), or,
+  finally, the penultimate segment may be produced into a thumb-like
+  process opposed to the movable terminal segment or finger, forming a
+  perfect chela or forceps, as, for instance, in the large claws of a
+  crab or lobster. This chelate condition may be assumed by almost any
+  of the appendages, and sometimes it appears in different appendages in
+  closely related forms, so that no very great phylogenetic importance
+  can in most cases be attached to it. A peculiar modification is found
+  in the trunk-limbs of the Cirripedia (fig. 9), in which both rami are
+  multiarticulate and filiform and fringed with long bristles. When
+  protruded from the opening of the shell these "cirri" are spread out
+  to form a casting-net for the capture of minute floating prey.
+
+  Gills or branchiae may be developed by parts of an appendage becoming
+  thin-walled and vascular and either expanded into a thin lamella or
+  ramified. Some of the special modifications of branchiae are referred
+  to below.
+
+  _Special Morphology of Appendages._--In many Crustacea the eyes are
+  borne on stalks which are movably articulated with the head and which
+  may be divided into two or three segments. The view is commonly held
+  that these eye-stalks are really limbs, homologous with the other
+  appendages. In spite of much discussion, however, it cannot be said
+  that this point has been finally settled. The evidence of embryology
+  is decidedly against the view that the eye-stalks are limbs. They are
+  absent in the earliest and most primitive larval forms (nauplius),
+  and appear only late in the course of development, after many of the
+  trunk-limbs are fully formed. In the development of the Phyllopod
+  _Branchipus_, the eyes are at first sessile, and the lateral lobes of
+  the head on which they are set grow out and become movably
+  articulated, forming the peduncles. The most important evidence in
+  favour of their appendicular nature is afforded by the phenomena of
+  regeneration. When the eye-stalk is removed from a living lobster or
+  prawn, it is found that under certain conditions a many-jointed
+  appendage like the flagellum of an antennule or antenna may grow in
+  its place. It is open to question, however, how far the evidence from
+  such "heteromorphic regeneration" can be regarded as conclusive on the
+  points of homology. The fact that in certain rare cases among insects
+  a leg may apparently be replaced by a wing tends to show that under
+  exceptional conditions similar forms may be assumed by non-homologous
+  parts.
+
+  The antennules (or first antennae) are almost universally regarded as
+  true appendages, though they differ from all the other appendages in
+  the fact that they are always innervated from the "brain" (or preoral
+  ganglia), and that they are uniramous in the nauplius larva and in all
+  the Entomostracan orders. As regards their innervation an apparent
+  exception is found in the case of _Apus_, where the nerves to the
+  antennules arise, behind the brain, from the oesophageal commissures,
+  but this is, no doubt, a secondary condition, and the nerve-fibres
+  have been traced forwards to centres within the brain. In the
+  Malacostraca, the antennules are often biramous, but there is
+  considerable doubt as to whether the two branches represent the
+  endopodite and exopodite of the other limbs, and three branches are
+  found in the Stomatopoda and in some Caridea. In the great majority of
+  Crustacea the antennules are purely sensory in function and carry
+  numerous "olfactory" hairs. They may, however, be natatory as in many
+  Ostracoda and Copepoda, or prehensile, as in some Copepoda. The most
+  peculiar modification, perhaps, is that found in the Cirripedia
+  (Thyrostraca), in the larvae of which the antennules develop into
+  organs of attachment, bearing the openings of the cement-glands, and
+  becoming, in the adult, involved in the attachment of the animal to
+  its support.
+
+  The antennae (second antennae) are of special interest on account of
+  the clear evidence that, although preoral in position in all adult
+  Crustacea, they were originally postoral appendages. In the nauplius
+  larva they lie rather at the sides than in front of the mouth, and
+  their basal portion carries a hook-like masticatory process which
+  assists the similar processes of the mandibles in seizing food. In the
+  primitive Phyllopoda, and less distinctly in some other orders, the
+  nerves supplying the antennae arise, not from the brain, but from the
+  circum-oesophageal commissures, and even in those cases where the
+  nerves and the ganglia in which they are rooted have been moved
+  forwards to the brain, the transverse commissure of the ganglia can
+  still be traced, running behind the oesophagus.
+
+  The functions of the antennae are more varied than is the case with
+  the antennules. In many Entomostraca (Phyllopoda, Cladocera,
+  Ostracoda, Copepoda) they are important, and sometimes the only,
+  organs of locomotion. In some male Phyllopoda they form complex
+  "claspers" for holding the female. They are frequently organs of
+  attachment in parasitic Copepoda, and they may be completely pediform
+  in the Ostracoda. In the Malacostraca they are chiefly sensory, the
+  endopodite forming a long flagellum, while the exopodite may form a
+  lamellar "scale," probably useful as a balancer in swimming, or may
+  disappear altogether. A very curious function sometimes discharged by
+  the antennules or antennae of Decapods is that of forming a
+  respiratory siphon in sand-burrowing species.
+
+  The mandibles, like the antennae, have, in the nauplius, the form of
+  biramous swimming limbs, with a masticatory process originating from
+  the proximal part of the protopodite. This form is retained, with
+  little alteration in some adult Copepoda, where the biramous "palp"
+  still aids in locomotion. A somewhat similar structure is found also
+  in some Ostracoda. In most cases, however, the palp loses its
+  exopodite and it often disappears altogether, while the coxal segment
+  forms the body of the mandible, with a masticatory edge variously
+  armed with teeth and spines. In a few Ostracoda, by a rare exception,
+  the masticatory process is reduced or suppressed, and the palp alone
+  remains, forming a pediform appendage used in locomotion as well as in
+  the prehension of food. In parasitic blood-sucking forms the mandibles
+  often have the shape of piercing stylets, and are enclosed in a
+  tubular proboscis formed by the union of the upper lip (labrum) with
+  the lower lip (hypostome or paragnatha).
+
+  The maxillulae and maxillae (or, as they are often termed, first and
+  second maxillae) are nearly always flattened leaf-like appendages,
+  having gnathobasic lobes or endites borne by the segments of the
+  protopodite. The endopodite, when present, is unsegmented or composed
+  of few segments and forms the "palp," and outwardly-directed lobes
+  representing the exopodite and epipodites may also be present. These
+  limbs undergo great modification in the different groups. The
+  maxillulae are sometimes closely connected with the "paragnatha" or
+  lobes of the lower lip, when these are present, and it has been
+  suggested that the paragnatha are really the basal endites which have
+  become partly separated from the rest of the appendage.
+
+  The limbs of the post-cephalic series show little differentiation
+  among themselves in many Entomostraca. In the Phyllopoda they are for
+  the most part all alike, though one or two of the anterior pairs may
+  be specialized as sensory (_Apus_) or grasping (_Estheriidae_) organs.
+  In the Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) the six pairs of biramous cirriform
+  limbs differ only slightly from each other, and in many Copepoda this
+  is also the case. In other Entomostraca considerable differentiation
+  may take place, but the series is never divided into definite
+  "tagmata" or groups of similarly modified appendages. It is highly
+  characteristic of the Malacostraca, however, that the trunk-limbs are
+  divided into two sharply defined tagmata corresponding to the thoracic
+  and abdominal regions respectively, the limit between the two being
+  marked by the position of the male genital openings. The thoracic
+  limbs have the endopodites converted, as a rule, into more or less
+  efficient walking-legs, and the exopodites are often lost, while the
+  abdominal limbs more generally preserve the biramous form and are, in
+  the more primitive types, natatory. These tagmata may again be
+  subdivided into groups preserving a more or less marked individuality.
+  For example, in the Amphipoda (fig. 4) the abdominal appendages are
+  constantly divided into an anterior group of three natatory
+  "swimmerets" and a posterior group of three limbs used chiefly in
+  jumping or in burrowing. In nearly all Malacostraca the last pair of
+  abdominal appendages (uropods) differ from the others, and in the more
+  primitive groups they form, with the telson, a lamellar "tail-fan"
+  (fig. 3, T), used in springing backwards through the water. In the
+  thoracic series it is usual for one or more of the anterior pairs to
+  be pressed into the service of the mouth, forming "foot-jaws" or
+  maxillipeds. In the Decapoda three pairs are thus modified, and in the
+  Tanaidacea, Isopoda and Amphipoda only one. In the Schizopoda and
+  Cumacea the line of division is less sharp, and the varying number of
+  so-called maxillipeds recognized by different authors gives rise to
+  some confusion of terminology in systematic literature.
+
+  _Gills._--In many of the smaller Entomostraca (Copepoda and most
+  Ostracoda) no special gills are present, and respiration is carried on
+  by the general surface of the body and limbs. When present, the
+  branchiae are generally differentiations of parts of the appendages,
+  most often the epipodites, as in the Phyllopoda. In the Cirripedia,
+  however, they are vascular processes from the inner surface of the
+  mantle or shell-fold, and in some Ostracoda they are outgrowths from
+  the sides of the body. In the primitive Malacostraca the gills were
+  probably, as in the Phyllopoda and in _Nebalia_, the modified
+  epipodites of the thoracic limbs, and this is the condition found in
+  some Schizopoda. In the Cumacea and Tanaidacea only the first thoracic
+  limb has a branchial epipodite. In the Amphipoda, the gills though
+  arising from the inner side of the bases of the thoracic legs are
+  probably also epipodial in nature. In the Isopoda the respiratory
+  function has been taken over by the abdominal appendages, both rami or
+  only the inner becoming thin or flattened. In the Decapoda the
+  branchial system is more complex. The gills are inserted at the base
+  of the thoracic limbs, and lie within a pair of branchial chambers
+  covered by the carapace. Three series are distinguished,
+  _podobranchiae_, attached to the proximal segments of the appendages,
+  _pleurobranchiae_, springing from the body-wall, and an intermediate
+  series, _arthrobranchiae_, inserted on the articular membrane of the
+  joint between the limb and the body. The podobranchiae are clearly
+  epipodites, or, more correctly, parts of the epipodites, and it is
+  probable that the arthro- and pleurobranchiae are also epipodial in
+  origin and have migrated from the proximal segment of the limbs on to
+  the adjacent body-wall.
+
+  Adaptations for aerial respiration are found in some of the
+  land-crabs, where the lining membrane of the gill-chamber is beset
+  with vascular papillae and acts as a lung. In some of the terrestrial
+  Isopoda or woodlice (Oniscoidea) the abdominal appendages have
+  ramified tubular invaginations of the integument, filled with air and
+  resembling the tracheae of insects.
+
+  _Internal Structure: Alimentary System._--In almost all Crustacea the
+  food-canal runs straight through the body, except at its anterior end,
+  where it curves downwards to the ventrally-placed mouth. In a few
+  cases its course is slightly sinuous or twisted, but the only cases in
+  which it is actually coiled upon itself are found in the Cladocera of
+  the family _Lynceidae_ (_Alonidae_) and in a single
+  recently-discovered genus of Cumacea (Sympoda). As in all Arthropoda,
+  it is composed of three divisions, a fore-gut or stomodaeum,
+  ectodermal in origin and lined by an inturning of the chitinous
+  cuticle, a mid-gut formed by endoderm and without a cuticular lining,
+  and a hind-gut or proctodaeum, which, like the fore-gut, is ectodermal
+  and is lined by cuticle. The relative proportions of these three
+  divisions vary considerably, and the extreme abbreviation of the
+  mid-gut found in the common crayfish (_Astacus_) is by no means
+  typical of the class. Even in the closely-related lobster (_Homarus_)
+  the mid-gut may be 2 or 3 in. long.
+
+  In a few Entomostraca (some Phyllopoda and Ostracoda) the chitinous
+  lining of the fore-gut develops spines and hairs which help to
+  triturate and strain the food, and among the Ostracods there is
+  occasionally (_Bairdia_) a more elaborate armature of toothed plates
+  moved by muscles. It is among the Malacostraca, however, and
+  especially in the Decapoda, that the "gastric mill" reaches its
+  greatest perfection. In most Decapods the "stomach" or dilated portion
+  of the fore-gut is divided into two chambers, a large anterior
+  "cardiac" and a smaller posterior "pyloric." In the narrow opening
+  between these, three teeth (fig. 10) are set, one dorsally and one on
+  each side. These teeth are connected with a framework of movably
+  articulated ossicles developed as thickened and calcified portions of
+  the lining cuticle of the stomach and moved by special muscles in such
+  a way as to bring the three teeth together in the middle line. The
+  walls of the pyloric chamber bear a series of pads and ridges beset
+  with hairs and so disposed as to form a straining apparatus.
+
+  The mid-gut is essentially the digestive and absorptive region of the
+  alimentary canal, and its surface is, in most cases, increased by
+  pouch-like or tubular outgrowths which not only serve as glands for
+  the secretion of the digestive juices, but may also become filled by
+  the more fluid portion of the partially digested food and facilitate
+  its absorption. These outgrowths vary much in their arrangement in the
+  different groups. Most commonly there is a pair of lateral caeca,
+  which may be more or less ramified and may form a massive
+  "hepato-pancreas" or "liver."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Gastric Teeth of Crab and Lobster.
+
+    1a, Stomach of common crab, _Cancer pagurus_, laid open, showing b,
+      b, b, some of the calcareous plates inserted in its muscular coat;
+      g, g, the lateral teeth, which when in use are brought in contact
+      with the sides of the median tooth m; c, c, the muscular coat.
+    1b' and 1b", The gastric teeth enlarged to show their grinding
+      surfaces.
+    2, Gastric teeth of common lobster, _Homarus vulgaris_.
+    3a and 3b, Two crustacean teeth (of _Dithyrocaris_) from the
+      Carboniferous series of Renfrewshire (these, however, may be the
+      toothed edges of the mandibles).]
+
+  The whole length of the alimentary canal is provided, as a rule, with
+  muscular fibres, both circular and longitudinal, running in its walls,
+  and, in addition, there may be muscle-bands running between the gut
+  and the body-wall. In the region of the oesophagus these muscles are
+  more strongly developed to perform the movements of deglutition, and,
+  where a gastric mill is present, both intrinsic and extrinsic muscles
+  co-operate in producing the movements of its various parts. The
+  hind-gut is also provided with sphincter and dilator muscles, and
+  these may produce rhythmic expansion and contraction, causing an
+  inflow and outflow of water through the anus, which has been supposed
+  to aid in respiration.
+
+  In the parasitic Rhizocephala and in a few Copepoda (_Monstrillidae_)
+  the alimentary canal is absent or vestigial throughout life.
+
+  _Circulatory System._--As in the other Arthropoda, the circulatory
+  system in Crustacea is largely lacunar, the blood flowing in spaces or
+  channels without definite walls. These spaces make up the apparent
+  body-cavity, the true body-cavity or coelom having been, for the most
+  part, obliterated by the great expansion of the blood-containing
+  spaces. The heart is of the usual Arthropodous type, lying in a more
+  or less well-defined pericardial blood-sinus, with which it
+  communicates by valvular openings or ostia. In the details of the
+  system, however, great differences exist within the limits of the
+  class. There is every reason to believe that, in the primitive
+  Arthropoda, the heart was tubular in form, extending the whole length
+  of the body, and having a pair of ostia in each somite. This
+  arrangement is retained in some of the Phyllopoda, but even in that
+  group a progressive abbreviation of the heart, with a diminution in
+  the number of the ostia, can be traced, leading to the condition found
+  in the closely related Cladocera, where the heart is a subglobular
+  sac, with only a single pair of ostia. In the Malacostraca, an
+  elongated heart with numerous segmentally arranged ostia is found only
+  in the aberrant group of Stomatopoda and in the transitional
+  Phyllocarida. In the other Malacostraca the heart is generally
+  abbreviated, and even where, as in the Amphipoda, it is elongated and
+  tubular, the ostia are restricted in number, three pairs only being
+  usually present. In many Entomostraca the heart is absent, and it is
+  impossible to speak of a "circulation" in the proper sense of the
+  term, the blood being merely driven hither and thither by the
+  movements of the body and limbs and of the alimentary canal.
+
+  A very remarkable condition of the blood-system, unique, as far as is
+  yet known among the Arthropoda, is found in a few genera of parasitic
+  Copepoda (_Lernanthropus_, _Mytilicola_). In these there is a closed
+  system of vessels, not communicating with the body-cavity, and
+  containing a coloured fluid. There is no heart. The morphological
+  nature of this system is unknown.
+
+  _Excretory System._--The most important excretory or renal organs of
+  the Crustacea are two pairs of glands lying at the base of the
+  antennae and of the second maxillae respectively. The two are probably
+  never functional together in the same animal, though one may replace
+  the other in the course of development. Thus, in the Phyllopoda, the
+  antennal gland develops early and is functional during a great part of
+  the larval life, but it ultimately atrophies, and in the adult (as in
+  most Entomostraca) the maxillary gland is the functional excretory
+  organ. In the Decapoda, where the antennal gland alone is
+  well-developed in the adult, the maxillary gland sometimes precedes it
+  in the larva. The structure of both glands is essentially the same.
+  There is a more or less convoluted tube with glandular walls connected
+  internally with a closed "end-sac" and opening to the exterior by
+  means of a thin-walled duct. Development shows that the glandular tube
+  is mesoblastic in origin and is of the nature of a coelomoduct, while
+  the end-sac is to be regarded as a vestigial portion of the coelom. In
+  the Branchiopoda the maxillary gland is lodged in the thickness of the
+  shell-fold (when this is present), and, from this circumstance, it
+  often receives the somewhat misleading name of "shell-gland." In the
+  Decapoda the antennal gland is largely developed and is known as the
+  "green gland." The external duct of this gland is often dilated into a
+  bladder, and may sometimes send out diverticula, forming a complex
+  system of sinuses ramifying through the body. The green gland and the
+  structures associated with it in Decapods were at one time regarded as
+  constituting an auditory apparatus.
+
+  In addition to these two pairs of glands, which are in all probability
+  the survivors of a series of segmentally arranged coelomoducts present
+  in the primitive Arthropoda, other excretory organs have been
+  described in various Crustacea. Although the excretory function of
+  these has been demonstrated by physiological methods, however, their
+  morphological relations are not clear. In some cases they consist of
+  masses of mesodermal cells, within which the excretory products appear
+  to be stored up instead of being expelled from the body.
+
+  _Nervous System._--The central nervous system is constructed on the
+  same general plan as in the other Arthropoda, consisting of a
+  supra-oesophageal ganglionic mass or brain, united by
+  circum-oesophageal connectives with a double ventral chain of
+  segmentally arranged ganglia. In the primitive Phyllopoda the ventral
+  chain retains the ladder-like arrangement found in some Annelids and
+  lower worms, the two halves being widely separated and the pairs of
+  ganglia connected together across the middle line by double transverse
+  commissures. In the higher groups the two halves of the chain are more
+  or less closely approximated and coalesced, and, in addition, a
+  concentration of the ganglia in a longitudinal direction takes place,
+  leading ultimately, in many cases, to the formation of an unsegmented
+  ganglionic mass representing the whole of the ventral chain. This is
+  seen, for example, in the Brachyura among the Decapoda. The brain, or
+  supra-oesophageal ganglion, shows various degrees of complexity. In
+  the Phyllopoda it consists mainly of two pairs of ganglionic centres,
+  giving origin respectively to the optic and antennular nerves. The
+  centres for the antennal nerves form ganglionic swellings on the
+  oesophageal connectives. In the higher forms, as already mentioned,
+  the antennal ganglia have become shifted forwards and coalesced with
+  the brain. In the higher Decapoda, numerous additional centres are
+  developed in the brain and its structure becomes extremely complex.
+
+  _Eyes._--The eyes of Crustacea are of two kinds, the unpaired, median
+  or "nauplius" eye, and the paired compound eyes. The former is
+  generally present in the earliest larval stages (nauplius), and in
+  some Entomostraca (e.g. Copepoda) it forms the sole organ of vision in
+  the adult. In the Malacostraca it is absent in the adult, or persists
+  only in a vestigial condition, as in some Decapoda and Schizopoda. It
+  is typically tripartite, consisting of three cup-shaped masses of
+  pigment, the cavity of each cup being filled with columnar retinal
+  cells. At their inner ends (towards the pigment) these cells contain
+  rod-like structures, while their outer ends are connected with the
+  nerve-fibres. In some cases three separate nerves arise from the front
+  of the brain, one going to each of the three divisions of the eye. In
+  the Copepoda the median eye may undergo considerable elaboration, and
+  refracting lenses and other accessory structures may be developed in
+  connexion with it.
+
+  The compound eyes are very similar in the details of their structure
+  (see ARTHROPODA) to those of insects (Hexapoda). They consist of a
+  varying number of ommatidia or visual elements, covered by a
+  transparent region of the external cuticle forming the cornea. In most
+  cases this cornea is divided into lenticular facets corresponding to
+  the underlying ommatidia.
+
+  As has been already stated, the compound eyes are often set on movable
+  peduncles. It is probable that this is the primitive condition from
+  which the sessile eyes of other forms have been derived. In the
+  Malacostraca the sessile eyed groups are certainly less primitive than
+  some of those with stalked eyes, and among the Entomostraca also there
+  is some evidence pointing in the same direction.
+
+  Although typically paired, the compound eyes may occasionally coalesce
+  in the middle line into a single organ. This is the case in the
+  Cladocera, the Cumacea and a few Amphipoda.
+
+  Mention should also be made of the partial or complete atrophy of the
+  eyes in many Crustacea which live in darkness, either in the deep sea
+  or in subterranean habitats. In these cases the peduncles may persist
+  and may even be modified into spinous organs of defence.
+
+  _Other Sense-Organs._--As in Arthropoda, the hairs or setae on the
+  surface of the body are important organs of sense and are variously
+  modified for special sensory functions. Many, perhaps all, of them
+  are tactile. They are movably articulated at the base where they are
+  inserted in pits formed by a thinning away of the cuticle, and each is
+  supplied by a nerve-fibril. When feathered or provided with secondary
+  barbs the setae will respond to movements or vibrations in the
+  surrounding water, and have been supposed to have an auditory
+  function. In certain divisions of the Malacostraca more specialized
+  organs are found which have been regarded as auditory. In the majority
+  of the Decapoda there is a saccular invagination of the integument in
+  the basal segment of the antennular peduncle having on its inner
+  surface "auditory" setae of the type just described. The sac is open
+  to the exterior in most of the Macrura, but completely closed in the
+  Brachyura. In the former case it contains numerous grains of sand
+  which are introduced by the animal itself after each moult and which
+  are supposed to act as otoliths. Where the sac is completely closed it
+  generally contains no solid particles, but in a few Macrura a single
+  otolith secreted by the walls of the sac is present. In the _Mysidae_
+  among the Schizopoda a pair of similar otocysts are found in the
+  endopodites of the last pair of appendages (uropods). These contain
+  each a single concretionary otolith.
+
+  Recent observations, however, make it very doubtful whether aquatic
+  Crustacea can hear at all, in the proper sense of the term, and it has
+  been shown that one function, at least, of the so-called otocysts is
+  connected with the equilibration of the body. They are more properly
+  termed statocysts.
+
+  Another modification of sensory setae is supposed to be associated
+  with the sense of smell. In nearly all Crustacea the antennules and
+  often also the antennae bear groups of hair-like filaments in which
+  the chitinous cuticle is extremely delicate and which do not taper to
+  a point but end bluntly. These are known as olfactory filaments or
+  aesthetascs. They are very often more strongly developed in the male
+  sex, and are supposed to guide the males in pursuit of the females.
+
+  _Glands._--In addition to the digestive and excretory glands already
+  mentioned, various glandular structures occur in the different groups
+  of Crustacea. The most important of these belong to the category of
+  dermal glands, and may be scattered over the surface of the body and
+  limbs, or grouped at certain points for the discharge of special
+  functions. Such glands occurring on the upper and lower lips or on the
+  walls of the oesophagus have been regarded as salivary. In some
+  Amphipoda the secretion of glands on the body and limbs is used in the
+  construction of tubular cases in which the animals live. In some
+  freshwater Copepoda the secretion of the dermal glands forms a
+  gelatinous envelope, by means of which the animals are able to survive
+  desiccation. In certain Copepoda and Ostracoda glands of the same type
+  produce a phosphorescent substance, and others, in certain Amphipoda
+  and Branchiura, are believed to have a poisonous function. Possibly
+  related to the same group of structures are the greatly-developed
+  cement-glands of the Cirripedia, which serve to attach the animals to
+  their support.
+
+  _Phosphorescent Organs._--Many Crustacea belonging to very different
+  groups (Ostracoda, Copepoda, Schizopoda, Decapoda) possess the power
+  of emitting light. In the Ostracoda and Copepoda the phosphorescence,
+  as already mentioned, is due to glands which produce a luminous
+  secretion, and this is the case also in certain members of the
+  Schizopoda and Decapoda. In other cases in the last two groups,
+  however, the light-producing organs found on the body and limbs have a
+  complex and remarkable structure, and were formerly described as
+  accessory eyes. Each consists of a globular capsule pierced at one or
+  two points for the entrance of nerves which end in a central
+  cup-shaped "striated body." This body appears to be the source of
+  light, and has behind it a reflector formed of concentric lamellae,
+  while, in front, in some cases, there is a refracting lens. The whole
+  organ can be rotated by special muscles. Organs of this type are best
+  known in the _Euphausiidae_ among the Schizopoda, but a modified form
+  is found in some of the lower Decapods.
+
+  _Reproductive System._--In the great majority of Crustacea the sexes
+  are separate. Apart from certain doubtful and possibly abnormal
+  instances among Phyllopoda and Amphipoda, the only exceptions are the
+  sessile Cirripedia and some parasitic Isopoda (_Cymothoidae_), where
+  hermaphroditism is the rule. Parthenogenesis is prevalent in the
+  Branchiopoda and Ostracoda, often in more or less definite seasonal
+  alternation with sexual reproduction. Where the sexes are distinct, a
+  more or less marked dimorphism often exists. The male is very often
+  provided with clasping organs for seizing the female. These may be
+  formed by the modification of almost any of the appendages, often the
+  antennules or antennae or some of the thoracic limbs, or even the
+  mandibular palps (some Ostracoda). In addition, some of the appendages
+  in the neighbourhood of the genital apertures may be modified for the
+  purpose of transferring the genital products to the female, as, for
+  instance, the first and second abdominal limbs in the Decapoda. In the
+  higher Decapoda the male is generally larger than the female and has
+  stronger chelae. On the other hand, in other groups the male is often
+  smaller than the female. In the parasitic Copepoda and Isopoda the
+  disparity in size is carried to an extreme degree, and the minute male
+  is attached, like a parasite, to the enormously larger female.
+
+  The Cirripedia present some examples of sexual relationships which are
+  only paralleled, in the animal kingdom, among the parasitic
+  Myzostomida. While the great majority are simple hermaphrodites,
+  capable of cross and self fertilization, it was discovered by Darwin
+  that, in certain species, minute degraded males exist, attached within
+  the mantle-cavity of the ordinary individuals. Since these dwarf males
+  pair, not with females, but with hermaphrodites, Darwin termed them
+  "complemental" males. In other species the large individuals have
+  become purely female by atrophy of the male organs, and are entirely
+  dependent on the dwarf males for fertilization. In spite of the
+  opinion of some distinguished zoologists to the contrary, it seems
+  most probable that the separation of the sexes is in this case a
+  secondary condition, derived from hermaphroditism through the
+  intermediate stage represented by the species having complemental
+  males.
+
+  The gonads, as in other Arthropoda, are hollow saccular organs, the
+  cavity communicating with the efferent ducts. They are primitively
+  paired, but often coalesce with each other more or less completely.
+  The ducts are present only as a single pair, except in one genus of
+  parasitic Isopoda (_Hemioniscus_), where two pairs of oviducts are
+  found. Various accessory structures may be connected with the efferent
+  ducts in both sexes. The oviducts may have diverticula serving as
+  receptacles for the spermatozoa (in cases where internal impregnation
+  takes place), and may be provided with glands secreting envelopes or
+  shells around the eggs. The male ducts often have glandular walls,
+  secreting capsules or spermatophores within which the spermatozoa are
+  packed for transference to the female. The terminal part of the male
+  ducts may be protrusible and act as an intromittent organ, or this
+  function may be discharged by some of the appendages, as, for
+  instance, in the Brachyura.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Side view of Crab, the abdomen extended and
+  carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs. (After Morse.)]
+
+  The position of the genital apertures varies very greatly in the
+  different groups of the class. They are farthest forward in the case
+  of the female organs of the Cirripedia, where the openings are on the
+  first thoracic (fourth postoral) somite. The most posterior position
+  is occupied by the genital apertures of certain Phyllopoda
+  (_Polyartemia_), which lie behind the nineteenth trunk-somite. It is
+  characteristic of the Malacostraca that the position of the genital
+  apertures is constantly different in the two sexes, the female
+  openings being on the sixth, and those of the male on the eighth
+  thoracic somite.
+
+  Very few Crustacea are viviparous in the sense that the eggs are
+  retained within the body until hatching takes place (some Phyllopoda),
+  but, on the other hand, the great majority carry the eggs in some way
+  or other after their extrusion. In some Phyllopoda (_Apus_) egg-sacs
+  are formed by modification of certain of the thoracic feet. The eggs
+  are retained between the valves of the shell in some Phyllopoda and in
+  the Cladocera and Ostracoda, and they lie in the mantle cavity in the
+  Cirripedia. In the Copepoda they are agglutinated together into masses
+  attached to the body of the female. Among the Malacostraca some
+  Schizopoda, the Cumacea, Tanaidacea, Isopoda and Amphipoda (sometimes
+  grouped all together as Peracarida) have a marsupium or brood-pouch
+  formed by overlapping plates attached to the bases of some of the
+  thoracic legs. In most of the Decapoda the eggs are carried by the
+  female, attached to the abdominal appendages (fig. 11). A few cases
+  are known in which the developing embryos are nourished by a special
+  secretion while in the brood-chamber of the mother (Cladocera,
+  terrestrial Isopoda).
+
+
+  _Embryology._
+
+  The majority of the Crustacea are hatched from the egg in a form
+  differing more or less from that of the adult, and pass through a
+  series of free-swimming larval stages. There are many cases, however,
+  in which the metamorphosis is suppressed, and the newly-hatched young
+  resemble the parent in general structure. The relative size of the
+  eggs and the amount of nutritive yolk which they contain are generally
+  much greater in those forms which have a direct development.
+
+  The details of the early embryonic stages vary considerably within the
+  limits of the class. They are of interest, however, rather from the
+  point of view of general embryology than from that of the special
+  student of the Crustacea, and cannot be fully dealt with here.
+
+  Segmentation is usually of the superficial or centrolecithal type. The
+  hypoblast is formed either by a definite invagination or by the
+  immigration of isolated cells, known as vitellophags, which wander
+  through the yolk and later become associated into a definite
+  mesenteron, or by some combination of these two methods. The
+  blastopore generally occupies a position corresponding to the
+  posterior end of the body. The mesoblast of the cephalic (naupliar)
+  region probably arises in connexion with the lips of the blastopore
+  and consists of loosely-connected cells or mesenchyme. In the region
+  of the trunk, in many cases, paired mesoblastic bands are formed,
+  growing in length by the division of teloblastic cells at the
+  posterior end, and becoming segmented into somites. The existence of
+  true coelom-sacs is somewhat doubtful. The rudiments of the first
+  three pairs of appendages commonly appear simultaneously, and, even in
+  forms with embryonic development, they show differences in their mode
+  of appearance from the succeeding somites. Further, a definite
+  cuticular membrane is frequently formed and shed at this stage, which
+  corresponds to the nauplius-stage of larval development.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Nauplius of a Prawn (_Penaeus_). (Fritz
+  Muller).]
+
+  The larval metamorphoses of the Crustacea have attracted much
+  attention, and have been the subject of much discussion in view of
+  their bearing on the phylogenetic history of the group. In those
+  Crustacea in which the series of larval stages is most complete, the
+  starting-point is the form already mentioned under the name of
+  _nauplius_. The typical nauplius (fig. 12) has an oval unsegmented
+  body and three pairs of limbs corresponding to the antennules,
+  antennae and mandibles of the adult. The antennules are uniramous, the
+  others biramous, and all three pairs are used in swimming. The
+  antennae have a spiniform or hooked masticatory process at the base,
+  and share with the mandibles, which have a similar process, the
+  function of seizing and masticating the food. The mouth is overhung by
+  a large labrum or upper lip, and the integument of the dorsal surface
+  of the body forms a more or less definite dorsal shield. The paired
+  eyes are, as yet, wanting, but the unpaired eye is large and
+  conspicuous. A pair of frontal papillae or filaments, probably
+  sensory, are commonly present.
+
+  A nauplius larva differing only in details from the typical form just
+  described is found in the majority of the Phyllopoda, Copepoda and
+  Cirripedia, and in a more modified form, in some Ostracoda. Among the
+  Malacostraca the nauplius is less commonly found, but it occurs in the
+  _Euphausiidae_ among the Schizopoda and in a few of the more primitive
+  Decapoda (_Penaeidea_) (fig. 12). In most of the Crustacea which hatch
+  at a later stage there is, as already mentioned, more or less clear
+  evidence of an embryonic nauplius stage. It seems certain, therefore,
+  that the possession of a nauplius larva must be regarded as a very
+  primitive character of the Crustacean stock.
+
+  As development proceeds, the body of the nauplius elongates, and
+  indications of segmentation begin to appear in its posterior part. At
+  successive moults the somites increase in number, new somites being
+  added behind those already differentiated, from a formative zone in
+  front of the telsonic region. Very commonly the posterior end of the
+  body becomes forked, two processes growing out at the sides of the
+  anus and often persisting in the adult as the "caudal furca." The
+  appendages posterior to the mandibles appear as buds on the ventral
+  surface of the somites, and in the most primitive cases they become
+  differentiated, like the somites which bear them, in regular order
+  from before backwards. The limb-buds early become bilobed and grow out
+  into typical biramous appendages which gradually assume the characters
+  found in the adult. With the elongation of the body, the dorsal shield
+  begins to project posteriorly as a shell-fold, which may increase in
+  size to envelop more or less of the body or may disappear altogether.
+  The rudiments of the paired eyes appear under the integument at the
+  sides of the head, but only become pedunculated at a comparatively
+  late stage.
+
+  The course of development here outlined, in which the nauplius
+  gradually passes into the adult form by the successive addition of
+  somites and appendages in regular order, agrees so well with the
+  process observed in the development of the typical Annelida that we
+  must regard it as being the most primitive method. It is most closely
+  followed by the Phyllopods such as _Apus_ or _Branchipus_, and by some
+  Copepoda.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Early Stages of _Balanus_. (After Spence
+  Bate.)
+
+    A, Nauplius. e, Eye.
+    B, _Cypris_-larva with a bivalve shell and just before becoming
+      attached (represented feet upwards for comparison with E, where it
+      is attached).
+    C, After becoming attached, side views.
+    D, Later stage, viewed from above.
+    E, Side view, later stage and with cirri extended.
+
+    The dots indicate the actual size.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in its second stage.
+  (Spence Bate.)
+
+    r, Rostral spine.
+    s, Dorsal spine.
+    m, Maxillipeds.
+    t, Buds of thoracic feet.
+    a, Abdomen.]
+
+  In most Crustacea, however, this primitive scheme is more or less
+  modified. The earlier stages may be suppressed or passed through
+  within the egg (or within the maternal brood-chamber), so that the
+  larva, on hatching, has reached a stage more advanced than the
+  nauplius. Further, the gradual appearance and differentiation of the
+  successive somites and appendages may be accelerated, so that
+  comparatively great advances take place at a single moult. In the
+  Cirripedia, for example, the latest nauplius stage (fig. 13, A) gives
+  rise directly to the so-called _Cypris_-larva (fig. 13, B), differing
+  widely from the nauplius in form, and possessing all the appendages of
+  the adult. Another very common modification of the primitive method of
+  development is found in the accelerated appearance of certain somites
+  or appendages, disturbing the regular order of development. This
+  modification is especially found in the Malacostraca. Even in those
+  which have most fully retained the primitive order of development, as
+  in the _Penaeidea_ and _Euphausiidae_, the last pair of abdominal
+  appendages make their appearance in advance of those immediately in
+  front of them. The same process, carried further, leads to the very
+  peculiar larva known as the _Zoea_, in the typical form of which,
+  found in the Brachyura (fig. 14), the posterior five or six thoracic
+  somites have their development greatly retarded, and are still
+  represented by a short unsegmented region of the body at a time when
+  the abdominal somites are fully formed and even carry appendages. The
+  _Zoea_ was formerly regarded as a recapitulation of an ancestral form,
+  but there can be no doubt that its peculiarities are the result of
+  secondary modification. It is most typically developed in the most
+  specialized Decapoda, the Brachyura, while the more primitive groups
+  of Malacostraca, the _Euphausiidae_, _Penaeidea_ and Stomatopoda,
+  retain the primitive order of appearance of the somites, and, for the
+  most part, of the limbs. At the same time, the tendency to a
+  retardation in the development of the posterior thoracic somites is
+  very general in Malacostracan larvae, and may perhaps be correlated
+  with the fact that in the primitive Phyllocarida the whole thoracic
+  region is very short and the limbs closely crowded together.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Nauplius of _Tetraclita porosa_ after the
+  first moult.
+
+  (Fritz Muller.)]
+
+  Besides the nauplius and the zoea there are many other types of
+  Crustacean larvae, distinguished by special names, though, as their
+  occurrence is restricted within the limits of the smaller systematic
+  groups, they are of less general interest. We need only mention the
+  _Mysis_-stage (better termed Schizopod-stage) found in many Macrura
+  (as, for example, the lobster), which differs from the adult in having
+  large natatory exopodites on the thoracic legs.
+
+  Most of the larval forms swim freely at the surface of the sea, and
+  many show special adaptations to this habit of life. As in many other
+  "pelagic" organisms, spines and processes from the surface of the body
+  are often developed, which are probably less important as defensive
+  organs than as aids to flotation. This is well seen in the nauplius of
+  many Cirripedia (fig. 15) and in nearly all zoeae. Perhaps the most
+  striking example is the zoea-like larva of the _Sergestidae_, known as
+  _Elaphocaris_, which has an extraordinary armature of ramified spines.
+  The same purpose is probably served by the extreme flattening of the
+  body in the membranous _Phyllosoma_-larva of the rock-lobsters and
+  their allies (Loricata).
+
+
+_Past History._
+
+Although fossil remains of Crustacea are abundant, from the most ancient
+fossiliferous rocks down to the most recent, their study has hitherto
+contributed little to a precise knowledge of the phylogenetic history of
+the class. This is partly due to the fact that many important forms must
+have escaped fossilization altogether owing to their small size and
+delicate structure, while very many of those actually preserved are
+known only from the carapace or shell, the limbs being absent or
+represented only by indecipherable fragments. Further, many important
+groups were already differentiated when the geological record began. The
+Phyllopoda, Ostracoda and Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) are represented in
+Cambrian or Silurian rocks by forms which seem to have resembled closely
+those now existing, so that palaeontology can have little light to throw
+on the mode of origin of these groups. With the Malacostraca the case is
+little better. There is considerable reason for believing that the
+_Ceratiocaridae_, which are found from the Cambrian onwards, were allied
+to the existing _Nebalia_, and may possibly include the forerunners of
+the true Malacostraca, but nothing is definitely known of their
+appendages. In Palaeozoic formations, from the Upper Devonian onwards,
+numbers of shrimp-like forms are found which have been referred to the
+Schizopoda and the Decapoda, but here again the scanty information which
+may be gleaned as to the structure of the limbs rarely permits of
+definite conclusions as to their affinities. The recent discovery in the
+Tasmanian "schizopod" _Anaspides_, of what is believed to be a living
+representative of the Carboniferous and Permian _Syncarida_, has,
+however, afforded a clue to the affinities of some of these
+problematical forms.
+
+True Decapods are first met with in Mesozoic rocks, the first to appear
+being the _Penaeidea_, a primitive group comprising the _Penaeidae_ and
+_Sergestidae_, which occur in the Jurassic and perhaps in the Trias.
+Some of the earliest are referred to the existing genus _Penaeus_. The
+Stenopidea, another primitive group, differing from the Penaeidea in the
+character of the gills, appear in the Trias and Jurassic. The Caridea or
+true prawns and shrimps appear later, in the Upper Jurassic, some of
+them presenting primitive characteristics in the retention of swimming
+exopodites on the walking-legs. The Eryonidea (fig. 16, 3), a group
+related to the Loricata but of a more generalized type, are specially
+interesting since the few existing deep-sea forms appear to be only
+surviving remnants of what was, in the Mesozoic period, a dominant
+group. The Mesozoic _Glyphaeidae_ have been supposed to stand in the
+direct line of descent of the modern rock-lobsters and their allies
+(Loricata). Some of the Loricata have persisted with little change from
+the Cretaceous period to the present day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.
+
+  1, _Dromilites Lamarckii_, Desm.; London Clay, Sheppey.
+  2, _Palaeocorystes Stokesii_, Gault; Folkestone.
+  3, _Eryon arctiformis_, Schl.; Lithographic stone, Solenhofen.
+  4, _Mecocheirus longimanus_, Schl.; Lithographic stone, Solenhofen.
+  5, _Cypridea tuberculata_, Sby.; (Ostracoda); Weald, Sussex.
+  6, _Loricula pulchella_, Sby (Cirripedia); L. Chalk, Sussex.]
+
+The Anomura are hardly known as fossils. The Brachyura, on the other
+hand, are well represented (fig 16, 1, 2). The earliest forms, from the
+Lower Oolite and later, belonging chiefly to the extinct family
+_Prosoponidae_, have been shown to have close relations with the most
+generalized of existing Brachyura, the deep-sea _Homolodromiidae_, and
+to link the Brachyura to the Homarine (lobster-like) Macrura.
+
+A few Isopoda are known from Secondary rocks, but their systematic
+position is doubtful and they throw no light on the evolution of the
+group. The Amphipoda are not definitely known to occur till Tertiary
+times. Stomatopoda of a very modern-looking type, and even their larvae,
+occur in Jurassic rocks.
+
+In the dearth of trustworthy evidence as to the actual forerunners of
+existing Crustacea, we are compelled to rely wholly on the data afforded
+by comparative anatomy and embryology in attempting to reconstruct the
+probable phylogeny of the class. It is unnecessary to insist on the
+purely speculative character of the conclusions to be reached in this
+way, so long as they cannot be checked by the results of palaeontology,
+but, when this is recognized, such speculation is not only legitimate
+but necessary as a basis on which to build a natural classification.
+
+The first attempts to reconstruct the genealogical history of the
+Crustacea started from the assumption that the "theory of
+recapitulation" could be applied to their larval history. The various
+larval forms, especially the nauplius and zoea, were supposed to
+reproduce, more or less closely, the actual structure of ancestral
+types. So far as the zoea was concerned, this assumption was soon shown
+to be erroneous, and the secondary nature of this type of larva is now
+generally admitted. As regards the nauplius, however, the constancy of
+its general character in the most widely diverse groups of Crustacea
+strongly suggests that it is a very ancient type, and the view has been
+advocated that the Crustacea must have arisen from an unsegmented
+nauplius-like ancestor.
+
+The objections to this view, however, are considerable. The resemblances
+between the Crustacea and the Annelid worms, in such characters as the
+structure of the nervous system and the mode of growth of the somites,
+can hardly be ignored. Several structures which must be attributed, to
+the common stock of the Crustacea, such as the paired eyes and the
+shell-fold, are not present in the nauplius. The opinion now most
+generally held is that the primitive Crustacean type is most nearly
+approached by certain Phyllopods such as _Apus_. The large number and
+the uniformity of the trunk somites and their appendages, and the
+structure of the nervous system and of the heart in _Apus_, are
+Annelidan characters which can hardly be without significance. It is
+probable also, as already mentioned, that the leaf-like appendages of
+the Phyllopoda are of a primitive type, and attempts have been made to
+refer their structure to that of the Annelid parapodium. In many
+respects, however, the Phyllopoda, and especially _Apus_, have diverged
+considerably from the primitive Crustacean type. All the cephalic
+appendages are much reduced, the mandibles have no palps, and the
+maxillulae are vestigial. In these respects some of the Copepoda have
+retained characters which we must regard as much more primitive. In
+those Copepods in which the palps of the mandibles as well as the
+antennae are biramous and natatory, the first three pairs of appendages
+retain throughout life, with little modification, the shape and function
+which they have in the nauplius stage, and must, in all likelihood, be
+regarded as approximating to those of the primitive Crustacea. In other
+respects, however, such as the absence of paired eyes and of a
+shell-fold, as well as in the characters of the post-oral limbs, the
+Copepoda are undoubtedly specialized.
+
+In order to reconstruct the hypothetical ancestral Crustacean,
+therefore, it is necessary to combine the characters of several of the
+existing groups. It may be supposed to have approximated, in general
+form, to _Apus_, with an elongated body composed of numerous similar
+somites and terminating in a caudal furca; with the post-oral appendages
+all similar and all bearing gnathobasic processes; and with a carapace
+originating as a shell-fold from the maxillary somite. The eyes were
+probably stalked, the antennae and mandibles biramous and natatory, and
+both armed with masticatory processes. It is likely that the trunk-limbs
+were also biramous, with additional endites and exites. Whether any of
+the obscure fossils generally referred to the Phyllopoda or Phyllocarida
+may have approximated to this hypothetical form it is impossible to say.
+It is to be noted, however, that the Trilobita, which, according to the
+classification here adopted, are dealt with under Arachnida, are not
+very far removed, except in such characters as the absence of a
+shell-fold and of eye-stalks, from the primitive Crustacean here
+sketched.
+
+On this view, the nauplius, while no longer regarded as reproducing an
+ancestral type, does not altogether lose its phylogenetic significance.
+It is an ancestral _larval_ form, corresponding perhaps to the stages
+immediately succeeding the trochophore in the development of Annelids,
+but with some of the later-acquired Crustacean characters superposed
+upon it. While little importance is to be given to such characters as
+the unsegmented body, the small number of limbs and the absence of a
+shell-fold and of paired eyes, it has, on the other hand, preserved
+archaic features in the form of the limbs and the masticatory function
+of the antenna.
+
+The probable course of evolution of the different groups of Crustacea
+from this hypothetical ancestral form can only be touched on here. The
+Phyllopoda must have branched off very early and from them to the
+Cladocera the way is clear. The Ostracoda might have been derived from
+the same stock were it not that they retain the mandibular palp which
+all the Phyllopods have lost. The Copepoda must have separated
+themselves very early, though perhaps some of their characters may be
+persistently larval rather than phylogenetically primitive. The
+Cirripedia are so specialized both as larvae and as adults that it is
+hard to say in what direction their origin is to be sought.
+
+For the Malacostraca, it is generally admitted that the Leptostraca
+(_Nebalia_, &c.) provide a connecting-link with the base of the
+Phyllopod stem. Nearest to them come the Schizopoda, a primitive group
+from which two lines of descent can be traced, the one leading from the
+Mysidacea (_Mysidae_ + _Lophogastridae_) to the Cumacea and the
+sessile-eyed groups Isopoda and Amphipoda, the other from the
+Euphausiacea (_Euphausiidae_) to the Decapoda.
+
+
+_Classification._
+
+The modern classification of Crustacea may be said to have been founded
+by P. A. Latreille, who, in the beginning of the 19th century, divided
+the class into Entomostraca and Malacostraca. The latter division,
+characterized by the possession of 19 somites and pairs of appendages
+(apart from the eyes), by the division of the appendages into two
+tagmata corresponding to cephalothorax and abdomen, and by the constancy
+in position of the generative apertures, differing in the two sexes, is
+unquestionably a natural group. The Entomostraca, however, are certainly
+a heterogeneous assemblage, defined only by negative characters, and the
+name is retained only for the sake of convenience, just as it is often
+useful to speak of a still more heterogeneous and unnatural assemblage
+of animals as Invertebrata. The barnacles and their allies, forming the
+group Cirripedia or Thyrostraca, sometimes treated as a separate
+sub-class, are distinguished by being sessile in the adult state, the
+larval antennules serving as organs of attachment, and the antennae
+being lost. An account of them will be found in the article THYROSTRACA.
+The remaining groups are dealt with under the headings ENTOMOSTRACA and
+MALACOSTRACA, the annectent group Leptostraca being included in the
+former.
+
+It may be useful to give here a synopsis of the classification adopted
+in this encyclopaedia, noting that, for convenience of treatment, it has
+been thought necessary to adopt a grouping not always expressive of the
+most recent views of affinity.
+
+  Class _Crustacea_.
+    Sub-class _Entomostraca_.
+        Order _Branchiopoda_.
+          Sub-orders _Phyllopoda_.
+                     _Cladocera_.
+                     _Branchiura_.
+        Orders _Ostracoda_.
+               _Copepoda_.
+    Sub-classses _Thyrostraca_ (_Cirripedia_).
+                 _Leptostraca_.
+                 _Malacostraca_.
+        Order _Decapoda_.
+          Sub-orders _Brachyura_.
+                     _Macrura_.
+        Orders _Schizopoda_ (including _Anaspides_).
+               _Stomatopoda_.
+               _Sympoda_ (Cumacea).
+               _Isopoda_ (including _Tanaidacea_).
+               _Amphipoda_.
+
+     (W. T. Ca.)
+
+
+
+
+CRUSTUMERIUM, an ancient town of Latium, on the edge of the Sabine
+territory, near the headwaters of the Allia, not far from the Tiber. It
+appears several times in the early history of Rome, but was conquered in
+500 B.C. according to Livy ii. 19, the _tribus Crustumina_ [or
+_Clustumina_] being formed in 471 B.C. Pliny mentions it among the lost
+cities of Latium, but the name clung to the district, the fertility of
+which remained famous. No remains of it exist, and its exact site is
+uncertain.
+
+  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 50.
+
+
+
+
+CRUVEILHIER, JEAN (1791-1874), French anatomist, was born at Limoges in
+1791, and was educated at the university of Paris, where in 1825 he
+became professor of anatomy. In 1836 he became the first occupant of the
+recently founded chair of pathological anatomy. He died at Jussac in
+1874. His chief works are _Anatomie descriptive_ (1834-1836); _Anatomie
+pathologique du corps humain_ (1829-1842), with many coloured plates;
+_Traite d'anatomie pathologique generale_ (1849-1864); _Anatomie du
+systeme nerveux de l'homme_ (1845); _Traite d'anatomie descriptive_
+(1851).
+
+
+
+
+CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA (1731-1799), Portuguese heroic-comic
+poet, was the son of a Lisbon carpenter who emigrated to Brazil shortly
+before the poet's birth, leaving his wife to support and educate her
+young family by the earnings of her needle. Diniz studied Latin and
+philosophy with the Oratorians, and in 1747 matriculated at Coimbra
+University, where he wrote his first versus about 1750. In 1753 he took
+his degree in law, and returning to the capital, devoted much of the
+next six years to literary work. In 1756 he became one of the founders
+and drew up the statues of the _Arcadia Lusitana_, a literary society
+whose aims were the instruction of its members, the cultivation of the
+art of poetry, and the restoration of good taste. The fault was not his
+if these ends were not attained, for, taking contemporary French authors
+as his models, he contributed much, both in prose and verse, to its
+proceedings, until he left in February 1760 to take up the position of
+_juiz de fora_ at Castello de Vide. On returning to Lisbon for a short
+visit, he found the _Arcadia_ a prey to the internal dissensions that
+caused its dissolution in 1774, but succeeded in composing them and in
+1764 he went to Elvas to act as auditor of one of the regiments
+stationed there. During a ten years' residence, his wide reading and
+witty conversation gained him the friendship of the governor of that
+fortress and the admiration of a circle comprising all that was
+cultivated in Elvas. As in most cathedral and garrison towns, the
+clerical and military elements dominated society, and here were mutually
+antagonistic, because of the enmity between their respective leaders,
+the bishop and the governor. Moreover, Elvas, being a remote provincial
+centre, abounded in curious and grotesque types. Diniz, who was a keen
+observer, noted these, and, treasuring them in his memory, reproduced
+them, with their vanities, intrigues and ignorance, in his masterpiece,
+_Hyssope_. In 1768 a quarrel arose between the bishop, a proud,
+pretentious prelate, and the dean, as to the right of the former to
+receive holy water from the latter at a private side door of the
+cathedral, instead of at the principal entrance. The matter being one of
+principle, neither party would yield what he considered his rights, and
+it led to a lawsuit, and divided the town into two sections, which
+eagerly debated the arguments on both sides and enjoyed the ridiculous
+incidents which accompanied the dispute. Ultimately the dean died, and
+was succeeded by his nephew, who appealed to the crown with success and
+the bishop lost his pretension. The _Hyssope_ arose out of and deals
+with this affair. It was dictated in seventeen days, in the years
+1770-1772, and, in its final redaction, consists of eight cantos of
+blank verse. The pressure of absolutism left open only one form of
+expression, satire, and in this poem Diniz produced an original work
+which ridicules the clergy and the prevailing Gallomania, and contains
+episodes full of humour. It has been compared with Boileau's _Lutrin_,
+because both are founded on a petty ecclesiastical quarrel, but here the
+resemblance ends, and the poem of Diniz is the superior in everything
+except matrification.
+
+Returning to Lisbon in 1774, Diniz endeavoured once more to resuscitate
+the _Arcadia_, but his long absence had withdrawn its chief support, its
+most talented members Garcao (q.v.) and Quita were no more, and he only
+assisted at its demise. In April 1776 he was appointed _disembargador_
+of the court of Relacao in Rio de Janeiro and given the habit of Aviz.
+He lived in Brazil, devouting his leisure to a study of its natural
+history and mineralogy, until 1789, when he went back to Lisbon to take
+up the post of _disembargador_ of the Relacao of Oporto; in July 1790 he
+was promoted, and became _disembargador_ of the Casa da Supplicacao. In
+this year he was sent again to Brazil to assist in trying the leaders of
+the Republican conspiracy in Minas, in which Gonzaga (q.v.) and the
+other men of letters were involved, and in December 1792 he became
+chancellor of the Relacao in Rio. Six years later he was named
+councillor of the _Conselho Ultramarino_, but did not live to return
+home, dying in Rio on the 5th of October 1799.
+
+Diniz possessed a poetic temperament, but his love of imitating the
+classics, whose spirit he failed to understand, fettered his muse, and
+he seems never to have perceived that mythological comparisons and
+pastoral allegories were poor substitutes for the expression of natural
+feeling. The conventionalism of his art prejudiced its sincerity, and,
+inwardly cherishing the belief that poetry was unworthy of the dignity
+of a judge, he never gave his real talents a chance to display
+themselves. His Anacreontic odes, dithyrambs and idylls earned the
+admiration of contemporaries, but his Pindaric odes lack fire, his
+sonnets are weak, and his idylls have neither the truth nor the
+simplicity of Quita's work. As a rule Diniz's versification is weak and
+his verses lack harmony, though the diction is beyond cavil.
+
+  His poems were published in 6 vols. (Lisbon, 1807-1817). The best
+  edition of _Hyssope_, to which Diniz owes his lasting fame, is that of
+  J. R. Coelho (Lisbon, 1879), with an exhaustive introductory study on
+  his life and writings. A French prose version of the poem by
+  Boissonade has gone through two editions (Paris, 1828 and 1867), and
+  English translations of selections have been printed in the _Foreign
+  Quarterly Review_, and in the _Manchester Quarterly_ (April 1896).
+
+  See also Dr Theophilo Braga, _A. Arcadia Lusitana_ (Oporto, 1899).
+       (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+CRYOLITE, a mineral discovered in Greenland by the Danes in 1794, and
+found to be a compound of fluorine, sodium and aluminium. From its
+general appearance, and from the fact that it melts readily, even in a
+candle-flame, it was regarded by the Eskimos as a peculiar kind of ice;
+from this fact it acquired the name of cryolite (from Gr. [Greek:
+kryos], frost, and [Greek: lithos], stone). Cryolite occurs in
+colourless or snow-white cleavable masses, often tinted brown or red
+with iron oxide, and occasionally passing into a black variety. It is
+usually translucent, becoming nearly transparent on immersion in water.
+The mineral cleaves in three rectangular directions, and the crystals
+occasionally found in the crevices have a cubic habit, but it has been
+proved, after much discussion, that they belong to the anorthic system.
+The hardness is 2.5, and the specific gravity 3. Cryolite has the
+formula Na3AlF6, or 3NaF.AlF3, corresponding to fluorine 54.4, sodium
+32.8, and aluminium 12.8%. It colours a flame yellow, through the
+presence of sodium, and when heated with sulphuric acid it evolves
+hydrofluoric acid.
+
+Cryolite occurs almost exclusively at Ivigtut (sometimes written
+Evigtok) on the Arksut Fjord in S.W. Greenland. There it forms a large
+deposit, in a granitic vein running through gneiss, and is accompanied
+by quartz, siderite, galena, blende, chalcopyrite, &c. It is also
+associated with a group of kindred minerals, some of which are evidently
+products of alteration of the cryolite, known as pachnolite,
+thomsenolite, ralstonite, gearksutite, arksutite, &c. Cryolite likewise
+occurs, though only to a limited extent, at Miyask, in the Ilmen
+Mountains; at Pike's Peak, Colorado, and in the Yellowstone Park.
+
+Cryolite is a mineral of much economic importance. It has been
+extensively used as a source of metallic aluminium, and as a flux in
+smelting the metal. It is largely employed in the manufacture of certain
+sodium salts, as suggested by Julius Thomsen, of Copenhagen, in 1849;
+and it has been used for the production of certain kinds of porcelain
+and glass, remarkable for its toughness, and for enamelled ware.
+
+Although cryolite is known as "ice-stone" (_Eisstein_), it is not to be
+confused with "ice-spar" (_Eisspath_), which is a vitreous kind of
+felspar termed "glassy felspar" or rhyacolite.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+CRYPT (Lat. _crypta_, from the Gr. [Greek: kryptein], to hide), a vault
+or subterranean chamber, especially under churches. In classical
+phraseology "crypta" was employed for any vaulted building, either
+partially or entirely below the level of the ground. It is used for a
+sewer (_crypta Suburae_, Juvenal, _Sat._ v. 106); for the "carceres," or
+vaulted stalls for the horses and chariots in a circus (Sidon. Apoll.
+_Carm._ xxiii. 319); for the close porticoes or arcades, more fully
+known as "cryptoporticus," attached by the Romans to their suburban
+villas for the sake of coolness, and to the theatres as places of
+exercise or rehearsal for the performers (Plin. _Epist._ ii. 15, v. 6,
+vii. 21; Sueton. _Calig._ 58; Sidon. Apoll, lib. ii. epist. 2); and for
+underground receptacles for agricultural produce (Vitruv. vi. 8, Varro,
+_De re rust._ i. 57). Tunnels, or galleries excavated in the living
+rock, were also called _cryptae_. Thus the tunnel to the north of
+Naples, through which the road passes to Puteoli, familiar to tourists
+as the "Grotto of Posilipo," was originally designated _crypta
+Neapolitana_ (Seneca, Epist. 57). In early Christian times _crypta_ was
+appropriately employed for the galleries of a catacomb, or for the
+catacomb itself. Jerome calls them by this name when describing his
+visits to them as a schoolboy, and the term is used by Prudentius (see
+CATACOMBS).
+
+A crypt, as a portion of a church, had its origin in the subterranean
+chapels known as "confessiones," erected around the tomb of a martyr, or
+the place of his martyrdom. This is the origin of the spacious crypts,
+some of which may be called subterranean churches, of the Roman churches
+of S. Prisca, S. Prassede, S. Martino ai Monti, S. Lorenzo fuori le
+Mura, and above all of St Peter's--the crypt being thus the germ of the
+church or basilica subsequently erected above the hallowed spot. When
+the martyr's tomb was sunk in the surface of the ground, and not placed
+in a catacomb chapel, the original memorial-shrine would be only
+partially below the surface, and consequently the part of the church
+erected over it, which was always that containing the altar, would be
+elevated some height above the ground, and be approached by flights of
+steps. This fashion of raising the chancel or altar end of a church on a
+crypt was widely imitated long after the reason for adopting it ceased,
+and even where it never existed. The crypt under the altar at the
+basilica of St Maria Maggiore in Rome is merely imitative, and the same
+may be said of many of the crypts of the early churches in England. The
+original Saxon cathedral of Canterbury had a crypt beneath the eastern
+apse, containing the so-called body of St Dunstan, and other relics,
+"fabricated," according to Eadmer, "in the likeness of the confessionary
+of St Peter at Rome" (see BASILICA). St Wilfrid constructed crypts still
+existing beneath the churches erected by him in the latter part of the
+7th century at Hexham and Ripon. These are peculiarly interesting from
+their similarity in form and arrangement to the catacomb chapels with
+which Wilfrid must have become familiar during his residence in Rome.
+The cathedral, begun by Aethelwold and finished by Alphege at Winchester,
+at the end of the 10th century, had spacious crypts "supporting the holy
+altar and the venerable relics of the saints" (Wulstan, _Life of St
+Aethelwold_), and they appear to have been common in the earlier churches
+in England. The arrangement was adopted by the Norman builders of the
+11th and 12th centuries, and though far from universal is found in many
+of the cathedrals of that date. The object of the construction of these
+crypts was twofold,--to give the altar sufficient elevation to enable
+those below to witness the sacred mysteries, and to provide a place of
+burial for those holy men whose relics were the church's most precious
+possession. But the crypt was "a foreign fashion," derived, as has been
+said, from Rome, "which failed to take root in England, and indeed
+elsewhere barely outlasted the Romanesque period" (_Essays on
+Cathedrals_, ed. Howson, p. 331).
+
+Of the crypts beneath English Norman cathedrals, that under the choir of
+Canterbury (q.v.) is by far the largest and most elaborate in its
+arrangements. It is, in fact, a subterranean church of vast size and
+considerable altitude. The whole crypt was dedicated to the Virgin Mary,
+and contained two chapels especially dedicated to her,--the central one
+beneath the high altar, enclosed with rich Gothic screen-work, and one
+under the south transept. This latter chapel was appropriated by Queen
+Elizabeth to the use of the French Huguenot refugees who had settled at
+Canterbury in the time of Edward VI. There were also in this crypt a
+large number of altars and chapels of other saints, some of whose
+hallowed bodies were buried here. At the extreme east end, beneath the
+Trinity chapel, the body of St Thomas (Becket) was buried the day after
+his martyrdom, and lay there till his translation, July 7, 1220.
+
+The cathedrals of Winchester, Worcester and Gloucester have crypts of
+slightly earlier date (they may all be placed between 1080 and 1100),
+but of similar character, though less elaborate. They all contain
+piscinas and other evidences of the existence of altars in considerable
+numbers. They are all apsidal. The most picturesque is that of
+Worcester, the work of Bishop Wulfstan (1084), which is remarkable for
+the multiplicity of small pillars supporting its radiating vaults.
+Instead of having the air of a sepulchral vault like those of Winchester
+and Gloucester, this crypt is, in Professor Willis's words, "a complex
+and beautiful temple." Archbishop Roger's crypt at York, belonging to
+the next century (1154-1181), was filled up with earth when the present
+choir was built at the end of the 14th century, and its existence
+forgotten till its disinterment after the fire of 1829. The choir and
+presbytery at Rochester are supported by an extensive crypt, of which
+the western portion is Gundulf's work (1076-1107), but the eastern part,
+which displays slender cylindrical and octagonal shafts, with light
+vaulting springing from them, is of the same period as the
+superstructure, the first years of the 13th century. This crypt, and
+that beneath the Early English Lady chapel at Hereford, are the latest
+English existing cathedral crypts. That at Hereford was rendered
+necessary by the fall of the ground, and is an exceptional case. Later
+than any of these crypts was that of St Paul's, London. This was a
+really large and magnificent church of Decorated date, with a vaulted
+roof of rich and intricate character resting on a forest of clustered
+columns. Part of it served as the parish church of St Faith. A still
+more exquisite work of the Decorated period is the crypt of St Stephen's
+chapel at Westminster, than which it is difficult to conceive anything
+more perfect in design or more elaborate in ornamentation. Having
+happily escaped the conflagration of the Houses of Parliament in
+1834--before which it was degraded to the purpose of the speaker's state
+dining-room--it has been restored to its former sumptuousness of
+decoration, and is now one of the most beautiful architectural gems in
+England.
+
+Of Scottish cathedrals the only one that possesses a crypt is the
+cathedral of Glasgow, rendered celebrated by Sir Walter Scott in his
+novel of _Rob Roy_ (ch. xx.). At the supposed date of the tale, and
+indeed till a comparatively recent period, this crypt was used as a
+place of worship by one of the three congregations among which the
+cathedral was partitioned, and was known as "the Laigh or Barony Kirk."
+It extends beneath the choir transepts and chapter-house; in consequence
+of the steep declivity on which the cathedral stands it is of unusual
+height and lightsomeness. It belongs to the 13th century, its style
+corresponding to Early English, and is simply constructional, the
+building being adapted to the locality. In architectural beauty it is
+quite unequalled by any crypt in the United Kingdom, and can hardly
+anywhere be surpassed. It is an unusually rich example of the style, the
+clustered piers and groining being exquisite in design and admirable in
+execution. The bosses of the roof and capitals of the piers are very
+elaborate, and the doors are much enriched with foliage. "There is a
+solidity in its architecture, a richness in its vaulting, and a variety
+of perspective in the spacing of its pillars, which make it one of the
+most perfect pieces of architecture in these kingdoms" (Fergusson).
+
+In the centre of the main alley stands the mutilated effigy of St Mungo,
+the patron saint of Glasgow, and at the south-east corner is a well
+called after the same saint.
+
+Crypts under parish churches are not very uncommon in England, but they
+are usually small and not characterized by any architectural beauty. A
+few of the earlier crypts, however, deserve notice. One of the earliest
+and most remarkable is that of the church of Lastingham near Pickering
+in Yorkshire, on the site of the monastery founded in 648 by Cedd,
+bishop of the East Saxons. The existing crypt, though exceedingly rude
+in structure, is of considerably later date than Bishop Cedd, forming
+part of the church erected by Abbot Stephen of Whitby in 1080, when he
+had been driven inland by the incursions of the northern pirates. This
+crypt is remarkable from its extending under the nave as well as the
+chancel of the upper church, the plan of which it accurately reproduces,
+with the exception of the westernmost bay. It forms a nave with side
+aisles of three bays, and an apsidal chancel, lighted by narrow deeply
+splayed slits. The roof of quadripartite vaulting is supported by four
+very dwarf thick cylindrical columns, the capitals of which and of the
+responds are clumsy imitations of classical work with rude volutes.
+Still more curious is the crypt beneath the chancel of the church of
+Repton in Derbyshire. This also consists of a centre and side aisles,
+divided by three arches on either side. The architectural character,
+however, is very different from that at Lastingham, and is in some
+respects almost unique, the piers being slender, and some of them of a
+singular spiral form, with a bead running in the sunken part of the
+spiral. Another very extensive and curious Norman crypt is that beneath
+the chancel of St Peter's-in-the-East at Oxford. This is five bays in
+length, the quadripartite vaulting being supported by eight low,
+somewhat slender, cylindrical columns with capitals bearing grotesque
+animal and human subjects. Its dimensions are 36 by 20 ft. and 10 ft. in
+height. This crypt has been commonly attributed to Grymboldt in the 9th
+century; but it is really not very early Norman. Under the church of St
+Mary-le-Bow in London there is an interesting Norman crypt not very
+dissimilar in character to that last described. Of a later date is the
+remarkably fine Early English crypt groined in stone, beneath the
+chancel of Hythe in Kent, containing a remarkable collection of skulls
+and bones, the history of which is quite uncertain. There is also a
+Decorated crypt beneath the chancel at Wimborne minster, and one of the
+same date beneath the southern chancel aisle at Grantham.
+
+Among the more remarkable French crypts may be mentioned those of the
+cathedrals of Auxerre, said to date from the original foundation in
+1085; of Bayeux, attributed to Odo, bishop of that see, uterine brother
+of William the Conqueror, where twelve columns with rude capitals
+support a vaulted roof; of Chartres, running under the choir and its
+aisles, frequently assigned to Bishop Fulbert in 1029, but more probably
+coeval with the superstructure; and of Bourges, where the crypt is in
+the Pointed style, extending beneath the choir. The church of the Holy
+Trinity attached to Queen Matilda's foundation--the "Abbaye aux Dames"
+at Caen--has a Norman crypt where the thirty-four pillars are as closely
+set as those at Worcester. The church of St Eutropius at Saintes has
+also a crypt of the 11th century, of very large dimensions, which
+deserves special notice; the capitals of the columns exhibit very
+curious carvings. Earlier than any already mentioned is that of St
+Gervase of Rouen, considered by E. A. Freeman "the oldest ecclesiastical
+work to be seen north of the Alps." It is apsidal, and in its walls are
+layers of Roman brick. It is said to contain the remains of two of the
+earliest apostles of Gaul--St Mello and St Avitian. There are numerous
+crypts in Germany. One at Gottingen may be mentioned, where cylindrical
+shafts with capitals of singular design support "vaulting of great
+elegance and lightness" (Fergusson), the curves being those of a
+horseshoe arch. The crypts of the cathedrals or churches at Halberstadt,
+Hildesheim and Naumburg also deserve to be noticed; that of Lubeck may
+be rather called a lower choir. It is 20 ft. high and vaulted.
+
+The Italian crypts, when found, as a rule reproduce the "confessio" of
+the primitive churches. That beneath the chancel of S. Michele at Pavia
+is an excellent typical example, probably dating from the 10th century.
+It is apsidal and vaulted, and is seven bays in length. That at S. Zeno
+at Verona (c. 1138) is still more remarkable; its vaulted roof is
+upborne by forty columns, with curiously carved capitals. It is
+approached from the west by a double flight of steps and contains many
+ancient monuments. S. Miniato at Florence, begun in 1013, has a very
+spacious crypt at the east end, forming virtually a second choir. It is
+seven bays in length and vaulted. The most remarkable crypt in Italy,
+however, is perhaps that of St Mark's, Venice. The plan of this is
+almost a Greek cross. Four rows of nine columns each run from end to
+end, and two rows of three each occupy the arms of the cross, supporting
+low stunted arches on which rests the pavement of the church above. This
+also constitutes a lower church, containing a _chorus cantorum_ formed
+by a low stone screen, not unlike that of S. Clemente at Rome (see
+BASILICA), enclosing a massive stone altar with four low columns. This
+crypt is reasonably supposed to belong to the church founded by the doge
+P. Orseolo in 977. There are also crypts deserving notice at the
+cathedrals of Brescia, Fiesole and Modena, and the churches of S.
+Ambrogio and S. Eustorgio at Milan. The former was unfortunately
+modernized by St Charles Borromeo. The crypt at Assisi is really a
+second church at a lower level, and being built on the steep side of a
+hill is well lighted. The whole fabric is a beautiful specimen of
+Italian Gothic, and both the lower and upper churches are covered with
+rich frescoes.
+
+Domestic crypts are of frequent occurrence. Medieval houses had as a
+rule their chief rooms raised above the level of the ground upon vaulted
+substructures, which were used as cellars and storerooms. These were
+sometimes partially underground, sometimes entirely above it. The
+underground vaults often remain when all the superstructure has been
+swept away, and from their Gothic character are frequently mistaken for
+ecclesiastical buildings. The older English towns are full of crypts of
+this character, now used as cellars. They occur in Oxford and Rochester,
+are very abundant in the older parts of Bristol, and, according to J. H.
+Parker, "nearly the whole city of Chester is built upon a series of them
+with the Rows or passages made on the top of the vaults" (_Domestic
+Architecture_, iii. 91). The crypt of Gerard's Hall in London, destroyed
+in the construction of New Cannon Street, figured by Parker (_Dom.
+Arch._ ii. 185), was a beautiful example of the lower storey of the
+residence of a wealthy merchant of the time of Edward I. It was divided
+down the middle by a row of four slender cylindrical columns supporting
+a very graceful vault. The finest example of a secular crypt now
+remaining in England is that beneath the Guildhall of London. The date
+of this is early in the 15th century--1411. It is a large and lofty
+apartment, divided into four alleys by two rows of clustered shafts
+supporting a rich lierne vault with ribs of considerable intricacy.
+There is a fine vaulted crypt of the same date and of similar character
+beneath St Mary's Hall, the Guildhall of the city of Coventry. (E. V.)
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTEIA (Gr. [Greek: kryptein], to hide), a kind of secret police in
+ancient Sparta, founded, according to Aristotle, by Lycurgus; there is,
+however, no real evidence as to the date of its origin. The institution
+was under the supervision of the ephors, who, on entering office,
+annually proclaimed war against the helots (serf-class) and thus
+absolved from the guilt of murder any Spartan who should slay a helot.
+It was instituted primarily as a precaution against the ever-present
+danger of a helot revolt, and secondarily perhaps as a training for
+young Spartans, who were sent out by the ephors to keep watch on the
+helots and assassinate any who might appear dangerous. Plato (_Laws_, i.
+p. 633) emphasizes the former aspect, but there can be little doubt
+that, at all events after the revolt of 464 (see Cimon), its more
+sinister purpose was predominant, as we may gather from the secret
+massacre of 2000 helots who, on the invitation of the ephors, claimed to
+have rendered distinguished service (Thuc. iv. 80).
+
+  See HELOTS; EPHOR; also A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Gk. Const.
+  Hist._ (London, 1896); G. Gilbert, _Gk. Const. Antiq._ (Eng. trans.,
+  London, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTOBRANCHUS, a genus of thoroughly aquatic, but lung-breathing tailed
+Batrachia, of the family _Amphiumidae_, characterized by a heavy,
+flattened build, a very porous tubercular skin, with a frilled fold
+along each side, short stout limbs with four very short fingers and five
+very short toes, and minute eyes without lids. The vertebrae are
+biconcave, and although the gills are lost in the adult, ossified
+gill-arches, two to four in number, persist. A strong series of vomerine
+teeth extends across the palate. Three species of this genus are known.
+One is the well-known fossil of Oeningen first described as _Homo
+diluvii testis_ and shown by Cuvier to be nearly related to the gigantic
+salamander of Japan, _Cryptobranchus maximus_, which has since been
+found to inhabit China also; the third is the hellbender, mud-puppy or
+water-dog of North America, _C. alleghaniensis_, also known under the
+name of _Menopoma_. Both the fossil _C. scheuchzeri_ and _C. maximus_
+grow to a length of over 5 ft. and are by far the largest Urodeles
+known, whilst _C. alleghaniensis_ reaches the respectable length of 18
+in.
+
+The eggs are laid in rosary-like strings. They have been found, in
+Japan, deposited in deep holes in the water, where they form large
+clumps (70 to 80 eggs) round which the female coils herself. The
+gigantic salamander has also bred in the Amsterdam zoological gardens,
+the eggs numbering upwards of 500; the male, it is stated, took charge
+of the eggs, and for the ten weeks which elapsed before the release of
+the last larva, he kept close to them, at times crawling among the
+coiled mass of egg-strings or lifting them up, evidently for the purpose
+of aeration. The larva on leaving the egg is about an inch long,
+provided with three branched external gills on each side, and showing
+mere rudiments of the four limbs.
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTOGRAPHY (from Gr. [Greek: kryptos], hidden, and [Greek: graphein],
+to write), or writing in cipher, called also steganography (from Gr.
+[Greek: stegane], a covering), the art of writing in such a way as to be
+incomprehensible except to those who possess the key to the system
+employed. The unravelling of the writing is called deciphering.
+Cryptography having become a distinct art, Bacon (Lord Verulam) classed
+it (under the name _ciphers_) as a part of grammar. Secret modes of
+communication have been in use from the earliest times. The
+Lacedemonians had a method called the _scytale_, from the staff ([Greek:
+skytale]) employed in constructing and deciphering the message. When the
+Spartan ephors wished to forward their orders to their commanders
+abroad, they wound slantwise a narrow strip of parchment upon the
+[Greek: skytale] so that the edges met close together, and the message
+was then added in such a way that the centre of the line of writing was
+on the edges of the parchment. When unwound the scroll consisted of
+broken letters; and in that condition it was despatched to its
+destination, the general to whose hands it came deciphering it by means
+of a [Greek: skytale] exactly corresponding to that used by the ephors.
+Polybius has enumerated other methods of cryptography.
+
+The art was in use also amongst the Romans. Upon the revival of letters
+methods of secret correspondence were introduced into private business,
+diplomacy, plots, &c.; and as the study of this art has always presented
+attractions to the ingenious, a curious body of literature has been the
+result.
+
+John Trithemius (d. 1516), the abbot of Spanheim, was the first
+important writer on cryptography. His _Polygraphia_, published in 1518,
+has passed through many editions, and has supplied the basis upon which
+subsequent writers have worked. It was begun at the desire of the duke
+of Bavaria; but Trithemius did not at first intend to publish it, on the
+ground that it would be injurious to public interests. A
+_Steganographia_ published at Lyons (? 1551) and later at Frankfort
+(1606), is also attributed to him. The next treatises of importance were
+those of Giovanni Battista della Porta, the Neapolitan mathematician,
+who wrote _De furtivis litterarum notis_, 1563; and of Blaise de
+Vigenere, whose _Traite des chiffres_ appeared in Paris, 1587. Bacon
+proposed an ingenious system of cryptography on the plan of what is
+called the double cipher; but while thus lending to the art the
+influence of his great name, he gave an intimation as to the general
+opinion formed of it and as to the classes of men who used it. For when
+prosecuting the earl of Somerset in the matter of the poisoning of
+Overbury, he urged it as an aggravation of the crime that the earl and
+Overbury "had cyphers and jargons for the king and queen and all the
+great men,--things seldom used but either by princes and their
+ambassadors and ministers, or by such as work or practise against or, at
+least, upon princes."
+
+Other eminent Englishmen were afterwards connected with the art. John
+Wilkins, subsequently bishop of Chester, published in 1641 an anonymous
+treatise entitled _Mercury, or The Secret and Swift Messenger_,--a small
+but comprehensive work on the subject, and a timely gift to the
+diplomatists and leaders of the Civil War. The deciphering of many of
+the royalist papers of that period, such as the letters that fell into
+the hands of the parliament at the battle of Naseby, has by Henry Stubbe
+been charged on the celebrated mathematician Dr John Wallis (_Athen.
+Oxon._ iii. 1072), whose connexion with the subject of cipher-writing is
+referred to by himself in the Oxford edition of his mathematical works,
+1689, p. 659; as also by John Davys. Dr Wallis elsewhere states that
+this art, formerly scarcely known to any but the secretaries of princes,
+&c., had grown very common and familiar during the civil commotions, "so
+that now there is scarce a person of quality but is more or less
+acquainted with it, and doth, as there is occasion, make use of it."
+Subsequent writers on the subject are John Falconer (_Cryptomenysis
+patefacta_), 1685; John Davys (_An Essay on the Art of Decyphering: in
+which is inserted a Discourse of Dr Wallis_), 1737; Philip Thicknesse
+(_A Treatise on the Art of Decyphering and of Writing in Cypher_), 1772;
+William Blair (the writer of the comprehensive article "Cipher" in
+Rees's _Cyclopaedia_), 1819; and G. von Marten (Cours _diplomatique_),
+1801 (a fourth edition of which appeared in 1851). Perhaps the best
+modern work on this subject is the _Kryptographik_ of J. L. Kluber
+(Tubingen, 1809), who was drawn into the investigation by inclination
+and official circumstances. In this work the different methods of
+cryptography are classified. Amongst others of lesser merit who have
+treated of this art may be named Gustavus Selenus (i.e. Augustus, duke
+of Brunswick), 1624; Cospi, translated by Niceron in 1641; the marquis
+of Worchester, 1659; Kircher, 1663; Schott, 1665; Ludwig Heinrich
+Hiller, 1682; Comiers; 1690; Baring, 1737; Conrad, 1739, &c. See also a
+paper on _Elizabethan Cipher-books_ by A. J. Butler in the
+Bibliographical Society's _Transactions_, London, 1901.
+
+Schemes of cryptography are endless in their variety. Bacon lays down
+the following as the "virtues" to be looked for in them:--"that they be
+not laborious to write and read; that they be impossible to decipher;
+and, in some cases, that they be without suspicion." These principles
+are more or less disregarded by all the modes that have been advanced,
+including that of Bacon himself, which has been unduly extolled by his
+admirers as "one of the most ingenious methods of writing in cypher, and
+the most difficult to be decyphered, of any yet contrived" (Thicknesse,
+p. 13).
+
+The simplest and commonest of all the ciphers is that in which the
+writer selects in place of the proper letters certain other letters in
+regular advance. This method of transposition was used by Julius Caesar.
+He, "per quartam elementorum literam," wrote _d_ for _a_, _e_ for _b_,
+and so on. There are instances of this arrangement in the Jewish rabbis,
+and even in the sacred writers. An illustration of it occurs in Jeremiah
+(xxv. 26), where the prophet, to conceal the meaning of his prediction
+from all but the initiated, writes _Sheshak_ instead of Babel (Babylon),
+the place meant; i.e. in place of using the second and twelfth letters
+of the Hebrew alphabet (_b_, _b_, _l_) from the beginning, he wrote the
+second and twelfth (_sh_, _sh_, _k_) from the end. To this kind of
+cipher-writing Buxtorf gives the name Athbash (from _a_ the first letter
+of the Hebrew alphabet, and _th_ the last; _b_ the second from the
+beginning, and _h_ the second from the end). Another Jewish cabalism of
+like nature was called Albam; of which an example is in Isaiah vii. 6,
+where Tabeal is written for Remaliah. In its adaptation to English this
+method of transposition, of which there are many modifications, is
+comparatively easy to decipher. A rough key may be derived from an
+examination of the respective quantities of letters in a type-founder's
+bill, or a printer's "case." The decipherer's first business is to
+classify the letters of the secret message in the order of their
+frequency. The letter that occurs oftenest is _e_; and the next in order
+of frequency is _t_. The following groups come after these, separated
+from each other by degrees of decreasing recurrence:--_a_, _o_, _n_,
+_i_; _r_, _s_, _h_; _d_, _l_; _c_, _w_, _u_, _m_; _f_, _y_, _g_, _p_,
+_b_; _v_, _k_; _x_, _q_, _j_, _z_. All the single letters must be _a_,
+_I_ or _O_. Letters occurring together are _ee_, _oo_, _ff_, _ll_, _ss_,
+&c. The commonest words of two letters are (roughly arranged in the
+order of their frequency) _of_, _to_, _in_, _it_, _is_, _be_, _he_,
+_by_, _or_, _as_, _at_, _an_, _so_, &c. The commonest words of three
+letters are _the_ and _and_ (in great excess), _for_, _are_, _but_,
+_all_, _not_, &c.; and of four letters--_that_, _with_, _from_, _have_,
+_this_, _they_, &c. Familiarity with the composition of the language
+will suggest numerous other points that are of value to the decipherer.
+He may obtain other hints from Poe's tale called _The Gold Bug_. As to
+messages in the continental languages constructed upon this system of
+transposition, rules for deciphering may be derived from Breithaupt's
+_Ars decifratoria_ (1737), and other treatises.
+
+Bacon remarks that though ciphers were commonly in letters and alphabets
+yet they might be in words. Upon this basis codes have been constructed,
+classified words taken from dictionaries being made to represent
+complete ideas. In recent years such codes have been adapted by
+merchants and others to communications by telegraph, and have served the
+purpose not only of keeping business affairs private, but also of
+reducing the excessive cost of telegraphic messages to distant markets.
+Obviously this class of ciphers presents greater difficulties to the
+skill of the decipherer.
+
+Figures and other characters have been also used as letters; and with
+them ranges of numerals have been combined as the representatives of
+syllables, parts of words, words themselves, and complete phrases. Under
+this head must be placed the despatches of Giovanni Michael, the
+Venetian ambassador to England in the reign of Queen Mary, documents
+which have only of late years been deciphered. Many of the private
+letters and papers from the pen of Charles I. and his queen, who were
+adepts in the use of ciphers, are of the same description. One of that
+monarch's letters, a document of considerable interest, consisting
+entirely of numerals purposely complicated, was in 1858 deciphered by
+Professor Wheatstone, the inventor of the ingenious crypto-machine, and
+printed by the Philobiblon Society. Other letters of the like character
+have been published in the _First Report of the Royal Commission on
+Historical Manuscripts_ (1870). In the second and subsequent reports of
+the same commission several keys to ciphers have been catalogued, which
+seem to refer themselves to the methods of cryptography under notice. In
+this connexion also should be mentioned the "characters," which the
+diarist Pepys drew up when clerk to Sir George Downing and secretary to
+the earl of Sandwich and to the admiralty, and which are frequently
+mentioned in his journal. Pepys describes one of them as "a great large
+character," over which he spent much time, but which was at length
+finished, 25th April 1660; "it being," says he, "very handsomely done
+and a very good one in itself, but that not truly alphabetical."
+
+Shorthand marks and other arbitrary characters have also been largely
+imported into cryptographic systems to represent both letters and words,
+but more commonly the latter. This plan is said to have been first put
+into use by the old Roman poet Ennius. It formed the basis of the method
+of Cicero's freedman, Tiro, who seems to have systematized the labours
+of his predecessors. A large quantity of these characters have been
+engraved in Gruter's _Inscriptiones_. The correspondence of Charlemagne
+was in part made up of marks of this nature. In Rees's _Cyclopaedia_
+specimens were engraved of the cipher used by Cardinal Wolsey at the
+court of Vienna in 1524, of that used by Sir Thomas Smith at Paris in
+1563, and of that of Sir Edward Stafford in 1586; in all of which
+arbitrary marks are introduced. The first English system of
+shorthand--Bright's _Characterie_, 1588--almost belongs to the same
+category of ciphers. A favourite system of Charles I., used by him
+during the year 1646, was one made up of an alphabet of twenty-four
+letters, which were represented by four simple strokes varied in length,
+slope and position. This alphabet is engraved in Clive's _Linear System
+of Shorthand_ (1830), having been found amongst the royal manuscripts in
+the British Museum. An interest attaches to this cipher from the fact
+that it was employed in the well-known letter addressed by the king to
+the earl of Glamorgan, in which the former made concessions to the Roman
+Catholics of Ireland.
+
+Complications have been introduced into ciphers by the employment of
+"dummy" letters,--"nulls and insignificants," as Bacon terms them. Other
+devices have been introduced to perplex the decipherer, such as spelling
+words backwards, making false divisions between words, &c. The greatest
+security against the decipherer has been found in the use of elaborate
+tables of letters, arranged in the form of the multiplication table, the
+message being constructed by the aid of preconcerted key-words. Details
+of the working of these ciphers may be found in the treatises named in
+this article. The deciphering of them is one of the most difficult of
+tasks. A method of this kind is explained in the Latin and English lives
+of Dr John Barwick, whose correspondence with Hyde, afterwards earl of
+Clarendon, was carried on in cryptography. In a letter dated 20th
+February 1659/60, Hyde, alluding to the skill of his political opponents
+in deciphering, says that "nobody needs to fear them, if they write
+carefully in good cyphers." In his next he allays his correspondent's
+apprehensiveness as to the deciphering of their letters.
+
+  "I confess to you, as I am sure no copy could be gotten of any of my
+  cyphers from hence, so I did not think it probable that they could be
+  got on your side the water. But I was as confident, till you tell me
+  you believe it, that the devil himself cannot decypher a letter that
+  is well written, or find that 100 stands for Sir H. Vane. I have heard
+  of many of the pretenders to that skill, and have spoken with some of
+  them, but have found them all to be mountebanks; nor did I ever hear
+  that more of the King's letters that were found at Naseby, than those
+  which they found decyphered, or found the cyphers in which they were
+  writ, were decyphered. And I very well remember that in the volume
+  they published there was much left in cypher which could not be
+  understood, and which I believe they would have explained if it had
+  been in their power."
+
+An excellent modification of the key-word principle was constructed by
+Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort.
+
+Ciphers have been constructed on the principle of altering the places of
+the letters without changing their powers. The message is first written
+Chinese-wise, upward and downward, and the letters are then combined in
+given rows from left to right. In the celebrated cipher used by the earl
+of Argyll when plotting against James II., he altered the positions of
+the words. Sentences of an indifferent nature were constructed, but the
+real meaning of the message was to be gathered from words, placed at
+certain intervals. This method, which is connected with the name of
+Cardan, is sometimes called the trellis or cardboard cipher.
+
+The wheel-cipher, which is an Italian invention, the string-cipher, the
+circle-cipher and many others are fully explained, with the necessary
+diagrams, in the authorities named above--more particularly by Kluber in
+his _Kryptographik_.     (J. E. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTOMERIA, or JAPANESE CEDAR, a genus of conifers, containing a single
+species, _C. japonica_, native of China and Japan, which was introduced
+into Great Britain by the Royal Horticultural Society in 1844. It is
+described as one of the finest trees in Japan, reaching a height of 100
+or more feet, usually divested of branches along the lower part of the
+trunk and crowned with a conical head. The narrow, pointed leaves are
+spirally arranged and persist for four or five years; the cones are
+small, globose and borne at the ends of the branchlets, the scales are
+thickened at the extremity and divided into sharply pointed lobes, three
+to five seeds are borne on each scale. _Cryptomeria_ is extensively used
+in Japan for reafforesting denuded lands, as it is a valuable timber
+tree; it is also planted to form avenues along the public roads. In
+Veitch's _Manual of Coniferae_ (ed. 2, 1900, p. 265) reference is made
+to "an avenue of Cryptomerias 7 m. in extent near Lake Hakone" in which
+"the trees are more than 100 ft. high, with perfectly straight trunks
+crowned with conical heads of foliage." Professor C. S. Sargent, in his
+_Forest Flora of Japan_, says, "Japan owes much of the beauty of its
+groves and gardens to the _Cryptomeria_. Nowhere is there a more solemn
+and impressive group of trees than that which surrounds the temples and
+tombs at Nikko where they rise to a height of 100 to 125 ft.; it is a
+stately tree with no rival except in the sequoias of California." Many
+curious varieties have been obtained by Japanese horticulturists,
+including some dwarf shrubby forms not exceeding a few feet in height.
+When grown in Great Britain _Cryptomeria_ requires a deep, well-drained
+soil with plenty of moisture, and protection from cold winds.
+
+
+
+
+CRYPTO-PORTICUS (Gr. [Greek: kryptos], concealed, and Lat. _porticus_),
+an architectural term for a concealed or covered passage, generally
+underground, though lighted and ventilated from the open air. One of the
+best-known examples is the crypto-porticus under the palaces of the
+Caesars in Rome. In Hadrian's villa in Rome they formed the principal
+private intercommunication between the several buildings.
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTAL-GAZING, or SCRYING, the term commonly applied to the induction
+of visual hallucinations by concentrating the gaze on any clear deep,
+such as a crystal or a ball of polished rock crystal. Some persons do
+not even find a clear deep necessary, and are content to gaze at the
+palm of the hand, for example, when hallucinatory pictures, as they
+declare, emerge. Among objects used are a pool of ink in the hand
+(Egypt), the liver of an animal (tribes of the North-West Indian
+frontier), a hole filled with water (Polynesia), quartz crystals (the
+Apaches and the Euahlayi tribe of New South Wales), a smooth slab of
+polished black stone (the Huille-che of South America), water in a
+vessel (Zulus and Siberians), a crystal (the Incas), a mirror (classical
+Greece and the middle ages), the finger-nail, a sword-blade, a
+ring-stone, a glass of sherry, in fact almost anything. Much depends on
+what the "seer" is accustomed to use, and some persons who can "scry" in
+a glass ball or a glass water-bottle cannot "scry" in ink.
+
+The practice of inducing pictorial hallucinations by such methods as
+these has been traced among the natives of North and South America,
+Asia, Australia, Africa, among the Maoris, who sometimes use a drop of
+blood, and in Polynesia, and is thus practically of world-wide
+diffusion. This fact was not observed (that is, the collections of
+examples were not made) till recently, when experiments in private
+non-spiritualist circles drew attention to crystal-gazing, a practice
+always popular among peasants, and known historically to have survived
+through classical and medieval times, and, as in the famous case of Dr
+Dee, after the Reformation.
+
+The early church condemned _specularii_ (mirror-gazers), and Aubrey and
+the _Memoirs_ of Saint-Simon contain "scrying" anecdotes of the 17th and
+18th centuries, while Sir Walter Scott's story, _My Aunt Margaret's
+Mirror_, is based on a tradition of about 1750 in a noble Scottish
+family. The practice, in all times and countries, was used for purposes
+of divination. The gazer detected unknown criminals, or described remote
+events, or even professed to foretell things future. Sometimes the
+supposed magician or medicine man himself did the scrying; occasionally
+he enabled his client to see for himself; often a child was selected as
+the scryer. The process was usually explained as the result of the
+action of a spirit, angel or devil, and many unessential formulae,
+invocations, "calls," written charms with cabbalistic signs, and
+fumigations, were employed. These things may have had some effect by way
+of suggestion; the scryer may have been brought by them into an
+appropriate frame of mind; but, as a whole, they are tedious and
+superfluous.
+
+A person can either induce the pictorial hallucinations (he may discover
+his capacity by accident, like George Sand, as she tells in her
+_Memoirs_--and other cases are known), or he cannot induce them, though
+he stare till his eyes water. It is almost universally found, in cases
+of successful experiment, that the glass ball, for example, takes a
+milky or misty aspect, that it then grows black, reflections
+disappearing, and that then the pictures emerge. Some people arrive at
+seeing the glass ball milky or misty, and can go no further. Others see
+pictures of persons or landscapes, only in black and white, and
+motionless. Others see in the glass coloured figures of men, women and
+animals in motion; while in rarer cases the ball disappears from view,
+and the scryer finds himself apparently looking at an actual scene. In a
+few attested cases two persons have shared the same vision. In
+experiments with magnifying glasses, and through spars, the ordinary
+effects of magnifying and of alteration of view are sometimes produced;
+sometimes they are not. The evidence, of course, is necessarily only
+that of the scryers themselves, but repeated experiments by persons of
+probity, and unfamiliar with the topic, combined with the world-wide
+existence of the practice, prove that hallucinatory pictures are really
+induced.
+
+It has not been found possible to determine, before experiment, whether
+any given man or woman will prove capable of the hallucinatory
+experiences. Many subjects with strong powers of "visualization," or
+seeing things "in the mind's eye," cannot scry; others are successful in
+various degrees. We might expect persons who have experienced
+spontaneous visual hallucinations, of the kind vulgarly styled "ghosts"
+or "wraiths," to succeed in inducing pictures in a glass ball. As a
+matter of fact such persons sometimes can and sometimes cannot see
+pictures in the way of crystal-gazing; while many who can see in the
+crystal have had no spontaneous hallucinations. It is useless to make
+experiments with hysterical and visionary people, "whose word no man
+relies on"; they may have the hallucinatory experiences, but they would
+say that they had in any case.
+
+The nearest analogy to crystal visions, as described, is the common
+experience of "hypnagogic illusions" (cf. Alfred Maury. _Les Reves et le
+sommeil_). With closed eyes, between sleeping and waking, many people
+see faces, landscapes and other things flash upon their view, pictures
+often brilliant, but of very brief duration and rapid mutation.
+Sometimes the subject opens his eyes to get rid of an unpleasant vision
+of this kind. People who cannot scry may have these hypnagogic
+illusions, and, so far, may partly understand the experience of the
+scryer who is wide awake. But the visions of the scryer often endure for
+a considerable time. He or she may put the glass down and converse, and
+may find the picture still there when the ball is taken up again. New
+figures may join the figure first seen, as when one enters a room. In
+these respects, and in the awakeness of the scryer, crystal pictures
+differ from hypnagogic illusions. In other ways the experiences
+coincide, the pictures are either fanciful, like illustrations of some
+unread history or romance, or are revivals of remembered places and
+faces.
+
+Occasionally, in hypnagogic illusions, the observer can see the picture
+develop rapidly out of a blot of light or colour, beheld by the closed
+eyes. One or two scryers think that they, too, can trace the picture as
+it develops on the suggestion of some passage of light, colour or shadow
+in the glass or crystal. But, as a rule, the scryer cannot detect any
+process of development from such _points de mire_; though this may be
+the actual process.
+
+On the whole there seems little doubt that successful crystal-gazing is
+the exertion of a not uncommon though far from universal faculty, like
+those of "chromatic audition"--the vivid association of certain sounds
+with certain colours--and the mental seeing of figures arranged in
+coloured diagrams (Galton, _Inquiry into Human Faculty_, pp. 114-154).
+The experience of hypnagogic illusions also seems far more rare than
+ordinary dreaming in sleep. Unfortunately, while these phenomena have
+been carefully studied by officially scientific characters, in England
+orthodox _savants_ have disdained to observe crystal-gazing, while in
+France psychologists have too commonly experimented with subjects
+professionally hysterical and quite untrustworthy. Our remarks are
+therefore based mainly on considerable personal study of "scrying" among
+normal British subjects of both sexes, to whom the topic was previously
+unknown.
+
+The superstitious associations of crystal-gazing, as of hypnotism,
+appear to bar the way to official scientific investigation, and the
+fluctuating proficiency of the seers, who cannot command success, or
+determine the causes and conditions of success and failure, tends in the
+same direction. The existence, too, of paid professionals who lead
+astray silly women, encourages the natural scientific contempt for the
+study of the faculty.
+
+The seeing of the pictures, as far as we have spoken of it, appears to
+be a thing unusual, but in no way abnormal, any more than dreams or
+hypnagogic illusions are abnormal. Crystal pictures, however, are
+commonly dismissed as mere results of "imagination," a theory which, of
+course, is of no real assistance to psychology. Persons of recognized
+"imaginativeness," such as novelists and artists, do not seem more or
+less capable of the hallucinatory experiences than their sober
+neighbours; while persons not otherwise recognizably "imaginative" (we
+could quote a singularly accurate historian) are capable of the
+experiences. It is unfortunate, as it awakens prejudice, but in the
+present writer's opinion it is true, that crystal-gazing sometimes is
+rewarded with results which may be styled "supra-normal." In addition to
+the presentation of revived memories, and of "objectivation of ideas or
+images consciously or unconsciously in the mind of the percipient,"
+there occur "visions, possibly telepathic or clairvoyant, implying
+acquirement of knowledge by supra-normal means."[1]
+
+A number of examples occurring during experiments made by the present
+writer and by his acquaintances in 1897 were carefully recorded and
+attested by the signatures of all concerned The cases, or rather a
+selection of the cases, are printed in A. Lang's book, _The Making of
+Religion_ (2nd ed., London, 1902, pp. 87-104). Others are chronicled in
+A. Lang's Introduction to Mr N. W. Thomas's work, _Crystal Gazing_
+(1905). The experiments took this form: any person might ask the scryer
+(a lady who had never previously heard of crystal-gazing) "to see what
+he was thinking of." The scryer, who was a stranger in a place which she
+had not visited before, gave, in a long series of cases, a description
+of the person or place on which the inquirer's thoughts were fixed. The
+descriptions, though three or four entire failures occurred, were of
+remarkable accuracy as a rule, and contained facts and incidents unknown
+to the inquirers, but confirmed as accurate. In fact, some Oriental
+scenes and descriptions of incidents were corroborated by a letter from
+India which arrived just after the experiment; and the same thing
+happened when the events described were occurring in places less remote.
+On one occasion a curious set of incidents were described, which
+happened to be vividly present to the mind of a sceptical stranger who
+chanced to be in the room during the experiment; events unknown to the
+inquirer in this instance. As an example of the minuteness of
+description, an inquirer, thinking of a brother in India, an officer in
+the army, whose hair had suffered in an encounter with a tiger, had
+described to her an officer in undress uniform, with bald scars through
+the hair on his temples, such as he really bore. The number and
+proportion of successes was too high to admit of explanation by chance
+coincidence, but success was not invariable. On one occasion the scryer
+could see nothing, "the crystal preserved its natural diaphaneity," as
+Dr Dee says; and there were failures with two or three inquirers. On the
+other hand no record was kept in several cases of success.
+
+Whoever can believe that the successes were numerous and that
+descriptions were given correctly--not only of facts present to the
+minds of inquirers, and of other persons present who were not
+consciously taking a share in the experiments, but also of facts
+necessarily unknown to all concerned--must of course be most impressed
+by the latter kind of success. If the process commonly styled
+"telepathy" exists (see TELEPATHY), that may account for the scryer's
+power of seeing facts which are in the mind of the inquirer. But when
+the scryers see details of various sorts, which are unknown to the
+inquirer, but are verified on inquiry, then telepathy perhaps fails to
+provide an explanation. We seem to be confronted with actual
+clairvoyance (q.v.), or _vue a distance_. It would be vain to form
+hypotheses as to the conditions or faculties which make _vue a distance_
+possible. This way lie metaphysics, with Hegel's theory of the Sensitive
+Soul, or Myers' theory of the Subliminal Self. "The intuitive soul,"
+says Hegel, "oversteps the conditions of time and space; it beholds
+things remote, things long past, and things to come."[2]
+
+What we need, if any progress is to be made in knowledge of the subject,
+is not a metaphysical hypothesis, but a large, carefully tested, and
+well-recorded collection of examples, made by _savants_ of recognized
+standing. At present we are where we were in electrical science, when
+Newton produced curious sparks while rubbing glass with paper. By way of
+facts, we have only a large body of unattested anecdotes of supra-normal
+successes in crystal-gazing, in many lands and ages; and the scanty
+records of modern amateur investigators, like the present writer. Even
+from these, if the honesty of all concerned be granted (and even clever
+dishonesty could not have produced many of the results), it would appear
+that we are investigating a strange and important human faculty. The
+writer is acquainted with no experiments in which it was attempted to
+discern the future (except in trivial cases as to events on the turf,
+when chance coincidence might explain the successes), and only with two
+or three cases in which there was an attempt to help historical science
+and discern the past by aid of psychical methods. The results were
+interesting and difficult to explain, but the experiments were few.
+Ordinary scryers of fancy pictures are common enough, but scryers
+capable of apparently supra-normal successes are apparently rare.
+Perhaps something depends on the inquirer as well as the scryer.
+
+The method of scrying, as generally practised, is simple. It is usual to
+place a glass ball on a dark ground, to sit with the back to the light,
+to focus the gaze on the ball (disregarding reflections, if these cannot
+be excluded), and to await results. Perhaps from five to ten minutes is
+a long enough time for the experiment. The scryer may let his
+consciousness play freely, but should not be disturbed by lookers-on. As
+a rule, if a person has the faculty he "sees" at the first attempt; if
+he fails in the first three or four efforts he need not persevere.
+Solitude is advisable at first, but few people can find time amounting
+to ten minutes for solitary studies of this sort, so busy and so
+gregarious is mankind. The writer has no experience of trance, sleep or
+auto-hypnotization produced in such experiments; scryers have always
+seemed to retain their full normal consciousness. As regards scepticism
+concerning the faculty we may quote what Mr Galton says about the
+faculty of visualization: "Scientific men as a class have feeble power
+of visual reproduction.... They had a mental deficiency of which they
+were unconscious, and, naturally enough, supposed that those who
+affirmed _they_ were possessed of it were romancing."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A useful essay is that of "Miss X" (Miss Goodrich Freer)
+  in the _Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, v. The
+  history of crystal-gazing is here traced, and many examples of the
+  author's own experiments are recorded. A. Lang's _The Making of
+  Religion_, ch. v., contains anthropological examples and a series of
+  experiments. In N. W. Thomas's _Crystal Gazing_ the history and
+  anthropology of the subject are investigated, with modern instances.
+  For Egypt, see Lane's _Modern Egyptians_, and the _Journal_ of Sir
+  Walter Scott, xi. 419-421, with _Quarterly Review_, No. 117, pp.
+  196-208. These Egyptian experiments of 1830 were vitiated by their
+  method, the scryer being asked to see and describe a given person,
+  named. He ought not, of course, to be told more than that he is to
+  descry the inquirer's thoughts, and there ought never to be physical
+  contact, as in holding hands, between the inquirer and the scryer
+  during the experiment. There is a chapter on crystal-gazing in _Les
+  Nevroses et les idees fixes_ of Dr Janet (1898). His statements are
+  sometimes demonstrably inaccurate (see _Making of Religion_, Appendix
+  C). A curious passage on the subject, by Ibn Khaldun, an Arabian
+  medieval _savant_, is quoted by Mr Thomas from the printed Extracts of
+  MSS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale. There is also a chapter on
+  crystal-gazing in Myers' _Human Personality_.     (A. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, v. 486.
+
+  [2] "Philosophie der Geistes," Hegel's _Werke_, vii. 179, 406, 408
+    (Berlin, 1845). Cf. Wallace's translation (Oxford, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLITE. In media which, on account of their viscosity, offer
+considerable resistance to those molecular movements which are necessary
+for the building and growth of crystals, rudimentary or imperfect forms
+of crystallization very frequently occur. Such media are the volcanic
+rocks when they are rapidly cooled, producing various kinds of
+pitchstone, obsidian, &c. When examined under the microscope these rocks
+consist largely of a perfectly amorphous or glassy base, through which
+are scattered great numbers of very minute crystals (microliths), and
+other bodies, termed crystallites, which seem to be stages in the
+formation of crystals. Crystallites may also be produced by allowing a
+solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide mixed with Canada balsam to
+evaporate slowly, and their development may be watched on a microscopic
+slide. Small globules appear (globulites), spherical and non-crystalline
+(so far as can be ascertained). They may coalesce or may arrange
+themselves into rows like strings of beads--margarites--(Gr. [Greek:
+margarites], a pearl) or into groups with a somewhat radiate
+arrangement--globospherites. Occasionally they take elongated
+shapes--longulites and baculites (Lat. _baculus_, a staff). The largest
+may become crystalline, changing suddenly into polyhedral bodies with
+evident double refraction and the optical properties belonging to
+crystals. Others become long and thread-like--trichites (Gr. [Greek:
+thrix, trichos], hair)--and these are often curved, and a group of them
+may be implanted on the surface of a small crystal. All these forms are
+found in vitreous igneous rocks. H. P. J. Vogelsang, who was the first
+to direct much attention to them, believes that the globulites are
+preliminary stages in the formation of crystals.
+
+Microliths, as distinguished from crystallites, have crystalline
+properties, and evidently belong to definite minerals or salts. When
+sufficiently large they are often recognizable, but usually they are so
+small, so opaque, or so densely crowded together that this is
+impossible. In igneous rocks they are usually felspar, augite,
+enstatite, and iron oxides, and are found in abundance only where there
+is much uncrystallized glassy base; in contact-altered sediments, slags,
+&c., microlithic forms of garnet, spinel, sillimanite, cordierite,
+various lime silicates, and many other substances have been observed.
+Their form varies greatly, e.g. thin fibres (sillimanite, augite), short
+prisms or rods (felspar, enstatite, cordierite), or equidimensional
+grains (augite, spinel, magnetite). Occasionally they are perfectly
+shaped though minute crystals; more frequently they appear rounded
+(magnetite, &c.), or have brush-like terminations (augite, felspar,
+&c.). The larger microliths may contain enclosures of glass, and it is
+very common to find that the prisms have hollow, funnel-shaped ends,
+which are filled with vitreous material. These microliths, under the
+influence of crystalline forces, may rank themselves side by side to
+make up skeleton crystals and networks, or feathery and arborescent
+forms, which obey more or less closely the laws of crystallization of
+the substance to which they belong. They bear a very close resemblance
+to the arborescent frost flowers seen on window panes in winter, and to
+the stellate snow crystals. In magnetite the growths follow three axes
+at right angles to one another; in augite this is nearly, though not
+exactly, the case; in hornblende an angle of 57 deg. may frequently be
+observed, corresponding to the prism angle of the fully-developed
+crystal. The interstices of the network may be partly filled up by a
+later growth. In other cases the crystalline arrangement of the
+microliths is less perfect, and branching, arborescent or feathery
+groupings are produced (e.g. felspar, augite, hornblende). Spherulites
+may be regarded as radiate aggregates of such microliths (mostly felspar
+mixed with quartz or tridymite). If larger porphyritic crystals occur in
+the rock, the microliths of the vitreous base frequently grow outwards
+from their faces; in some cases a definite parallelism exists between
+the two, but more frequently the early crystal has served merely as a
+centre, or nucleus, from which the microliths and spherulites have
+spread in all directions.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLIZATION, the art of obtaining a substance in the form of
+crystals; it is an important process in chemistry since it permits the
+purification of a substance, or the separation of the constituents of a
+mixture. Generally a substance is more soluble in a solvent at a high
+temperature than at a low, and consequently, if a boiling concentrated
+solution be allowed to cool, the substance will separate in virtue of
+the diminished solubility, and the slower the cooling the larger and
+more perfect will be the crystals formed. If, as sometimes appears, such
+a solution refuses to crystallize, the expedient of inoculating the
+solution with a minute crystal of the same substance, or with a similar
+substance, may be adopted; shaking the solution, or the addition of a
+drop of another solvent, may also occasion the desired result.
+"Fractional crystallization" consists in repeatedly crystallizing a salt
+so as to separate the substances of different solubilities. Examples are
+especially presented in the study of the rare-earths. Other conditions
+under which crystals are formed are given in the article
+CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (from the Gr. [Greek: krystallos], ice, and [Greek:
+graphein], to write), the science of the forms, properties and structure
+of crystals. Homogeneous solid matter, the physical and chemical
+properties of which are the same about every point, may be either
+amorphous or crystalline. In amorphous matter all the properties are the
+same in every direction in the mass; but in crystalline matter certain
+of the physical properties vary with the direction. The essential
+properties of crystalline matter are of two kinds, viz. the general
+properties, such as density, specific heat, melting-point and chemical
+composition, which do not vary with the direction; and the directional
+properties, such as cohesion and elasticity, various optical, thermal
+and electrical properties, as well as external form. By reason of the
+homogeneity of crystalline matter the directional properties are the
+same in all parallel directions in the mass, and there may be a certain
+symmetrical repetition of the directions along which the properties are
+the same.
+
+When the crystallization of matter takes place under conditions free
+from outside influences the peculiarities of internal structure are
+expressed in the external form of the mass, and there results a solid
+body bounded by plane surfaces intersecting in straight edges, the
+directions of which bear an intimate relation to the internal structure.
+Such a polyhedron ([Greek: polys], many, [Greek: hedra], base or face)
+is known as a crystal. An example of this is sugar-candy, of which a
+single isolated crystal may have grown freely in a solution of sugar.
+Matter presenting well-defined and regular crystal forms, either as a
+single crystal or as a group of individual crystals, is said to be
+crystallized. If, on the other hand, crystallization has taken place
+about several centres in a confined space, the development of plane
+surfaces may be prevented, and a crystalline aggregate of differently
+orientated crystal-individuals results. Examples of this are afforded by
+loaf sugar and statuary marble.
+
+After a brief historical sketch, the more salient principles of the
+subject will be discussed under the following sections:--
+
+  I. CRYSTALLINE FORM.
+          (a) Symmetry of Crystals.
+          (b) Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms.
+          (c) Law of Rational Indices.
+          (d) Zones.
+          (e) Projection and Drawing of Crystals.
+          (f) Crystal Systems and Classes.
+                  1. Cubic System.
+                  2. Tetragonal System.
+                  3. Orthorhombic System.
+                  4. Monoclinic System.
+                  5. Anorthic System.
+                  6. Hexagonal System
+          (g) Regular Grouping of Crystals (Twinning, &c.).
+          (h) Irregularities of Growth of Crystals: Characters of Faces.
+          (i) Theories of Crystal Structure.
+
+  II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS.
+          (a) Elasticity and Cohesion (Cleavage, Etching, &c.).
+          (b) Optical Properties (Interference figures, Pleochroism,
+                &c.).
+          (c) Thermal Properties.
+          (d) Magnetic and Electrical Properties.
+
+  III. RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE FORM AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
+
+Most chemical elements and compounds are capable of assuming the
+crystalline condition. Crystallization may take place when solid matter
+separates from solution (e.g. sugar, salt, alum), from a fused mass
+(e.g. sulphur, bismuth, felspar), or from a vapour (e.g. iodine,
+camphor, haematite; in the last case by the interaction of ferric
+chloride and steam). Crystalline growth may also take place in solid
+amorphous matter, for example, in the devitrification of glass, and the
+slow change in metals when subjected to alternating stresses. Beautiful
+crystals of many substances may be obtained in the laboratory by one or
+other of these methods, but the most perfectly developed and largest
+crystals are those of mineral substances found in nature, where
+crystallization has continued during long periods of time. For this
+reason the physical science of crystallography has developed side by
+side with that of mineralogy. Really, however, there is just the same
+connexion between crystallography and chemistry as between
+crystallography and mineralogy, but only in recent years has the
+importance of determining the crystallographic properties of
+artificially prepared compounds been recognized.
+
+_History._--The word "crystal" is from the Gr. [Greek: krystallos],
+meaning clear ice (Lat. _crystallum_), a name which was also applied to
+the clear transparent quartz ("rock-crystal") from the Alps, under the
+belief that it had been formed from water by intense cold. It was not
+until about the 17th century that the word was extended to other bodies,
+either those found in nature or obtained by the evaporation of a saline
+solution, which resembled rock-crystal in being bounded by plane
+surfaces, and often also in their clearness and transparency.
+
+The first important step in the study of crystals was made by Nicolaus
+Steno, the famous Danish physician, afterwards bishop of Titiopolis, who
+in his treatise _De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento_
+(Florence, 1669; English translation, 1671) gave the results of his
+observations on crystals of quartz. He found that although the faces of
+different crystals vary considerably in shape and relative size, yet the
+angles between similar pairs of faces are always the same. He further
+pointed out that the crystals must have grown in a liquid by the
+addition of layers of material upon the faces of a nucleus, this nucleus
+having the form of a regular six-sided prism terminated at each end by a
+six-sided pyramid. The thickness of the layers, though the same over
+each face, was not necessarily the same on different faces, but depended
+on the position of the faces with respect to the surrounding liquid;
+hence the faces of the crystal, though variable in shape and size,
+remained parallel to those of the nucleus, and the angles between them
+constant. Robert Hooke in his _Micrographia_ (London, 1665) had
+previously noticed the regularity of the minute quartz crystals found
+lining the cavities of flints, and had suggested that they were built up
+of spheroids. About the same time the double refraction and perfect
+rhomboidal cleavage of crystals of calcite or Iceland-spar were studied
+by Erasmus Bartholinus (_Experimenta crystalli Islandici
+disdiaclastici_, Copenhagen, 1669) and Christiaan Huygens (_Traite de la
+lumiere_, Leiden, 1690); the latter supposed, as did Hooke, that the
+crystals were built up of spheroids. In 1695 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
+observed under the microscope that different forms of crystals grow from
+the solutions of different salts. Andreas Libavius had indeed much
+earlier, in 1597, pointed out that the salts present in mineral waters
+could be ascertained by an examination of the shapes of the crystals
+left on evaporation of the water; and Domenico Guglielmini (_Riflessioni
+filosofiche dedotte dalle figure de' sali_, Padova, 1706) asserted that
+the crystals of each salt had a shape of their own with the plane angles
+of the faces always the same.
+
+The earliest treatise on crystallography is the _Prodromus
+Crystallographiae_ of M. A. Cappeller, published at Lucerne in 1723.
+Crystals were mentioned in works on mineralogy and chemistry; for
+instance, C. Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_ (1735) described some
+forty common forms of crystals amongst minerals. It was not, however,
+until the end of the 18th century that any real advances were made, and
+the French crystallographers Rome de l'Isle and the abbe Hauy are
+rightly considered as the founders of the science. J. B. L. de Rome de
+l'Isle (_Essai de cristallographie_, Paris, 1772; _Cristallographie, ou
+description des formes propres a tous les corps du regne mineral_,
+Paris, 1783) made the important discovery that the various shapes of
+crystals of the same natural or artificial substance are all intimately
+related to each other; and further, by measuring the angles between the
+faces of crystals with the goniometer (q.v.), he established the
+fundamental principle that these angles are always the same for the same
+kind of substance and are characteristic of it. Replacing by single
+planes or groups of planes all the similar edges or solid angles of a
+figure called the "primitive form" he derived other related forms. Six
+kinds of primitive forms were distinguished, namely, the cube, the
+regular octahedron, the regular tetrahedron, a rhombohedron, an
+octahedron with a rhombic base, and a double six-sided pyramid. Only in
+the last three can there be any variation in the angles: for example,
+the primitive octahedron of alum, nitre and sugar were determined by
+Rome de l'Isle to have angles of 110 deg., 120 deg. and 100 deg.
+respectively. Rene Just Hauy in his _Essai d'une theorie sur la
+structure des crystaux_ (Paris, 1784; see also his Treatises on
+Mineralogy and Crystallography, 1801, 1822) supported and extended these
+views, but took for his primitive forms the figures obtained by
+splitting crystals in their directions of easy fracture of "cleavage,"
+which are aways the same in the same kind of substance. Thus he found
+that all crystals of calcite, whatever their external form (see, for
+example, figs. 1-6 in the article CALCITE), could be reduced by cleavage
+to a rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 75 deg. Further, by
+stacking together a number of small rhombohedra of uniform size he was
+able, as had been previously done by J. G. Gahn in 1773, to reconstruct
+the various forms of calcite crystals. Fig. 1 shows a scalenohedron
+([Greek: skalenos], uneven) built up in this manner of rhombohedra; and
+fig. 2 a regular octahedron built up of cubic elements, such as are
+given by the cleavage of galena and rock-salt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Scalenohedron built up of Rhombohedra.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Octahedron built up of Cubes.]
+
+The external surfaces of such a structure, with their step-like
+arrangement, correspond to the plane faces of the crystal, and the
+bricks may be considered so small as not to be separately visible. By
+making the steps one, two or three bricks in width and one, two or three
+bricks in height the various secondary faces on the crystal are related
+to the primitive form or "cleavage nucleus" by a law of whole numbers,
+and the angles between them can be arrived at by mathematical
+calculation. By measuring with the goniometer the inclinations of the
+secondary faces to those of the primitive form Hauy found that the
+secondary forms are always related to the primitive form on crystals of
+numerous substances in the manner indicated, and that the width and the
+height of a step are always in a simple ratio, rarely exceeding that of
+1 : 6. This laid the foundation of the important "law of rational
+indices" of the faces of crystals.
+
+The German crystallographer C. S. Weiss (_De indagando formarum
+crystallinarum charactere geometrico principali dissertatio_, Leipzig,
+1809; _Ubersichtliche Darstellung der verschiedenen naturlichen
+Abtheilungen der Krystallisations-Systeme_, Denkschrift der Berliner
+Akad. der Wissensch., 1814-1815) attacked the problem of crystalline
+form from a purely geometrical point of view, without reference to
+primitive forms or any theory of structure. The faces of crystals were
+considered by their intercepts on co-ordinate axes, which were drawn
+joining the opposite corners of certain forms; and in this way the
+various primitive forms of Hauy were grouped into four classes,
+corresponding to the four systems described below under the names cubic,
+tetragonal, hexagonal and orthorhombic. The same result was arrived at
+independently by F. Mohs, who further, in 1822, asserted the existence
+of two additional systems with oblique axes. These two systems (the
+monoclinic and anorthic) were, however, considered by Weiss to be only
+hemihedral or tetartohedral modifications of the orthorhombic system,
+and they were not definitely established until 1835, when the optical
+characters of the crystals were found to be distinct. A system of
+notation to express the relation of each face of a crystal to the
+co-ordinate axes of reference was devised by Weiss, and other notations
+were proposed by F. Mohs, A. Levy (1825), C. F. Naumann (1826), and W.
+H. Miller (_Treatise on Crystallography_, Cambridge, 1839). For
+simplicity and utility in calculation the Millerian notation, which was
+first suggested by W. Whewell in 1825, surpasses all others and is now
+generally adopted, though those of Levy and Naumann are still in use.
+
+Although the peculiar optical properties of Iceland-spar had been much
+studied ever since 1669, it was not until much later that any connexion
+was traced between the optical characters of crystals and their external
+form. In 1818 Sir David Brewster found that crystals could be divided
+optically into three classes, viz. isotropic, uniaxial and biaxial, and
+that these classes corresponded with Weiss's four systems (crystals
+belonging to the cubic system being isotropic, those of the tetragonal
+and hexagonal being uniaxial, and the orthorhombic being biaxial).
+Optically biaxial crystals were afterwards shown by J. F. W. Herschel
+and F. E. Neumann in 1822 and 1835 to be of three kinds, corresponding
+with the orthorhombic, monoclinic and anorthic systems. It was,
+however, noticed by Brewster himself that there are many apparent
+exceptions, and the "optical anomalies" of crystals have been the
+subject of much study. The intimate relations existing between various
+other physical properties of crystals and their external form have
+subsequently been gradually traced.
+
+The symmetry of crystals, though recognized by Rome de l'Isle and Hauy,
+in that they replaced all similar edges and corners of their primitive
+forms by similar secondary planes, was not made use of in defining the
+six systems of crystallization, which depended solely on the lengths and
+inclinations of the axes of reference. It was, however, necessary to
+recognize that in each system there are certain forms which are only
+partially symmetrical, and these were described as hemihedral and
+tetartohedral forms (i.e. [Greek: hemi-], half-faced, and [Greek:
+tetartos], quarter-faced forms).
+
+As a consequence of Hauy's law of rational intercepts, or, as it is more
+often called, the law of rational indices, it was proved by J. F. C.
+Hessel in 1830 that thirty-two types of symmetry are possible in
+crystals. Hessel's work remained overlooked for sixty years, but the
+same important result was independently arrived at by the same method by
+A. Gadolin in 1867. At the present day, crystals are considered as
+belonging to one or other of thirty-two classes, corresponding with
+these thirty-two types of symmetry, and are grouped in six systems. More
+recently, theories of crystal structure have attracted attention, and
+have been studied as purely geometrical problems of the homogeneous
+partitioning of space.
+
+  The historical development of the subject is treated more fully in the
+  article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY in the 9th edition of this work. Reference may
+  also be made to C. M. Marx, _Geschichte der Crystallkunde_ (Karlsruhe
+  and Baden, 1825); W. Whewell, _History of the Inductive Sciences_,
+  vol. iii. (3rd ed., London, 1857); F. von Kobell, _Geschichte der
+  Mineralogie von 1650-1860_ (Munchen, 1864); L. Fletcher, _An
+  Introduction to the Study of Minerals_ (British Museum Guide-Book); L.
+  Fletcher, _Recent Progress in Mineralogy and Crystallography_
+  [1832-1894] (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1894).
+
+
+I. CRYSTALLINE FORM
+
+The fundamental laws governing the form of crystals are:--
+
+1. Law of the Constancy of Angle.
+
+2. Law of Symmetry.
+
+3. Law of Rational Intercepts or Indices.
+
+According to the first law, the angles between corresponding faces of
+all crystals of the same chemical substance are always the same and are
+characteristic of the substance.
+
+  (a) _Symmetry of Crystals._
+
+Crystals may, or may not, be symmetrical with respect to a point, a line
+or axis, and a plane; these "elements of symmetry" are spoken of as a
+centre of symmetry, an axis of symmetry, and a plane of symmetry
+respectively.
+
+_Centre of Symmetry._--Crystals which are centro-symmetrical have their
+faces arranged in parallel pairs; and the two parallel faces, situated
+on opposite sides of the centre (O in fig. 3) are alike in surface
+characters, such as lustre, striations, and figures of corrosion. An
+octahedron (fig. 3) is bounded by four pairs of parallel faces. Crystals
+belonging to many of the hemihedral and tetartohedral classes of the six
+systems of crystallization are devoid of a centre of symmetry.
+
+_Axes of Symmetry._--Consider the vertical axis joining the opposite
+corners a3 and a'3 of an octahedron (fig. 3) and passing through its
+centre O: by rotating the crystal about this axis through a right angle
+(90 deg.) it reaches a position such that the orientation of its faces
+is the same as before the rotation; the face a'1a'2a'3, for example,
+coming into the position of a1a'2a3. During a complete rotation of 360
+deg. (= 90 deg. X 4), the crystal occupies four such interchangeable
+positions. Such an axis of symmetry is known as a tetrad axis of
+symmetry. Other tetrad axes of the octahedron are a2a'2 and a1a1.
+
+An axis of symmetry of another kind is that which passing through the
+centre O is normal to a face of the octahedron. By rotating the crystal
+about such an axis Op (fig. 3) through an angle of 120 deg. those faces
+which are not perpendicular to the axis occupy interchangeable
+positions; for example, the face a1a3a2 comes into the position of
+a'2a1a'3, and a'2a1a'3 to a3a'2a'1. During a complete rotation of 360
+deg. (= 120 deg. X 3) the crystal occupies similar positions three
+times. This is a triad axis of symmetry; and there being four pairs of
+parallel faces on an octahedron, there are four triad axes (only one of
+which is drawn in the figure).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.
+
+Axes and Planes of Symmetry of an Octahedron.]
+
+An axis passing through the centre O and the middle points d of two
+opposite edges of the octahedron (fig. 4), i.e. parallel to the edges of
+the octahedron, is a dyad axis of symmetry. About this axis there may be
+rotation of 180 deg., and only twice in a complete revolution of 360
+deg. (= 180 deg. X 2) is the crystal brought into interchangeable
+positions. There being six pairs of parallel edges on an octahedron,
+there are consequently six dyad axes of symmetry.
+
+A regular octahedron thus possesses thirteen axes of symmetry (of three
+kinds), and there are the same number in the cube. Fig. 5 shows the
+three tetrad (or tetragonal) axes (aa), four triad (or trigonal) axes
+(pp), and six dyad (diad or diagonal) axes (dd).
+
+Although not represented in the cubic system, there is still another
+kind of axis of symmetry possible in crystals. This is the hexad axis or
+hexagonal axis, for which the angle of rotation is 60 deg., or one-sixth
+of 360 deg. There can be only one hexad axis of symmetry in any crystal
+(see figs. 77-80).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Axes of Symmetry of a Cube.]
+
+_Planes of Symmetry._--A regular octahedron can be divided into two
+equal and similar halves by a plane passing through the corners
+a1a3a'1a'3 and the centre O (fig. 3). One-half is the mirror reflection
+of the other in this plane, which is called a plane of symmetry.
+Corresponding planes on either side of a plane of symmetry are inclined
+to it at equal angles. The octahedron can also be divided by similar
+planes of symmetry passing through the corners a1a2a'1a'2 and
+a2a3a'2a'3. These three similar planes of symmetry are called the cubic
+planes of symmetry, since they are parallel to the faces of the cube
+(compare figs. 6-8, showing combinations of the octahedron and the
+cube).
+
+A regular octahedron can also be divided symmetrically into two equal
+and similar portions by a plane passing through the corners a3 and a'3,
+the middle points d of the edges a1a'2 and a'1a2, and the centre O (fig.
+4). This is called a dodecahedral plane of symmetry, being parallel to
+the face of the rhombic dodecahedron which truncates the edge a1a2
+(compare fig. 14, showing a combination of the octahedron and rhombic
+dodecahedron). Another similar plane of symmetry is that passing through
+the corners a3a'3 and the middle points of the edges a1a2 and a'1a'2,
+and altogether there are six dodecahedral planes of symmetry, two
+through each of the corners a1, a2, a3 of the octahedron.
+
+A regular octahedron and a cube are thus each symmetrical with respect
+to the following elements of symmetry: a centre of symmetry, thirteen
+axes of symmetry (of three kinds), and nine planes of symmetry (of two
+kinds). This degree of symmetry, which is the type corresponding to one
+of the classes of the cubic system, is the highest possible in crystals.
+As will be pointed out below, it is possible, however, for both the
+octahedron and the cube to be associated with fewer elements of symmetry
+than those just enumerated.
+
+  (b) _Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms._
+
+A single face a1a2a3 (figs. 3 and 4) may be repeated by certain of the
+elements of symmetry to give the whole eight faces of the octahedron.
+Thus, by rotation about the vertical tetrad axis a3a'3 the four upper
+faces are obtained; and by rotation of these about one or other of the
+horizontal tetrad axes the eight faces are derived. Or again, the same
+repetition of the faces may be arrived at by reflection across the three
+cubic planes of symmetry. (By reflection across the six dodecahedral
+planes of symmetry a tetrahedron only would result, but if this is
+associated with a centre of symmetry we obtain the octahedron.) Such a
+set of similar faces, obtained by symmetrical repetition, constitutes a
+"simple form." An octahedron thus consists of eight similar faces, and a
+cube is bounded by six faces all of which have the same surface
+characters, and parallel to each of which all the properties of the
+crystal are identical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Cube in combination with Octahedron.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Cubo-octahedron.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Octahedron in combination with Cube.]
+
+Examples of simple forms amongst crystallized substances are octahedra
+of alum and spinel and cubes of salt and fluorspar. More usually,
+however, two or more forms are present on a crystal, and we then have a
+combination of forms, or simply a "combination." Figs. 6, 7 and 8
+represent combinations of the octahedron and the cube; in the first the
+faces of the cube predominate, and in the third those of the octahedron;
+fig. 7 with the two forms equally developed is called a cubo-octahedron.
+Each of these combined forms has all the elements of symmetry proper to
+the simple forms.
+
+The simple forms, though referable to the same type of symmetry and axes
+of reference, are quite independent, and cannot be derived one from the
+other by symmetrical repetition, but, after the manner of Rome de
+l'Isle, they may be derived by replacing edges or corners by a face
+equally inclined to the faces forming the edges or corners; this is
+known as "truncation" (Lat. _truncare_, to cut off). Thus in fig. 6 the
+corners of the cube are symmetrically replaced or truncated by the faces
+of the octahedron, and in fig. 8 those of the octahedron are truncated
+by the cube.
+
+  (c) _Law of Rational Intercepts._
+
+For axes of reference, OX, OY, OZ (fig. 9), take any three edges formed
+by the intersection of three faces of a crystal. These axes are called
+the crystallographic axes, and the planes in which they lie the axial
+planes. A fourth face on the crystal intersecting these three axes in
+the points A, B, C is taken as the parametral plane, and the lengths OA
+: OB : OC are the parameters of the crystal. Any other face on the
+crystal may be referred to these axes and parameters by the ratio of
+the intercepts
+
+  OA   OB   OC
+  -- : -- : --.
+  h    k    l
+
+Thus for a face parallel to the plane A Be the intercepts are in the
+ratio OA : OB : Oe, or
+
+  OA   OB   OC
+  -- : -- : --
+  1    1    2
+
+and for a plane fgC' they are Of : Og : OC' or
+
+  OA   OB   OC'
+  -- : -- : ---.
+  2    3     1
+
+Now the important relation existing between the faces of a crystal is
+that the denominators h, k and l are always rational whole numbers,
+rarely exceeding 6, and usually 0, 1, 2 or 3. Written in the form (hkl),
+h referring to the axis OX, k to OY, and l to OZ, they are spoken of as
+the indices (Millerian indices) of the face. Thus of a face parallel to
+the plane ABC the indices are (111), of A Be they are (112), and of fgC'
+(231'). The indices are thus inversely proportional to the intercepts,
+and the law of rational intercepts is often spoken of as the "law of
+rational indices."
+
+The angular position of a face is thus completely fixed by its indices;
+and knowing the angles between the axial planes and the parametral plane
+all the angles of a crystal can be calculated when the indices of the
+faces are known.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Crystallographic axes of reference.]
+
+Although any set of edges formed by the intersection of three planes may
+be chosen for the crystallographic axes, it is in practice usual to
+select certain edges related to the symmetry of the crystal, and usually
+coincident with axes of symmetry; for then the indices will be simpler
+and all faces of the same simple form will have a similar set of
+indices. The angles between the axes and the ratio of the lengths of the
+parameters OA: OB: OC (usually given as a: b: c) are spoken of as the
+"elements" of a crystal, and are constant for and characteristic of all
+crystals of the same substance.
+
+The six systems of crystal forms, to be enumerated below, are defined by
+the relative inclinations of the crystallographic axes and the lengths
+of the parameters. In the cubic system, for example, the three
+crystallographic axes are taken parallel to the three tetrad axes of
+symmetry, i.e. parallel to the edges of the cube (fig. 5) or joining the
+opposite corners of the octahedron (fig. 3), and they are therefore all
+at right angles; the parametral plane (111) is a face of the octahedron,
+and the parameters are all of equal length. The indices of the eight
+faces of the octahedron will then be (111), (1'11), (11'1), (1'1'1),
+(111'), (1'11'), (11'1'), (1'1'1'). The symbol {111} indicates all the
+faces belonging to this simple form. The indices of the six faces of the
+cube are (100), (010), (001), (1'00), (01'0), (001'); here each face is
+parallel to two axes, i.e. intercepts them at infinity, so that the
+corresponding indices are zero.
+
+  (d) _Zones._
+
+An important consequence of the law of rational intercepts is the
+arrangement of the faces of a crystal in zones. All faces, whether they
+belong to one or more simple forms, which intersect in parallel edges
+are said to lie in the same zone. A line drawn through the centre O of
+the crystal parallel to these edges is called a zone-axis, and a plane
+perpendicular to this axis is called a zone-plane. On a cube, for
+example, there are three zones each containing four faces, the zone-axes
+being coincident with the three tetrad axes of symmetry. In the crystal
+of zircon (fig. 88) the eight prism-faces a, m, &c. constitute a zone,
+denoted by [a, m, a', &c.], with the vertical tetrad axis of symmetry
+as zone-axis. Again the faces [a, x, p, e', p', x"', a"] lie in
+another zone, as may be seen by the parallel edges of intersection of
+the faces in figs. 87 and 88; three other similar zones may be traced on
+the same crystal.
+
+The direction of the line of intersection (i.e. zone-axis) of any two
+planes (hkl) and (h1k1l1) is given by the zone-indices [uvw], where u =
+kl1 - lk1, v = lh1 - hl1, and w = hk1 - kh1, these being obtained from
+the face-indices by cross multiplication as follows:--
+
+   h   k   l   h   k   l
+         X   X   X
+   h1  k1  l1  h1  k1  l1.
+
+Any other face (h2k2l2) lying in this zone must satisfy the equation
+
+  h2u + k2v + l2w = 0.
+
+This important relation connecting the indices of a face lying in a zone
+with the zone-indices is known as Weiss's zone-law, having been first
+enunciated by C. S. Weiss. It may be pointed out that the indices of a
+face may be arrived at by adding together the indices of faces on either
+side of it and in the same zone; thus, (311) in fig. 12 lies at the
+intersections of the three zones [210, 101], [201, 110] and [211, 100],
+and is obtained by adding together each set of indices.
+
+  (e) _Projection and Drawing of Crystals._
+
+The shapes and relative sizes of the faces of a crystal being as a rule
+accidental, depending only on the distance of the faces from the centre
+of the crystal and not on their angular relations, it is often more
+convenient to consider only the directions of the normals to the faces.
+For this purpose projections are drawn, with the aid of which the zonal
+relations of a crystal are more readily studied and calculations are
+simplified.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Stereographic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.]
+
+The kind of projection most extensively used is the "stereographic
+projection." The crystal is considered to be placed inside a sphere from
+the centre of which normals are drawn to all the faces of the crystal.
+The points at which these normals intersect the surface of the sphere
+are called the poles of the faces, and by these poles the positions of
+the faces are fixed. The poles of all faces in the same zone on the
+crystal will lie on a great circle of the sphere, which are therefore
+called zone-circles. The calculation of the angles between the normals
+of faces and between zone-circles is then performed by the ordinary
+methods of spherical trigonometry. The stereographic projection,
+however, represents the poles and zone-circles on a plane surface and
+not on a spherical surface. This is achieved by drawing lines joining
+all the poles of the faces with the north or south pole of the sphere
+and finding their points of intersection with the plane of the
+equatorial great circle, or primitive circle, of the sphere, the
+projection being represented on this plane. In fig. 10 is shown the
+stereographic projection, or stereogram, of a cubic crystal; a^1, a^2,
+&c. are the poles of the faces of the cube. o^1, o^2, &c. those of the
+octahedron, and d^1, d^2, &c. those of the rhombic dodecahedron. The
+straight lines and circular arcs are the projections on the equatorial
+plane of the great circles in which the nine planes of symmetry
+intersect the sphere. A drawing of a crystal showing a combination of
+the cube, octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron is shown in fig. 11, in
+which the faces are lettered the same as the corresponding poles in the
+projection. From the zone-circles in the projection and the parallel
+edges in the drawing the zonal relations of the faces are readily seen:
+thus [a^1o^1d^5], [a^1d^1a^5], [a^5o^1d^2], &c. are zones. A
+stereographic projection of a rhombohedral crystal is given in fig. 72.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Clinographic Drawing of a Cubic Crystal.]
+
+Another kind of projection in common use is the "gnomonic projection"
+(fig. 12). Here the plane of projection is tangent to the sphere, and
+normals to all the faces are drawn from the centre of the sphere to
+intersect the plane of projection. In this case all zones are
+represented by straight lines. Fig. 12 is the gnomonic projection of a
+cubic crystal, the plane of projection being tangent to the sphere at
+the pole of an octahedral face (111), which is therefore in the centre
+of the projection. The indices of the several poles are given in the
+figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Gnomonic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.]
+
+In drawing crystals the simple plans and elevations of descriptive
+geometry (e.g. the plans in the lower part of figs. 87 and 88) have
+sometimes the advantage of showing the symmetry of a crystal, but they
+give no idea of solidity. For instance, a cube would be represented
+merely by a square, and an octahedron by a square with lines joining the
+opposite corners. True perspective drawings are never used in the
+representation of crystals, since for showing the zonal relations it is
+important to preserve the parallelism of the edges. If, however, the
+eye, or point of vision, is regarded as being at an infinite distance
+from the object all the rays will be parallel, and edges which are
+parallel on the crystal will be represented by parallel lines in the
+drawing. The plane of the drawing, in which the parallel rays joining
+the corners of the crystals and the eye intersect, may be either
+perpendicular or oblique to the rays; in the former case we have an
+"orthographic" ([Greek: orthos], straight; [Greek: graphein], to draw)
+drawing, and in the latter a "clinographic" ([Greek: klinein], to
+incline) drawing. Clinographic drawings are most frequently used for
+representing crystals. In representing, for example, a cubic crystal
+(fig. 11) a cube face a^5 is first placed parallel to the plane on which
+the crystal is to be projected and with one set of edges vertical; the
+crystal is then turned through a small angle about a vertical axis until
+a second cube face a^2 comes into view, and the eye is then raised so
+that a third cube face a^1 may be seen.
+
+  (f) _Crystal Systems and Classes._
+
+According to the mutual inclinations of the crystallographic axes of
+reference and the lengths intercepted on them by the parametral plane,
+all crystals fall into one or other of six groups or systems, in each of
+which there are several classes depending on the degree of symmetry. In
+the brief description which follows of these six systems and thirty-two
+classes of crystals we shall proceed from those in which the symmetry is
+most complex to those in which it is simplest.
+
+
+  1. CUBIC SYSTEM
+
+  (Isometric; Regular; Octahedral; Tesseral).
+
+  In this system the three crystallographic axes of reference are all at
+  right angles to each other and are equal in length. They are parallel
+  to the edges of the cube, and in the different classes coincide either
+  with tetrad or dyad axes of symmetry. Five classes are included in
+  this system, in all of which there are, besides other elements of
+  symmetry, four triad axes.
+
+  In crystals of this system the angle between any two faces P and Q
+  with the indices (hkl) and (pqr) is given by the equation
+
+                          hp + kq + lr
+    COS PQ = ----------------------------------------
+             [root] [(h^2 +k^2 +l^2) (p^2 +q^2 +r^2)].
+
+  The angles between faces with the same indices are thus the same in
+  all substances which crystallize in the cubic system: in other systems
+  the angles vary with the substance and are characteristic of it.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral ([Greek: holos], whole); Hexakis-octahedral).
+
+  Crystals of this class possess the full number of elements of symmetry
+  already mentioned above for the octahedron and the cube, viz. three
+  cubic planes of symmetry, six dodecahedral planes, three tetrad axes
+  of symmetry, four triad axes, six dyad axes, and a centre of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Rhombic Dodecahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Combination of Rhombic Dodecahedron and
+  Octahedron.]
+
+  There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz.:--
+
+  Cube (fig. 5). This is bounded by six square faces parallel to the
+  cubic planes of symmetry; it is known also as the hexahedron. The
+  angles between the faces are 90 deg., and the indices of the form are
+  {100}. Salt, fluorspar and galena crystallize in simple cubes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Triakis-octahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Combination of Triakis-octahedron and Cube.]
+
+  Octahedron (fig. 3). Bounded by eight equilateral triangular faces
+  perpendicular to the triad axes of symmetry. The angles between the
+  faces are 70 deg. 32' and 109 deg. 28', and the indices are {111}.
+  Spinel, magnetite and gold crystallize in simple octahedra.
+  Combinations of the cube and octahedron are shown in figs. 6-8.
+
+  Rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 13). Bounded by twelve rhomb-shaped faces
+  parallel to the six dodecahedral planes of symmetry. The angles
+  between the normals to adjacent faces are 60 deg., and between other
+  pairs of faces 90 deg.; the indices are {110}. Garnet frequently
+  crystallizes in this form. Fig. 14 shows the rhombic dodecahedron in
+  combination with the octahedron.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Icositetrahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Combination of Icositetrahedron and Cube.]
+
+  In these three simple forms of the cubic system (which are shown in
+  combination in fig. 11) the angles between the faces and the indices
+  are fixed and are the same in all crystals; in the four remaining
+  simple forms they are variable.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Combination of Icositetrahedron and
+  Octahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Combination of Icositetrahedron {211} and
+  Rhombic Dodecahedron.]
+
+  Triakis-octahedron (three-faced octahedron) (fig. 15). This solid is
+  bounded by twenty-four isosceles triangles, and may be considered as
+  an octahedron with a low triangular pyramid on each of its faces. As
+  the inclinations of the faces may vary there is a series of these
+  forms with the indices {221}, {331}, {332}, &c. or in general {hhk}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Tetrakis-hexahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Tetrakis-hexahedron.]
+
+  Icositetrahedron (fig. 17). Bounded by twenty-four trapezoidal faces,
+  and hence sometimes called a "trapezohedron." The indices are {211},
+  {311}, {322}, &c., or in general {hkk}. Analcite, leucite and garnet
+  often crystallize in the simple form {211}. Combinations are shown in
+  figs. 18-20. The plane A Be in fig. 9 is one face (112) of an
+  icositetrahedron; the indices of the remaining faces in this octant
+  being (211) and (121).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Combination of Tetrakis-hexahedron and Cube.]
+
+  Tetrakis-hexahedron (four-faced cube) (figs. 21 and 22). Like the
+  triakis-octahedron this solid is also bounded by twenty-four isosceles
+  triangles, but here grouped in fours over the cubic faces. The two
+  figures show how, with different inclinations of the faces, the form
+  may vary, approximating in fig. 21 to the cube and in fig. 22 to the
+  rhombic dodecahedron. The angles over the edges lettered A are
+  different from the angles over the edges lettered C. Each face is
+  parallel to one of the crystallographic axes and intercepts the two
+  others in different lengths; the indices are therefore {210}, {310},
+  {320}, &c., in general {hko}. Fluorspar sometimes crystallizes in the
+  simple form {310}; more usually, however, in combination with the cube
+  (fig. 23).
+
+  Hexakis-octahedron (fig. 24). Here each face of the octahedron is
+  replaced by six scalene triangles, so that altogether there are
+  forty-eight faces. This is the greatest number of faces possible for
+  any simple form in crystals. The faces are all oblique to the planes
+  and axes of symmetry, and they intercept the three crystallographic
+  axes in different lengths, hence the indices are all unequal, being in
+  general {hkl}, or in particular cases {321}, {421}, {432}, &c. Such a
+  form is known as the "general form" of the class. The interfacial
+  angles over the three edges of each triangle are all different. These
+  forms usually exist only in combination with other cubic forms (for
+  example, fig. 25), but {421} has been observed as a simple form on
+  fluorspar.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Hexakis-octahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Combination of Hexakis-octahedron and Cube.]
+
+  Several examples of substances which crystallize in this class have
+  been mentioned above under the different forms; many others might be
+  cited--for instance, the metals iron, copper, silver, gold, platinum,
+  lead, mercury, and the non-metallic elements silicon and phosphorus.
+
+    TETRAHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Tetrahedral-hemihedral; Hexakis-tetrahedral).
+
+  In this class there is no centre of symmetry nor cubic planes of
+  symmetry; the three tetrad axes become dyad axes of symmetry, and the
+  four triad axes are polar, i.e. they are associated with different
+  faces at their two ends. The other elements of symmetry (six
+  dodecahedral planes and six dyad axes) are the same as in the last
+  class.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Tetrahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Deltoid Dodecahedron.]
+
+  Of the seven simple forms, the cube, rhombic dodecahedron and
+  tetrakis-hexahedron are geometrically the same as before, though on
+  actual crystals the faces will have different surface characters. For
+  instance, the cube faces will be striated parallel to only one of the
+  diagonals (fig. 90), and etched figures on this face will be
+  symmetrical with respect to two lines, instead of four as in the last
+  class. The remaining simple forms have, however, only half the number
+  of faces as the corresponding form in the last class, and are spoken
+  of as "hemihedral with inclined faces."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Triakis-tetrahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Hexakis-tetrahedron.]
+
+  Tetrahedron (fig. 26). This is bounded by four equilateral triangles
+  and is identical with the regular tetrahedron of geometry. The angles
+  between the normals to the faces are 109 deg. 28'. It may be derived
+  from the octahedron by suppressing the alternate faces.
+
+  Deltoid[1] dodecahedron (fig. 27). This is the hemihedral form of the
+  triakis-octahedron; it has the indices {hhk} and is bounded by twelve
+  trapezoidal faces.
+
+  Triakis-tetrahedron (fig. 28). The hemihedral form {hkk} of the
+  icositetrahedron; it is bounded by twelve isosceles triangles arranged
+  in threes over the tetrahedron faces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Combination of two Tetrahedra.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Combination of Tetrahedron and Cube.]
+
+  Hexakis-tetrahedron (fig. 29). The hemihedral form {hkl} of the
+  hexakis-octahedron; it is bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles and
+  is the general form of the class.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Combination of Tetrahedron, Cube and Rhombic
+  Dodecahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Combination of Tetrahedron and Rhombic
+  Dodecahedron.]
+
+  Corresponding to each of these hemihedral forms there is another
+  geometrically similar form, differing, however, not only in
+  orientation, but also in actual crystals in the characters of the
+  faces. Thus from the octahedron there may be derived two tetrahedra
+  with the indices {111} and {1'11}, which may be distinguished as
+  positive and negative respectively. Fig. 30 shows a combination of
+  these two tetrahedra, and represents a crystal of blende, in which the
+  four larger faces are dull and striated, whilst the four smaller are
+  bright and smooth. Figs. 31-33 illustrate other tetrahedral
+  combinations.
+
+  Tetrahedrite, blende, diamond, boracite and pharmacosiderite are
+  substances which crystallize in this class.
+
+    PYRITOHEDRAL[2] CLASS
+
+    (Parallel-faced hemihedral; Dyakis-dodecahedral).
+
+  Crystals of this class possess three cubic planes of symmetry but no
+  dodecahedral planes. There are only three dyad axes of symmetry, which
+  coincide with the crystallographic axes; in addition there are three
+  triad axes and a centre of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34. Pentagonal Dodecahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35. Dyakis-dodecahedron.]
+
+  Here the cube, octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, triakis-octahedron
+  and icositetrahedron are geometrically the same as in the first class.
+  The characters of the faces will, however, be different; thus the cube
+  faces will be striated parallel to one edge only (fig. 89), and
+  triangular markings on the octahedron faces will be placed obliquely
+  to the edges. The remaining simple forms are "hemihedral with parallel
+  faces," and from the corresponding holohedral forms two hemihedral
+  forms, a positive and a negative, may be derived.
+
+  Pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 34). This is bounded by twelve
+  pentagonal faces, but these are not regular pentagons, and the angles
+  over the three sets of different edges are different. The regular
+  dodecahedron of geometry, contained by twelve regular pentagons, is
+  not a possible form in crystals. The indices are {hko}: as a simple
+  form {210} is of very common occurrence in pyrites.
+
+  Dyakis-dodecahedron (fig. 35). This is the hemihedral form of the
+  hexakis-octahedron and has the indices {hkl}; it is bounded by
+  twenty-four faces. As a simple form {321} is met with in pyrites.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron and
+  Cube.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron and
+  Octahedron.]
+
+  Combinations (figs. 36-39) of these forms with the cube and the
+  octahedron are common in pyrites. Fig. 37 resembles in general
+  appearance the regular icosahedron of geometry, but only eight of the
+  faces are equilateral triangles. Cobaltite, smaltite and other
+  sulphides and sulpharsenides of the pyrites group of minerals
+  crystallize in these forms. The alums also belong to this class; from
+  an aqueous solution they crystallize as simple octahedra, sometimes
+  with subordinate faces of the cube and rhombic dodecahedron, but from
+  an acid solution as octahedra combined with the pentagonal
+  dodecahedron {210}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron, Cube
+  and Octahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron e
+  {210}, Dyakis-dodecahedron f {321}, and Octahedron d {111}.]
+
+    PLAGIHEDRAL[3] CLASS
+
+    (Plagihedral-hemihedral; Pentagonal icositetrahedral; Gyroidal[4]).
+
+  In this class there are the full number of axes of symmetry (three
+  tetrad, four triad and six dyad), but no planes of symmetry and no
+  centre of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Pentagonal Icositetrahedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Tetrahedral Pentagonal Dodecahedron.]
+
+  Pentagonal icositetrahedron (fig. 40). This is the only simple form in
+  this class which differs geometrically from those of the holosymmetric
+  class. By suppressing either one or other set of alternate faces of
+  the hexakis-octahedron two pentagonal icositetrahedra {hkl} and {khl}
+  are derived. These are each bounded by twenty-four irregular
+  pentagons, and although similar to each other they are respectively
+  right- and left-handed, one being the mirror image of the other; such
+  similar but nonsuperposable forms are said to be enantiomorphous
+  ([Greek: enantios], opposite, and [Greek: morphe], form), and crystals
+  showing such forms sometimes rotate the plane of polarization of
+  plane-polarized light. Faces of a pentagonal icositetrahedron with
+  high indices have been very rarely observed on crystals of cuprite,
+  potassium chloride and ammonium chloride, but none of these are
+  circular polarizing.
+
+    TETARTOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedral).
+
+  Here, in addition to four polar triad axes, the only other elements of
+  symmetry are three dyad axes, which coincide with the crystallographic
+  axes. Six of the simple forms, the cube, tetrahedron, rhombic
+  dodecahedron, deltoid dodecahedron, triakis-tetrahedron and pentagonal
+  dodecahedron, are geometrically the same in this class as in either
+  the tetrahedral or pyritohedral classes. The general form is the
+  Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 41). This is bounded by
+  twelve irregular pentagons, and is a tetartohedral or quarter-faced
+  form of the hexakis-octahedron. Four such forms may be derived, the
+  indices of which are {hkl}, {khl}, {h'kl} and {k'hl}; the first pair
+  are enantiomorphous with respect to one another, and so are the last
+  pair. Barium nitrate, lead nitrate, sodium chlorate and sodium bromate
+  crystallize in this class, as also do the minerals ullmannite (NiSbS)
+  and langbeinite (K2Mg2(SO4)3).
+
+
+  2. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
+
+    (Pyramidal; Quadratic; Dimetric).
+
+  In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right
+  angles, but while two are equal in length and interchangeable the
+  third is of a different length. The unequal axis is spoken of as the
+  principal axis or morphological axis of the crystal, and it is always
+  placed in a vertical position; in five of the seven classes of this
+  system it coincides with the single tetrad axis of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.
+
+  Tetragonal Bipyramids.]
+
+  The parameters are a : a : c, where a refers to the two equal
+  horizontal axes, and c to the vertical axis; c may be either shorter
+  (as in fig. 42) or longer (fig. 43) than a. The ratio a : c is spoken
+  of as the axial ratio of a crystal, and it is dependent on the angles
+  between the faces. In all crystals of the same substance this ratio is
+  constant, and is characteristic of the substance; for other substances
+  crystallizing in the tetragonal system it will be different. For
+  example, in cassiterite it is given as a : c = 1 : 0.67232 or simply
+  as c = 0.67232, a being unity; and in anatase as c = 1.7771.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Ditetragonal bipyramidal).
+
+  Crystals of this class are symmetrical with respect to five planes,
+  which are of three kinds; one is perpendicular to the principal axis,
+  and the other four intersect in it; of the latter, two are
+  perpendicular to the equal crystallographic axes, while the two others
+  bisect the angles between them. There are five axes of symmetry, one
+  tetrad and two pairs of dyad, each perpendicular to a plane of
+  symmetry. Finally, there is a centre of symmetry.
+
+  There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz.:--
+
+  Tetragonal bipyramid of the first order (figs. 42 and 43). This is
+  bounded by eight equal isosceles triangles. Equal lengths are
+  intercepted on the two horizontal axes, and the indices are {111},
+  {221}, {112}, &c., or in general {hhl}. The parametral plane with the
+  intercepts a : a : c is a face of the bipyramid {111}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.
+
+  Tetragonal Bipyramids of the first and second orders.]
+
+  Tetragonal bipyramid of the second order. This is also bounded by
+  eight equal isosceles triangles, but differs from the last form in its
+  position, four of the faces being parallel to each of the horizontal
+  axes; the indices are therefore {101}, {201}, {102}, &c., or {hol}.
+
+  Fig. 44 shows the relation between the tetragonal bipyramids of the
+  first and second orders when the indices are {111} and {101}
+  respectively: ABB is the face (111), and ACC is (101). A combination
+  of these two forms is shown in fig. 45.
+
+  Ditetragonal bipyramid (fig. 46). This is the general form; it is
+  bounded by sixteen scalene triangles, and all the indices are unequal,
+  being {321}, &c., or {hkl}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Ditetragonal Bipyramid.]
+
+  Tetragonal prism of the first order. The four faces intersect the
+  horizontal axes in equal lengths and are parallel to the principal
+  axis; the indices are therefore {110}. This form does not enclose
+  space, and is therefore called an "open form" to distinguish it from a
+  "closed form" like the tetragonal bipyramids and all the forms of the
+  cubic system. An open form can exist only in combination with other
+  forms; thus fig. 47 is a combination of the tetragonal prism {110}
+  with the basal pinacoid {001}. If the faces (110) and (001) are of
+  equal size such a figure will be geometrically a cube, since all the
+  angles are right angles; the variety of apophyllite known as tesselite
+  crystallizes in this form.
+
+  Tetragonal prism of the second order. This has the same number of
+  faces as the last prism, but differs in position; each face being
+  parallel to the vertical axis and one of the horizontal axes; the
+  indices are {100}.
+
+  Ditetragonal prism. This consists of eight faces all parallel to the
+  principal axis and intercepting the horizontal axes in different
+  lengths; the indices are {210}, {320}, &c., or {hko}.
+
+  Basal pinacoid (from [Greek: pinax], a tablet). This consists of a
+  single pair of parallel faces perpendicular to the principal axis. It
+  is therefore an open form and can exist only in combination (fig. 47).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47. Combination of Tetragonal Prism and Basal
+  Pinacoid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49.
+
+  Combinations of Tetragonal Prisms and Pyramids.]
+
+  Combinations of holohedral tetragonal forms are shown in figs. 47-49;
+  fig. 48 is a combination of a bipyramid of the first order with one of
+  the second order and the prism of the first order; fig. 49 a
+  combination of a bipyramid of the first order with a ditetragonal
+  bipyramid and the prism of the second order. Compare also figs. 87 and
+  88.
+
+  Examples of substances which crystallize in this class are
+  cassiterite, rutile, anatase, zircon, thorite, vesuvianite,
+  apophyllite, phosgenite, also boron, tin, mercuric iodide.
+
+    SCALENOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Bisphenoidal-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are only three dyad axes and two planes of symmetry, the
+  former coinciding with the crystallographic axes and the latter
+  bisecting the angles between the horizontal pair. The dyad axis of
+  symmetry, which in this class coincides with the principal axis of the
+  crystal, has certain of the characters of a tetrad axis, and is
+  sometimes called a tetrad axis of "alternating symmetry"; a face on
+  the upper half of the crystal if rotated through 90 deg. about this
+  axis and reflected across the equatorial plane falls into the position
+  of a face on the lower half of the crystal. This kind of symmetry,
+  with simultaneous rotation about an axis and reflection across a
+  plane, is also called "composite symmetry."
+
+  In this class all except two of the simple forms are geometrically the
+  same as in the holosymmetric class.
+
+  Bisphenoid ([Greek: sphen], a wedge) (fig. 50). This is a double
+  wedge-shaped solid bounded by four equal isosceles triangles; it has
+  the indices {111}, {211}, {112}, &c., or in general {hhl}. By
+  suppressing either one or other set of alternate faces of the
+  tetragonal bipyramid of the first order (fig. 42) two bisphenoids are
+  derived, in the same way that two tetrahedra are derived from the
+  regular octahedron.
+
+  Tetragonal scalenohedron or ditetragonal bisphenoid (fig. 51). This is
+  bounded by eight scalene triangles and has the indices {hkl}. It may
+  be considered as the hemihedral form of the ditetragonal bipyramid.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Tetragonal Bisphenoids.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Tetragonal Scalenohedron.]
+
+  The crystal of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) represented in fig. 52 is a
+  combination of two bisphenoids (P and P'), two bipyramids of the
+  second order (b and c), and the basal pinacoid (a). Stannite
+  (Cu2FeSnS4), acid potassium phosphate (H2KPO4), mercuric cyanide, and
+  urea (CO(NH2)2) also crystallize in this class.
+
+    BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Parallel-faced hemihedral).
+
+  The elements of symmetry are a tetrad axis with a plane perpendicular
+  to it, and a centre of symmetry. The simple forms are the same here as
+  in the holosymmetric class, except the prism {hko}, which has only
+  four faces, and the bipyramid {hkl}, which has eight faces and is
+  distinguished as a "tetragonal pyramid of the third order."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--Crystal of Chalcopyrite.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--Crystal of Fergusonite.]
+
+  Fig. 53 shows a combination of a tetragonal prism of the first order
+  with a tetragonal bipyramid of the third order and the basal pinacoid,
+  and represents a crystal of fergusonite. Scheelite (q.v.), scapolite
+  (q.v.), and erythrite (C4H10O4) also crystallize in this class.
+
+    PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).
+
+  Here the only element of symmetry is the tetrad axis. The pyramids of
+  the first {hhl}, second {hol} and third {hkl} orders have each only
+  four faces at one or other end of the crystal, and are hemimorphic.
+  All the simple forms are thus open forms.
+
+  Examples are wulfenite (PbMoO4) and barium antimonyl dextro-tartrate
+  (Ba(SbO)2(C4H4O6).H2O).
+
+    DITETRAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are two pairs of vertical planes of symmetry intersecting
+  in the tetrad axis. The pyramids {hhl} and {hol} and the bipyramid
+  {hkl} are all hemimorphic.
+
+  Examples are iodosuccimide (C4H4O2NI), silver fluoride (AgF.H2O), and
+  penta-erythrite (C5H12O4). No examples are known amongst minerals.
+
+    TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Trapezohedral-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are the full number of axes of symmetry, but no planes or
+  centre of symmetry. The general form {hkl} is bounded by eight
+  trapezoidal faces and is the tetragonal trapezohedron.
+
+  Examples are nickel sulphate (NiSO4.6H2O), guanidine carbonate
+  ((CH5N3)2H2CO3), strychnine sulphate ((C21H22N2O2)2.H2SO4.6H2O).
+
+    BISPHENOIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Bisphenoidal-tetartohedral).
+
+  Here there is only a single dyad axis of symmetry, which coincides
+  with the principal axis. All the forms, except the prisms and basal
+  pinacoid, are sphenoids. Crystals possessing this type of symmetry
+  have not yet been observed.
+
+
+  3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM
+
+    (Rhombic; Prismatic; Trimetric).
+
+  In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right
+  angles, but they are of different lengths and not interchangeable. The
+  parameters, or axial ratios, are a: b: c, these referring to the axes
+  OX, OY and OZ respectively. The choice of a vertical axis, OZ = c, is
+  arbitrary, and it is customary to place the longer of the two
+  horizontal axes from left to right (OY = b) and take it as unity: this
+  is called the "macro-axis" or "macro-diagonal" (from [Greek: makros],
+  long), whilst the shorter horizontal axis (OX = a) is called the
+  "brachy-axis" or "brachy-diagonal" (from [Greek: brachus], short). The
+  axial ratios are constant for crystals of any one substance and are
+  characteristic of it; for example, in barytes (BaSO4), a: b: c =
+  0.8152 : 1 : 1.3136; in anglesite (PbSO4), a: b: c = 0.7852: 1 :
+  1.2894; in cerussite (PbCO3), a : b : c = 0.6100 : 1 : 0.7230.
+
+  There are three symmetry-classes in this system:--
+
+    HOLOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Bipyramidal).
+
+  Here there are three dissimilar dyad axes of symmetry, each coinciding
+  with a crystallographic axis; perpendicular to them are three
+  dissimilar planes of symmetry; there is also a centre of symmetry.
+  There are seven kinds of simple forms:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.
+
+  Orthorhombic Bipyramids.]
+
+  Bipyramid (figs. 54 and 55). This is the general form and is bounded
+  by eight scalene triangles; the indices are {111}, {211}, {221},
+  {112}, {321}, {123}, &c., or in general {hkl}. The crystallographic
+  axes join opposite corners of these pyramids and in the fundamental
+  bipyramid {111} the parametral plane has the intercepts a: b: c. This
+  is the only closed form in this class; the others are open forms and
+  can exist only in combination. Sulphur often crystallizes in simple
+  bipyramids.
+
+  Prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the vertical axis and
+  intercepting the horizontal axes in the lengths a and b or in any
+  multiples of these; the indices are therefore {110}, {210}, {120} or
+  {hko}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Macro-prism and Brachy-pinacoid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--Brachy-prism and Macro-pinacoid.]
+
+  Macro-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the macro-axis,
+  and has the indices {101}, {201} ... or {hol}.
+
+  Brachy-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the brachy-axis,
+  and has the indices {011}, {021} ... {okl}. The macro- and
+  brachy-prisms are often called "domes."
+
+  Basal pinacoid, consisting of a pair of parallel faces perpendicular
+  to the vertical axis; the indices are {001}. The macro-pinacoid {100}
+  and the brachy-pinacoid {010} each consist of a pair of parallel faces
+  respectively parallel to the macro- and the brachy-axis.
+
+  Figs. 56-58 show combinations of these six open forms, and fig. 59 a
+  combination of the macro-pinacoid (a), brachy-pinacoid (b), a prism
+  (m), a macro-prism (d), a brachy-prism (k), and a bipyramid (u).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--Prism and Basal Pinacoid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--Crystal of Hypersthene.
+
+  Holohedral Orthorhombic Combinations.]
+
+  Examples of substances crystallizing in this class are extremely
+  numerous; amongst minerals are sulphur, stibnite, cerussite,
+  chrysoberyl, topaz, olivine, nitre, barytes, columbite and many
+  others; and amongst artificial products iodine, potassium
+  permanganate, potassium sulphate, benzene, barium formate, &c.
+
+    PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic).
+
+  Here there is only one dyad axis in which two planes of symmetry
+  intersect. The crystals are usually so placed that the dyad axis
+  coincides with the vertical crystallographic axis, and the planes of
+  symmetry are also vertical.
+
+  The pyramid {hkl} has only four faces at one end or other of the
+  crystal. The macro-prism and the brachy-prism of the last class are
+  here represented by the macro-dome and brachy-dome respectively, so
+  called because of the resemblance of the pair of equally sloped faces
+  to the roof of a house. The form {001} is a single plane at the top of
+  the crystal, and is called a "pedion"; the parallel pedion {001'}, if
+  present at the lower end of the crystal, constitutes a different form.
+  The prisms {hko} and the macro- and brachy-pinacoids are geometrically
+  the same in this class as in the last. Crystals of this class are
+  therefore differently developed at the two ends and are said to be
+  "hemimorphic."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--Crystal of Hemimorphite.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--Orthorhombic Bisphenoid.]
+
+  Fig. 60 shows a crystal of the mineral hemimorphite (H2Zn2SiO5) which
+  is a combination of the brachy-pinacoid {010} and a prism, with the
+  pedion (001), two brachy-domes and two macro-domes at the upper end,
+  and a pyramid at the lower end. Examples of other substances belonging
+  to this class are struvite (NH4MgPO4.6H2O), bertrandite (H2Be4Si2O9),
+  resorcin, and picric acid.
+
+    BISPHENOIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are three dyad axes, but no planes of symmetry and no
+  centre of symmetry. The general form {hkl} is a bisphenoid (fig. 61)
+  bounded by four scalene triangles. The other simple forms are
+  geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class.
+
+  Examples: epsomite (Epsom salts, MgSO4.7H2O), goslarite (ZnSO4.7H2O),
+  silver nitrate, sodium potassium dextro-tartrate (seignette salt,
+  NaKC4H4O6.4H2O), potassium antimonyl dextro-tartrate (tartar-emetic,
+  K(SbO)C4H4O6), and asparagine (C4H8N2O8.H2O).
+
+
+  4. MONOCLINIC[5] SYSTEM
+
+    (Oblique; Monosymmetric).
+
+  In this system two of the angles between the crystallographic axes are
+  right angles, but the third angle is oblique, and the axes are of
+  unequal lengths. The axis which is perpendicular to the other two is
+  taken as OY = b (fig. 62) and is called the ortho-axis or
+  ortho-diagonal. The choice of the other two axes is arbitrary; the
+  vertical axis (OZ = c) is usually taken parallel to the edges of a
+  prominently developed prismatic zone, and the clino-axis or
+  clino-diagonal (OX = a) parallel to the zone-axis of some other
+  prominent zone on the crystal. The acute angle between the axes OX and
+  OZ is usually denoted as [beta], and it is necessary to know its
+  magnitude, in addition to the axial ratios a : b : c, before the
+  crystal is completely determined. As in other systems, except the
+  cubic, these elements, a : b : c and [beta], are characteristic of the
+  substance. Thus for gypsum a : b : c = 0.6899 : 1 : 0.4124; [beta] =
+  80 deg. 42'; for orthoclase a : b : c = 0.6585 : 1 : 0.5554; [beta] =
+  63 deg. 57'; and for cane-sugar a : b : c = 1.2595 : 1 : 0.8782;
+  [beta] = 76 deg. 30'.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Prismatic).
+
+  Here there is a single plane of symmetry perpendicular to which is a
+  dyad axis; there is also a centre of symmetry. The dyad axis coincides
+  with the ortho-axis OY, and the vertical axis OZ and the clino-axis OX
+  lie in the plane of symmetry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--Monoclinic Axes and Hemi-pyramid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--Crystal of Augite.]
+
+  All the forms are open, being either pinacoids or prisms; the former
+  consisting of a pair of parallel faces, and the latter of four faces
+  intersecting in parallel edges and with a rhombic cross-section. The
+  pair of faces parallel to the plane of symmetry is distinguished as
+  the "clino-pinacoid" and has the indices {010}. The other pinacoids
+  are all perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (and parallel to the
+  ortho-axis); the one parallel to the vertical axis is called the
+  "ortho-pinacoid" {100}, whilst that parallel to the clino-axis is the
+  "basal pinacoid" {001}; pinacoids not parallel to the arbitrarily
+  chosen clino- and vertical axes may have the indices {101}, {201},
+  {102} ... {hol} or {1'01}, {2'01}, {1'02} ... {h'ol}, according to
+  whether they lie in the obtuse or the acute axial angle. Of the
+  prisms, those with edges (zone-axis) parallel to the clino-axis, and
+  having indices {011}, {021}, {012} ... {okl}, are called
+  "clino-prisms"; those with edges parallel to the vertical axis, and
+  with the indices {110}, {210}, {120} ... {hko}, are called simply
+  "prisms." Prisms with edges parallel to neither of the axes OX and OY
+  have the indices {111}, {221}, {211}, {321} ... {hkl} or {1'11} ...
+  {h'kl}, and are usually called "hemi-pyramids" (fig. 62); they are
+  distinguished as negative or positive according to whether they lie in
+  the obtuse or the acute axial angle [beta].
+
+  Fig. 63 represents a crystal of augite bounded by the clino-pinacoid
+  (l), the ortho-pinacoid (r), a prism (M), and a hemi-pyramid (s).
+
+  The substances which crystallize in this class are extremely numerous:
+  amongst minerals are gypsum, orthoclase, the amphiboles, pyroxenes and
+  micas, epidote, monazite, realgar, borax, mirabilite (Na2SO4.10 H2O),
+  melanterite (FeSO4.7H2O) and many others; amongst artificial products
+  are monoclinic sulphur, barium chloride (BaCl2.2H2O), potassium
+  chlorate, potassium ferrocyanide (K4Fe(CN)6.3H2O), oxalic acid
+  (C2O4H2.2H2O), sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2.3H2O) and naphthalene.
+
+    HEMIMORPHIC CLASS
+
+    (Sphenoidal).
+
+  In this class the only element of symmetry is a single dyad axis,
+  which is polar in character, being dissimilar at the two ends.
+
+  The form {010} perpendicular to the axis of symmetry consists of a
+  single plane or pedion; the parallel face is dissimilar in character
+  and belongs to the pedion {01'0}. The pinacoids {100}, {001}, {hol}
+  and {h'ol} parallel to the axis of symmetry are geometrically the
+  same in this class as in the holosymmetric class. The remaining forms
+  consist each of only two planes on the same side of the axial plane
+  XOZ and equally inclined to the dyad axis (e.g. in fig. 62 the two
+  planes XYZ and X'YZ'); such a wedge-shaped form is sometimes called a
+  sphenoid.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--Enantiomorphous Crystals of Tartaric Acid.]
+
+  Fig. 64 shows two crystals of tartaric acid, a a right-handed crystal
+  of dextro-tartaric acid, and b a left-handed crystal of laevo-tartaric
+  acid. The two crystals are enantiomorphous, i.e. although they have
+  the same interfacial angles they are not superposable, one being the
+  mirror image of the other. Other examples are potassium
+  dextro-tartrate, cane-sugar, milk-sugar, quercite, lithium sulphate
+  (Li2SO4.H2O); amongst minerals the only example is the hydrocarbon
+  fichtelite (C5H8).
+
+    CLINOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemihedral; Domatic).
+
+  Crystals of this class are symmetrical only with respect to a single
+  plane. The only form which is here geometrically the same as in the
+  holosymmetric class is the clino-pinacoid {010}. The forms
+  perpendicular to the plane of symmetry are all pedions, consisting of
+  single planes with the indices {100}, {1'00}, {001}, {001'}, {hol},
+  &c. The remaining forms, {hko}, {okl} and {hkl}, are domes or
+  "gonioids" ([Greek: gonia], an angle, and [Greek: eidos], form),
+  consisting of two planes equally inclined to the plane of symmetry.
+
+  Examples are potassium tetrathionate (K2S4O6), hydrogen trisodium
+  hypophosphate (HNa3P2O6.9H2O); and amongst minerals, clinohedrite
+  (H2ZnCaSiO4) and scolectite.
+
+
+  5. ANORTHIC SYSTEM
+
+    (Triclinic).
+
+  In the anorthic (from [Greek: an], privative, and [Greek: orthos],
+  right) or triclinic system none of the three crystallographic axes are
+  at right angles, and they are all of unequal lengths. In addition to
+  the parameters a : b : c, it is necessary to know the angles, [alpha],
+  [beta], and [gamma], between the axes. In anorthite, for example,
+  these elements are a : b : c = 0.6347 : 1 : 0.5501; [alpha] = 93 deg.
+  13', [beta] = 115 deg. 55', [gamma] = 91 deg. 12'.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Pinacoidal).
+
+  Here there is only a centre of symmetry. All the forms are pinacoids,
+  each consisting of only two parallel faces. The indices of the three
+  pinacoids parallel to the axial planes are {100}, {010} and {001};
+  those of pinacoids parallel to only one axis are {hko}, {hol} and
+  {okl}; and the general form is {hkl}.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Crystal of Axinite.]
+
+  Several minerals crystallize in this class; for example, the
+  plagioclastic felspars, microcline, axinite (fig. 65), cyanite,
+  amblygonite, chalcanthite (CuSO4.5H2O), sassolite (H3BO3); among
+  artificial substances are potassium bichromate, racemic acid
+  (C4H6O6.2H2O), dibrom-para-nitrophenol, &c.
+
+    ASYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Hemihedral, Pediad).
+
+  Crystals of this class are devoid of any elements of symmetry. All the
+  forms are pedions, each consisting of a single plane; they are thus
+  hemihedral with respect to crystals of the last class. Although there
+  is a total absence of symmetry, yet the faces are arranged in zones on
+  the crystals.
+
+  Examples are calcium thiosulphate (CaS2O3.6H2O) and hydrogen strontium
+  dextro-tartrate ((C4H4O6H)2Sr.5H2O); there is no example amongst
+  minerals.
+
+
+  6. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
+
+  Crystals of this system are characterized by the presence of a single
+  axis of either triad or hexad symmetry, which is spoken of as the
+  "principal" or "morphological" axis. Those with a triad axis are
+  grouped together in the rhombohedral or trigonal division, and those
+  with a hexad axis in the hexagonal division. By some authors these two
+  divisions are treated as separate systems; or again the rhombohedral
+  forms may be considered as hemihedral developments of the hexagonal.
+  On the other hand, hexagonal forms may be considered as a combination
+  of two rhombohedral forms.
+
+  Owing to the peculiarities of symmetry associated with a single triad
+  or hexad axis, the crystallographic axes of reference are different in
+  this system from those used in the five other systems of crystals. Two
+  methods of axial representation are in common use; rhombohedral axes
+  being usually used for crystals of the rhombohedral division, and
+  hexagonal axes for those of the hexagonal division; though sometimes
+  either one or the other set is employed in both divisions.
+
+  Rhomobohedral axes are taken parallel to the three sets of edges of a
+  rhombohedron (fig. 66). They are inclined to one another at equal
+  oblique angles, and they are all equally inclined to the principal
+  axis; further, they are all of equal length and are interchangeable.
+  With such a set of axes there can be no statement of an axial ratio,
+  but the angle between the axes (or some other angle which may be
+  calculated from this) may be given as a constant of the substance.
+  Thus in calcite the rhombohedral angle (the angle between two faces of
+  the fundamental rhombohedron) is 74 deg. 55', or the angle between the
+  normal to a face of this rhombohedron and the principal axis is 44
+  deg. 36(1/2)'.
+
+  Hexagonal axes are four in number, viz. a vertical axis coinciding
+  with the principal axis of the crystal, and three horizontal axes
+  inclined to one another at 60 deg. in a plane perpendicular to the
+  principal axis. The three horizontal axes, which are taken either
+  parallel or perpendicular to the faces of a hexagonal prism (fig. 71)
+  or the edge of a hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), are equal in length
+  (a) but the vertical axis is of a different length (c). The indices of
+  planes referred to such a set of axes are four in number; they are
+  written as {hikl}, the first three (h + i + k = 0) referring to the
+  horizontal axes and the last to the vertical axis. The ratio a : c of
+  the parameters, or the axial ratio, is characteristic of all the
+  crystals of the same substance. Thus for beryl (including emerald) a :
+  c = 1 : 0.4989 (often written c = 0.4989); for zinc c = 1.3564.
+
+
+  _Rhombohedral Division._
+
+  In the rhomobohedral or trigonal division of the hexagonal system
+  there are seven symmetry-classes, all of which possess a single triad
+  axis of symmetry.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Ditrigonal scalenohedral).
+
+  In this class, which presents the commonest type of symmetry of the
+  hexagonal system, the triad axis is associated with three similar
+  planes of symmetry inclined to one another at 60 deg. and intersecting
+  in the triad axis; there are also three similar dyad axes, each
+  perpendicular to a plane of symmetry, and a centre of symmetry. The
+  seven simple forms are:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.
+
+  Direct and Inverse Rhombohedra.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--Scalenohedron.]
+
+  Rhombohedron (figs. 66 and 67), consisting of six rhomb-shaped faces
+  with the edges all of equal lengths: the faces are perpendicular to
+  the planes of symmetry. There are two sets of rhombohedra,
+  distinguished respectively as direct and inverse; those of one set
+  (fig. 66) are brought into the orientation of the other set (fig. 67)
+  by a rotation of 60 deg. or 180 deg. about the principal axis. For the
+  fundamental rhombohedron, parallel to the edges of which are the
+  crystallographic axes of reference, the indices are {100}. Other
+  rhombohedra may have the indices {211}, {41'1'}, {110}, {221'},
+  {111'}, &c., or in general {hkk}. (Compare fig. 72; for figures of
+  other rhombohedra see CALCITE.)
+
+  Scalenohedron (fig. 68), bounded by twelve scalene triangles, and with
+  the general indices {hkl}. The zig-zag lateral edges coincide with the
+  similar edges of a rhombohedron, as shown in fig. 69; if the indices
+  of the inscribed rhombohedron be {100}, the indices of the
+  scalenohedron represented in the figure are {201'}. The scalenohedron
+  {201'} is a characteristic form of calcite, which for this reason is
+  sometimes called "dog-tooth-spar." The angles over the three edges of
+  a face of a scalenohedron are all different; the angles over three
+  alternate polar edges are more obtuse than over the other three polar
+  edges. Like the two sets of rhombohedra, there are also direct and
+  inverse scalenohedra, which may be similar in form and angles, but
+  different in orientation and indices.
+
+  Hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), bounded by twelve isosceles triangles
+  each of which are equally inclined to two planes of symmetry. The
+  indices are {210}, {412'}, &c., or in general (_hkl_), where h - 2k +
+  l = 0.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--Scalenohedron with inscribed Rhombohedron.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--Hexagonal Bipyramid.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--Hexagonal Prism and Basal Pinacoid.]
+
+  Hexagonal prism of the first order (21'1'), consisting of six faces
+  parallel to the principal axis and perpendicular to the planes of
+  symmetry; the angles between (the normals to) the faces are 60 deg.
+
+  Hexagonal prism of the second order (101'), consisting of six faces
+  parallel to the principal axis and parallel to the planes of symmetry.
+  The faces of this prism are inclined to 30 deg. to those of the last
+  prism.
+
+  Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the
+  principal axis and inclined to the planes of symmetry. There are two
+  sets of angles between the faces. The indices are {32'1'}, {53'2'} ...
+  {hk'l}, where h + k + l = 0.
+
+  Basal pinacoid {111}, consisting of a pair of parallel faces
+  perpendicular to the principal axis.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--Stereographic Projection of a Holosymmetric
+  Rhombohedral Crystal.]
+
+  Fig. 71 shows a combination of a hexagonal prism (m) with the basal
+  pinacoid (c). For figures of other combinations see CALCITE and
+  CORUNDUM. The relation between rhombohedral forms and their indices
+  are best studied with the aid of a stereographic projection (fig. 72);
+  in this figure the thicker lines are the projections of the three
+  planes of symmetry, and on these lie the poles of the rhombohedra (six
+  of which are indicated).
+
+  Numerous substances, both natural and artificial, crystallize in this
+  class; for example, calcite, chalybite, calamine, corundum (ruby and
+  sapphire), haematite, chabazite; the elements arsenic, antimony,
+  bismuth, selenium, tellurium and perhaps graphite; also ice, sodium
+  nitrate, thymol, &c.
+
+    DITRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are three similar planes of symmetry intersecting in the
+  triad axis; there are no dyad axes and no centre of symmetry. The
+  triad axis is uniterminal and polar, and the crystals are differently
+  developed at the two ends; crystals of this class are therefore
+  pyro-electric. The forms are all open forms:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--Crystal of Tourmaline.]
+
+  Trigonal pyramid {hkk}, consisting of the three faces which correspond
+  to the three upper or the three lower faces of a rhombohedron of the
+  holosymmetric class.
+
+  Ditrigonal pyramid {hkl}, of six faces, corresponding to the six upper
+  or lower faces of the scalenohedron.
+
+  Hexagonal pyramid (hkl) where (h - 2k + l = 0), of six faces,
+  corresponding to the six upper or lower faces of the hexagonal
+  bipyramid.
+
+  Trigonal prism {21'1'} or {2'11}, two forms each consisting of three
+  faces parallel to principal axis and perpendicular to the planes of
+  symmetry.
+
+  Hexagonal prism {101'}, which is geometrically the same as in the last
+  class.
+
+  Ditrigonal prism {hk'l'} (where h + k + l = 0), of six faces parallel
+  to the principal axis, and with two sets of angles between them.
+
+  Basal pedion (111) or (1'1'1'), each consisting of a single plane
+  perpendicular to the principal axis.
+
+  Fig. 73 represents a crystal of tourmaline with the trigonal prism
+  (21'1'), hexagonal prism (101'), and a trigonal pyramid at each end.
+  Other substances crystallizing in this class are pyrargyrite,
+  proustite, iodyrite (AgI), greenockite, zincite, spangolite, sodium
+  lithium sulphate, tolylphenylketone.
+
+    TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Trapezohedral-hemihedral).
+
+  Here there are three similar dyad axes inclined to one another at 60
+  deg. and perpendicular to the triad axis. There are no planes or
+  centre of symmetry. The dyad axes are uniterminal, and are
+  pyro-electric axes. Crystals of most substances of this class rotate
+  the plane of polarization of a beam of light.
+
+  FIG. 74.--Trigonal Trapezohedron.
+
+  FIG. 75.--Trigonal Bipyramid.
+
+  In this class the rhombohedra {hkk}, the hexagonal prism {21'1'}, and
+  the basal pinacoid {111} are geometrically the same as in the
+  holosymmetric class; the trigonal prism {101'} and the ditrigonal
+  prisms are as in the ditrigonal pyramidal class. The remaining simple
+  forms are:--
+
+  Trigonal trapezohedron (fig. 74), bounded by six trapezoidal faces.
+  There are two complementary and enantiomorphous trapezohedra, {hkl}
+  and {hlk}, derivable from the scalenohedron.
+
+  Trigonal bipyramid (fig. 75), bounded by six isosceles triangles; the
+  indices are {hkl}, where h - 2k + l = 0, as in the hexagonal
+  bipyramid.
+
+  The only minerals crystallizing in this class are quartz (q.v.) and
+  cinnabar, both of which rotate the plane of a beam of polarized light
+  transmitted along the triad axis. Other examples are dithionates of
+  lead (PbS2O6.4H2O), calcium and strontium, and of potassium (K2S2O6),
+  benzil, matico-stearoptene.
+
+    RHOMBOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Parallel-faced hemihedral).
+
+  The only elements of symmetry are the triad axis and a centre of
+  symmetry. The general form {hkl} is a rhombohedron, and is a
+  hemihedral form, with parallel faces, of the scalenohedron. The form
+  {hkl}, where h - 2k + l = 0, is also a rhombohedron, being the
+  hemihedral form of the hexagonal bipyramid. The dihexagonal prism
+  {hk'l'} of the holosymmetric class becomes here a hexagonal prism. The
+  rhombohedra (hkk), hexagonal prisms {21'1'} and {101'}, and the basal
+  pinacoid {111} are geometrically the same in this class as in the
+  holosymmetric class.
+
+  Fig. 76 represents a crystal of dioptase with the fundamental
+  rhombohedron r {100} and the hexagonal prism of the second order m
+  {101'} combined with the rhombohedron s {031'}.
+
+  Examples of minerals which crystallize in this class are phenacite,
+  dioptase, willemite, dolomite, ilmenite and pyrophanite: amongst
+  artificial substances is ammonium periodate ((NH4)4I2O9.3H2O).
+
+    TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).
+
+  Here there is only the triad axis of symmetry, which is uniterminal.
+  The general form {hkl} is a trigonal pyramid consisting of three faces
+  at one end of the crystal. All other forms, in which the faces are
+  neither parallel nor perpendicular to the triad axis, are trigonal
+  pyramids. All the prisms are trigonal prisms; and perpendicular to
+  these are two pedions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--Crystal of Dioptase.]
+
+  The only substance known to crystallize in this class is sodium
+  periodate (NaIO4.3H2O), the crystals of which are circularly
+  polarizing.
+
+    TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+  Here there is a plane of symmetry perpendicular to the triad axis. The
+  trigonal pyramids of the last class are here trigonal bipyramids (fig.
+  75); the prisms are all trigonal prisms, and parallel to the plane of
+  symmetry is the basal pinacoid. No example is known for this class.
+
+    DITRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+  Here there are three similar planes of symmetry intersecting in the
+  triad axis, and perpendicular to them is a fourth plane of symmetry;
+  at the intersection of the three vertical planes with the horizontal
+  plane are three similar dyad axes; there is no centre of symmetry.
+
+  The general form is bounded by twelve scalene triangles and is a
+  ditrigonal bipyramid. Like the general form of the last class, this
+  has two sets of indices {hkl, p'q'r'}, (hkl) for faces above the
+  equatorial plane of symmetry and (p'q'r') for faces below: with
+  hexagonal axes there would be only one set of indices. The hexagonal
+  bipyramids, the hexagonal prism {101'} and the basal pinacoid {111}
+  are geometrically the same in this class as in the holosymmetric
+  class. The trigonal prism {21'1'} and ditrigonal prisms {hkl} are the
+  same as in the ditrigonal pyramidal class.
+
+  The only representative of this type of symmetry is the mineral
+  benitoite (q.v.).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--Dihexagonal Bipyramid.]
+
+
+  _Hexagonal Division._
+
+  In crystals of this division of the hexagonal system the principal
+  axis is a hexad axis of symmetry. Hexagonal axes of reference are
+  used: if rhombohedral axes be used many of the simple forms will have
+  two sets of indices.
+
+    HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS
+
+    (Holohedral; Dihexagonal bipyramidal).
+
+  Intersecting in the hexad axis are six planes of symmetry of two
+  kinds, and perpendicular to them is an equatorial plane of symmetry.
+  Perpendicular to the hexad axis are six dyad axes of two kinds and
+  each perpendicular to a vertical plane of symmetry. The seven simple
+  forms are:--
+
+  Dihexagonal bipyramid, bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles (fig.
+  77; v in fig. 80). The indices are {213'1}, &c., or in general {hikl}.
+  This form may be considered as a combination of two scalenohedra, a
+  direct and an inverse.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78. FIG. 79. FIG. 80.
+
+  Combinations of Hexagonal forms.]
+
+  Hexagonal bipyramid of the first order, bounded by twelve isosceles
+  triangles (fig. 70; p and u in fig. 80); indices {101'1}, {202'1} ...
+  (hoh'l). The hexagonal bipyramid so common in quartz is geometrically
+  similar to this form, but it really is a combination of two
+  rhombohedra, a direct and an inverse, the faces of which differ in
+  surface characters and often also in size.
+
+  Hexagonal bipyramid of the second order, bounded by twelve faces (s in
+  figs. 79 and 80); indices {112'1}, {112'2} ... {h.h.2'h'.l}.
+
+  Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the hexad
+  axis and inclined to the vertical planes of symmetry; indices {hiko}.
+
+  Hexagonal prism of the first order {1010}, consisting of six faces
+  parallel to the hexad axis and perpendicular to one set of three
+  vertical planes of symmetry (m in figs. 71, 78-80).
+
+  Hexagonal prism of the second order {112'0}, consisting of six faces
+  also parallel to the hexad axis, but perpendicular to the other set of
+  three vertical planes of symmetry (a in fig. 78).
+
+  Basal pinacoid {0001}, consisting of a pair of parallel planes
+  perpendicular to the hexad axis (c in figs. 71, 78-80).
+
+  Beryl (emerald), connellite, zinc, magnesium and beryllium crystallize
+  in this class.
+
+    BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Parallel-faced hemihedral).
+
+  Here there is a plane of symmetry perpendicular to the hexad axis;
+  there is also a centre of symmetry. All the closed forms are hexagonal
+  bipyramids; the open forms are hexagonal prisms or the basal pinacoid.
+  The general form {hikl} is hemihedral with parallel faces with respect
+  to the general form of the holosymmetric class.
+
+  Apatite (q.v.), pyromorphite, mimetite and vanadinite possess this
+  degree of symmetry.
+
+    DIHEXAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-hemihedral).
+
+  Six planes of symmetry of two kinds intersect in the hexad axis. The
+  hexad axis is uniterminal and all the forms are open forms. The
+  general form {hikl} consists of twelve faces at one end of the
+  crystal, and is a dihexagonal pyramid. The hexagonal pyramids {hoh'l}
+  and (h.h.2'h'.l) each consist of six faces at one end of the crystal.
+  The prisms are geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class.
+  Perpendicular to the hexad axis are the pedions (0001) and (0001').
+
+  Iodyrite (AgI), greenockite (CdS), wurtzite (ZnS) and zincite (ZnO)
+  are often placed in this class, but they more probably belong to the
+  hemimorphic-hemihedral class of the rhombohedral division of this
+  system.
+
+    TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS
+
+    (Trapezohedral-hemihedral).
+
+  Six dyad axes of two kinds are perpendicular to the hexad axis. The
+  general form {hikl} is the hexagonal trapezohedron bounded by twelve
+  trapezoidal faces. The other simple forms are geometrically the same
+  as in the holosymmetric class. Barium-anti-monyldextro-tartrate +
+  potassium nitrate (Ba(SbO)2(C4H4O6)2.KNO3) and the corresponding lead
+  salt crystallize in this class.
+
+    HEXAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS
+
+    (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).
+
+  No other element is here associated with the hexad axis, which is
+  uniterminal. The pyramids all consist of six faces at one end of the
+  crystal, and prisms are all hexagonal prisms; perpendicular to the
+  hexad axis are the pedions.
+
+  Lithium potassium sulphate, strontium-antimonyl dextro-tartrate, and
+  lead-antimonyl dextro-tartrate are examples of this type of symmetry.
+  The mineral nepheline is placed in this class because of the absence
+  of symmetry in the etched figures on the prism faces (fig. 92).
+
+  (g) _Regular Grouping of Crystals._
+
+Crystals of the same kind when occurring together may sometimes be
+grouped in parallel position and so give rise to special structures, of
+which the dendritic (from [Greek: dendrou], a tree) or branch-like
+aggregations of native copper or of magnetite and the fibrous structures
+of many minerals furnish examples. Sometimes, owing to changes in the
+surrounding conditions, the crystal may continue its growth with a
+different external form or colour, e.g. sceptre-quartz.
+
+Regular intergrowths of crystals of totally different substances such as
+staurolite with cyanite, rutile with haematite, blende with
+chalcopyrite, calcite with sodium nitrate, are not uncommon. In these
+cases certain planes and edges of the two crystals are parallel. (See O.
+Mugge, "Die regelmassigen Verwachsungen von Mineralien verschiedener
+Art," _Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie_, 1903, vol. xvi. pp. 335-475).
+
+But by far the most important kind of regular conjunction of crystals is
+that known as "twinning." Here two crystals or individuals of the same
+kind have grown together in a certain symmetrical manner, such that one
+portion of the twin may be brought into the position of the other by
+reflection across a plane or by rotation about an axis. The plane of
+reflection is called the twin-plane, and is parallel to one of the
+faces, or to a possible face, of the crystal: the axis of rotation,
+called the twin-axis, is parallel to one of the edges or perpendicular
+to a face of the crystal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Twinned Crystal of Gypsum.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Simple Crystal of Gypsum.]
+
+In the twinned crystal of gypsum represented in fig. 81 the two portions
+are symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel to the ortho-pinacoid
+(100), i.e. a vertical plane perpendicular to the face b. Or we may
+consider the simple crystal (fig. 82) to be cut in half by this plane
+and one portion to be rotated through 180 deg. about the normal to the
+same plane. Such a crystal (fig. 81) is therefore described as being
+twinned on the plane (100).
+
+An octahedron (fig. 83) twinned on an octahedral face (111) has the two
+portions symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel to this face (the
+large triangular face in the figure); and either portion may be brought
+into the position of the other by a rotation through 180 deg. about the
+triad axis of symmetry which is perpendicular to this face. This kind of
+twinning is especially frequent in crystals of spinel, and is
+consequently often referred to as the "spinel twin-law."
+
+In these two examples the surface of the union, or composition-plane, of
+the two portions is a regular surface coinciding with the twin-plane;
+such twins are called "juxtaposition-twins." In other juxtaposed twins
+the plane of composition is, however, not necessarily the twin-plane.
+Another type of twin is the "interpenetration twin," an example of which
+is shown in fig. 84. Here one cube may be brought into the position of
+the other by a rotation of 180 deg. about a triad axis, or by reflection
+across the octahedral plane which is perpendicular to this axis; the
+twin-plane is therefore (111).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Spinel-twin.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Interpenetrating Twinned Cubes.]
+
+Since in many cases twinned crystals may be explained by the rotation of
+one portion through two right angles, R. J. Hauy introduced the term
+"hemitrope" (from the Gr. [Greek: hemi]-, half, and [Greek: tropos], a
+turn); the word "macle" had been earlier used by Rome d'Isle. There are,
+however, some rare types of twins which cannot be explained by rotation
+about an axis, but only by reflection across a plane; these are known as
+"symmetric twins," a good example of which is furnished by one of the
+twin-laws of chalcopyrite.
+
+Twinned crystals may often be recognized by the presence of re-entrant
+angles between the faces of the two portions, as may be seen from the
+above figures. In some twinned crystals (e.g. quartz) there are,
+however, no re-entrant angles. On the other hand, two crystals
+accidentally grown together without any symmetrical relation between
+them will usually show some re-entrant angles, but this must not be
+taken to indicate the presence of twinning.
+
+Twinning may be several times repeated on the same plane or on other
+similar planes of the crystal, giving rise to triplets, quartets and
+other complex groupings. When often repeated on the same plane, the
+twinning is said to be "polysynthetic," and gives rise to a laminated
+structure in the crystal. Sometimes such a crystal (e.g. of corundum or
+pyroxene) may be readily broken in this direction, which is thus a
+"plane of parting," often closely resembling a true cleavage in
+character. In calcite and some other substances this lamellar twinning
+may be produced artificially by pressure (see below, Sect. II. (a),
+_Glide-plane_).
+
+Another curious result of twinning is the production of forms which
+apparently display a higher degree of symmetry than that actually
+possessed by the substance. Twins of this kind are known as
+"mimetic-twins or pseudo-symmetric twins." Two hemihedral or hemimorphic
+crystals (e.g. of diamond or of hemimorphite) are often united in
+twinned position to produce a group with apparently the same degree of
+symmetry as the holosymmetric class of the same system. Or again, a
+substance crystallizing in, say, the orthorhombic system (e.g.
+aragonite) may, by twinning, give rise to pseudo-hexagonal forms: and
+pseudo-cubic forms often result by the complex twinning of crystals
+(e.g. stannite, phillipsite, &c.) belonging to other systems. Many of
+the so-called "optical anomalies" of crystals may be explained by this
+pseudo-symmetric twinning.
+
+  (h) _Irregularities of Growth of Crystals; Character of Faces._
+
+Only rarely do actual crystals present the symmetrical appearance shown
+in the figures given above, in which similar faces are all represented
+as of equal size. It frequently happens that the crystal is so placed
+with respect to the liquid in which it grows that there will be a more
+rapid deposition of material on one part than on another; for instance,
+if the crystal be attached to some other solid it cannot grow in that
+direction. Only when a crystal is freely suspended in the mother-liquid
+and material for growth is supplied at the same rate on all sides does
+an equably developed form result.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.
+
+Misshappen Octahedra.]
+
+Two misshapen or distorted octahedra are represented in figs. 85 and 86;
+the former is elongated in the direction of one of the edges of the
+octahedron, and the latter is flattened parallel to one pair of faces.
+It will be noticed in these figures that the edges in which the faces
+intersect have the same directions as before, though here there are
+additional edges not present in fig. 3. The angles (70 deg. 32' or 109
+deg. 28') between the faces also remain the same; and the faces have the
+same inclinations to the axes and planes of symmetry as in the equably
+developed form. Although from a geometrical point of view these figures
+are no longer symmetrical with respect to the axes and planes of
+symmetry, yet crystallographically they are just as symmetrical as the
+ideally developed form, and, however much their irregularity of
+development, they still are regular (cubic) octahedra of
+crystallography. A remarkable case of irregular development is presented
+by the mineral cuprite, which is often found as well-developed
+octahedra; but in the variety known as chalcotrichite it occurs as a
+matted aggregate of delicate hairs, each of which is an individual
+crystal enormously elongated in the direction of an edge or diagonal of
+the cube.
+
+The symmetry of actual crystals is sometimes so obscured by
+irregularities of growth that it can only be determined by measurement
+of the angles. An extreme case, where several of the planes have not
+been developed at all, is illustrated in fig. 87, which shows the actual
+shape of a crystal of zircon from Ceylon; the ideally developed form
+(fig. 88) is placed at the side for comparison, and the parallelism of
+the edges between corresponding faces will be noticed. This crystal is a
+combination of five simple forms, viz. two tetragonal prisms (a and m,)
+two tetragonal bipyramids (e and p), and one ditetragonal bipyramid (x,
+with 16 faces).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Actual Crystal.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Ideal Development.
+
+Crystal of Zircon (clinographic drawings and plans).]
+
+The actual form, or "habit," of crystals may vary widely in different
+crystals of the same substance, these differences depending largely on
+the conditions under which the growth has taken place. The material may
+have crystallized from a fused mass or from a solution; and in the
+latter case the solvent may be of different kinds and contain other
+substances in solution, or the temperature may vary. Calcite (q.v.)
+affords a good example of a substance crystallizing in widely different
+habits, but all crystals are referable to the same type of symmetry and
+may be reduced to the same fundamental form.
+
+When crystals are aggregated together, and so interfere with each
+other's growth, special structures and external shapes often result,
+which are sometimes characteristic of certain substances, especially
+amongst minerals.
+
+Incipient crystals, the development of which has been arrested owing to
+unfavourable conditions of growth, are known as crystallites (q.v.).
+They are met with in imperfectly crystallized substances and in glassy
+rocks (obsidian and pitchstone), or may be obtained artificially from a
+solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide rendered viscous by the
+addition of Canada-balsam. To the various forms H. Vogelsang gave, in
+1875, the names "globulites," "margarites" (from [Greek: margarites], a
+pearl), "longulites," &c. At a more advanced stage of growth these
+bodies react on polarized light, thus possessing the internal structure
+of true crystals; they are then called "microlites." These have the form
+of minute rods, needles or hairs, and are aggregated into feathery and
+spherulitic forms or skeletal crystals. They are common constituents of
+microcrystalline igneous rocks, and often occur as inclusions in larger
+crystals of other substances.
+
+Inclusions of foreign matter, accidentally caught up during growth, are
+frequently present in crystals. Inclusions of other minerals are
+specially frequent and conspicuous in crystals of quartz, and crystals
+of calcite may contain as much as 60% of included sand. Cavities, either
+with rounded boundaries or with the same shape ("negative crystals") as
+the surrounding crystal, are often to be seen; they may be empty or
+enclose a liquid with a movable bubble of gas.
+
+The faces of crystals are rarely perfectly plane and smooth, but are
+usually striated, studded with small angular elevations, pitted or
+cavernous, and sometimes curved or twisted. These irregularities,
+however, conform with the symmetry of the crystal, and much may be
+learnt by their study. The parallel grooves or furrows, called "striae,"
+are the result of oscillatory combination between adjacent faces, narrow
+strips of first one face and then another being alternately developed.
+Sometimes the striae on crystal-faces are due to repeated lamellar
+twinning, as in the plagioclase felspars. The directions of the
+striations are very characteristic features of many crystals: e.g. the
+faces of the hexagonal prism of quartz are always striated horizontally,
+whilst in beryl they are striated vertically. Cubes of pyrites (fig. 89)
+are striated parallel to one edge, the striae on adjacent faces being at
+right angles, and due to oscillatory combination of the cube and the
+pentagonal dodecahedron (compare fig. 36); whilst cubes of blende (fig.
+90) are striated parallel to one diagonal of each face, i.e. parallel to
+the tetrahedron faces (compare fig. 31). These striated cubes thus
+possess different degrees of symmetry and belong to different
+symmetry-classes. Oscillatory combination of faces gives rise also to
+curved surfaces. Crystals with twisted surfaces (see DOLOMITE) are,
+however, built up of smaller crystals arranged in nearly parallel
+position. Sometimes a face is entirely replaced by small faces of other
+forms, giving rise to a drusy surface; an example of this is shown by
+some octahedral crystals of fluorspar (fig. 2) which are built up of
+minute cubes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Striated Cube of Pyrites.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Striated Cube of Blende.]
+
+The faces of crystals are sometimes partly or completely replaced by
+smooth bright surfaces inclined at only a few minutes of arc from the
+true position of the face; such surfaces are called "vicinal faces," and
+their indices can be expressed only by very high numbers. In apparently
+perfectly developed crystals of alum the octahedral face, with the
+simple indices (111), is usually replaced by faces of very low
+triakis-octahedra, with indices such as (251.251.250); the angles
+measured on such crystals will therefore deviate slightly from the true
+octahedral angle. Vicinal faces of this character are formed during the
+growth of crystals, and have been studied by H. A. Miers (_Phil.
+Trans._, 1903, Ser. A. vol. 202). Other faces with high indices, viz.
+"prerosion faces" and the minute faces forming the sides of etched
+figures (see below), as well as rounded edges and other surface
+irregularities, may, however, result from the corrosion of a crystal
+subsequent to its growth. The pitted and cavernous faces of artificially
+grown crystals of sodium chloride and of bismuth are, on the other hand,
+a result of rapid growth, more material being supplied at the edges and
+corners of the crystal than at the centres of the faces.
+
+  (i) _Theories of Crystal Structure._
+
+The ultimate aim of crystallographic research is to determine the
+internal structure of crystals from both physical and chemical data. The
+problem is essentially twofold: in the first place it is necessary to
+formulate a theory as to the disposition of the molecules, which
+conforms with the observed types of symmetry--this is really a
+mathematical problem; in the second place, it is necessary to determine
+the orientation of the atoms (or groups of atoms) composing the
+molecules with regard to the crystal axes--this involves a knowledge of
+the atomic structure of the molecule. As appendages to the second part
+of our problem, there have to be considered: (1) the possibility of the
+existence of the same substance in two or more distinct crystalline
+forms--polymorphism, and (2) the relations between the chemical
+structure of compounds which affect nearly identical or related crystal
+habits--isomorphism and morphotropy. Here we shall discuss the modern
+theory of crystal structure; the relations between chemical composition
+and crystallographical form are discussed in Part III. of this article;
+reference should also be made to the article CHEMISTRY: _Physical_.
+
+
+  Hauy.
+
+The earliest theory of crystal structure of any moment is that of Hauy,
+in which, as explained above, he conceived a crystal as composed of
+elements bounded by the cleavage planes of the crystal, the elements
+being arranged contiguously and along parallel lines. There is, however,
+no reason to suppose that matter is continuous throughout a crystalline
+body; in fact, it has been shown that space does separate the molecules,
+and we may therefore replace the contiguous elements of Hauy by
+particles equidistantly distributed along parallel lines; by this
+artifice we retain the reticulated or net-like structure, but avoid the
+continuity of matter which characterizes Hauy's theory; the permanence
+of crystal form being due to equilibrium between the intermolecular (and
+interatomic) forces. The crystal is thus conjectured as a
+"space-lattice," composed of three sets of parallel planes which enclose
+parallelopipeda, at the corners of which are placed the constituent
+molecules (or groups of molecules) of the crystal.
+
+
+  Frankenheim; Bravais.
+
+The geometrical theory of crystal structure (i.e. the determination of
+the varieties of crystal symmetry) is thus reduced to the mathematical
+problem: "in how many ways can space be partitioned?" M. L. Frankenheim,
+in 1835, determined this number as fifteen, but A. Bravais, in 1850,
+proved the identity of two of Frankenheim's forms, and showed how the
+remaining fourteen coalesced by pairs, so that really these forms only
+corresponded to seven distinct systems and fourteen classes of crystal
+symmetry. These systems, however, only represented holohedral forms,
+leaving the hemihedral and tetartohedral classes to be explained.
+Bravais attempted an explanation by attributing differences in the
+symmetry of the crystal elements, or, what comes to the same thing, he
+assumed the crystals to exhibit polar differences along any member of
+the lattice; for instance, assume the particles to be (say) pear-shaped,
+then the sharp ends point in one direction, the blunt ends in the
+opposite direction.
+
+
+  Sohncke.
+
+A different view was adopted by L. Sohncke in 1879, who, by developing
+certain considerations published by Camille Jordan in 1869 on the
+possible types of regular repetition in space of identical parts, showed
+that the lattice-structure of Bravais was unnecessary, it being
+sufficient that each molecule of an indefinitely extended crystal,
+represented by its "point" (or centre of gravity), was identically
+situated with respect to the molecules surrounding it. The problem then
+resolves itself into the determination of the number of "point-systems"
+possible; Sohncke derived sixty-five such arrangements, which may also
+be obtained from the fourteen space-lattices of Bravais, by
+interpenetrating any one space-lattice with one or more identical
+lattices, with the condition that the resulting structure should conform
+with the homogeneity characteristic of crystals. But the sixty-five
+arrangements derived by Sohncke, of which Bravais' lattices are
+particular cases, did not complete the solution, for certain of the
+known types of crystal symmetry still remained unrepresented. These
+missing forms are characterized as being enantiomorphs consequently,
+with the introduction of this principle of repetition over a plane, i.e.
+mirror images. E. S. Fedorov (1890), A. Schoenflies (1891), and W.
+Barlow (1894), independently and by different methods, showed how
+Sohncke's theory of regular point-systems explained the whole thirty-two
+classes of crystal symmetry, 230 distinct types of crystal structure
+falling into these classes.
+
+By considering the atoms instead of the centres of gravity of the
+molecules, Sohncke (_Zeits. Kryst. Min._, 1888, 14, p. 431) has
+generalized his theory, and propounded the structure of a crystal in the
+following terms: "A crystal consists of a finite number of
+interpenetrating regular point-systems, which all possess like and
+like-directed coincidence movements. Each separate point-system is
+occupied by similar material particles, but these may be different for
+the different interpenetrating partial systems which form the complex
+system." Or we may quote the words of P. von Groth (_British Assoc.
+Rep._, 1904): "A crystal--considered as indefinitely extended--consists
+of n interpenetrating regular point-systems, each of which is formed of
+similar atoms; each of these point-systems is built up from a number of
+interpenetrating space-lattices, each of the latter being formed from
+similar atoms occupying parallel positions. All the space-lattices of
+the combined system are geometrically identical, or are characterized by
+the same elementary parallelopipedon."
+
+  A complete resume, with references to the literature, will be found in
+  "Report on the Development of the Geometrical Theories of Crystal
+  Structure, 1666-1901" (_British Assoc. Rep._, 1901).
+
+
+II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS.
+
+Many of the physical properties of crystals vary with the direction in
+the material, but are the same in certain directions; these directions
+obeying the same laws of symmetry as do the faces on the exterior of the
+crystal. The symmetry of the internal structure of crystals is thus the
+same as the symmetry of their external form.
+
+  (a) _Elasticity and Cohesion._
+
+The elastic constants of crystals are determined by similar methods to
+those employed with amorphous substances, only the bars and plates
+experimented upon must be cut from the crystal with known orientations.
+The "elasticity surface" expressing the coefficients in various
+directions within the crystal has a configuration symmetrical with
+respect to the same planes and axes of symmetry as the crystal itself.
+In calcite, for instance, the figure has roughly the shape of a rounded
+rhombohedron with depressed faces and is symmetrical about three
+vertical planes. In the case of homogeneous elastic deformation,
+produced by pressure on all sides, the effect on the crystal is the same
+as that due to changes of temperature; and the surfaces expressing the
+compression coefficients in different directions have the same higher
+degree of symmetry, being either a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid. When
+strained beyond the limits of elasticity, crystalline matter may suffer
+permanent deformation in one or other of two ways, or may be broken
+along cleavage surfaces or with an irregular fracture. In the case of
+plastic deformation, e.g. in a crystal of ice, the crystalline particles
+are displaced but without any change in their orientation. Crystals of
+some substances (e.g. para-azoxyanisol) have such a high degree of
+plasticity that they are deformed even by their surface tension, and the
+crystals take the form of drops of doubly refracting liquid which are
+known as "liquid crystals." (See O. Lehmann, _Flussige Kristalle_,
+Leipzig, 1904; F. R. Schenck, _Kristallinische Flussigkeiten und
+flussige Krystalle_, Leipzig, 1905.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Glide-plane of Calcite.]
+
+In the second, and more usual kind of permanent deformation without
+fracture, the particles glide along certain planes into a new (twinned)
+position of equilibrium. If a knife blade be pressed into the edge of a
+cleavage rhombohedron of calcite (at b, fig. 91) the portion abcde of
+the crystal will take up the position a'b'cde. The obtuse solid angle at
+a becomes acute (a'), whilst the acute angle at b becomes obtuse (b');
+and the new surface a'ce is as bright and smooth as before. This result
+has been effected by the particles in successive layers gliding or
+rotating over each other, without separation, along planes parallel to
+cde. This plane, which truncates the edge of the rhombohedron and has
+the indices (110), is called a "glide-plane." The new portion is in
+twinned position with respect to the rest of the crystal, being a
+reflection of it across the plane cde, which is therefore a plane of
+twinning. This secondary twinning is often to be observed as a repeated
+lamination in the grains of calcite composing a crystalline limestone,
+or marble, which has been subjected to earth movements. Planes of
+gliding have been observed in many minerals (pyroxene, corundum, &c.)
+and their crystals may often be readily broken along these directions,
+which are thus "planes of parting" or "pseudo-cleavage." The
+characteristic transverse striae, invariably present on the cleavage
+surfaces of stibnite and cyanite are due to secondary twinning along
+glide-planes, and have resulted from the bending of the crystals.
+
+One of the most important characters of crystals is that of "cleavage";
+there being certain plane directions across which the cohesion is a
+minimum, and along which the crystal may be readily split or cleaved.
+These directions are always parallel to a possible face on the crystal
+and usually one prominently developed and with simple indices, it being
+a face in which the crystal molecules are most closely packed. The
+directions of cleavage are symmetrically repeated according to the
+degree of symmetry possessed by the crystal. Thus in the cubic system,
+crystals of salt and galena cleave in three directions parallel to the
+faces of the cube {100}, diamond and fluorspar cleave in four directions
+parallel to the octahedral faces {111}, and blende in six directions
+parallel to the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron {110}. In crystals of
+other systems there will be only a single direction of cleavage if this
+is parallel to the faces of a pinacoid; e.g. the basal pinacoid in
+tetragonal (as in apophyllite) and hexagonal crystals; or parallel (as
+in gypsum) or perpendicular (as in mica and cane-sugar) to the plane of
+symmetry in monoclinic crystals. Calcite cleaves in three directions
+parallel to the faces of the primitive rhombohedron. Barytes, which
+crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, has two sets of cleavages, viz.
+a single cleavage parallel to the basal pinacoid {001} and also two
+directions parallel to the faces of the prism {110}. In all of the
+examples just quoted the cleavage is described as perfect, since
+cleavage flakes with very smooth and bright surfaces may be readily
+detached from the crystals. Different substances, however, vary widely
+in their character of cleavage; in some it can only be described as good
+or distinct, whilst in others, e.g. quartz and alum, there is little or
+no tendency to split along certain directions and the surfaces of
+fracture are very uneven. Cleavage is therefore a character of
+considerable determinative value, especially for the purpose of
+distinguishing different minerals.
+
+Another result of the presence in crystals of directions of minimum
+cohesion are the "percussion figures," which are produced on a
+crystal-face when this is struck with a sharp point. A percussion figure
+consists of linear cracks radiating from the point of impact, which in
+their number and orientation agree with the symmetry of the face. Thus
+on a cube face of a crystal of salt the rays of the percussion figure
+are parallel to the diagonals of the face, whilst on an octahedral face
+a three-rayed star is developed. By pressing a blunt point into a
+crystal face a somewhat similar figure, known as a "pressure figure," is
+produced. Percussion and pressure figures are readily developed in
+cleavage sheets of mica (q.v.).
+
+Closely allied to cohesion is the character of "hardness," which is
+often defined, and measured by, the resistance which a crystal face
+offers to scratching. That hardness is a character depending largely on
+crystalline structure is well illustrated by the two crystalline
+modifications of carbon: graphite is one of the softest of minerals,
+whilst diamond is the hardest of all. The hardness of crystals of
+different substances thus varies widely, and with minerals it is a
+character of considerable determinative value; for this purpose a scale
+of hardness is employed (see MINERALOGY). Various attempts have been
+made with the view of obtaining accurate determinations of degrees of
+hardness, but with varying results; an instrument used for this purpose
+is called a sclerometer (from [Greek: skleros], hard). It may, however,
+be readily demonstrated that the degree of hardness on a crystal face
+varies with the direction, and that a curve expressing these relations
+possesses the same geometrical symmetry as the face itself. The mineral
+cyanite is remarkable in having widely different degrees of hardness on
+different faces of its crystals and in different directions on the same
+face.
+
+Another result of the differences of cohesion in different directions is
+that crystals are corroded, or acted upon by chemical solvents, at
+different rates in different directions. This is strikingly shown when a
+sphere cut from a crystal, say of calcite or quartz, is immersed in
+acid; after some time the resulting form is bounded by surfaces
+approximating to crystal faces, and has the same symmetry as that of the
+crystal from which the sphere was cut. When a crystal bounded by faces
+is immersed in a solvent the edges and corners become rounded and
+"prerosion faces" developed in their place; the faces become marked all
+over with minute pits or shallow depressions, and as these are extended
+by further solution they give place to small elevations on the corroded
+face. The sides of the pits and elevations are bounded by small faces
+which have the character of vicinal faces. These markings are known as
+"etched figures" or "corrosion figures," and they are extremely
+important aids in determining the symmetry of crystals. Etched figures
+are sometimes beautifully developed on the faces of natural crystals,
+e.g. of diamond, and they may be readily produced artificially with
+suitable solvents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Nepheline.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Calcite.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Beryl.
+
+Etched Figures on Hexagonal Prisms.]
+
+As an example, the etched figures on the faces of a hexagonal prism and
+the basal plane are illustrated in figs. 92-94 for three of the several
+symmetry-classes of the hexagonal system. The classes chosen are those
+in which nepheline, calcite and beryl (emerald) crystallize, and these
+minerals often have the simple form of crystal represented in the
+figures. In nepheline (fig. 92) the only element of symmetry is a hexad
+axis; the etched figures on the prism are therefore unsymmetrical,
+though similar on all the faces; the hexagonal markings on the basal
+plane have none of their edges parallel to the edges of the face;
+further the crystals being hemimorphic, the etched figures on the basal
+planes at the two ends will be different in character. The facial
+development of crystals of nepheline give no indication of this type of
+symmetry, and the mineral has been referred to this class solely on the
+evidence afforded by the etched figures. In calcite there is a triad
+axis of symmetry parallel to the prism edges, three dyad axes each
+perpendicular to a pair of prism edges and three planes of symmetry
+perpendicular to the prism faces; the etched figures shown in fig. 93
+will be seen to conform to all these elements of symmetry. There being
+in calcite also a centre of symmetry, the equilateral triangles on the
+basal plane at the lower end of the crystal will be the same in form as
+those at the top, but they will occupy a reversed position. In beryl,
+which crystallizes in the holosymmetric class of the hexagonal system,
+the etched figures (fig. 94) display the fullest possible degree of
+symmetry; those on the prism faces are all similar and are each
+symmetrical with respect to two lines, and the hexagonal markings on the
+basal planes at both ends of the crystal are symmetrically placed with
+respect to six lines. A detailed account of the etched figures of
+crystals is given by H. Baumhauer, _Die Resultate der Atzmethode in der
+krystallographischen Forschung_ (Leipzig, 1894).
+
+  (b) _Optical Properties._
+
+The complex optical characters of crystals are not only of considerable
+interest theoretically, but are of the greatest practical importance. In
+the absence of external crystalline form, as with a faceted gem-stone,
+or with the minerals constituting a rock (thin, transparent sections of
+which are examined in the polarizing microscope), the mineral species
+may often be readily identified by the determination of some of the
+optical characters.
+
+According to their action on transmitted plane-polarized light (see
+POLARIZATION OF LIGHT) all crystals may be referred to one or other of
+the five groups enumerated below. These groups correspond with the six
+systems of crystallization (in the second group two systems being
+included together). The several symmetry-classes of each system are
+optically the same, except in the rare cases of substances which are
+circularly polarizing.
+
+(1) Optically isotropic crystals--corresponding with the cubic system.
+
+(2) Optically uniaxial crystals--corresponding with the tetragonal and
+hexagonal systems.
+
+(3) Optically biaxial crystals in which the three principal optical
+directions coincide with the three crystallographic axes--corresponding
+with the orthorhombic system.
+
+(4) Optically biaxial crystals in which only one of the three principal
+optical directions coincides with a crystallographic axis--corresponding
+with the monoclinic system.
+
+(5) Optically biaxial crystals in which there is no fixed and definite
+relation between the optical and crystallographic
+directions--corresponding with the anorthic system.
+
+_Optically Isotropic Crystals._--These belong to the cubic system, and
+like all other optically isotropic (from [Greek: isos], like, and
+[Greek: tropos], character) bodies have only one index of refraction for
+light of each colour. They have no action on polarized light (except in
+crystals which are circularly polarizing); and when examined in the
+polariscope or polarizing microscope they remain dark between crossed
+nicols, and cannot therefore be distinguished optically from amorphous
+substances, such as glass and opal.
+
+_Optically Uniaxial Crystals._--These belong to the tetragonal and
+hexagonal (including rhombohedral) systems, and between crystals of
+these systems there is no optical distinction. Such crystals are
+anisotropic or doubly refracting (see REFRACTION: _Double_); but for
+light travelling through them in a certain, single direction they are
+singly refracting. This direction, which is called the optic axis, is
+the same for light of all colours and at all temperatures; it coincides
+in direction with the principal crystallographic axis, which in
+tetragonal crystals is a tetrad (or dyad) axis of symmetry, and in the
+hexagonal system a triad or hexad axis.
+
+For light of each colour there are two indices of refraction; namely,
+the ordinary index ([omega]) corresponding with the ordinary ray, which
+vibrates perpendicular to the optic axis; and the extraordinary index
+([epsilon]) corresponding with the extraordinary ray, which vibrates
+parallel to the optic axis. If the ordinary index of refraction be
+greater than the extraordinary index, the crystal is said to be
+optically negative, whilst if less the crystal is optically positive.
+The difference between the two indices is a measure of the strength of
+the double refraction or birefringence. Thus in calcite, for sodium (D)
+light, [omega] = 1.6585 and [epsilon] = 1.4863; hence this substance is
+optically negative with a relatively high double refraction of [omega] -
+[epsilon] = 0.1722. In quartz [omega] = 1.5442, [epsilon] = 1.5533 and
+[epsilon] - [omega] = 0.0091; this mineral is therefore optically
+positive with low double refraction. The indices of refraction vary, not
+only for light of different colours, but also slightly with the
+temperature.
+
+The optical characters of uniaxial crystals are symmetrical not only
+with respect to the full number of planes and axes of symmetry of
+tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, but also with respect to all vertical
+planes, i.e. all planes containing the optic axis. A surface expressing
+the optical relations of such crystals is thus an ellipsoid of
+revolution about the optic axis. (In cubic crystals the corresponding
+surface is a sphere.) In the "optical indicatrix" (L. Fletcher, _The
+Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission of Light in Crystals_, London,
+1892), the length of the principal axis, or axis of rotation, is
+proportional to the index of refraction, (i.e. inversely proportional to
+the velocity) of the extraordinary rays, which vibrate along this axis
+and are transmitted in directions perpendicular thereto; the equatorial
+diameters are proportional to the index of refraction of the ordinary
+rays, which vibrate perpendicular to the optic axis. For positive
+uniaxial crystals the indicatrix is thus a prolate spheroid
+(egg-shaped), and for negative crystals an oblate spheroid
+(orange-shaped).
+
+In "Fresnel's ellipsoid" the axis of rotation is proportional to the
+velocity of the extraordinary ray, and the equatorial diameters
+proportional to the velocity of the ordinary ray; it is therefore an
+oblate spheroid for positive crystals, and a prolate spheroid for
+negative crystals. The "ray-surface," or "wave-surface," which
+represents the distances traversed by the rays during a given interval
+of time in various directions from a point of origin within the crystal,
+consists in uniaxial crystals of two sheets; namely, a sphere,
+corresponding to the ordinary rays, and an ellipsoid of revolution,
+corresponding to the extraordinary rays. The difference in form of the
+ray-surface for positive and negative crystals is shown in figs. 95 and
+96.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Section of the Ray-Surface of a Positive
+Uniaxial Crystal.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Section of the Ray-Surface of a Negative
+Uniaxial Crystal.]
+
+When a uniaxial crystal is examined in a polariscope or polarizing
+microscope between crossed nicols (i.e. with the principal planes of the
+polarizer or analyser at right angles, and so producing a dark field of
+view) its behaviour differs according to the direction in which the
+light travels through the crystal, to the position of the crystal with
+respect to the principal planes of the nicols, and further, whether
+convergent or parallel polarized light be employed. A tetragonal or
+hexagonal crystal viewed, in parallel light, through the basal plane,
+i.e. along the principal axis, will remain dark as it is rotated between
+crossed nicols, and will thus not differ in its behaviour from a cubic
+crystal or other isotropic body. If, however, the crystal be viewed in
+any other direction, for example, through a prism face, it will, except
+in certain positions, have an action on the polarized light. A
+plane-polarized ray entering the crystal will be resolved into two
+polarized rays with the directions of vibration parallel to the
+vibration-directions in the crystal. These two rays on leaving the
+crystal will be combined again in the analyser, and a portion of the
+light transmitted through the instrument; the crystal will then show up
+brightly against the dark field. Further, owing to interference of these
+two rays in the analyser, the light will be brilliantly coloured,
+especially if the crystal be thin, or if a thin section of a crystal be
+examined. The particular colour seen will depend on the strength of the
+double refraction, the orientation of the crystal or section, and upon
+its thickness. If now, the crystal be rotated with the stage of the
+microscope, the nicols remaining fixed in position, the light
+transmitted through the instrument will vary in intensity, and in
+certain positions will be cut out altogether. The latter happens when
+the vibration-directions of the crystal are parallel to the
+vibration-directions of the nicols (these being indicated by cross-wires
+in the microscope). The crystal, now being dark, is said to be in
+position of extinction; and as it is turned through a complete rotation
+of 360 deg. it will extinguish four times. If a prism face be viewed
+through, it will be seen that, when the crystal is in a position of
+extinction, the cross-wires of the microscope are parallel to the edges
+of the prism: the crystal is then said to give "straight extinction."
+
+In convergent light, between crossed nicols, a very different phenomenon
+is to be observed when a uniaxial crystal, or section of such a crystal,
+is placed with its optic axis coincident with the axis of the
+microscope. The rays of light, being convergent, do not travel in the
+direction of the optic axis and are therefore doubly refracted in the
+crystal; in the analyser the vibrations will be reduced to the same
+plane and there will be interference of the two sets of rays. The result
+is an "interference figure" (fig. 97), which consists of a number of
+brilliantly coloured concentric rings, each showing the colours of the
+spectrum of white light; intersecting the rings is a black cross, the
+arms of which are parallel to the principal planes of the nicols. If
+monochromatic light be used instead of white light, the rings will be
+alternately light and dark. The number and distance apart of the rings
+depend on the strength of the double refraction and on the thickness of
+the crystal. By observing the effect produced on such a uniaxial
+interference figure when a "quarter undulation (or wave-length)
+mica-plate" is superposed on the crystal, it may be at once decided
+whether the crystal is optically positive or negative. Such a simple
+test may, for example, be applied for distinguishing certain faceted
+gem-stones: thus zircon and phenacite are optically positive, whilst
+corundum (ruby and sapphire) and beryl (emerald) are optically negative.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Interference Figure of a Uniaxial Crystal.]
+
+_Optically Biaxial Crystals._--In these crystals there are three
+principal indices of refraction, denoted by [alpha], [beta] and [gamma];
+of these [gamma] is the greatest and [alpha] the least ([gamma] > [beta]
+> [alpha]). The three principal vibration-directions, corresponding to
+these indices, are at right angles to each other, and are the directions
+of the three rectangular axes of the optical indicatrix. The indicatrix
+(fig. 98) is an ellipsoid with the lengths of its axes proportional to
+the refractive indices; OC = [gamma], OB = [beta], OA = [alpha], where
+OC > OB > OA. The figure is symmetrical with respect to the principal
+planes OAB, OAC, OBC.
+
+In Fresnel's ellipsoid the three rectangular axes are proportional to
+1/[alpha], 1/[beta], and 1/[gamma], and are usually denoted by a, b and
+c respectively, where a > b > c: these have often been called "axes of
+optical elasticity," a term now generally discarded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Optical Indicatrix of a Biaxial Crystal.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Ray-Surface of a Biaxial Crystal.]
+
+The ray-surface (represented in fig. 99 by its sections in the three
+principal planes) is derived from the indicatrix in the following
+manner. A ray of light entering the crystal and travelling in the
+direction OA is resolved into polarized rays vibrating parallel to OB
+and OC, and therefore propagated with the velocities 1/[beta] and
+1/[gamma] respectively: distances Ob and Oc (fig. 99) proportional to
+these velocities are marked off in the direction OA. Similarly, rays
+travelling along OC have the velocities 1/[alpha] and 1/[beta], and
+those along OB the velocities 1/[alpha] and 1/[gamma]. In the two
+directions Op1 and Op2 (fig. 98), perpendicular to the two circular
+sections P1P1 and P2P2 of the indicatrix, the two rays will be
+transmitted with the same velocity 1/[beta]. These two directions are
+called the optic axes ("primary optic axis"), though they have not all
+the properties which are associated with the optic axis of a uniaxial
+crystal. They have very nearly the same direction as the lines Os1 and
+Os2 in fig. 99, which are distinguished as the "secondary optic axes."
+In most crystals the primary and secondary optic axes are inclined to
+each other at not more than a few minutes, so that for practical
+purposes there is no distinction between them.
+
+The angle between Op1 and Op2 is called the "optic axial angle"; and the
+plane OAC in which they lie is called the "optic axial plane." The
+angles between the optic axes are bisected by the vibration-directions
+OA and OC; the one which bisects the acute angle being called the
+"acute bisectrix" or "first mean line," and the other the "obtuse
+bisectrix" or "second mean line." When the acute bisectrix coincides
+with the greatest axis OC of the indicatrix, i.e. the
+vibration-direction corresponding with the refractive index [gamma] (as
+in figs. 98 and 99), the crystal is described as being optically
+positive; and when the acute bisectrix coincides with OA, the
+vibration-direction for the index [alpha], the crystal is negative. The
+distinction between positive and negative biaxial crystals thus depends
+on the relative magnitude of the three principal indices of refraction;
+in positive crystals [beta] is nearer to [alpha] than to [gamma], whilst
+in negative crystals the reverse is the case. Thus in topaz, which is
+optically positive, the refractive indices for sodium light are [alpha]
+= 1.6120, [beta] = 1.6150, [gamma] = 1.6224; and for orthoclase which is
+optically negative, [alpha] = 1.5190, [beta] = 1.5237, [gamma] = 1.5260.
+The difference [gamma] - [alpha] represents the strength of the double
+refraction.
+
+Since the refractive indices vary both with the colour of the light and
+with the temperature, there will be for each colour and temperature
+slight differences in the form of both the indicatrix and the
+ray-surface: consequently there will be variations in the positions of
+the optic axes and in the size of the optic axial angle. This phenomenon
+is known as the "dispersion of the optic axes." When the axial angle is
+greater for red light than for blue the character of the dispersion is
+expressed by [rho] > [upsilon], and when less by [rho] < [upsilon]. In
+some crystals, e.g. brookite, the optic axes for red light and for blue
+light may be, at certain temperatures, in planes at right angles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.
+
+Interference Figures of a Biaxial Crystal.]
+
+The type of interference figure exhibited by a biaxial crystal in
+convergent polarized light between crossed nicols is represented in
+figs. 100 and 101. The crystal must be viewed along the acute bisectrix,
+and for this purpose it is often necessary to cut a plate from the
+crystal perpendicular to this direction: sometimes, however, as in mica
+and topaz, a cleavage flake will be perpendicular to the acute
+bisectrix. When seen in white light, there are around each optic axis a
+series of brilliantly coloured ovals, which at the centre join to form
+an 8-shaped loop, whilst further from the centre the curvature of the
+rings is approximately that of lemniscates. In the position shown in
+fig. 100 the vibration-directions in the crystal are parallel to those
+of the nicols, and the figure is intersected by two black bands or
+"brushes" forming a cross. When, however, the crystal is rotated with
+the stage of the microscope the cross breaks up into the two branches of
+a hyperbola, and when the vibration-directions of the crystal are
+inclined at 45 deg. to those of the nicols the figure is that shown in
+fig. 101. The points of emergence of the optic axes are at the middle of
+the hyperbolic brushes when the crystal is in the diagonal position: the
+size of the optic axial angle can therefore be directly measured with
+considerable accuracy.
+
+In orthorhombic crystals the three principal vibration-directions
+coincide with the three crystallographic axes, and have therefore fixed
+positions in the crystal, which are the same for light of all colours
+and at all temperatures. The optical orientation of an orthorhombic
+crystal is completely defined by stating to which crystallographic
+planes the optic axial plane and the acute bisectrix are respectively
+parallel and perpendicular. Examined in parallel light between crossed
+nicols, such a crystal extinguishes parallel to the crystallographic
+axes, which are often parallel to the edges of a face or section; there
+is thus usually "straight extinction." The interference figure seen in
+convergent polarized light is symmetrical about two lines at right
+angles.
+
+In monoclinic crystals only one vibration-direction has a fixed position
+within the crystal, being parallel to the ortho-axis (i.e. perpendicular
+to the plane of symmetry or the plane (010)). The other two
+vibration-directions lie in the plane (010), but they may vary in
+position for light of different colours and at different temperatures.
+In addition to dispersion of the optic axes there may thus, in crystals
+of this system, be also "dispersion of the bisectrices." The latter may
+be of one or other of three kinds, according to which of the three
+vibration-directions coincides with the ortho-axis of the crystal. When
+the acute bisectrix is fixed in position, the optic axial planes for
+different colours may be crossed, and the interference figure will then
+be symmetrical with respect to a point only ("crossed dispersion"). When
+the obtuse bisectrix is fixed, the axial planes may be inclined to one
+another, and the interference figure is symmetrical only about a line
+which is perpendicular to the axial planes ("horizontal dispersion").
+Finally, when the vibration-direction corresponding to the refractive
+index [beta], or the "third mean line," has a fixed position, the optic
+axial plane lies in the plane (010), but the acute bisectrix may vary in
+position in this plane; the interference figure will then be symmetrical
+only about a line joining the optic axes ("inclined dispersion").
+Examples of substances exhibiting these three kinds of dispersion are
+borax, orthoclase and gypsum respectively. In orthoclase and gypsum,
+however, the optic axial angle gradually diminishes as the crystals are
+heated, and after passing through a uniaxial position they open out in a
+plane at right angles to the one they previously occupied; the character
+of the dispersion thus becomes reversed in the two examples quoted. When
+examined in parallel light between crossed nicols monoclinic crystals
+will give straight extinction only in faces and sections which are
+perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (or the plane (010)); in all
+other faces and sections the extinction-directions will be inclined to
+the edges of the crystal. The angles between these directions and edges
+are readily measured, and, being dependent on the optical orientation of
+the crystal, they are often characteristic constants of the substance
+(see, e.g., PLAGIOCLASE).
+
+In anorthic crystals there is no relation between the optical and
+crystallographic directions, and the exact determination of the optical
+orientation is often a matter of considerable difficulty. The character
+of the dispersion of the bisectrices and optic axes is still more
+complex than in monoclinic crystals, and the interference figures are
+devoid of symmetry.
+
+_Absorption of Light in Crystals: Pleochroism._--In crystals other than
+those of the cubic system, rays of light with different
+vibration-directions will, as a rule, be differently absorbed; and the
+polarized rays on emerging from the crystal may be of different
+intensities and (if the observation be made in white light and the
+crystal is coloured) differently coloured. Thus, in tourmaline the
+ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the principal axis, is
+almost completely absorbed, whilst the extraordinary ray is allowed to
+pass through the crystal. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the
+principal axis may therefore be used for producing a beam of polarized
+light, and two such plates placed in crossed position form the polarizer
+or analyser of "tourmaline tongs," with the aid of which the
+interference figures of crystals may be simply shown. Uniaxial
+(tetragonal and hexagonal) crystals when showing perceptible differences
+in colour for the ordinary and extraordinary rays are said to be
+"dichroic." In biaxial (orthorhombic, monoclinic and anorthic) crystals,
+rays vibrating along each of the three principal vibration-directions
+may be differently absorbed, and, in coloured crystals, differently
+coloured; such crystals are therefore said to be "trichroic" or in
+general "pleochroic" (from [Greek: pleon], more, and [Greek: chroa],
+colour). The directions of maximum absorption in biaxial crystals have,
+however, no necessary relation with the axes of the indicatrix, unless
+these have fixed crystallographic directions, as in the orthorhombic
+system and the ortho-axis in the monoclinic. In epidote it has been
+shown that the two directions of maximum absorption which lie in the
+plane of symmetry are not even at right angles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Dichroscope.]
+
+The pleochroism of some crystals is so strong that when they are viewed
+through in different directions they exhibit marked differences in
+colour. Thus a crystal of the mineral iolite (called also dichroite
+because of its strong pleochroism) will be seen to be dark blue, pale
+blue or pale yellow according to which of three perpendicular directions
+it is viewed. The "face colours" seen directly in this way result,
+however, from the mixture of two "axial colours" belonging to rays
+vibrating in two directions. In order to see the axial colours
+separately the crystal must be examined with a dichroscope, or in a
+polarizing microscope from which the analyser has been removed. The
+dichroscope, or dichroiscope (fig. 102), consists of a cleavage
+rhombohedron of calcite (Iceland-spar) p, on the ends of which glass
+prisms w are cemented: the lens l is focused on a small square aperture
+o in the tube of the instrument. The eye of the observer placed at e
+will see two images of the square aperture, and if a pleochroic crystal
+be placed in front of this aperture the two images will be differently
+coloured. On rotating this crystal with respect to the instrument the
+maximum difference in the colours will be obtained when the
+vibration-directions in the crystal coincide with those in the calcite.
+Such a simple instrument is especially useful for the examination of
+faceted gem-stones, even when they are mounted in their settings. A
+single glance suffices to distinguish between a ruby and a
+"spinel-ruby," since the former is dichroic and the latter isotropic and
+therefore not dichroic.
+
+The characteristic absorption bands in the spectrum of white light which
+has been transmitted through certain crystals, particularly those of
+salts of the cerium metals, will, of course, be different according to
+the direction of vibration of the rays.
+
+_Circular Polarization in Crystals._--Like the solutions of certain
+optically active organic substances, such as sugar and tartaric acid,
+some optically isotropic and uniaxial crystals possess the property of
+rotating the plane of polarization of a beam of light. In uniaxial
+(tetragonal and hexagonal) crystals it is only for light transmitted in
+the direction of the optic axis that there is rotatory action, but in
+isotropic (cubic) crystals all directions are the same in this respect.
+Examples of circularly polarizing cubic crystals are sodium chlorate,
+sodium bromate, and sodium uranyl acetate; amongst tetragonal crystals
+are strychnine sulphate and guanidine carbonate; amongst rhombohedral
+are quartz (q.v.) and cinnabar (q.v.) (these being the only two mineral
+substances in which the phenomenon has been observed), dithionates of
+potassium, lead, calcium and strontium, and sodium periodate; and
+amongst hexagonal crystals is potassium lithium sulphate. Crystals of
+all these substances belong to one or other of the several
+symmetry-classes in which there are neither planes nor centre of
+symmetry, but only axes of symmetry. They crystallize in two
+complementary hemihedral forms, which are respectively right-handed and
+left-handed, i.e. enantiomorphous forms. Some other substances which
+crystallize in enantiomorphous forms are, however, only "optically
+active" when in solution (e.g. sugar and tartaric acid); and there are
+many other substances presenting this peculiarity of crystalline form
+which are not circularly polarizing either when crystallized or when in
+solution. Further, in the examples quoted above, the rotatory power is
+lost when the crystals are dissolved (except in the case of strychnine
+sulphate, which is only feebly active in solution). The rotatory power
+is thus due to different causes in the two cases, in the one depending
+on a spiral arrangement of the crystal particles, and in the other on
+the structure of the molecules themselves.
+
+The circular polarization of crystals may be imitated by a pile of mica
+plates, each plate being turned through a small angle on the one below,
+thus giving a spiral arrangement to the pile.
+
+_"Optical Anomalies" of Crystals._--When, in 1818, Sir David Brewster
+established the important relations existing between the optical
+properties of crystals and their external form, he at the same time
+noticed many apparent exceptions. For example, he observed that crystals
+of leucite and boracite, which are cubic in external form, are always
+doubly refracting and optically biaxial, but with a complex internal
+structure; and that cubic crystals of garnet and analcite sometimes
+exhibit the same phenomena. Also some tetragonal and hexagonal crystals,
+e.g. apophyllite, vesuvianite, beryl, &c., which should normally be
+optically uniaxial, sometimes consist of several biaxial portions
+arranged in sectors or in a quite irregular manner. Such exceptions to
+the general rule have given rise to much discussion. They have often
+been considered to be due to internal strains in the crystals, set up as
+a result of cooling or by earth pressures, since similar phenomena are
+observed in chilled and compressed glasses and in dried gelatine. In
+many cases, however, as shown by E. Mallard, in 1876, the higher degree
+of symmetry exhibited by the external form of the crystals is the result
+of mimetic twinning, as in the pseudo-cubic crystals of leucite (q.v.)
+and boracite (q.v.). In other instances, substances not usually regarded
+as cubic, e.g. the monoclinic phillipsite (q.v.), may by repeated
+twinning give rise to pseudo-cubic forms. In some cases it is probable
+that the substance originally crystallized in one modification at a
+higher temperature, and when the temperature fell it became transformed
+into a dimorphous modification, though still preserving the external
+form of the original crystal (see BORACITE). A summary of the literature
+is given by R. Brauns, _Die optischen Anomalien der Krystalle_ (Leipzig,
+1891).
+
+  (c) _Thermal Properties._
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Conductivity of Heat in Quartz.]
+
+The thermal properties of crystals present certain points in common with
+the optical properties. Heat rays are transmitted and doubly refracted
+like light rays; and surfaces expressing the conductivity and dilatation
+in different directions possess the same degree of symmetry and are
+related in the same way to the crystallographic axes as the ellipsoids
+expressing the optical relations. That crystals conduct heat at
+different rates in different directions is well illustrated by the
+following experiment. Two plates (fig. 103) cut from a crystal of
+quartz, one parallel to the principal axis and the other perpendicular
+to it, are coated with a thin layer of wax, and a hot wire is applied to
+a point on the surface. On the transverse section the wax will be melted
+in a circle, and on the longitudinal section (or on the natural prism
+faces) in an ellipse. The isothermal surface in a uniaxial crystal is
+therefore a spheroid; in cubic crystals it is a sphere; and in biaxial
+crystals an ellipsoid, the three axes of which coincide, in orthorhombic
+crystals, with the crystallographic axes.
+
+With change of temperature cubic crystals expand equally in all
+directions, and the angles between the faces are the same at all
+temperatures. In uniaxial crystals there are two principal coefficients
+of expansion; the one measured in the direction of the principal axis
+may be either greater or less than that measured in directions
+perpendicular to this axis. A sphere cut from a uniaxial crystal at one
+temperature will be a spheroid at another temperature. In biaxial
+crystals there are different coefficients of expansion along three
+rectangular axes, and a sphere at one temperature will be an ellipsoid
+at another. A result of this is that for all crystals, except those
+belonging to the cubic system, the angles between the faces will vary,
+though only slightly, with changes of temperature. E. Mitscherlich found
+that the rhombohedral angle of calcite decreases 8' 37" as the crystal
+is raised in temperature from 0 deg. to 100 deg. C.
+
+As already mentioned, the optical properties of crystals vary
+considerably with the temperature. Such characters as specific heat and
+melting-point, which do not vary with the direction, are the same in
+crystals as in amorphous substances.
+
+  (d) _Magnetic and Electrical Properties._
+
+Crystals, like other bodies, are either paramagnetic or diamagnetic,
+i.e. they are either attracted or repelled by the pole of a magnet. In
+crystals other than those belonging to the cubic system, however, the
+relative strength of the induced magnetization is different in different
+directions within the mass. A sphere cut from a tetragonal or hexagonal
+(uniaxial) crystal will if freely suspended in a magnetic field (between
+the poles of a strong electro-magnet) take up a position such that the
+principal axis of the crystal is either parallel or perpendicular to the
+lines of force, or to a line joining the two poles of the magnet. Which
+of these two directions is taken by the axis depends on whether the
+crystal is paramagnetic or diamagnetic, and on whether the principal
+axis is the direction of maximum or minimum magnetization. The surface
+expressing the magnetic character in different directions is in uniaxial
+crystals a spheroid; in cubic crystals it is a sphere. In orthorhombic,
+monoclinic and anorthic crystals there are three principal axes of
+magnetic induction, and the surface is an ellipsoid, which is related to
+the symmetry of the crystal in the same way as the ellipsoids expressing
+the thermal and optical properties.
+
+Similarly, the dielectric constants of a non-conducting crystal may be
+expressed by a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid. A sphere cut from a
+crystal will when suspended in an electro-magnetic field set itself so
+that the axis of maximum induction is parallel to the lines of force.
+
+The electrical conductivity of crystals also varies with the direction,
+and bears the same relation to the symmetry as the thermal conductivity.
+In a rhombohedral crystal of haematite the electrical conductivity along
+the principal axis is only half as great as in directions perpendicular
+to this axis; whilst in a crystal of bismuth, which is also
+rhombohedral, the conductivities along and perpendicular to the axis are
+as 1.6 : 1.
+
+Conducting crystals are thermo-electric: when placed against another
+conducting substance and the contact heated there will be a flow of
+electricity from one body to the other if the circuit be closed. The
+thermo-electric force depends not only on the nature of the substance,
+but also on the direction within the crystal, and may in general be
+expressed by an ellipsoid. A remarkable case is, however, presented by
+minerals of the pyrites group: some crystals of pyrites are more
+strongly thermo-electrically positive than antimony, and others more
+negative than bismuth, so that the two when placed together give a
+stronger thermo-electric couple than do antimony and bismuth. In the
+thermo-electrically positive crystals of pyrites the faces of the
+pentagonal dodecahedron are striated parallel to the cubic edges, whilst
+in the rarer negative crystals the faces are striated perpendicular to
+these edges. Sometimes both sets of striae are present on the same face,
+and the corresponding areas are then thermo-electrically positive and
+negative.
+
+The most interesting relation between the symmetry of crystals and their
+electrical properties is that presented by the pyro-electrical phenomena
+of certain crystals. This is a phenomenon which may be readily observed,
+and one which often aids in the determination of the symmetry of
+crystals. It is exhibited by crystals in which there is no centre of
+symmetry, and the axes of symmetry are uniterminal or polar in
+character, being associated with different faces on the crystal at their
+two ends. When a non-conducting crystal possessing this hemimorphic type
+of symmetry is subjected to changes of temperature a charge of positive
+electricity will be developed on the faces in the region of one end of
+the uniterminal axis, whilst the faces at the opposite end will be
+negatively charged. With rising temperature the pole which becomes
+positively charged is called the "analogous pole," and that negatively
+charged the "antilogous pole": with falling temperature the charges are
+reversed. The phenomenon was first observed in crystals of tourmaline,
+the principal axis of which is a uniterminal triad axis of symmetry. In
+crystals of quartz there are three uniterminal dyad axes of symmetry
+perpendicular to the principal triad axis (which is here similar at its
+two ends): the dyad axes emerge at the edges of the hexagonal prism,
+alternate edges of which become positively and negatively charged on
+change of temperature. In boracite there are four uniterminal triad
+axes, and the faces of the two tetrahedra perpendicular to them will
+bear opposite charges. Other examples of pyro-electric crystals are the
+orthorhombic mineral hemimorphite (called also, for this reason,
+"electric calamine") and the monoclinic tartaric acid and cane-sugar,
+each of which possesses a uniterminal dyad axis of symmetry. In some
+exceptional cases, e.g. axinite, prehnite, &c., there is no apparent
+relation between the distribution of the pyro-electric charges and the
+symmetry of the crystals.
+
+The distribution of the electric charges may be made visible by the
+following simple method, which may be applied even with minute crystals
+observed under the microscope. A finely powdered mixture of red-lead and
+sulphur is dusted through a sieve over the cooling crystal. In passing
+through the sieve the particles of red-lead and sulphur become
+electrified by mutual friction, the former positively and the latter
+negatively. The red-lead is therefore attracted to the negatively
+charged parts of the crystal and the sulphur to those positively
+charged, and the distribution of the charges over the whole crystal
+becomes mapped out in the two colours red and yellow.
+
+Since, when a crystal changes in temperature, it also expands or
+contracts, a similar distribution of "piezo-electric" (from [Greek:
+piezein], to press) charges are developed when a crystal is subjected to
+changes of pressure in the direction of a uniterminal axis of symmetry.
+Thus increasing pressure along the principal axis of a tourmaline
+crystal produces the same electric charges as decreasing temperature.
+
+
+III. RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE FORM AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
+
+That the general and physical characters of a chemical substance are
+profoundly modified by crystalline structure is strikingly illustrated
+by the two crystalline modifications of the element carbon--namely,
+diamond and graphite. The former crystallizes in the cubic system,
+possesses four directions of perfect cleavage, is extremely hard and
+transparent, is a non-conductor of heat and electricity, and has a
+specific gravity of 3.5; whilst graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal
+system, cleaves in a single direction, is very soft and opaque, is a
+good conductor of heat and electricity, and has a specific gravity of
+2.2. Such substances, which are identical in chemical composition, but
+different in crystalline form and consequently in their physical
+properties, are said to be "dimorphous." Numerous examples of dimorphous
+substances are known; for instance, calcium carbonate occurs in nature
+either as calcite or as aragonite, the former being rhombohedral and the
+latter orthorhombic; mercuric iodide crystallizes from solution as red
+tetragonal crystals, and by sublimation as yellow orthorhombic crystals.
+Some substances crystallize in three different modifications, and these
+are said to be "trimorphous"; for example, titanium dioxide is met with
+as the minerals rutile, anatase and brookite (q.v.). In general, or in
+cases where more than three crystalline modifications are known (e.g. in
+sulphur no less than six have been described), the term "polymorphism"
+is applied.
+
+On the other hand, substances which are chemically quite distinct may
+exhibit similarity of crystalline form. For example, the minerals
+iodyrite (AgI), greenockite (CdS), and zincite (ZnO) are practically
+identical in crystalline form; calcite (CaCO3) and sodium nitrate
+(NaNO3); celestite (SrSO)4 and marcasite (FeS2); epidote and azurite;
+and many others, some of which are no doubt only accidental
+coincidences. Such substances are said to be "homoeomorphous" (Gr.
+[Greek: homoios], like, and [Greek: morphe], form).
+
+Similarity of crystalline form in substances which are chemically
+related is frequently met with and is a relation of much importance:
+such substances are described as being "isomorphous." Amongst minerals
+there are many examples of isomorphous groups, e.g. the rhombohedral
+carbonates, garnet (q.v.), plagioclase (q.v.); and amongst crystals of
+artificially prepared salts isomorphism is equally common, e.g. the
+sulphates and selenates of potassium, rubidium and caesium. The
+rhombohedral carbonates have the general formula R"CO3, where R"
+represents calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt or lead,
+and the different minerals (calcite, ankerite, magnesite, chalybite,
+rhodochrosite and calamine (q.v.)) of the group are not only similar in
+crystalline form, cleavage, optical and other characters, but the angles
+between corresponding faces do not differ by more than 1 deg. or 2 deg.
+Further, equivalent amounts of the different chemical elements
+represented by R" are mutually replaceable, and two or more of these
+elements may be present together in the same crystal, which is then
+spoken of as a "mixed crystal" or isomorphous mixture.
+
+In another isomorphous series of carbonates with the same general
+formula R"CO3, where R" represents calcium, strontium, barium, lead or
+zinc, the crystals are orthorhombic in form, and are thus dimorphous
+with those of the previous group (e.g. calcite and aragonite, the other
+members being only represented by isomorphous replacements). Such a
+relation is known as "isodimorphism." An even better example of this is
+presented by the arsenic and antimony trioxides, each of which occurs as
+two distinct minerals:--
+
+  As2O3, Arsenolite (cubic); Claudetite (monoclinic).
+  Sb2O3, Senarmontite (cubic); Valentinite (orthorhombic).
+
+Claudetite and valentinite though crystallizing in different systems
+have the same cleavages and very nearly the same angles, and are
+strictly isomorphous.
+
+Substances which form isodimorphous groups also frequently crystallize
+as double salts. For instance, amongst the carbonates quoted above are
+the minerals dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and barytocalcite (CaBa(CO3)2).
+Crystals of barytocalcite (q.v.) are monoclinic; and those of dolomite
+(q.v.), though closely related to calcite in angles and cleavage,
+possess a different degree of symmetry, and the specific gravity is not
+such as would result by a simple isomorphous mixture of the two
+carbonates. A similar case is presented by artificial crystals of silver
+nitrate and potassium nitrate. Somewhat analogous to double salts are
+the molecular compounds formed by the introduction of "water of
+crystallization," "alcohol of crystallization," &c. Thus sodium sulphate
+may crystallize alone or with either seven or ten molecules of water,
+giving rise to three crystallographically distinct substances.
+
+A relation of another kind is the alteration in crystalline form
+resulting from the replacement in the chemical molecule of one or more
+atoms by atoms or radicles of a different kind. This is known as a
+"morphotropic" relation (Gr. [Greek: morphe], form, [Greek: tropos],
+habit). Thus when some of the hydrogen atoms of benzene are replaced by
+(OH) and (NO2) groups the orthorhombic system of crystallization remains
+the same as before, and the crystallographic axis a is not much
+affected, but the axis c varies considerably:--
+
+                                  a   : b :   c
+  Benzene, C6H6                 0.891 : 1 : 0.799
+  Resorcin, C6H4(OH)2           0.910 : 1 : 0.540
+  Picric acid, C6H2(OH)(NO2)3   0.937 : 1 : 0.974
+
+A striking example of morphotropy is shown by the humite (q.v.) group of
+minerals: successive additions of the group Mg2SiO4 to the molecule
+produce successive increases in the length of the vertical
+crystallographic axis.
+
+In some instances the replacement of one atom by another produces little
+or no influence on the crystalline form; this happens in complex
+molecules of high molecular weight, the "mass effect" of which has a
+controlling influence on the isomorphism. An example of this is seen in
+the replacement of sodium or potassium by lead in the alunite (q.v.)
+group of minerals, or again in such a complex mineral as tourmaline,
+which, though varying widely in chemical composition, exhibits no
+variation in crystalline form.
+
+For the purpose of comparing the crystalline forms of isomorphous and
+morphotropic substances it is usual to quote the angles or the axial
+ratios of the crystal, as in the table of benzene derivatives quoted
+above. A more accurate comparison is, however, given by the "topic
+axes," which are calculated from the axial ratios and the molecular
+volume; they express the relative distances apart of the crystal
+molecules in the axial directions.
+
+The two isomerides of substances, such as tartaric acid, which in
+solution rotate the plane of polarized light either to the right or to
+the left, crystallize in related but enantiomorphous forms.
+
+  REFERENCES.--An introduction to crystallography is given in most
+  text-books of mineralogy, e.g. those of H. A. Miers and of E. S. Dana
+  (see MINERALOGY). The standard work treating of the subject generally
+  is that of P. Groth, _Physikalische Kristallographie_ (4th ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1905). A condensed summary is given by A. J. Moses, _The
+  Characters of Crystals_ (New York, 1899).
+
+  For geometrical crystallography, dealing exclusively with the external
+  form of crystals, reference may be made to N. Story-Maskelyne,
+  _Crystallography, a Treatise on the Morphology of Crystals_ (Oxford,
+  1895) and W. J. Lewis, _A Treatise on Crystallography_ (Cambridge,
+  1899). Theories of crystal structure are discussed by L. Sohncke,
+  _Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur_ (Leipzig, 1879); A.
+  Schoenflies, _Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur_ (Leipzig, 1891);
+  and H. Hilton, _Mathematical Crystallography and the Theory of Groups
+  of Movements_ (Oxford, 1903).
+
+  The physical properties of crystals are treated by T. Liebisch,
+  _Physikalische Krystallographie_ (Leipzig, 1891), and in a more
+  elementary form in his _Grundriss der physikalischen Krystallographie_
+  (Leipzig, 1896); E. Mallard, _Traite de cristallographie,
+  Cristallographie physique_ (Paris, 1884); C. Soret, _Elements de
+  cristallographie physique_ (Geneva and Paris, 1893).
+
+  For an account of the relations between crystalline form and chemical
+  composition, see A. Arzruni, _Physikalische Chemie der Krystalle_
+  (Braunschweig, 1893); A. Fock, _An Introduction to Chemical
+  Crystallography_, translated by W. J. Pope (Oxford, 1895); P. Groth,
+  _An Introduction to Chemical Crystallography_, translated by H.
+  Marshall (London, 1906); A. E. H. Tutton, _Crystalline Structure and
+  Chemical Constitution_, 1910. Descriptive works giving the
+  crystallographic constants of different substances are C. F.
+  Rammelsberg, _Handbuch der krystallographisch-physikalischen Chemie_
+  (Leipzig, 1881-1882); P. Groth, _Chemische Krystallographie_ (Leipzig,
+  1906); and of minerals the treatises of J. D. Dana and C. Hintze.
+       (L. J. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] From the Greek letter [delta], [Delta]; in general, a
+    triangular-shaped object; also an alternative name for a trapezoid.
+
+  [2] Named after pyrites, which crystallizes in a typical form of this
+    class.
+
+  [3] From [Greek: plagios], placed sideways, referring to the absence
+    of planes and centre of symmetry.
+
+  [4] From [Greek: gyros], a ring or spiral, and [Greek: eidos], form.
+
+  [5] From [Greek: monos], single, and [Greek: klinein], to incline,
+    since one axis is inclined to the plane of the other two axes, which
+    are at right angles.
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTAL PALACE, THE, a well-known English resort, standing high up in
+grounds just outside the southern boundary of the county of London, in
+the neighbourhood of Sydenham. The building, chiefly of iron and glass,
+is flanked by two towers and is visible from far over the metropolis. It
+measures 1608 ft. in length by 384 ft. across the transepts, and was
+opened in its present site in 1854. The materials, however, were mainly
+those of the hall set up in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+The designer was Sir Joseph Paxton. In the palace there are various
+permanent exhibitions, while special exhibitions are held from time to
+time, also concerts, winter pantomimes and other entertainments. In the
+extensive grounds there is accommodation for all kinds of games: the
+final tie of the Association Football Cup and other important football
+matches are played here, and there are also displays of fireworks and
+other attractions.
+
+
+
+
+CSENGERY, ANTON (1822-1880), Hungarian publicist, and a historical
+writer of great influence on his time, was born at Nagyvarad on the 2nd
+of June 1822. He took, at an early date, a very active part in the
+literary and political movements immediately preceding the Hungarian
+Revolution of 1848. He and Baron Sigismund Kemeny may be considered as
+the two founders of high-class Magyar journalism. After 1867 the
+greatest of modern Hungarian statesmen, Francis Deak, attached Csengery
+to his personal service, and many of the momentous state documents
+inspired or suggested by Deak were drawn up by Csengery. In that manner
+his influence, as represented by the text of many a statute regulating
+the relations between Austria and Hungary, is one of an abiding
+character. As a historical writer he excelled chiefly in brilliant and
+thoughtful essays on the leading political personalities of his time,
+such as Paul Nagy, Bertalan, Szemere and others. He also commenced a
+translation of Macaulay's _History_. He died at Budapest on the 13th of
+July 1880.
+
+
+
+
+CSIKY, GREGOR (1842-1891), Hungarian dramatist, was born on the 8th of
+December 1842 at Pankota, in the county of Arad. He studied Roman
+Catholic theology at Pest and Vienna, and was professor in the Priests'
+College at Temesvar from 1870 to 1878. In the latter year, however, he
+joined the Evangelical Church, and took up literature. Beginning with
+novels and works on ecclesiastical history, which met with some
+recognition, he ultimately devoted himself to writing for the stage.
+Here his success was immediate. In his _Az ellenallhatatlan_
+("L'Irresistible"), which obtained a prize from the Hungarian Academy,
+he showed the distinctive features of his talent--directness, freshness,
+realistic vigour, and highly individual style. In rapid succession he
+enriched Magyar literature with realistic _genre_-pictures, such as _A
+Proletarok_ ("Proletariate"), _Buborckok_ ("Bubbles"), _Ket szerelem_
+("Two Loves"), _A szegyenlos_ ("The Bashful"), _Athalia_, &c., in all of
+which he seized on one or another feature or type of modern life,
+dramatizing it with unusual intensity, qualified by chaste and
+well-balanced diction. Of the latter, his classical studies may, no
+doubt, be taken as the inspiration, and his translation of Sophocles and
+Plautus will long rank with the most successful of Magyar translations
+of the ancient classics. Among the best known of his novels are
+_Arnold_, _Az Atlasz csalad_ ("The Atlas Family"). He died at Budapest
+on the 19th of November 1891.
+
+
+
+
+CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ (1773-1805), Hungarian poet, was born at
+Debreczen in 1773. Having been educated in his native town, he was
+appointed while still very young to the professorship of poetry there;
+but soon after he was deprived of the post on account of the immorality
+of his conduct. The remaining twelve years of his short life were passed
+in almost constant wretchedness, and he died in his native town, and in
+his mother's house, when only thirty-one years of age. Csokonai was a
+genial and original poet with something of the lyrical fire of Petofi,
+and wrote a mock-heroic poem called _Dorottya or the Triumph of the
+Ladies at the Carnival_, two or three comedies or farces, and a number
+of love-poems. Most of his works have been published, with a life, by
+Schedel (1844-1847).
+
+
+
+
+CSOMA DE KOROS, ALEXANDER (c. 1790-1842), or, as the name is written in
+Hungarian, KOROSI CSOMA SANDOR, Hungarian traveller and philologist,
+born about 1790 at Koros in Transylvania, belonged to a noble family
+which had sunk into poverty. He was educated at Nagy-Enyed and at
+Gottingen; and, in order to carry out the dream of his youth and
+discover the origin of his countrymen, he divided his attention between
+medicine and the Oriental languages. In 1820, having received from a
+friend the promise of an annuity of 100 florins (about L10) to support
+him during his travels, he set out for the East. He visited Egypt, and
+made his way to Tibet, where he spent four years in a Buddhist monastery
+studying the language and the Buddhist literature. To his intense
+disappointment he soon discovered that he could not thus obtain any
+assistance in his great object; but, having visited Bengal, his
+knowledge of Tibetan obtained him employment in the library of the
+Asiatic Society there, which possessed more than 1000 volumes in that
+language; and he was afterwards supported by the government while he
+published a Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar (both of which
+appeared at Calcutta in 1834). He also contributed several articles on
+the Tibetan language and literature to the _Journal of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal_, and he published an analysis of the _Kah-Gyur_, the
+most important of the Buddhist sacred books. Meanwhile his fame had
+reached his native country, and procured him a pension from the
+government, which, with characteristic devotion to learning, he devoted
+to the purchase of books for Indian libraries. He spent some time in
+Calcutta, studying Sanskrit and several other languages; but, early in
+1842, he commenced his second attempt to discover the origin of the
+Hungarians, but he died at Darjiling on the 11th of April 1842. An
+oration was delivered in his honour before the Hungarian Academy by
+Eotvos, the novelist.
+
+
+
+
+CTENOPHORA, in zoology, a class of jelly-fish which were briefly
+described by Professor T. H. Huxley in 1875 (see ACTINOZOA, _Ency.
+Brit._ 9th ed. vol. i.) as united with what we now term Anthozoa to
+form the group Actinozoa; but little was known of the intimate structure
+of those remarkable and beautiful forms till the appearance in 1880 of
+C. Chun's Monograph of the Ctenophora occurring in the Bay of Naples.
+They may be defined as Coelentera which exhibit both a radial and
+bilateral symmetry of organs; with a stomodaeum; with a mesenchyma which
+is partly gelatinous but partly cellular; with eight meridianal rows of
+vibratile paddles formed of long fused or matted cilia; lacking
+nematocysts (except in one genus). An example common on the British
+coasts is furnished by _Hormiphora_ (_Cydippe_). In outward form this is
+an egg-shaped ball of clear jelly, having a mouth at the pointed (oral)
+pole, and a sense-organ at the broader (aboral) pole. It possesses eight
+meridians (costae) of iridescent paddles in constant vibration, which
+run from near one pole towards the other; it has also two pendent
+feathery tentacles of considerable length, which can be retracted into
+pouches. The mouth leads into an ectodermal stomodaeum ("stomach"), and
+the latter into an endodermal funnel (infundibulum); these two are
+compressed in planes at right angles to one another, the sectional long
+axis of the stomodaeum lying in the so-called sagittal (stomodaeal or
+gastric) plane, that of the funnel in the transverse (tentacular or
+funnel) plane. From the funnel, canals are given off in three
+directions; (a) a pair of paragastric (stomachal, or stomodaeal) canals
+run orally, parallel to the stomodaeum, and end blindly near the mouth;
+(b) a pair of perradial canals run in the transverse plane towards the
+equator of the animal; each of these becomes divided into two short
+canals at the base of the tentacle sheath which they supply, but has
+previously given off a pair of short interradial canals, which again
+bifurcate into two adradial canals; all these branches lie in the
+equatorial plane of the animal, but the eight adradial canals then open
+into eight meridianal canals which run orally and aborally under the
+costae; (c) a pair of aboral vessels which run towards the sense-organ,
+each of which bifurcates; of the four vessels thus formed, two only open
+at the sides of the sense-organ, forming the so-called excretory
+apertures. These three sets of structures, with the funnel from which
+they rise, make up the endodermal coelenteron, or gastro-vascular
+system. The generative organs are endodermal by origin, borne at the
+sides of the meridianal canals as indicated by the signs [male]
+[female]. There exists a subepithelial plexus with nerve cells and
+fibres, similar to that of jelly-fishes. The sense-organ of the aboral
+pole is complex, and lies under a dome of fused cilia shaped like an
+inverted bell-jar; it consists of an otolith, formed of numerous
+calcareous spheroids, which is supported on four plates of fused cilia
+termed balancers, but is otherwise free. The ciliated ectoderm below the
+organ is markedly thickened, and perhaps functionally represents a
+nerve-ganglion: from it eight ciliated furrows radiate outwards, two
+passing under each balancer as through an archway, and diverge each to
+the head of a meridianal costa. These ciliated furrows stain deeply with
+osmic acid, and nervous impulses are certainly transmitted along them.
+Locomotion is effected by strokes of the paddles in an aboral direction,
+driving the animal mouth forwards through the water: each paddle or comb
+(Gr. [Greek: kteis]; hence Ctenophora) consists of a plate of fused or
+matted cilia set transversely to the costa. The myoepithelial cells
+(formerly termed neuro-muscular cells), characteristic of other
+Coelentera, are not to be found in this group. On the other hand there
+are well-marked muscle fibres in definite layers, derived from special
+mesoblastic cells in the embryo, which are embedded in a jelly; these in
+their origin and arrangement are quite comparable to the mesoderm of
+Triploblastica, and, although the muscle-cells of some jelly-fish
+exhibit a somewhat similar condition, nothing so highly specialized as
+the mesenchyme of Ctenophora occurs in any other Coelenterate. The
+nematocysts being nearly absent from their group, their chief function
+is carried out by adhesive lasso-cells.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Schematic drawing of a Cydippid from the side.
+(After Chun.)
+
+  A, Adradial canals.
+  F, Infundibulum.
+  I, Interradial canal.
+  M, Meridianal canal lying under a costa.
+  N, Ciliated furrow from sense pole to costa.
+  Pg, Paragastric canal.
+  SO, Sense-organ.
+  St, Stomodaeum.
+  Subs, Subsagittal costa.
+  Subt, Subtentacular costa.
+  T, Tentacle.
+  Ts, Boundaries of tentacle-sheath.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Schematic drawing of a Cydippid from the aboral
+pole. (After Chun.)
+
+  T (centrally), Tentacular canal, and (distally) tentacle.
+  [male], Position of testes.
+  [female], Position of ovaries; other letters in fig. 1. The stomodaeum
+    lies in the sagittal plane, the funnel and tentacles in the
+    transverse or tentacular plane.]
+
+The Ctenophora are classified as follows:--
+
+    Sub-class  i. Tentaculata, Order 1. CYDIPPIDEA, _Hormiphora_.
+                                 "   2. LOBATA,     _Deiopea_.
+                                 "   3. CESTOIDEA,  _Cestus_.
+        "     ii. Nuda,          "                  _Beroe_.
+
+  The Tentaculata, as the name implies, may be recognized by the
+  presence of tentacles of some sort. The CYDIPPIDEA are generally
+  spherical or ovoid, with two long retrusible pinnate tentacles: the
+  meridianal and paragastric canals end blindly. An example of these has
+  already been briefly described. The LOBATA are of the same general
+  type as the first Order, except for the presence of four circumoral
+  auricles (processes of the subtransverse costae) and of a pair of
+  sagittal outgrowths or lobes, on to which the subsagittal costae are
+  continued. Small accessory tentacles lie in grooves, but there is no
+  tentacular pouch; the meridianal vessels anastomose in the lobes. In
+  the CESTOIDEA the body is compressed in the transverse plane,
+  elongated in the sagittal plane, so as to become riband-like: the
+  subtransverse costae are greatly reduced, the subsagittal costae
+  extend along the aboral edge of the riband. The subsagittal canals lie
+  immediately below their costae aborally, but continuations of the
+  subtransverse canals round down the middle of the riband, and at its
+  end unite, not only with the subsagittal but also with the paragastric
+  canals which run along the oral edge of the riband. The tentacular
+  bases and pouches are present, but there is no main tentacle as in
+  Cydippidea; fine accessory tentacles lie in four grooves along the
+  oral edge. The sub-class Nuda have no tentacles of any kind; they are
+  conical or ovoid, with a capacious stomodaeum like the cavity of a
+  thimble. There is a coelenteric network formed by anastomoses of the
+  meridianal and paragastric canals all over the body.
+
+  The embryology of _Callianira_ has been worked out by E. Mechnikov.
+  Segmentation is complete and unequal, producing macromeres and
+  micromeres marked by differences in the size and in yolk-contents.
+  The micromeres give rise to the ectoderm; each of the sixteen
+  macromeres, after budding off a small mesoblast cell, passes on as
+  endoderm. A gastrula is established by a mixed process of embole and
+  epibole. The mesoblast cells travel to the aboral pole of the embryo,
+  and there form a cross-shaped mass, the arms of which lie in the
+  sagittal and transverse planes (perradii).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Schematic Drawing of Cestus. (After Chun.)
+
+  Subs, Subsagittal costae.
+  Subt, Much reduced subtentacular costae.
+  Subt, Branch of the subtentacular canal which runs along the centre of
+    the riband.
+  Pg, Continuation of the paragastric canal at right angles to its
+    original direction along the lower edge of the riband. At the
+    right-hand end the last two are seen to unite with the subsagittal
+    canal.]
+
+There can be but little question of the propriety of including
+Ctenophora among the Coelentera. The undivided coelenteron
+(gastro-vascular system) which constitutes the sole cavity of the body,
+the largely radial symmetry, the presence of endodermal generative
+organs on the coelenteric canals, the subepithelial nerve-plexus, the
+mesogloea-like matrix of the body--all these features indicate affinity
+to other Coelentera, but, as has been stated in the article under that
+title, the relation is by no means close. At what period the Ctenophora
+branched off from the line of descent, which culminated in the
+Hydromedusae and Scyphozoa of to-day, is not clear, but it is
+practically certain that they did so before the point of divergence of
+these two groups from one another. The peculiar sense-organ, the
+specialization of the cilia into paddles with the corresponding
+modifications of the coelenteron, the anatomy and position of the
+tentacles, and, above all, the character and mode of formation of the
+mesenchyme, separate them widely from other Coelentera.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Schematic Drawing of _Beroe_. (After Chun.)]
+
+The last-named character, however, combined with the discovery of two
+remarkable organisms, _Coeloplana_ and _Ctenoplana_, has suggested
+affinity to the flat-worms termed Turbellaria. _Ctenoplana_, the best
+known of these, has recently been redescribed by A. Willey (_Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxxix., 1896). It is flattened along the axis which
+unites sense-organ and mouth, so as to give it a dorsal (aboral)
+surface, and a ventral (oral) surface on which it frequently creeps. Its
+costae are very short, and retrusible; its two tentacles are pinnate and
+are also retrusible. Two crescentic rows of ciliated papillae lie in the
+transverse plane on each side of the sense-organ. The coelenteron
+exhibits six lobes, two of which Willey identifies with the stomodaeum
+of other Ctenophora; the other four give rise to a system of
+anastomosing canals such as are found in _Beroe_ and Polyclad
+Turbellaria. An aboral vessel embraces the sense-organ, but has no
+external opening. _Ctenoplana_ is obviously a Ctenophoran flattened and
+of a creeping habit. _Coeloplana_ is of similar form and habit, with two
+Ctenophoran tentacles: it has no costae, but is uniformly ciliated.
+These two forms at least indicate a possible stepping-stone from
+Ctenophora to Turbellaria, that is to say, from diploblastic to
+triploblastic Metazoa. By themselves they would present no very weighty
+argument for this line of descent from two-layered to three-layered
+forms, but the coincidences which occur in the development of Ctenophora
+and Turbellaria,--the methods of segmentation and gastrulation, of the
+separation of the mesoblast cells, and of mesenchyme
+formation,--together with the marked similarity of the adult mesenchyme
+in the two groups, have led many to accept this pedigree. In his
+Monograph on the Polyclad Turbellaria of the Bay of Naples, A. Lang
+regards a Turbellarian, so to say, as a Ctenophora, in which the sensory
+pole has rotated forwards in the sagittal plane through 90 deg. as
+regards the original oral-aboral axis, a rotation which actually occurs
+in the development of _Thysanozoon_ (Muller's larva); and he sees, in
+the eight lappets of the preoral ciliated ring of such a larva, the
+rudiments of the costal plates. According to his view, a simple early
+Turbellarian larva, such as that of _Stylochus_, most nearly represents
+for us to-day that ancestor from which Ctenophora and Turbellaria are
+alike derived. For details of this brilliant theory, the reader is
+referred to the original monograph.
+
+  LITERATURE.--G. C. Bourne, "The Ctenophora," in Ray Lankester's
+  _Treatise on Zoology_ (1900), where a bibliography is given; G.
+  Curreri, "Osservazioni sui ctenofori," _Boll. Soc. Zool. Ital._ (2),
+  i. pp. 190-193 et ii. pp. 58-76; A. Garbe, "Untersuchungen uber die
+  Entstehung der Geschlechtsorgane bei den Ctenophoren.," _Zeitschr.
+  Wiss. Zool._ lxix. pp. 472-491; K. C. Schneider, _Lehrbuch der
+  vergleich. Histologie_ (1902).     (G. H. Fo.)
+
+
+
+
+CTESIAS, of Cnidus in Caria, Greek physician and historian, flourished
+in the 5th century B.C. In early life he was physician to Artaxerxes
+Mnemon, whom he accompanied (401) on his expedition against his brother
+Cyrus the Younger. Ctesias was the author of treatises on rivers, and on
+the Persian revenues, of an account of India (which is of value as
+recording the beliefs of the Persians about India), and of a history of
+Assyria and Persia in 23 books, called _Persica_, written in opposition
+to Herodotus in the Ionic dialect, and professedly founded on the
+Persian royal archives. The first six books treated of the history of
+Assyria and Babylon to the foundation of the Persian empire; the
+remaining seventeen went down to the year 398. Of the two histories we
+possess abridgments by Photius, and fragments are preserved in
+Athenaeus, Plutarch and especially Diodorus Siculus, whose second book
+is mainly from Ctesias. As to the worth of the _Persica_ there has been
+much controversy, both in ancient and modern times. Being based upon
+Persian authorities, it was naturally looked upon with suspicion by the
+Greeks and censured as untrustworthy.
+
+  For an estimate of Ctesias as a historian see G. Rawlinson's
+  _Herodotus_, i. 71-74; also the edition of the fragments of the
+  _Persica_ by J. Giimore (1888, with introduction and notes and list of
+  authorities).
+
+
+
+
+CTESIPHON, a large village on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite to
+Seleucia, of which it formed a suburb, about 25 m. below Bagdad. It is
+first mentioned in the year 220 by Polybius v. 45. 4. When the Parthian
+Arsacids had conquered the lands east of the Euphrates in 129 B.C., they
+established their winter residence in Ctesiphon. They dared not stay in
+Seleucia, as this city, the most populous town of western Asia, always
+maintained her Greek self-government and a strong feeling of
+independence, which made her incline to the west whenever a Roman army
+attacked the Parthians. The Arsacids also were afraid of destroying the
+wealth and commerce of Seleucia, if they entered it with their large
+retinue of barbarian officials and soldiers (Strabo xvi. 743, Plin. vi.
+122, cf. Joseph. _Ant._ xviii. 9, 2). From this time Ctesiphon increased
+in size, and many splendid buildings rose; it had the outward appearance
+of a large town, although it was by its constitution only a village.
+From A.D. 36-43 Seleucia was in rebellion against the Parthians till at
+last it was forced by King Vardanes to yield. It is very probable that
+Vardanes now tried to put Ctesiphon in its place; therefore he is called
+founder of Ctesiphon by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiii. 6. 23), where King
+Pacorus (78-110) is said to have increased its inhabitants and built its
+walls. Seleucia was destroyed by the Romans in A.D. 164. When Ardashir
+I. founded the Sassanian empire (226), and fixed his residence at
+Ctesiphon, he built up Seleucia again under the name of Veh-Ardashir.
+Later kings added other suburbs; Chosroes I. in 540 established the
+inhabitants of Antiochia in Syria, whom he had led into captivity, in a
+new city, "Chosrau-Antioch" (or "the Roman city") near his residence.
+Therefore the Arabs designate the whole complex of towns which lay
+together around Seleucia and Ctesiphon and formed the residence of the
+Sassanids by the name Madain, "the cities,"--their number is often given
+as seven. In the wars between the Roman and Persian empires, Ctesiphon
+was more than once besieged and plundered, thus by Odaenathus in 261,
+and by Canis in 283; Julian in 363 advanced to Ctesiphon, but was not
+able to take it (Ammianus xxiv. 7). After the battle of Kadisiya
+(Qadisiya) Ctesiphon and the neighbouring towns were taken and plundered
+by the Arabs in 637, who brought home an immense amount of booty (see
+CALIPHATE). From then, these towns decayed before the increasing
+prosperity of the new Arab capitals Basra and Bagdad. The site is marked
+only by the ruins of one gigantic building of brick-work, called Takhti
+Khesra, "throne of Khosrau" (i.e. Chosroes). It is a great vaulted hall
+ornamented with pilasters, the remainder of the palace and the most
+splendid example of Sassanian architecture (see ARCHITECTURE, vol. ii.
+p. 558, for further details and illustration).     (Ed. M.)
+
+
+
+
+CUBA (the aboriginal name), a republic, the largest and most populous of
+the West India Islands, included between the meridians of 74 deg. 7' and
+84 deg. 57' W. longitude and (roughly) the parallels of 19 deg. 48' and
+23 deg. 13' N. latitude. It divides the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico
+into two passages of nearly equal width,--the Strait of Florida, about
+110 m. wide between Capes Hicacos in Cuba and Arenas in Florida (Key
+West being a little over 100 m. from Havana); and the Yucatan Channel,
+about 130 m. wide between Capes San Antonio and Catoche. On the N.E., E.
+and S.E., narrower channels separate it from the Bahamas, Haiti (50 m.)
+and Jamaica (85 m.). In 1908, by the opening of a railway along the
+Florida Keys, the time of passage by water between Cuba and the United
+States was reduced to a few hours.
+
+The island is long and narrow, somewhat in the form of an irregular
+crescent, convex toward the N. It has a decided pitch to the S. Its
+length from Cape Maisi to Cape San Antonio along a medial line is about
+730 m.; its breadth, which averages about 50 m., ranges from a maximum
+of 160 m. to a minimum of about 22 m. The total area is estimated at
+41,634 sq. m. without the surrounding keys and the Isle of Pines (area
+about 1180 sq. m.), and including these is approximately 44,164. The
+geography of the island is still very imperfectly known, and all figures
+are approximate only. The coast line, including larger bays, but
+excluding reefs, islets, keys and all minute sinuosities, is about 2500
+m. in length. The N. littoral is characterized by bluffs, which grow
+higher and higher toward the east, rising to 600 ft. at Cape Maisi. They
+are marked by distinct terraces. The southern coast near Cape Maisi is
+low and sandy. From Guantanamo to Santiago it rises in high escarpments,
+and W. of Santiago, where the Sierra Maestra runs close to the sea,
+there is a very high abrupt shore. To the W. of Manzanillo it sinks
+again, and throughout most of the remaining distance to Cape San Antonio
+is low, with a sandy or marshy littoral; at places sand hills fringe the
+shore; near Trinidad there are hills of considerable height; and the
+coast becomes high and rugged W. of Point Fisga, in the province of
+Pinar del Rio. On both the N. and the S. side of the island there are
+long chains of islets and reefs and coral keys (of which it is estimated
+there are 1300), which limit access to probably half of the coast, and
+on the N. render navigation difficult and dangerous. On the S. they are
+covered with mangroves. A large part of the southern littoral is subject
+to overflow, and much more of it is permanently marshy. The Zapata Swamp
+near Cienfuegos is 600 sq. m. in area; other large swamps are the
+Majaguillar, E. of Cardenas, and the Cienaga del Buey, S. of the Cauto
+river. The Isle of Pines in its northern part is hilly and wooded; in
+its southern part, very low, level and rather barren; a tidal swamp
+almost cuts the island in two. A remarkable feature of the Cuban coast
+is the number of excellent anchorages, roadsteads and harbours. On the
+N. shore, beginning at the W., Bahia Honda, Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas,
+Nuevitas and Nipe; and on the S. shore running westward Guantanamo,
+Santiago and Cienfuegos, are harbours of the first class, several of
+them among the best of the world. Mariel, Cabanas, Banes, Sagua la
+Grande and Baracoa on the N., and Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, Batabano and
+Trinidad on the S. are also excellent ports or anchorages. The peculiar
+pouch-shape of almost all the harbours named (Matanzas being a marked
+exception) greatly increases their security and defensibility. These
+pouch harbours are probably "drowned" drainage basins. The number of
+small bays that can be utilized for coast trade traffic is
+extraordinary.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Cuba.]
+
+In popular language the different portions of the island are
+distinguished as the Vuelta Abajo ("lower turn"), W. of Havana; the
+Vuelta Arriba ("upper turn"), E. of Havana to Cienfuegos--Vuelta Abajo
+and Vuelta Arriba are also used colloquially at any point in the island
+to mean "east" and "west"--Las Cinco Villas--i.e. Villa Clara, Trinidad,
+Remedios, Cienfuegos and Sancti Spiritus--between Cienfuegos and Sancti
+Spiritus; and Tierra Adentro, referring to the region between Cienfuegos
+and Bayamo. These names are extremely common. The province and city of
+Puerto Principe are officially known as Camaguey, their original Indian
+name, which has practically supplanted the Spanish name in local usage.
+
+Five topographic divisions of the island are fairly marked. Santiago
+(now Oriente) province is high and mountainous. Camaguey is
+characterized by rolling, open plains, slightly broken, especially in
+the W., by low mountains. The E. part of Santa Clara province is
+decidedly rough and broken. The W. part, with the provinces of Matanzas
+and Havana, is flat and rolling, with occasional hills a few hundred
+feet high. Finally, Pinar del Rio is dominated by a prominent mountain
+range and by outlying piedmont hills and mesas. There are mountains in
+Cuba from one end of the island to the other, but they are not derived
+from any central mass and are not continuous. As just indicated there
+are three distinctively mountainous districts, various minor groups
+lying outside these. The three main systems are known in Cuba as the
+occidental, central and oriental. The first, the Organ mountains, in
+Pinar del Rio, rises in a sandy, marshy region near Cape San Antonio.
+The crest runs near the N. shore, leaving various flanking spurs and
+foothills, and a coastal plain which at its greatest breadth on the S.
+is some 20 m. wide. The plain on the N. is narrower and higher. The
+southern slope is smooth, and abounds in creeks and rivers. The portion
+of the southern plain between the bays of Cortes and Majana is the most
+famous portion of the Vuelta Abajo tobacco region. The mountain range is
+capriciously broken at points, especially near Bejucal. The highest part
+is the Pan de Guajaibon, near Bahia Honda, at the W. end of the chain;
+its altitude has been variously estimated from 2500 to 1950 ft. The
+central system has two wings, one approaching the N. coast, the other
+covering the island between Sancti Spiritus and Santa Clara. It
+comprehends a number of independent groups. The highest point, the Pico
+Potrerillo, is about 2900 ft. in altitude. The summits are generally
+well rounded, while the lower slopes are often steep. Frequent broad
+intervals of low upland or low level plain extend from sea to sea
+between and around the mountains. Near the coast runs a continuous belt
+of plantations, while grazing, tobacco and general farm lands cover the
+lower slopes of the hills, and virgin forests much of the uplands and
+mountains.
+
+The oriental mountain region includes the province of Oriente and a
+portion of Camaguey. In extent, in altitude, in mass, in complexity and
+in geological interest, it is much the most important of the three
+systems. Almost all the mountains are very bold. They are imperfectly
+known. There are two main ranges, the Sierra Maestra, and a line of
+various groups along the N. shore. The former runs from Cape Santa Cruz
+eastward along the coast some 125 m. to beyond the river Baconao. The
+Sierra de Cobre, a part of the system in the vicinity of Santiago, has a
+general elevation of about 3000 ft. Monte Turquino, 7700-8320 ft. in
+altitude, is the highest peak of the island. Gran Piedra rises more than
+5200 ft., the Ojo del Toro more than 3300, the Anvil de Baracoa is
+somewhat lower, and Pan de Matanzas is about 1267 ft. The western
+portions of the range rise abruptly from the ocean, forming a bold and
+beautiful coast. A multitude of ravines and gullies, filled with
+torrential streams or dry, according to the season of the year, and
+characterized by many beautiful cascades, seam the narrow coastal plain
+and the flanks of the mountains. The spurs of the central range are a
+highly intricate complex, covered with dense forests of superb woods.
+Many points are inaccessible, and the scenery is wild in the extreme.
+The mountains beyond Guantanamo are locally known by a variety of names,
+though topographically a continuation of the Sierra Maestra. The same is
+true of the chains that coalesce with these near Cape Maisi and diverge
+northwesterly along the N. coast of the island. The general character of
+this northern marginal system is much the same as that of the southern,
+save that the range is much less continuous. A dozen or more groups
+from Nipe in the E. to the coast N. of Camaguey in the W. are known only
+by individual names. The range near Baracoa is extremely wild and
+broken. The region between the lines of the two coastal systems is a
+much dissected plateau, imperfectly explored. The Cauto river, the only
+one flowing E. or W. and the largest of Cuba, flows through it westward
+to the southern coast near Manzanillo. The scenery in the oriental
+portion of the island is very beautiful, with wild mountains and
+tropical forests. In the central part there are extensive prairies. In
+the west there are swelling hills and gentle valleys, with the royal
+palm the dominating tree. The valley of the Yumuri, near Matanzas, a
+small circular basin crossed by a river that issues through a glen to
+the sea, is perhaps the most beautiful in Cuba.
+
+A very peculiar feature of Cuba is the abundance of caverns in the
+limestone deposits that underlie much of the island's surface. The caves
+of Cotilla near Havana, of Bellamar near Matanzas, of Monte Libano near
+Guantanamo, and those of San Juan de los Remedios, are the best known,
+but there are scores of others. Many streams are "disappearing," part of
+their course being through underground tunnels. Thus the Rio San Antonio
+suddenly disappears near San Antonio de los Banos; the cascades of the
+Jatibonico del Norte disappear and reappear in a surprising manner; the
+Moa cascade (near Guantanamo) drops 300 ft. into a cavern and its waters
+later reissue from the earth; the Jojo river disappears in a great
+"sink" and later issues with violent current at the edge of the sea. The
+springs of fresh water that bubble up among the keys of the S. coast are
+also supposedly the outlets of underground streams.
+
+The number of rivers is very great, but almost without exception their
+courses are normal to the coast, and they are so short as to be of but
+slight importance. The Cauto river in Oriente province is exceptional;
+it is 250 m. long, and navigable by small vessels for about 75 m. Inside
+the bar at its mouth (formed by a storm in 1616) ships of 200 tons can
+still ascend to Cauto. In Camaguey province the Jatibonico del Sur; in
+Oriente the Salado, a branch of the Cauto; in Santa Clara the Sagua la
+Grande (which is navigable for some 20 m. and has an important traffic),
+and the Damuji; in Matanzas, the Canimar; and in Pinar del Rio the
+Cuyaguateje, are important streams. The water-parting in the four
+central provinces is very indefinite. There are few river valleys that
+are noteworthy--those of the Yumuri, the Trinidad and the Guines. At
+Guantanamo and Trinidad are other valleys, and between Mariel and Havana
+is the fine valley of Ariguanabo. Of lakes, there are a few on the
+coast, and a very few in the mountains. The finest is Lake Ariguanabo,
+near Havana, 6 sq. m. in area. Of the almost innumerable river cascades,
+those of the Sierra Maestra Mountains, and in particular the Moa
+cascade, have already been mentioned. The Guama cascade in Oriente
+province and the Hanabanilla Fall near Cienfuegos (each more than 300
+ft. high), the Rosario Fall in Pinar del Rio, and the Almendares cascade
+near Havana, may also be mentioned.
+
+  _Geology._--The foundation of the island is formed of metamorphic and
+  igneous rocks, which appear in the Sierra Maestra and are exposed in
+  other parts of the island wherever the comparatively thin covering of
+  later beds has been worn away. A more or less continuous band of
+  serpentine belonging to this series forms the principal watershed,
+  although it nowhere rises to any great height. It is in this band that
+  the greater part of the mineral wealth of Cuba is situated. These
+  ancient rocks have hitherto yielded no fossils and their age is
+  therefore uncertain, but they are probably pre-Cretaceous at least.
+  Fossiliferous Cretaceous limestones containing _Rudistes_ have been
+  found in several parts of the island (Santiago de los Banos, Santa
+  Clara province, &c.). At the base there is often an arkose, composed
+  largely of fragments of serpentine and granite derived from the
+  ancient floor. At Esperanza and other places in the Santa Clara
+  province, bituminous plant-bearing beds occur beneath the Tertiary
+  limestones, and at Baracoa a Radiolarian earth occupies a similar
+  position. The latter, like the similar deposits in other West Indian
+  islands, is probably of Oligocene age. It is the Tertiary limestones
+  which form the predominant feature in the geology of Cuba. Although
+  they do not exceed 1000 ft. in thickness, they probably at one time
+  covered the whole island except the summits of the Sierra Maestra,
+  where they have been observed, resting upon the older rocks, up to a
+  height of 2300 ft. They contain corals, but are not coral reefs. The
+  shells which have been found in them indicate that they belong for
+  the most part to the Oligocene period. They are frequently very much
+  disturbed and often strongly folded. Around the coast there is a
+  raised shelf of limestone which was undoubtedly a coral reef. But it
+  is of recent date and does not attain an elevation of more than 40 or
+  50 ft.
+
+  Minerals are fairly abundant in number, but few are present in
+  sufficient quantity to be industrially important. Traditions of gold
+  and silver, dating from the time of the Spanish conquest, still
+  endure, but these metals are in fact extremely rare. Oriente province
+  is distinctively the mineral province of the island. Large copper
+  deposits of peculiar richness occur here in the Sierra de Cobre, near
+  the city of Santiago; and both iron and manganese are abundant.
+  Besides the deposits in Oriente province, iron is known to exist in
+  considerable amount in Camaguey and Santa Clara, and copper in
+  Camaguey and Pinar del Rio provinces. The iron ores mined at Daiquiri
+  near Santiago are mainly rich hematites running above 60% of iron,
+  with very little sulphur or phosphorus admixture. The copper deposits
+  are mainly in well-marked fracture planes in serpentine; the ore is
+  pyrrhotite, with or without chalcopyrite. Manganese occurs especially
+  along the coast between Santiago and Manzanillo; the best ores run
+  above 50%. Chromium and a number of other rare minerals are known to
+  exist, but probably not in commercially available quantities.
+  Bituminous products of every grade, from clear translucent oils
+  resembling petroleum and refined naphtha, to lignite-like substances,
+  occur in all parts of the island. Much of the bituminous deposits is
+  on the dividing line between asphalt and coal. There is an endless
+  amount of stone, very little of which is hard enough to be good for
+  building material, the greatest part being a soft coralline limestone.
+  The best buildings in Havana are constructed of a very rich white
+  limestone, soft and readily worked when fresh, but hardening and
+  slightly darkening with age. There are extensive and valuable deposits
+  of beautiful marbles in the Isle of Pines, and lesser ones near
+  Santiago. The Organ Mountains contain a hard blue limestone; and
+  sandstones occur on the N. coast of Pinar del Rio province. Clays of
+  all qualities and colours abound. Mineral waters, though not yet
+  important in trade, are extremely abundant, and a score of places in
+  Cuba and the Isle of Pines are already known as health resorts. Those
+  near San Diego, Guanabacoa and Santa Maria del Rosario (near Havana)
+  and Madruga (near Guines) are the best known.
+
+  The soil of the island is almost wholly of modern formation, mainly
+  alluvial, with superficial limestones as another prominent feature. In
+  the original formation of the island volcanic disturbances and coral
+  growth played some part; but there are only very slight superficial
+  evidences in the island of former volcanic activity. Noteworthy
+  earthquakes are rare. They have been most common in Oriente province.
+  Those of 1776, 1842 and 1852 were particularly destructive, and of
+  earlier ones those of 1551 and 1624 at Bayamo and of 1578 and 1678 at
+  Santiago. Every year there are seismic disturbances, and though
+  Santiago is the point of most frequent visitation, they occur in all
+  parts of the island, in 1880 affecting the entire western end. Notable
+  seismic disturbances in Cuba have coincided with similar activity in
+  Central America so often as to make some connexion apparent.
+
+  _Flora._--The tropical heat and humidity of Cuba make possible a flora
+  of splendid richness. All the characteristic species of the West
+  Indies, the Central American and Mexican and southern Florida
+  seaboard, and nearly all the large trees of the Mexican tropic belt,
+  are embraced in it. As many as 3350 native flowering species were
+  catalogued in 1876. The total number of species of the island flora
+  was estimated in 1892 by a writer in the _Revista Cubana_ (vol. xv.
+  pp. 5-16) to be between 5000 and 6000, but hardly one-third of this
+  number had then been gathered into a herbarium, and all parts of the
+  island had not then been explored. It was estimated officially in 1904
+  that the wooded lands of the island comprised 3,628,434 acres, of
+  which one-third were in Oriente province, another third in Camaguey,
+  and hardly any in Havana province. Much of this area is of primeval
+  forest; somewhat more than a third of the total, belonging to the
+  government, was opened to sale (and speculative exspoliation) in 1904.
+  The woods are so dense over large districts as to be impenetrable,
+  except by cutting a path foot by foot through the close network of
+  vines and undergrowth. The jaguey (_Ficus_ sp.), which stifles in its
+  giant coils the greatest trees of the forest, and the copei (_Clusia
+  rosea_) are remarkable parasitic lianas. Of the palm there are more
+  than thirty species. The royal palm is the most characteristic tree of
+  Cuba. It attains a height of from 50 to 75 ft., and sometimes of more
+  than 100 ft. Alone, or in groups, or in long aisles, towering above
+  the plantations or its fellow trees of the forest, its beautiful crest
+  dominates every landscape. Every portion, from its roots to its
+  leaves, serves some useful purpose. From it the native draws lumber
+  for his hut, utensils for his kitchen, thatch for his roof, medicines,
+  preserved delicacies, and a long list of other articles. The corojo
+  palm (_Cocos crispa_) rivals the royal palm in beauty and utility;
+  oil, sugar, drink and wood are derived from it. The coco palm (_Cocos
+  nucifera_) is also put to varied uses. The mango is planted with the
+  royal palm along the avenues of the plantations. The beautiful ceiba
+  (_Bombax ceiba_ L., _Ceiba pentandra_) or silk cotton tree is the
+  giant of the Cuban forests; it often grows to a height of 100 to 150
+  ft. with enormous girth. The royal pinon (_Erythrina velatina_) is
+  remarkable for the magnificent purple flowers that cover it. The
+  tamarind and banyan are also noteworthy. Utilitarian trees and plants
+  are legion. There are at least forty choice cabinet and building
+  woods. Of these, ebonies, mahogany (for the bird's-eye variety such
+  enormous prices are paid as $1200 to $1800 per thousand board-feet),
+  culla (or cuya, _Bumelia retusa_), cocullo (cocuyo, _Bumelia nigra_),
+  ocuje (_Callophyllum viticifolia_, _Ornitrophis occidentalis_, _O.
+  cominia_), jigue (jique, _Lysiloma sabicu_), mahagua (_Hibiscus
+  tiliaceus_), granadillo (_Brya ebenus_), icaquillo (_Licania incania_)
+  and agua-baria (_Cordia gerascanthes_) are perhaps the most beautiful.
+  Other woods, beautiful and precious, include guayacan (Guaiacum
+  sanctum), baria (varia, _Cordia gerascanthoides_)--the fragrant,
+  hard-wood Spanish elm--the quiebra-hacha (_Copaifera hymenofolia_),
+  which three are of wonderful lasting qualities; the jiqui (_Malpighia
+  obovata_), acana (_Achras disecta_, _Bassia albescens_), caigaran (or
+  caguairan, _Hymenaea floribunda_), and the dagame (_Calicophyllum
+  candidissimum_), which four, like the culla, are all wonderfully
+  resistant to humidity; the caimatillo (_Chrysophyllum oliviforme_),
+  the yaya (or yayajabico, yayabito: _Erythalis fructicosa_, _Bocagea
+  virgata_, _Guateria virgata_, _Asimina Blaini_), a magnificent
+  construction wood; the maboa (_Cameraria latifolia_) and the jocuma
+  (jocum: _Sideroxylon mastichodendron_, _Bumelia saticifolia_), all of
+  individual beauties and qualities. Many species are rich in gums and
+  resins; the calambac, mastic, copal, cedar, &c. Many others are
+  oleaginous, among them, peanuts, sun-flowers, the bene seed (sesame),
+  corozo, almond and palmachristi. Others (in addition to some already
+  mentioned) are medicinal; as the palms, calabash, manchineel, pepper,
+  fustic and a long list of cathartics, caustics, emetics, astringents,
+  febrifuges, vermifuges, diuretics and tonics. Then, too, there are
+  various dyewoods; rosewood, logwood (or campeachy wood), indigo,
+  manaju (_Garcinia Morella_), Brazil-wood and saffron. Textile plants
+  are extremely common. The majagua tree grows as high as 40 ft.; from
+  its bark is made cordage of the finest quality, which is scarcely
+  affected by the atmosphere. Strong, fine, glossy fibres are yielded by
+  the exotic ramie (_Boehmeria nivea_), whose fibre, like that of the
+  majagua, is almost incorruptible; by the maya or rat-pineapple
+  (_Bromelia Pinguin_), and by the daquilla (or daiguiya--_Lagetta
+  lintearia_, _L. valenzuelana_), which like the maya yields a
+  brilliant, flexible product like silk; stronger cordage by the corojo
+  palms, and various henequen plants, native and exotic (especially
+  _Agave americana_, _A. Cubensis_); and various plantains, the exotic
+  _Sansevieria guineensis_, okra, jute, _Laportea_, various lianas, and
+  a great variety of reeds, supply varied textile materials of the best
+  quality. The yucca is a source of starch. For building and
+  miscellaneous purposes, in addition to the rare woods above named,
+  there are cedars (used in great quantities for cigar boxes); the pine,
+  found only in the W., where it gives its name to the Isle of Pines and
+  the province of Pinar del Rio; various palms; oaks of varying hardness
+  and colour, &c. The number of alimentary plants is extremely great.
+  Among economic plants should be mentioned the coffee, cacao, citron,
+  cinnamon, cocoanut and rubber tree. Wheat, Indian corn and many
+  vegetables, especially tuberous, are particularly important. Plantain
+  occurs in several varieties; it is in part a cheap and healthful
+  substitute for bread, which is also made from the bitter cassava,
+  after the poison is extracted. The sweet cassava yields tapioca.
+  Bread-trees are fairly common, but are little cared for. White and
+  sweet potatoes, yams, sweet and bitter yuccas, sago and okra, may also
+  be mentioned.
+
+  Fruits are varied and delicious. The pineapple is the most favoured by
+  Cubans. Four or five annual crops grow from one plant, but not more
+  than three can be marketed, unless locally, as the product
+  deteriorates. The better ("purple") varieties are mainly consumed in
+  the island, and the smaller and less juicy "white" varieties exported.
+  The tamarind is everywhere. Bananas are grown particularly in the
+  region about Nipe, Gibara and Baracoa, whence they are exported in
+  large quantities, though there is a tendency to lessen their culture
+  in these parts in favour of sugar. Mangoes, though exotic, are
+  extremely common, and in the E. grow wild in the forests. They are the
+  favourite fruit of the negroes. Oranges are little cultivated,
+  although they offer apparently almost unlimited possibilities; their
+  culture decreased steadily after 1880, but after about 1900 was again
+  greatly extended. Lemons yield continuously through the year, but like
+  oranges, not much has yet been done with them commercially.
+  Pomegranates are as universally used in Cuba as apples in the United.
+  States. Figs and grapes degenerate in Cuba. Dates grow better, but
+  nothing has been done with them. The coco-nut palm is most abundant in
+  the vicinity of Baracoa. Among the common fruits are various
+  anonas--the custard apple (_Anona cherimolia_), sweet-sop (_A.
+  squamosa_), sour-sop (_A. muricata_), mamon (_A. reticulata_), and
+  others,--the star-apple (_Chrysophyllum cainito_, _C. pomiferum_),
+  rose-apple (_Eugenia jambos_), pawpaw, the sapodilla (_Sapota
+  achras_), the caniste (_Sapota Elongata_), jagua (_Genipa americana_),
+  alligator pear (_Persea gratissima_), the yellow mammee (_Mammea
+  americana_) and so-called "red mammee" (_Lucuma mammosa_) and limes.
+
+  _Fauna._--The fauna of Cuba, like the flora, is still imperfectly
+  known. Collectively it shows long isolation from the other Antilles.
+  Only two land mammals are known to be indigenous. One is the hutia
+  (agouti) or Cuban rat, of which three species are known (_Capromys
+  Fournieri_, _C. melanurus_ and _C. Poey_). It lives in the most
+  solitary woods, especially in the eastern hills. The other is a
+  peculiar insectivore (_Solenodon paradoxus_), the only other
+  representatives of whose family are found in Madagascar. Various
+  animals, apparently indigenous, that are described by the early
+  historians of the conquest, have disappeared. An Antillean rabbit is
+  very abundant. Bats in prodigious numbers, and some of them of
+  extraordinary size, inhabit the many caves of the island; more than
+  twenty species are known. Rats and mice, especially the guayabita
+  (_Mus musculus_), an extremely destructive rodent, are very abundant.
+  The manatee, or sea-cow, frequents the mouths of rivers, the sargasso
+  drifts, and the regions of submarine fresh-water springs off the
+  coast. Horses, asses, cows, deer, sheep, goats, swine, cats and dogs
+  were introduced by the early Spaniards. The last three are common in a
+  wild state. Deer are not native, and are very rare; a few live in the
+  swamps.
+
+  Of birds there are more than 200 indigenous species, it is said, and
+  migratory species are also numerous. Waders are represented by more
+  than fifty species. Vultures are represented by only one species, the
+  turkey buzzard, which is the universal scavenger of the fields, and
+  until recent years even of the cities, and has always been protected
+  by custom and the Laws of the Indies. Falcons are represented by a
+  score of species, at least, several of them nocturnal. Kestrels are
+  common. The gallinaceous order is rich in _Columbidae_. Trumpeters are
+  notably represented, and climbers still more so. Among the latter are
+  species of curious habits and remarkable colouring. Woodpeckers
+  (_Coloptes auratus_), macaws, parrakeets and other small parrots, and
+  trogons, these last of beautifully resplendent plumage, deserve
+  particular mention. The Cuban mocking-bird is a wonderful songster. Of
+  humming-birds there are said to be sixty species, probably only one
+  indigenous. Of the other birds mere mention may be made of the wild
+  pigeon, raven, indigo-bird, English lady-bird and linnet.
+
+  Reptiles are numerous. Many tortoises are notable. The crocodile and
+  cayman occur in the swampy littoral of the south. Of lizards the
+  iguana (_Cyclura caudata_) is noteworthy. Chameleons are common.
+  Snakes are not numerous, and it is said that none is poisonous or
+  vicious. There is one enormous boa, the maja (_Epicrates angulifer_),
+  which feeds on pigs, goats and the like, but does not molest man.
+
+  Fishes are present in even greater variety than birds. Felipa Poey, in
+  his _Ictiologia Cubana_, listed 782 species of fish and crustaceans,
+  of which 105 were doubtful; but more than one-half of the remainder
+  were first described by Poey. The fish of Cuban waters are remarkable
+  for their metallic colourings. The largest species are found off the
+  northern coast. Food fishes are relatively not abundant, presumably
+  because the deep sea escarpments of the N. are unfavourable to their
+  life. Shell fish are unimportant. Two species of blind fish, of
+  extreme scientific interest, are found in the caves of the island. Of
+  the "percoideos" there are many genera. Among the most important are
+  the robalo (_Labrax_), an exquisite food fish, the tunny, eel, Spanish
+  sardine and mangua. Of the sharks the genus _Squalus_ is represented
+  by individuals that grow to a length of 26 to 30 ft. The hammer-head
+  attains a weight at times of 600 lb. The saw-fish is common. Of
+  fresh-water fish the lisa, dogro, guayacon and viajocos (_Chromis
+  fuscomaculatus_) are possibly the most noteworthy.
+
+  Molluscs are extraordinarily numerous; and many, both of water and
+  land, are rarities among their kind for size and richness of colour.
+  Of crustaceans, land-crabs are remarkable for size and number.
+  Arachnids are prodigiously numerous. Insect life is abundant and
+  beautiful. The bite of the scorpion and of the numerous spiders
+  produces no serious effects. The nigua, the Cuban jigger, is a pest of
+  serious consequence, and the mal de nigua (jigger sickness) sometimes
+  causes the death of lower animals and men. Sand-flies and biting gnats
+  are lesser nuisances. Lepidoptera are very brilliant in colouring. The
+  cucujo or Cuban firefly (_Pyrophorus noctilucus_) gives out so strong
+  a light that a few of them serve effectively as a lantern. The
+  _Stegomyia_ mosquito is the agent of yellow fever inoculation. Sponges
+  grow in great variety.
+
+_Climate._--The climate of Cuba is tropical and distinctively insular in
+characteristics of humidity, equability and high mean temperature. There
+are two distinct seasons: a "dry" season from November to April, and a
+hotter, "wet" season. About two-thirds of the total precipitation falls
+in the latter. Droughts, extensive in area and in duration, are by no
+means uncommon. At Havana the mean temperature is about 76 deg. F., with
+extreme monthly oscillations ranging on the average from 6 deg. to 12
+deg. F. for different months, and with a range between the means of the
+coldest and warmest months of 10 deg. (70 deg. to 80 deg.); temperatures
+below 50 deg. or above 90 deg. being rare. The mean rainfall at Havana
+is about 40.6 in. (sometimes over 80), and the mean absolute humidity of
+different months ranges from 70 to 80%. These figures represent fairly
+well the conditions of much of the northern coast. In the N.E. the
+rainfall is much greater. The equability of heat throughout the day is
+masked and relieved by the afternoon sea breezes. The trades are steady
+through the year, and in the dry season the western part of the island
+enjoys cool "northers." Despite this the interior is somewhat cooler
+than the coast, and in the uplands frost is not uncommon. The southern
+littoral is also (except in sheltered points such as Santiago, which is
+one of the hottest cities of the island) somewhat cooler than the
+northern.
+
+More than eight or ten years rarely pass without tornadoes or hurricanes
+of local severity at least. Notably destructive ones occurred in 1768,
+1774, 1842, 1844, 1846, 1865, 1870, 1876, 1885 and 1894. Those of 1842
+and 1844 caused extreme distress in the island. In 1846, 300 vessels and
+2000 houses were destroyed at Havana; in 1896 the banana groves of the
+N.E. coast were ruined and the banana industry prostrated; and in 1906
+Havana suffered damage. The autumn months, particularly October and
+November, are those in which such storms most frequently occur.
+
+_Health._--Convincing evidence is offered by the qualities of the
+Spanish race in Cuba that white men of temperate lands can be perfectly
+acclimatized in this tropical island. As for diseases, some common to
+Cuba and Europe are more frequent or severe in the island, others rarer
+or milder. There are the usual malarial, bilious and intermittent
+fevers, and liver, stomach and intestinal complaints prevalent in
+tropical countries; but unhygienic living is, in Cuba as elsewhere,
+mainly responsible for their existence. Yellow fever (which first
+appeared in Cuba in 1647) was long the only epidemic disease, Havana
+being an endemic focus. Aside from the recurrent loss of life, the
+pecuniary loss from such epidemics was enormous, and the interference
+with commerce and social intercourse with other countries extremely
+vexatious. The Cuban coast was uninterruptedly full of infection, and
+the danger of an outbreak in each year was never absent, until the work
+of the United States army in 1901-1902 conclusively proved that this
+disease, though ineradicable by the most extreme sanitary measures,
+based on the accepted theory of its origin as a filth-disease, could be
+eradicated entirely by removing the possibility of inoculation by the
+_Stegomyia_ mosquito. Since then yellow fever has ceased to be a scourge
+in Cuba. Small-pox was the cause of a greater mortality than yellow
+fever even before the means of combating the latter had been
+ascertained. The remarkable sanitary work begun during the American
+occupation and continued by the republic of Cuba, has shown that the
+ravages of this and other diseases can be greatly diminished. Leprosy is
+rather common, but seemingly only slightly contagious. Consumption is
+very prevalent.
+
+_Agriculture._--Soils are of four classes: calcareous-ferruginous,
+alluvial, argillous and silicious. Calcareous lands are predominant,
+especially in the uplands. Deep residual clay soils derived from
+underlying limestones, and coloured red or black according to the
+predominance of oxides of iron or vegetable detritus, characterize the
+plains. A red-black soil known as "mulatto" or tawny is perhaps the best
+fitted for general cultivation. Tobacco is most generally cultivated on
+loose red soils, which are rich in clays and silicates; and sugar-cane
+preferably on the black and mulatto soils; but in general, contrary to
+prevalent suppositions, colour is no test of quality and not a very
+valuable guide in the setting of crops. Almost without exception the
+lands throughout the island are of extreme fertility. The lowlands about
+Cienfuegos, Trinidad, Mariel and Matanzas are noted for their richness.
+The census of 1899 showed that farm lands occupied three-tenths of the
+total area; the cultivated area being one-tenth of the farms or 3% of
+the whole. At the end of 1905 it was officially estimated that 16% was
+in cultivation. In 1902 it was officially estimated that the public land
+available for permanent agrarian cultivation, including forest lands,
+was only 186,967 hectares (416,995 acres), almost wholly in the province
+of Oriente. The average size of a farm in 1899 was 143 acres. More than
+85% of all cultivated lands were then occupied by whites; and somewhat
+more than one-half (56.6%) of all occupiers were renters. Holdings of
+more than 32 acres constituted only 7% of the total. As regards crops,
+47% of the cultivated area was given over to sugar, 11% to sweet
+potatoes, 9% to tobacco and almost 9% to bananas. But owing to the
+disturbed conditions created by the war it is probable that these
+figures by no means represent normal conditions. The actual sugar crop
+of 1899-1900, for example, was not a quarter of that of 1894. With the
+establishment of peace in 1898 and the influx of American and other
+capital and of a heavy immigration, great changes took place in
+agriculture as in other industrial conditions.
+
+
+  Sugar.
+
+Sugar has been the dominant crop since the end of the 18th century.
+Before the Civil War of 1895-1898 the capital invested in sugar estates
+was greater by half than that represented by tobacco and coffee
+plantations, live-stock ranches and other farms. Since that time fruit
+and live-stock interests have increased. The dependence of the island on
+one crop has been an artificial economic condition often of grave
+momentary danger to prosperity; but generally speaking, the progress of
+the industry has been steady. The competition of the sugar-beet has been
+felt severely. During and after the war of 1868-1878, when many Cuban
+estates were confiscated, many families emigrated, and many others were
+ruined, the ownership of plantations largely passed from the hands of
+Cubans to Spaniards. Under the conditions of free labour, the
+development of railways abroad, the improvement of machinery both in
+cane and beet producing countries, the general competition of the beet,
+and the fall of prices, it was impossible for the Cuban industry to
+survive without radical betterment of methods. About 1885 began an
+immense development of centralization (the tendency having been evident
+many years before this). Plantations have increased greatly in size (and
+also diminished in number), greater capital is involved, bagasse
+furnaces have been introduced, double grinding mills have increased by
+more than a half the yield of juice from a given weight of cane, and
+extractive operations instead of being carried on on all plantations
+have been (since 1880) concentrated in comparatively few "centrals" (168
+in Feb. 1908). Three-fourths of all are in the jurisdictions of
+Cienfuegos, Cardenas, Havana, Matanzas and Sagua la Grande, which are
+the great sugar centres of the island (three-fourths of the crop coming
+from Matanzas and Santa Clara provinces). Caibarien, Guantanamo and
+Manzanillo are next in importance. A comparatively low cost of labour,
+the fact that labour is not, as in the days of slavery, that of
+unintelligent blacks but of intelligent free labourers, the centralized
+organization and modern methods that prevail on the plantations, the
+remarkable fertility of the soil (which yields 5 or 6 crops on good soil
+and with good management, without replanting), and the proximity of the
+United States, in whose markets Cuba disposes of almost all her crop,
+have long enabled her to distance her smaller West Indian rivals and to
+compete with the bounty-fed beet. The methods of cultivation, however,
+are still distinctly extensive, and the returns are much less than they
+would be (and in some other cane countries are) under more intensive and
+scientific methods of cultivation. Indeed, conditions were relatively
+primitive so late as 1880, if compared with those of other
+sugar-producing countries. More than four-fifths of the total area sown
+to cane in the island is in the three provinces of Santa Clara, Matanzas
+and Oriente (formerly Santiago), the former two representing two-thirds
+of the area and three-fourths of the crop. The majority of the sugar
+estates are of an area less than 3000 acres, and the most common area is
+between 1500 and 2000 acres; but the extremes range from a very small
+size to 60,000 acres. Only a part of the great estates is ever planted
+in any one season. The most profitable unit is calculated to be a daily
+consumption of 1500 tons of cane, or 150,000 in a grinding season of 100
+days, which implies a feeding area not above 6000 acres. In the season
+of 1904-1905, which may be taken as typical, 179 estates, with a planted
+area of 431,056 acres, produced 11,576,137 tons of cane, and yielded--in
+addition to alcohol, brandy and molasses--1,089,814 tons of sugar. Of
+this amount 416,862 tons were produced by 24 estates yielding more than
+11,000 tons each, including one (planting 28,050 acres) that yielded
+33,609, and 4 others more than 22,000 tons each. The production of the
+island from 1850 to 1868 averaged 469,934 tons yearly, rising from
+223,145 to 749,000; from 1869 to 1886 (continuing high during the
+period of the Ten Years' War), 632,003 tons; from 1887 to 1907--omitting
+the five years 1896-1900 when the industry was prostrated by
+war,--909,827 tons (and including the war period, 758,066); and in the
+six harvests of 1901-1906, 1,016,899 tons. Prior to 1902 the million
+mark, was reached only twice--in 1894 and 1895. Following the
+resuscitation of the industry after the last war, the island's crop rose
+steadily from one-sixth to a full quarter of the total cane sugar output
+of the world, its share in the world's product of sugar of all kinds
+ranging from a tenth to an eighth. Of this enormous output, from 98.3%
+upward went to the United States;[1] of whose total importation of all
+sugars and of cane sugar the proportion of Cuban cane--steadily
+rising--was respectively 49.8 and 53.7% in the seasons of 1900-1901 and
+1904-1905.
+
+
+  Tobacco.
+
+If sugar is the island's greatest crop, tobacco is her most renowned in
+the markets of the world. Three-fourths of the tobacco of Cuba comes
+from Pinar del Rio province; the rest mainly from the provinces of
+Havana and Santa Clara,--the description _de partido_ being applied to
+the leaf not produced in Havana and Pinar del Rio provinces, and
+sometimes to all produced outside the _vuelta abajo_. This district,
+including the finest land, is on the southern slope of the Organ
+Mountains between the Honda river and Mantua; bananas are cultivated
+with the tobacco. "Vegas" (tobacco fields) of especially good repute are
+also found near Trinidad, Remedios, Yara, Mayari and Vicana. The tobacco
+industry has been uniformly prosperous, except when crippled by the
+destruction of war in 1868-1878 and 1895-1898. Even in the time of
+slavery tobacco was generally a white-man's crop; for it requires
+intelligent labour and intensive care. In recent years the growth of the
+leaf under cloth tents has greatly increased, as it has been abundantly
+proved that the product thus secured is much more valuable--lighter in
+colour and weight, finer in texture, with an increased proportion of
+wrapper leaves, and more uniform qualities, and with lesser amounts of
+cellulose, nicotine, gums and resins. In these respects the finest Cuban
+tobacco crops, produced in the sun, hardly rival the finest Sumatra
+product; but produced under cheese-cloth they do. "Cuban tobacco" does
+not mean to-day, as a commercial fact, what the words imply; for the
+original _Nicotiana Tabacum_, variety _havanensis_, can probably be
+found pure to-day only in out-of-the-way corners of Pinar del Rio. After
+the Ten Year's War seed of Mexican and United States tobaccos was in
+great demand to re-seed the ruined vegas, and was introduced in great
+quantities; and although by a later law the destruction of these exotic
+species was ordered, that destruction was in fact quite impossible.
+"Lusty growers and coarser than the genuine old-time Cuban ... Mexican
+tobaccos (_Nicotiana Tabacum_, variety _macrophyllum_) are to-day
+predominant in a large part of Cuban vegas.... Ordinary commercial Cuban
+seed of to-day is largely, and often altogether, Mexican tobacco."
+Though improved in the Cuban environment, the foreign tobaccos
+introduced after the Ten Years' War did not lose their exotic character,
+but prevailed over the indigenous forms: "Tobaccos with exactly the
+character of the introduced types are now the prevalent forms"
+(quotation from Bulletin of the _Estacion Central Agronomica_, Feb.
+1908). In the markets of the world Cuban tobacco has always suffered
+less competition than Cuban sugar, and still less has been done than in
+the case of sugar cane in the study of methods of cultivation, which in
+several respects are far behind those of other tobacco-growing
+countries. The crop of 1907 was 201,512 bales (109,562,400 lb. Sp.).
+
+
+  Coffee.
+
+Coffee-raising was once a flourishing and very promising industry. It
+first attained prominence with the settlement in eastern Cuba, late in
+the 18th century, of French refugee immigrants from San Domingo. Some
+"cafetales" were established by the newcomers near Havana, but the
+industry has always been almost exclusively one of Oriente province;
+with Santa Clara as a much smaller producer. Before the war of
+1868-1878 the production amounted to about 25,000,000 lb. yearly. The
+war of 1895-1898 still further diminished the vitality of the industry.
+In 1907 the crop was 6,595,700 lb. The berries are of fine quality, and
+despite the competition of Brazil there is no (agricultural) reason why
+the home market at least should not be supplied from Cuban estates.
+
+  Of other agricultural crops those of fruits are of greatest
+  importance--bananas (which are planted about once in three years),
+  pine-apples (planted about once in five years), coco-nuts, oranges,
+  &c. The coco-nut industry has long been largely confined to the region
+  about Baracoa, owing to the ruin of the trees elsewhere by a disease
+  not yet thoroughly understood, which, appearing finally near Baracoa,
+  threatened by 1908 to destroy the industry there as well. Yams and
+  sweet-potatoes, yuccas, malangas, cacao, rice--which is one of the
+  most important foods of the people, but which is not yet widely
+  cultivated on a profitable basis--and Indian corn, which grows
+  everywhere and yields two crops yearly, may be mentioned also. In very
+  recent years gardening has become an interest of importance,
+  particularly in the province of Pinar del Rio. Save on the coffee,
+  tobacco and sugar plantations, where competition in large markets has
+  compelled the adoption of adequate modern methods, agriculture in Cuba
+  is still very primitive. The wooden ploughstick, for instance--taking
+  the country as a whole--has never been displaced. A central
+  agricultural experiment station (founded 1904) is maintained by the
+  government at Santiago de las Vegas; but there is no agricultural
+  college, nor any special school for the scientific teaching and
+  improvement of sugar and tobacco farming or manufacture.
+
+  Stock-breeding is a highly important interest. It was the
+  all-important one in the early history of the island, down to about
+  the latter part of the 18th century. Grasses grow luxuriantly, and the
+  savannahs of central Cuba are, in this respect, excellent cattle
+  ranges. The droughts to which the island is recurrently subject are,
+  however, a not unimportant drawback to the industry; and though the
+  best ranges, under favourable conditions, are luxuriant, nevertheless
+  the pastures of the island are in general mediocre. Practically
+  nothing has yet been done in the study of native grasses and the
+  introduction of exotic species. The possibilities of the stock
+  interest have as yet by no means been realized. The civil wars were
+  probably more disastrous to it than to any other agricultural interest
+  of the island. It has been authoritatively estimated, for example,
+  that from 90 to 95% of all horses, neat cattle and hogs in the entire
+  island were lost in the war years of 1895-1898. In the decade after
+  1898 particularly great progress was made in the raising of
+  live-stock. The fishing and sponge industries are important. Batabano
+  and Caibarien are centres of the sponge fisheries.
+
+_Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries of Cuba have never been
+more than insignificant as compared with what they might be. In 1907
+48.5% of all wage-earners were engaged in agriculture, fishing and
+mining, 16.3 in manufactures, and 17.7 in trade and transportation. Such
+manufactures as are of any consequence are mostly connected with the
+sugar and tobacco industries. Forest resources have been but slightly
+touched (more so since the end of Spanish rule) except mahogany, which
+goes to the United States, and cedar, which is used to box the tobacco
+products of the island, much going also to the United States. The value
+of forest products in 1901-1902 amounted to $320,528. There are some
+tanneries, some preparation of preserves and other fruit products, and
+some old handicraft industries like the making of hats; but these have
+been of comparatively scant importance. Despite natural advantages for
+all meat industries, canned meats have generally been imported. The
+leading manufactures are cigars and cigarettes, sugar, rum and whisky.
+The tobacco industries are very largely concentrated in Havana, and
+there are factories in Santiago de las Vegas and Bejucal. The yearly
+output of cigars was locally estimated in 1908 at about 500,000,000, but
+this is probably too high an estimate. In 1904-1906 the yearly average
+sent to the United States was 234,063,652 cigars, 29,776,429 lb. of leaf
+and 14,203,571 packages of cigarettes. The sugar industry is not
+similarly centralized. With the improvement of methods the old partially
+refined grades (moscobados) have disappeared.
+
+_Mining._--Mining is of very considerable importance. The Cobre copper
+mines near Santiago were once the greatest producers of the world. They
+were worked from 1524 until about 1730, when they were abandoned for
+almost a century, after which they were reopened and greatly developed.
+In 1828-1840 about two million dollars' worth of ore was shipped yearly
+to the United States alone. After 1868 the mines were again abandoned
+and flooded, the mining property being ruined during the civil war.
+Finally, after 1900 they again became prosperous producers. The "Cobre"
+mine is only the most famous and productive of various copper
+properties. The copper output has not greatly increased since 1890, and
+is of slight importance in mineral exports. Iron and manganese have, on
+the contrary, been greatly developed in the same period. Iron is now the
+most important mineral product. The iron ores are even more accessible
+than the famous ones of the Lake Superior region in the United States.
+No shafts or tunnels are necessary except for exploration; the mining
+consists entirely in open-cut and terrace work. The cost of exploitation
+is accordingly slight. Daiquiri, near Santiago, and mines near Nipe, on
+the north coast, are the chief centres of production. Nearly the entire
+product goes to the United States. The first exports from the Daiquiri
+district were made by an American company in 1884; the Nipe (Cagimaya)
+mines became prominent in promise in 1906. The shipments from Oriente
+province from 1884 to 1901 aggregated 5,053,847 long tons, almost all
+going to the United States (which is true of other mineral products
+also). After 1900 production was greatly increased and by 1906 had come
+to exceed half a million tons annually. There are small mines in Santa
+Clara and Camaguey provinces. Manganese is mined mainly near La Maya and
+El Cristo in Oriente. The traditions as to gold and silver have already
+been referred to. Evidences of ancient workings remain near Holguin and
+Gibara, and it is possible that some of these workings are still
+exploitable. Mining for the precious metals ceased at a very early date,
+after rich discoveries were made on the continent. Bituminous products,
+though, as already stated, widely distributed, are not as yet much
+developed. The most promising deposits and the most important workings
+are in Matanzas and Santa Clara provinces. Petroleum has been used to
+some extent both as a fuel and as an illuminant. Small amounts of
+asphalt have been sent to the United States. Locally, asphalts are used
+as gas enrichers. Grahamite and glance-pitch are common, and are
+exported for use in varnish and paint manufactures. The commercial
+product of stones, brick and cement is of rapidly increasing importance.
+The foundation of the island is in many places almost pure carbonate of
+lime, and there are numerous small limekilns. The product is used to
+bleach sugar, as well as for construction and disinfection purposes. The
+number of small brick plants is legion, almost all very primitive.
+
+_Commerce._--Commerce (resting largely upon specialized agriculture) is
+vastly more prominent as yet than manufacturing and mining in the
+island's economy. The leading articles of export are sugar, tobacco and
+fruit products; of import, textiles, foodstuffs, lumber and wood
+products, and machinery. Sugar and tobacco products together represent
+seven-eighths (in 1904-1907 respectively 60.3 and 27.3%) of the normal
+annual exports. In the quinquennial period 1890-1894 (immediately
+preceding the War of Independence) the average yearly commerce of the
+island in and out was $86,875,663 with the United States; and
+$28,161,726 with Spain.[2] During the American military occupation of
+the island in 1899-1902, of the total imports 45.9% were from the United
+States, 14 from other American countries, 15 from Spain, 14 from the
+United Kingdom, 6 from France and 4 from Germany; of the exports the
+corresponding percentages for the same countries were 70.7, 2, 3, 10, 4
+and 7. No special favours were enjoyed by the United States in this
+period, and about the same percentages prevailed in the years following.
+The total commercial movement of the island in the five calendar years
+1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 (for the five fiscal years 1902-1903 to
+1906-1907, $185,987,020) annually, and of this the share of the United
+States was $108,431,000 yearly, representing 45.8% of all imports and
+81.9% of all exports. The proportion of imports taken from the United
+States is greatest in foodstuffs, metals and metal manufactures, timber
+and furniture, mineral oils and lard. The trade of the United States
+with the island was as great in 1900-1907 as with Mexico and all the
+other West Indies combined; as great as its trade with Spain, Portugal
+and Italy combined; and almost as great as its trade with China and
+Japan.
+
+_Communications._--Poor means of communication have always been a great
+handicap to the industries of the island. The first railroad in Cuba
+(and the first in Spanish lands) was opened from Havana to Guines in
+1837. In succeeding years a fairly ample system was built up between the
+cities of Pinar del Rio and Santa Clara, with a number of short spurs
+from the chief ports farther eastward into the interior. After the first
+American occupation a private company built a line from Santa Clara to
+Santiago, more than half the length of the island, finally connecting
+its two ends (1902). The policy of the railways was always one rather of
+extortion than of fairness or of any interest in the development of the
+country, but better conditions have begun. There was ostensible
+government regulation of rates after 1877, but the roads were guaranteed
+outright against any loss of revenue, and in fact practically nothing
+was ever done in the way of reform in the Spanish period. In 1900 the
+total length of railways was 2097 m., of which 1226 were of 17 public
+roads and 871 m. of 107 private roads. In August 1908 the mileage of all
+railways (including electric) in Cuba was 2329.8 m. The telegraph and
+telephone systems are owned by the government. Cables connect the island
+with Florida, Jamaica, Haiti and San Domingo, Porto Rico, the lesser
+Antilles, Panama, Venezuela and Brazil. Havana, Santiago and Cienfuegos
+are cable ports. Wagon roads are still of small extent and primitive
+character save in a very few localities. The peculiar two-wheeled carts
+of the country, carrying enormous loads of 4 to 6 tons, destroy even the
+finest road. Similar carts, slightly lighter, used in the cities,
+quickly destroy any paving but stone block. The only good highways of
+any considerable length in 1908 were in the two western provinces and in
+the vicinity of Santiago. During the second American occupation work was
+begun on a network of good rural highways.
+
+_Population._--Various censuses were taken in Cuba beginning in 1774;
+but the results of those preceding the abolition of slavery, at least,
+are probably without exception extremely untrustworthy. The census of
+1887 showed a population of 1,631,687, that of 1899 a population of
+1,572,792 (the decrease of 3.6% is explained by the intervening war);
+and by the census of 1907 there were 2,048,980 inhabitants, 30.3% more
+than in 1899. The average of settlement per square mile varied from
+169.7 in Havana province to 11.8 in Camaguey, and was 46.4 for all of
+Cuba; the percentage of urban population (in cities, that is, with more
+than 1000 inhabitants) in the different provinces varied from 18.2 in
+Pinar del Rio to 74.7 in Havana, and was 43.9 for the entire island.
+There were five cities having populations above 25,000--Havana, 297,159;
+Santiago, 45,470; Matanzas, 36,009; Cienfuegos, 30,100; Puerto Principe
+(or Camaguey), 29,616; and fourteen more above 8000--Cardenas,
+Manzanillo, Guanabacoa, Santa Clara, Sagua la Grande, Sancti Spiritus,
+Guantanamo, Trinidad, Pinar del Rio, San Antonio de los Banos,
+Jovellanos, Marianao, Caibarien and Guines. The proportion of the total
+population which in 1907 was in cities of 8000 or more was only 30.3%;
+and the proportion in cities of 25,000 or more was 21.4%. Mainly owing
+to the large element of transient foreign whites without families (long
+characteristic of Cuba), males outnumber females--in 1907 as 21 to 19.
+Native whites, almost everywhere in the majority, constituted 59.8% of
+all inhabitants; persons of negro and mixed blood, 29.7%; foreign-born
+whites, 9.9%; Chinese less than 0.6%. Foreigners constituted 25.6% of
+the population in the city of Havana; only 7% in Pinar del Rio province.
+Native blood is most predominant in the provinces of Oriente and Pinar
+del Rio. After the end of the war of 1895-1898 a large immigration from
+Spain began; the inflow from the United States was very small in
+comparison. The Republic strongly encourages immigration. In 1900-1906
+there were 143,122 immigrants, of whom 124,863 were Spaniards, 4557 were
+from the United States, 2561 were Spanish Americans, and a few were
+Italian, Syrian, Chinese, French, English, &c. The Chinese element is a
+remnant of a former coolie population; their numbers in 1907 (11,217)
+were less than a fourth the number in 1887. Their introduction began in
+1847 and ended in 1871. Conjugal conditions in Cuba are peculiar. In
+1907 only 20.7% of the total population were legally married; an
+additional 8.6% were living in more or less permanent consensual unions,
+these being particularly common among the negroes. Including all unions
+the total is below the European proportion, but above that of Porto Rico
+or Jamaica in 1899.
+
+The negro element is strongest in the province of Oriente and weakest in
+Camaguey; in the former it constituted 43.1% of the population, in the
+latter 18.3%, and in Havana City 25.5%. In Guantanamo, in Santiago de
+Cuba, and in seven other towns they exceeded the whites in number.
+Caibarien and San Antonio de los Banos had the largest proportion of
+white population. The position of the negroes in Cuba is exceptional.
+Despite the long period of slavery they are decidedly below the whites
+in number. The Spanish slave laws (although in practice often
+frightfully abused) were always comparatively generous to the slave,
+making relatively easy, among other things, the purchase of his freedom,
+the number of free blacks being always great. Since the abolition of
+slavery the status of the black has been made more definite, and his
+rights naturally much greater. The wars of 1868-1878 and 1895-1898 and
+the threatened war of 1906 all helped to give to the negro element its
+high position. There is no antagonism between the divisions of the
+coloured race. All hold their own with the white in industrial
+usefulness to the community, and though the blacks are more backward in
+education and various other tests of social advancement, still their
+outlook is full of promise. There is practically no colour caste in
+Cuba; politically the negro is the white man's equal; socially there is
+very little ostensible inequality and almost perfect toleration. The
+negro in Cuba shows promising though undeveloped traits of landlordship.
+Women labour habitually in the fields. Miscegenation of blacks and
+whites was extremely common before emancipation. It is sometimes said
+that since then there has been a counter-tendency, but it is impossible
+to prove such a statement conclusively except with the aid of future
+censuses. Few of the negroes are black; some of the blackest have the
+regular features of the Caucasian; and racial mixtures are everywhere
+evidenced by colour of skin and by physiognomy. Its seems certain that
+the African element has been holding its own in the population totals
+since emancipation.
+
+Cuba is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic in religion, but under the new
+Republic there is a complete separation of church and state, and
+liberalism and indifference are increasing. Illiteracy is extremely
+widespread. In 1907 the census showed 56.6% (43.3 in 1899) of persons
+above ten years who could read. Of the voting population 53.2% of native
+white, and 37.3% of coloured Cuban citizens, and 71.6% of Spanish
+citizens could read. A revolution in education was begun the first year
+of the United States military occupation and continued under the
+Republic.
+
+_Constitution._--The constitution upon which the government of Cuba
+rests was framed during the period of the United States military
+government; it was adopted the 21st of February 1901, and certain
+amendments or conditions required by the United States were accepted on
+the 12th of June 1901. The constitution is republican and modelled on
+the Constitution of the United States, with some marked differences of
+greater centralization, due to colonial experience under the rule of
+Spain, notably as regards federalism; the provinces of the island being
+less important than the states of the American Union. The president of
+the Republic, who is elected for four years by an electoral college, and
+cannot hold office for more than two successive terms, has a cabinet
+whose members he may appoint and remove freely, their number being
+determined by law. He sanctions, promulgates and executes the laws, and
+supplements them (partly co-ordinately with congress) by administrative
+regulations in harmony with their ends; holds a veto power and pardoning
+power; controls with the senate political appointments and removals; and
+conducts foreign relations, submitting treaties to the senate for
+ratification. Congress consists of two houses. The senate contains four
+members from each province, chosen for eight years by a provincial
+electoral board, which consists of the provincial councilmen plus a
+double number of electors (half of them paying high taxes) who are
+selected at a special election by their fellow citizens. Half of the
+senators retire every four years. The senate is the court of trial for
+the president, officers of the cabinet, and provincial governors when
+accused of political offences. It also acts jointly with the president
+in political appointments and treaty making. The house of
+representatives, whose members are chosen directly by the citizens for
+four years, one-half retiring every two years, has the special power of
+impeaching the president and cabinet officers. Congress meets twice
+annually, in April and November. Its powers are extensive, including, in
+addition to ordinary legislative powers, control of financial affairs,
+foreign affairs, the power to declare war and approve treaties of peace,
+amnesties, electoral legislation for the provinces and municipalities,
+control of the electoral vote for president and vice-president, and
+designation of an acting president in case of the death or incapacity of
+these officers. The subjects of legislative power are very similar to
+those of the United States congress; but control of railroads, canals
+and public roads is explicitly given to the federal government. Justice
+is administered by courts of various grades, with a supreme court at
+Havana as the head; the members of this being appointed by the president
+and senate. This court passes on the constitutionality of all laws,
+decrees and regulations.
+
+There are six provinces--Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara,
+Camaguey or Puerto Principe, and Oriente. Each has a provincial governor
+and assembly chosen directly by the people, generally charged with
+independent control of matters affecting the province; but the president
+may interfere against an abuse of power by either the governor or the
+assembly. Municipalities are administered by mayors (alcaldes) and
+assemblies elected by the people, and control strictly municipal
+affairs. The "termino municipal" is the chief political and
+administrative civil division. It is an urban district together with
+contiguous rural territory. Its divisions are "barrios." The president
+may interfere if necessary in the municipality as in the province; and
+so may the governor of the province. But all interference is subject to
+review of claims by the courts. Both provinces and municipalities are
+forbidden by the constitution to contract debts without a coincident
+provision of permanent revenue for their settlement.
+
+The franchise is granted to every male Cuban twenty-one years of age,
+not mentally incapacitated, nor previously a convict of crime, nor
+serving in the army or navy of the state. Foreigners may become citizens
+in five years by naturalization. Church and state are completely
+separated, toleration being guaranteed for the profession and practice
+of all religious beliefs, and the government may not subsidize any
+religion.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+Primary education is declared by the constitution to be free and
+compulsory; and its expenses are paid by the central government so far
+as it may be beyond the power of the province or municipality to bear
+them. Secondary and advanced education is controlled by the state. In
+the last days of Spanish rule (1894), there were 904 public and 704
+private schools, and not more than 60,000 pupils enrolled; in 1000 there
+were 3550 public schools with an enrolment of 172,273 and an average
+attendance of 123,362. In the four school years from 1903-1904 to
+1906-1907 the figures of enrolment and average attendance were: 201,824
+and 110,531; 194,657 and 105,706; 186,571 and 98,329; and 189,289 and
+93,865. In 1906-1907 the percentage (31.6) of attendants to children of
+school age was twice as large as in 1898-1899. Private schools, some of
+very high grade, draw many pupils. Almost all schools are primary. The
+university of Havana (founded 1728) was given greatly improved
+facilities, especially of material equipment, by the American military
+government, and seems to have begun an ambitious progress. In 1907 the
+number of students was 554. Below the university there are six
+provincial institutes, one in each province, in each of which there is a
+preparatory department, a department of secondary education, and (this
+due to peculiar local conditions) a school of surveying; and in that of
+Havana commercial departments in addition. In Havana, also, there is a
+school of painting and sculpture, a school of arts and trades, and a
+national library, all of which are supported or subventioned by the
+national government, as are also a public library in Matanzas, and the
+Agricultural Experiment Station at Santiago de las Vegas. In connexion
+with the university is a botanical garden; with the national sanitary
+service, a biological laboratory, and special services for small-pox,
+glanders and yellow fever. Independent of the government are various
+schools and learned societies in Havana (q.v.). A school was established
+by the government in Key West, Florida (U.S.A.), in 1905, for the
+benefit of the Cuban colony there. Finally, the government sustains
+about two score of penal establishments, reform schools, hospitals,
+dispensaries and asylums, which are scattered all over the
+island,--every town of any considerable size having one or more of these
+charities.
+
+
+  Former government.
+
+Under the colonial rule of Spain the head of government was a supreme
+civil-military officer, the governor and captain-general. His control of
+the entire administrative life of the island was practically absolute.
+Originally residents at Santiago de Cuba, the captains-general resided
+after 1589 at Havana. Because of the isolation of the eastern part of
+the island, the dangers from pirates, and the important considerations
+which had caused Santiago de Cuba (q.v.) to be the first capital of the
+island, Cuba was divided in 1607 into two departments, and a governor,
+subordinate in military matters to the captain-general at Havana, was
+appointed to rule the territory east of Puerto Principe. In 1801, when
+the audiencia--of which the captain-general was _ex officio_
+president--began its functions at that point, the governor of Santiago
+became subordinated in political matters as much as in military. Two
+chief courts of justice (audiencias) sat at Havana (after 1832) and
+Puerto Principe (1800-1853); appeals could go to Spain; below the
+audiencias were "alcaldes mayores" or district judges and ordinary
+"alcaldes" or local judges. The audiencias also held important political
+powers under the Laws of the Indies. The captaincy-general of Cuba was
+not originally, however, by any means so broad in powers as the
+viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru; and by the creation in 1765 of the
+office of intendant--the delegate of the national treasury--his
+faculties were very greatly curtailed. The great powers of the intendant
+were, however, merged in those of the governor-general in 1853; and the
+captain-general having been given by royal order in 1825 (several times
+later explicitly confirmed, and not revoked until 1870) the absolute
+powers (to be assumed at his initiative and discretion) of the governor
+of a besieged city, and by a royal order of 1834 the power to banish at
+will persons supposed to be inimical to the public peace; and being by
+virtue of his office the president and dominator of all the important
+administrative boards of the government, held the government of the
+island, and in any emergency the liberty and property of its
+inhabitants, in his hand. The royal orders following 1825 developed a
+system of extraordinary and extreme repression. In 1878, as the result
+of the Ten Years' War, various administrative reforms, of a
+decentralizing tendency, were introduced. The six provinces were
+created, and had governors and assemblies ("diputaciones"); and a
+municipal law was provided that in many ways was a sound basis for local
+government. But centralization remained very great. In the municipality
+the alcalde (mayor) was appointed by the governor-general, and the
+ayuntamiento (council) was controlled by the veto of the provincial
+governor and by the assembly of the province. The deputation was subject
+in turn to the same veto of the provincial governor, and he controlled
+by the governor-general. There was besides a provincial commission of
+five lawyers named by the governor-general from the members of the
+deputation, who settled election questions, and questions of eligibility
+in this body, gave advice as to laws, acted for the deputation when it
+was not sitting, and in general facilitated centralized control of the
+administrative system. The character of this body was altered in 1890,
+and in 1898, in which latter year its functions were reduced to the
+essentially judicial. Despite superficial decentralization after 1878
+any real growth of local self-government was rendered impossible.
+Moreover, no great reforms were made in the abuses naturally incident to
+the old personal system. Exile and imprisonment at the will of the
+government and without trial were common. Personal liberty, liberty of
+conscience, speech, assembly, petition, association, press, liberty of
+movement and security of home, were without real guarantee even within
+the extremely small limits in which they nominally existed. Under the
+constitution of the Republic the sphere of individual liberty is large
+and constitutionally protected against the government.
+
+_Finance._--There has been a great change in the budget of Cuba since
+the advent of the Republic. In 1891-1896 the average annual income was
+$20,738,930, the annual average expenditure $25,967,139. More than half
+of the revenue was derived from customs duties (two-thirds of the total
+being collected at Havana). Of the expenditure more than ten million
+dollars annually went for the public debt, 5.5 to 6 millions for the
+army and navy, as much more for civil administration (including more
+than two millions for purely Peninsular services with which the colony
+was burdened); and on an average probably one million more went for
+sinecures. Every Cuban paid about twice as heavy taxes as a Spaniard of
+the Peninsula. Very little was spent on sanitation, roads, other public
+works and education. The revenue receipts under the Republic have
+increased especially over those of the old regime in the item of customs
+duties; and the expenditure is very differently distributed. Lotteries
+which were an important source of revenue under Spain were abolished
+under the Republic. The debt resting on the colony in 1895 (a large part
+of it as a result of the war of 1868-1878, the entire cost of which was
+laid upon the island, but a part as the result of Spain's war adventures
+in Mexico and San Domingo, home loans, &c.) was officially stated at
+$168,500,000. The attainment of independence freed the island from this
+debt, and from enormous contemplated additions to cover the expense
+incurred by Spain during the last insurrection. The debt of the Republic
+in April 1908 was $48,146,585, including twenty-seven millions which
+were assumed in 1902 for the payment of the army of independence, four
+for agriculture, and four for the payment of revolutionary debts, and
+$2,196,585, representing obligations assumed by the revolution's
+representative in the United States during the War of Independence.
+United States and British investments, always important in the
+agriculture and manufactures of the island, greatly increased following
+1898, and by 1908 those of each nation were supposed to exceed
+considerably $100,000,000.
+
+_Archaeology._--Archaeological study in Cuba has been limited, and has
+not produced results of great importance. Almost nothing is actually
+known of prehistoric Cuba; and a few skulls and implements are the only
+basis existing for conjecture. Very little also is known as to the
+natives who inhabited the island at the time of the discovery. They were
+a tall race of copper hue; fairly intelligent, mild in temperament, who
+lived in poor huts and practised a limited and primitive agriculture.
+How numerous they were when the Spaniards first came among them cannot
+be said; undoubtedly tradition has greatly exaggerated their number.
+They are supposed to have been practically extinct by 1550. Even in the
+19th century reports were spread of communities in which Indian blood
+was supposedly still plainly dominant; but the conclusion of the
+competent scientists who have investigated such rumours has been that at
+least absolutely nothing of the language and traditions of the
+aborigines has survived.
+
+_History._--Cuba was discovered by Columbus in the course of his first
+voyage, on the 27th of October 1492. He died believing Cuba was part of
+a continent. In 1508 Sebastian de Ocampo circumnavigated it. In 1511
+Diego Velazquez began the conquest of the island. Baracoa (the landing
+point), Bayamo, Santiago de Cuba, Puerto Principe, Sancti Spiritus,
+Trinidad and the original Havana were all founded by 1515. Velazquez's
+reputation and legends of wealth drew many immigrants to the island.
+From Cuba went the expeditions that discovered Yucatan (1517), and
+explored the shores of Mexico, Hernando Cortes's expedition for the
+invasion of Mexico, and de Soto's for the exploration of Florida. The
+last two had a pernicious effect on Cuba, draining it of horses, money
+and of men. At least as early as 1523 the African slave trade was begun.
+In 1544 the Indians, so far as they had not succumbed to the labour of
+the mines and fields to which they were put by the Spaniards, were
+proclaimed emancipated. The administration in the 16th century was loose
+and violent. The local authorities were divided among themselves by
+bitter feuds--the ecclesiastical against the civil, the _ayuntamiento_
+against the governors, the administrative officers among themselves;
+brigandage, mutinies and intestinal struggles disturbed the peace. As a
+result of the transfer of Jamaica to England, the population of Cuba was
+greatly augmented by Jamaican immigrants to about 30,000 in the middle
+of the 17th century.
+
+The activity of English and French pirates began in the 16th century,
+and reached its climax in the middle of the 17th century. So early also
+began dissatisfaction with the economic regulations of the colonial
+system, even grave resistance to their enforcement; and illicit trade
+with privateers and foreign colonies had begun long before, and in the
+17th and 18th centuries was the basis of the island's wealth. In 1762
+Havana was captured after a long resistance by a British force under
+Admiral Sir George Pocock and the earl of Albemarle, with heavy loss to
+the besiegers. It was returned to Spain the next year in exchange for
+the Floridas. From this date begins the modern history of the island.
+The British opened the port to commerce and the slave trade and revealed
+its possibilities. The government of Spain, beginning in 1764, made
+notable breaches in the old monopolistic system of colonial trade
+throughout America; and Cuba received special privileges, also, that
+were a basis for real prosperity. Spain paid increasing attention to the
+island, and in harmony with the policy of the Laws of the Indies many
+decrees intended to stimulate agriculture and commerce were issued by
+the crown, first in the form of monopolies, then with increased freedom
+and with bounties. Various colonial products and the slave trade were
+favoured in this way. After the cession of the Spanish portion of San
+Domingo to France hundreds of Spanish families emigrated to Cuba, and
+many thousand more immigrants, mainly French, followed them from the
+entire island during the revolution of the blacks. Most of them settled
+in Oriente province, where their names and blood are still apparent, and
+with their cafetales and sugar plantations converted that region from
+neglect and poverty to high prosperity.
+
+Under a succession of liberal governors (especially Luis de las Casas,
+1790-1796, and the marques de Someruelos, 1799-1813), at the end of the
+18th century and the first part of the 19th, when the wars in Europe cut
+off Spain almost entirely from the colony, Cuba was practically
+independent. Trade was comparatively free, and worked a revolution in
+culture and material conditions. General Las Casas, in particular, left
+behind him in Cuba an undying memory of good efforts. Free commerce with
+foreigners--a fact after 1809--was definitely legalized in 1818
+(confirmed in 1824). The state tobacco monopoly was abolished in 1817.
+The reported populations by the (untrustworthy) censuses of 1774, 1792
+and 1817 were 161,670, 273,301 and 553,033. Something of political
+freedom was enjoyed during the two terms of Spanish constitutional
+government under the constitution of 1812. The sharp division between
+creoles and peninsulars (i.e. between those born in Cuba and those born
+in Spain), the question of annexation to the United States or possibly
+to some other power, the plotting for independence, all go back to the
+early years of the century.
+
+Partly because of political and social divisions thus revealed,
+conspiracies being rife in the decade 1820-1830, and partly as
+preparation for the defence against Mexico and Colombia, who throughout
+these same years were threatening the island with invasion, the
+captains-general, in 1825, received the powers above referred to; which
+became, as time passed, monstrously in disaccord with the general
+tendencies of colonial government and with increasing liberties in
+Spain, but continued to be the spiritual basis of Spanish rule in the
+island. Among the governors of the 19th century Miguel Tacon, governor
+in 1834-1839, a forceful and high-handed soldier, deserves mention,
+especially in the annals of Havana; he ruled as a tyrant, made many
+reforms as regarded law and order, and left Havana, in particular, full
+of municipal improvements. The good he did was limited to the spheres of
+public works and police; in other respects his rule was a pernicious
+influence for Cuba. Politically his rule was marked by the proclamation
+at Santiago in 1836, without his consent, of the Spanish constitution of
+1834; he repressed the movement, and in 1837 the deputies of Cuba to the
+Cortes of Spain (to which they were admitted in the two earlier
+constitutional periods) were excluded from that body, and it was
+declared in the national constitution that Cuba (and Porto Rico) should
+be governed by "special laws." The inapplicability of many laws passed
+for the Peninsula--all of which under a constitutional system would
+apply to Cuba as to any other province, unless that system be
+modified--was indeed notorious; and Cuban opinion had repeatedly,
+through official bodies, protested against laws thus imposed that worked
+injustice, and had pleaded for special consideration of colonial
+conditions. The promise of "special laws" based upon such consideration
+was therefore not, in itself, unjust, nor unwelcome. But as the colony
+had no voice in the Cortes, while the "special laws" were never passed
+(Cuba expected special fundamental laws, reforming her government, and
+the government regarded the old Laws of the Indies as satisfying the
+obligation of the constitution) the arbitrary rule of the
+captains-general remained quite supreme, under the will of the crown,
+and colonial discontent became stronger and stronger. The rule of
+Leopoldo O'Donnell was marked in 1844 by a cruel and bloody persecution
+of negroes for a supposed plot of servile war; O'Donnell's actions being
+partly due to the inquietude that had prevailed for some years over the
+supposed machinations of English abolitionists and even of English
+official residents in the island, and also over the mutual jealousies
+and supposed annexation ambitions of Great Britain and the United
+States.
+
+A Cuban international question had arisen before 1820. Spain, the United
+States, England, France, Colombia and Mexico were all involved in it,
+the first four continually. In the eighteen-fifties a strong pro-slavery
+interest in the United States advocated the acquisition of the island.
+One feature of this was the "Ostend Manifesto" (see Buchanan, James), in
+which the ministers of the United States at London, Paris and Madrid
+declared that if Spain refused a money offer for the colony the United
+States should seize it. Their government gave this document publicity.
+The Cuban policy of Presidents Pierce and Buchanan (during 1853-1861)
+was vainly directed to acquiring the island. From 1849 to 1851 there
+were three abortive filibustering expeditions from the United States,
+two being under a Spanish general, Narciso Lopez (1798-1851). The
+domestic problem, the problem of discontent in the island, had become
+acute by 1850, and from this time on to 1868 the years were full of
+conflict between liberal and reactionary sentiment in the colony,
+centreing about the asserted connivance of the captains-general in the
+illegal slave trade (declared illegal after 1820 by the treaties of 1817
+and 1835 between Great Britain and Spain), the notorious immorality and
+prodigal wastefulness of the government, and the selfish exploitation of
+the colony by Spaniards and the Spanish government. From early in the
+19th century there had always been separatists, reformists and
+repressionists in the island, but they were individuals rather than
+groups. The last were peninsulars, the others mainly creoles, and among
+the wealthy classes of the latter the separatists gradually gained
+increasing support.
+
+An ineffective and extremely corrupt administration, a grave economic
+condition, new and heavy taxes, military repression, recurring heavy
+deficits in the budget, adding to a debt (about $150,000,000 in 1868)
+already very large and burdensome, and the complete fiasco of the
+_junta_ of inquiry of Cuban and Porto Rican representatives which met in
+Madrid in 1866-1867--all were important influences favouring the
+outbreak of the Ten Years' War. Among those who waged the war were men
+who fought to compel reforms, others who fought for annexation to the
+United States, others who fought for independence. The reformists
+demanded, besides the correction of the above evils, action against
+slavery, assimilation of rights between peninsulars and creoles and the
+practical recognition of equality, e.g. in the matter of office-holding,
+a grievance centuries old in Cuba as in other Spanish colonies, and
+guarantees of personal liberties. The separatists, headed by Carlos
+Manuel de Cespedes (1819-1874), a wealthy planter who proclaimed the
+revolution at Yara on the 10th of October, demanded the same reforms,
+including gradual emancipation of the slaves with indemnity to owners,
+and the grant of free and universal suffrage. War was confined
+throughout the ten years almost wholly to the E. provinces. The policy
+of successive captains-general was alternately uncompromisingly
+repressive and conciliatory. The Spanish volunteers committed horrible
+excesses in Havana and other places; the rebels also burned and killed
+indiscriminatingly, and the war became increasingly cruel and
+sanguinary. Intervention by the United States seemed probable, but did
+not come, and after alternations in the fortunes of war, Martinez Campos
+in January 1878 secured the acceptance by the rebels of the convention
+(pacto) of Zanjon, which promised amnesty for the war, liberty to slaves
+in the rebel ranks, the abolition of slavery, reforms in government, and
+colonial autonomy. A small rising after peace (the "Little War" of
+1879-1880) was easily repressed. Gradual abolition of slavery was
+declared by a law of the 13th of February 1880; definitive abolition in
+1886; and in 1893 the equal civil status of blacks and whites in all
+respects was proclaimed by General Calleja. There is no more evidence to
+warrant the wholly erroneous statement sometimes made that emancipation
+was an economic set-back to Cuba than could be gathered to support a
+similar statement regarding the United States. Coolie importation from
+China had been stopped in 1871.
+
+As for autonomy and political reforms it has already been remarked that
+the change from the old regime was only superficial. The Spanish
+constitution of 1876 was proclaimed in Cuba in 1881. In 1878-1895
+political parties had a complex development. The Liberal party was of
+growing radicalism, the Union Constitutional party of growing
+conservatism; and after 1893 a Reformist party was launched that drew
+the compromisers and the waverers. The demands of the Liberals were as
+in 1868; those for personal and property rights were much more
+definitely stated, and among explicit reforms demanded were the
+separation of civil and military power, general recognition of
+administrative responsibility under a colonial autonomous constitutional
+regime; also among economic matters, customs reforms and reciprocity
+with the United States were demanded. As for the representation accorded
+Cuba in the Spanish Cortes, as a rule about a quarter of her deputies
+were Cuban-born, and the choice of only a few autonomists was allowed by
+those who controlled the elections. Reciprocity with the United States
+was in force from 1891 to 1894 and was extremely beneficial to Cuba. Its
+cessation greatly increased disaffection.
+
+Discontent grew, and another war was prepared for. On the 23rd of
+February 1895 General Calleja suspended the constitutional guarantees.
+The leading chiefs of the Ten Years' War took the field again--Maximo
+Gomez, Antonio Maceo, Jose Marti, Calixto Garcia and others. Unlike that
+war, this was carried to the western provinces, and indeed was fiercest
+there. Among the military means adopted by the Spaniards to isolate
+their foe were "trochas" (i.e. entrenchments, barbwire fences, and lines
+of block-houses) across the narrow parts of the island, and
+"reconcentracion" of non-combatants in camps guarded by the Spanish
+forces. The latter measure produced extreme suffering and much
+starvation (as the reconcentrados were largely thrown upon the charity
+of the beggared communities in which they were huddled). In October 1897
+the Spanish premier, P. M. Sagasta, announced the policy of autonomy,
+and the new dispensation was proclaimed in Cuba in December. But again
+all final authority was reserved to the captain-general. The system was
+never to have a practical trial, although a full government was quickly
+organized under it. The American people had sent food to the
+reconcentrados; President McKinley, while opposing recognition of the
+rebels, affirmed the possibility of intervention; Spain resented this
+attitude; and finally, in February 1898, the United States battleship
+"Maine" was blown up--by whom will probably never be known--in the
+harbour of Havana.
+
+On the 20th of April the United States demanded the withdrawal of
+Spanish troops from the island. War followed immediately. A fine Spanish
+squadron seeking to escape from Santiago harbour was utterly destroyed
+by the American blockading force on the 3rd of July; Santiago was
+invested by land forces, and on the 15th of July the city surrendered.
+Other operations in Cuba were slight. By the treaty of Paris, signed on
+the 10th of December, Spain "relinquished" the island to the United
+States in trust for its inhabitants; the temporary character of American
+occupation being recognized throughout the treaty, in accord with the
+terms of the American declaration of war, in which the United States
+disclaimed any intention to control the island except for its
+pacification, and expressed the determination to leave the island
+thereupon to the control of its people. Spanish authority ceased on the
+1st of January 1899, and was followed by American "military" rule
+(January 1, 1899-May 20, 1902). During these three years the great
+majority of offices were filled by Cubans, and the government was made
+as different as possible from the military control to which the colony
+had been accustomed. Very much was done for public works, sanitation,
+the reform of administration, civil service and education. Most notable
+of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for
+centuries. A constitutional convention sat at Havana from the 5th of
+November 1900 to the 21st of February 1901. The provisions of the
+document thus formed have already been referred to. In the determination
+of the relations that should subsist between the new republic and the
+United States certain definite conditions known as the Platt Amendment
+were finally imposed by the United States, and accepted by Cuba (12th of
+June 1901) as a part of her constitution. By these Cuba was bound not to
+incur debts her current revenues will not bear; to continue the sanitary
+administration undertaken by the military government of intervention; to
+lease naval stations (since located at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo) to
+the United States; and finally, the right of the United States to
+intervene, if necessary, in the affairs of the island was explicitly
+affirmed in the provision, "That the government of Cuba consents that
+the United States may exercise the right to intervene for the protection
+of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the
+protection of life, property and individual liberty, and for discharging
+the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the treaty of Paris on
+the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the government of
+Cuba." The status thus created is very exceptional in the history of
+international relations. The status of the Isle of Pines was left an
+open question by the treaty of Paris, but a decision of the Supreme
+Court of the United States has declared it (in a question of customs
+duties) to be a part of Cuba, and though a treaty to the same end did
+not secure ratification (1908) by the United States Senate, repeated
+efforts by American residents thereon to secure annexation to the United
+States were ignored by the United States government.
+
+The first Cuban congress met on the 5th of May 1902, prepared to take
+over the government from the American military authorities, which it did
+on the 20th of May. Tomas Estrada Palma (1835-1908) became the first
+president of the Republic. In material prosperity the progress of the
+island from 1902 to 1906 was very great; but in its politics, various
+social and economic elements, and political habits and examples of
+Spanish provenience that ill befit a democracy, led once more to
+revolution. Congress neglected to pass certain laws which were required
+by the constitution, and which, as regards municipal autonomy,
+independence of the judiciary, and congressional representation of
+minority parties, were intended to make impossible the abuses of
+centralized government that had characterized Spanish administration.
+Political parties were forming without very evident basis for
+differences outside questions of political patronage and the good or ill
+use of power; and, in the absence of the laws just mentioned, the
+Moderates, being in power, used every instrument of government to
+strengthen their hold on office. The preliminaries of the elections of
+December 1905 and March 1906 being marked by frauds and injustice, the
+Liberals deserted the polls at those elections, and instead of appealing
+to judicial tribunals controlled by the Moderates, issued a manifesto of
+revolution on the 28th of July 1906.[3] This insurrection rapidly
+assumed large proportions. The government was weak and lacked moral
+support in the whole island. After repeated petitions from President
+Palma for intervention by the United States, commissioners (William H.
+Taft, Secretary of War, and Robert Bacon, Acting Secretary of State)
+were sent from Washington to act as peace mediators.
+
+All possible efforts to secure a compromise that would preserve the
+Republic failed. The president resigned (on the 28th of September),
+Congress dispersed without choosing a successor, and as an alternative
+to anarchy the United States was compelled to proclaim on the 29th of
+September 1906 a provisional government,--to last "long enough to
+restore order and peace and public confidence," and hold new elections.
+The insurrectionists promptly disbanded. Government was maintained under
+the Cuban flag,--the diplomatic and consular relations with even the
+United States remaining in outward forms unchanged; and the regular
+forms of the constitution were scrupulously maintained so far as
+possible. No use was made of American military force save as a passive
+background to the government. The government of intervention at first
+directed its main effort simply to holding the country together, without
+undertaking much that could divide public opinion or seem of unpalatably
+foreign impulse; and later to the establishment of a few fundamental
+laws which, when intervention ceased, should give greater simplicity,
+strength and stability to a new native government. These laws strictly
+defined the powers of the president; more clearly separated the
+executive departments, so as to lessen friction and jealousies; reformed
+the courts; reformed administrative routine; and increased the strength
+of the provinces at the expense of the municipalities. On the 28th of
+January 1909 the American administration ceased, and the Republic was a
+second time inaugurated, with General Jose Miguel Gomez (b. 1856), the
+leader of the Miguelista faction of the Liberal party, as president, and
+Alfredo Zayas, the leader of the Zayista faction of the same party, as
+vice-president. The last American troops were withdrawn from the island
+on the 1st of April 1909.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--General Description.--There is no trustworthy recent
+  description. The best books are E. Pechardo, _Geografia de la isla de
+  Cuba_ (4 tom., Havana, 1854); M. Rodriguez-Ferrer, _Naturaleza y
+  civilizacion de ... Cuba_, vol. i. (Madrid, 1876). See also _United
+  States Geological Survey, Bulletin 192_ (1902), H. Gannett, "A
+  Gazetteer of Cuba." Of general descriptions in English, in addition to
+  travels cited below, may be cited R. T. Hill, _Cuba and Porto Rico
+  with the other West Indies_ (New York, 1898).
+
+  Fauna and Flora.--A. H. R. Grisebach, _Catalogus plantarum Cubensium_
+  (Leipzig, 1866), and F. A. Sauvalle, _Flora Cubana: revisio catalogi
+  Grisebachiani_ (Havana, 1868); and _Flora Cubana: enumeratio nova
+  plantarum Cubensium_ (Havana, 1873); F. Poey et al., _Repertorio
+  fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba_ (2 vols., Havana, 1865-1868), and
+  F. Poey, _Memorias sobre la historia natural de ... Cuba_ (3 tom.,
+  Havana, 1851-1860); Ramon de la Sagra, with many collaborators,
+  _Historia fisica, politica y natural de ... Cuba_ (Paris, 1842-1851,
+  12 vols.; issued also in French; vols. 3-12 being the "Historia
+  Natural"); _Anales_ of the Academia de Ciencias (Havana, 1863- ,
+  annual); M. Gomez de la Maza, _Flora Habanera_ (Havana, 1897); S. A.
+  de Morales, _Flora arboricola de Cuba aplicada_ (Havana, 1887, only
+  part published); D. H. Segui, _Ojeado sobre la flora medica y toxica
+  de Cuba_ (Havana, 1900); J. Gundlach, _Contribucion a la entomologia
+  Cubana_ (Havana, 1881); J. M. Fernandez y Jimenez, _Tratado de la
+  arboricultura Cubana_ (Havana, 1867).
+
+  Geology and Minerals.--M. F. de Castro, "Pruebas paleontologicas de
+  que la isla de Cuba ha estado unida al continento americano y breve
+  idea de su constitucion geologica," _Bol. Com. Mapa Geol. de Esp._
+  vol. viii. (1881), pp. 357-372; M. F. de Castro and P. Salterain y
+  Legarra, "Croquis geologico de la isla de Cuba," ibid. vol. viii. pl.
+  vi. (published with vol. xi., 1884). Many articles in _Anales_ of the
+  Academy; also, R. T. Hill in _Harvard College Museum of Comparative
+  Zoology, Bulletin_, vol. 16, pp. 243-288 (1895); _United States
+  Geological Survey_, 22nd Annual Report, 1901, C. W. Hayes _et al._,
+  "Geological Reconnaissance of Cuba"; _Civil Report of General Leonard
+  Wood_, governor of Cuba (1902), vol. v., H. C. Brown, "Report on
+  Mineral Resources of Cuba."
+
+  Climate.--See the _Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Agricultura_,
+  and publications of the observatory of Havana. Sanitation.--For
+  conditions 1899-1902, see _Civil Reports_ of American military
+  governors. For conditions since 1902 consult the _Informe Mensual_
+  (1903-   ) of the Junta Superior de Sanidad.
+
+  Agriculture.--Consult the _Boletin_ above mentioned, publications of
+  the Estacion Central Agronomica, and current statistical serial
+  reports of the treasury department (Hacienda) on natural resources,
+  live-stock interests, the sugar industry (annual), &c.
+
+  Industries, Commerce, Communications.--See the works of Sagra and
+  Pezuela. For conditions about 1899 consult R. P. Porter (Special
+  Commissioner of the United States government), _Industrial Cuba_ (New
+  York, 1899); W. J. Clark, _Commercial Cuba_ (New York, 1898); reports
+  of foreign consular agents in Cuba; and the statistical annuals of the
+  Hacienda on foreign commerce and railways.
+
+  Population.--The early censuses were extremely unreliable.
+  Illuminating discussions of them can be found in Humboldt's _Essay_,
+  Saco's _Papeles_ and Pezuela's _Diccionario_. See _United States
+  Department of War, Report on the Census of Cuba 1899_ (Washington,
+  1899); _U.S. Bureau of the Census, Cuba: Population, History and
+  Resources, 1907_ (1909).
+
+  Education.--See _Civil Reports_ of the American military government,
+  1899-1902; United States commissioner of education, _Report,
+  1897-1898_; current reports in _Informe del superintendente de
+  escuelas de Cuba ..._ (Havana, 1903-   ). On Letters and Culture.--E.
+  Pechardo y Tapia, _Diccionario ... de voces Cubanas_ (Havana, 1836,
+  4th ed., 1875; all editions with many errors); Antonio Bachiller y
+  Morales, _Apuntes para la historia de las letras y de la instruccion
+  publica de Cuba_ (3 tom., Havana, 1859-1861); J. M. Mestre, _De la
+  filosofia en la Habana_ (Havana, 1862); A. Mitjans, _Estudio sobre el
+  movimiento cientifico y literario de Cuba_ (Havana, 1890); biographies
+  of Varela and Luz Caballero by Rodriguez (see below); files of _La
+  Revista de Cuba_ (16 vols., Havana, 1877-1884) and _La Revista Cubana_
+  (21 vols., Havana, 1885-1895). The literature of TRAVEL is rich. It
+  suffices to mention _Letters from the Havannah_, by the English consul
+  (London, 1821); E. M. Masse, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1825); D.
+  Turnbull, _Travels in the West_ (London, 1840), and R. R. Madden, _The
+  Island of Cuba_ (London, 1853)--two very important books regarding
+  slavery; J. B. Rosemond de Beauvallon, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1844);
+  J. G. Taylor, _The United States and Cuba_ (London, 1851); F. Bremer,
+  _The Homes of the New World_ (2 vols., New York, 1853); M. M. Ballou,
+  _History of Cuba, or Notes of a Traveller_ (Boston, 1854); R. H. Dana,
+  _To Cuba and Back_ (Boston, 1859); J. von Sivers, _Die Perle der
+  Antillen_ (Leipzig, 1861); A. C. N. Gallenga, _The Pearl of the
+  Antilles_ (London, 1873); S. Hazard, _Cuba with Pen and Pencil_
+  (Hartford, Conn., 1873); H. Piron, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1876). Of
+  later books, F. Matthews, _The New-Born Cuba_ (New York, 1899); R.
+  Davey, _Cuba Past and Present_ (London, 1898). Among the writers who
+  have left short impressions are A. Granier de Cassagnac (1844), J. J.
+  A. Ampere (1855), A. Trollope (1860), J. A. Froude (1888).
+
+  Administration.--Consult the literature of history and colonial reform
+  given below. Also: Leandro Garcia y Gragitena, _Guia del empleado de
+  hacienda_ (Havana, 1860), with very valuable historical data; Carlos
+  de Sedano y Cruzat, _Cuba desde 1850 a 1873_. _Coleccion de informes,
+  memorias, proyectos y antecedentes sobre el gobierno de la isla de
+  Cuba_ (Madrid, 1875); Vicente Vasquez Queipo, _Informe fiscal sobre
+  fomento de la poblacion blanca_ (Madrid, 1845); _Informacion sobre
+  reformas en Cuba y Puerto Rico celebrada en Madrid en 1866 y 67 por
+  los representantes de ambas islas_ (2 tom., New York, 1867; 2nd ed.,
+  New York, 1877); and the _Diccionario_ of Pezuela. These, with the
+  works of Saco, Sagra, Arango and Alexander von Humboldt's work, _Essai
+  politique sur l'ile de Cuba_ (2 vols., Paris 1826; Spanish editions, 1
+  vol., Paris, 1827 and 1840; English translation by J. S. Thrasher,
+  with interpolations, New York, 1856), are indispensable. For
+  conditions at the end of the 18th century, Fran. de Arango y Parreno,
+  _Obras_ (2 tom., Havana, 1888). For later conditions, E. Valdes
+  Dominguez, _Los Antiguos Diputados de Cuba_ (Havana, 1879); B. Huber,
+  _Apercu statistique de l'ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1826); Humboldt; Sagra,
+  vols. 1-2 of the book cited above, being the _Historia fisica y
+  politica_, and also the earlier work on which they are based,
+  _Historia economica-politica y estadistica de ... Cuba_ (Havana,
+  1831); treatises on administrative law in Cuba by J. M. Morilla
+  (Havana, 1847; 2nd ed., 1865, 2 vols.) and A. Govin (3 vols., Havana,
+  1882-1883); A. S. Rowan and M. M. Ramsay, _The Island of Cuba_ (New
+  York, 1896); _Coleccion de reales ordenes, decretos y disposiciones_
+  (Havana, serial, 1857-1898); _Spanish Rule in Cuba_. _Laws Governing
+  the Island. Reviews Published by the Colonial Office in Madrid ..._
+  (New York, for the Spanish legation, 1896); and compilations of
+  Spanish colonial laws listed under article INDIES, LAWS OF THE. On the
+  new Republican regime: _Gaceta Oficial_ (Havana, 1903-   ); reports of
+  departments of government; M. Romero Palafox, _Agenda de la republica
+  de Cuba_ (Havana, 1905). See also the _Civil Reports_ of the United
+  States military governors, J. R. Brooke (2 vols., 1899; Havana and
+  Washington, 1900), L. Wood (33 vols., 1900-1902; Washington,
+  1901-1902).
+
+  History.--The works (see above) of Sagra, Humboldt and Arango are
+  indispensable; also those of Francisco Calcagno, _Diccionario
+  biografico Cubano_ (ostensibly, New York, 1878); Vidal Morales y
+  Morales, _Iniciadores y primeros martires de la revolucion Cubana_
+  (Havana, 1901); Jose Ahumada y Centurion, _Memoria historica politica
+  de ... Cuba_ (Havana, 1874); Jacobo de la Pezuela, _Diccionario
+  geografico-estadistico-historico de ... Cuba_ (4 tom., Madrid,
+  1863-1866); _Historia de ... Cuba_, (4 tom., Madrid, 1868-1878;
+  supplanting his _Ensayo historico de ... Cuba_, Madrid and New York,
+  1842); and Jose Antonio Saco, _Obras_ (2 vols., New York, 1853),
+  _Papeles_ (3 tom., Paris, 1858-1859), and _Coleccion postuma de
+  Papeles_ (Havana, 1881). Also: Rodriguez Ferrer, _op. cit._ above,
+  vol. 2 (Madrid, 1888); P. G. Guiteras, _Historia de ... Cuba_ (2
+  vols., New York, 1865-1866). Of great value is J. Zaragoza, _Las
+  Insurrecciones en Cuba_. _Apuntes para la historia politica_ (2 tom.,
+  Madrid, 1872-1873); also J. I. Rodriguez, _Vida de ... Felix Varela_
+  (New York, 1878), and _Vida de D. Jose de la Luz_ (New York, 1874; 2nd
+  ed., 1879). On early history see _Coleccion de documentos ineditos
+  relativos al descubrimiento ... de ultramar_ (series 2, vols. 1, 4, 6,
+  Madrid, 1885-1890). On archaeology, N. Fort y Roldan, _Cuba indigena_
+  (Madrid, 1881); M. Rodriguez Ferrer (see above); and especially A.
+  Bachiller y Morales, _Cuba primitiva_ (Havana, 1883). For the history
+  of the Cuban international problem consult Jose Ignacio Rodriguez,
+  _Idea de la anexion de la isla de Cuba a los Estados Unidos de
+  America_ (Havana, 1900), and J. M. Callahan, Cuba and International
+  Relations (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1898), which
+  supplement each other. On the domestic reform problem there is an
+  enormous literature, from which may be selected (see general histories
+  above and works cited under S Administration of this bibliography): M.
+  Torrente, _Bosquejo economico-politico_ (2 tom., Madrid-Havana,
+  1852-1853); D. A. Galiano, _Cuba en 1858_ (Madrid, 1859); Jose de la
+  Concha, twice Captain-General of Cuba, _Memorias sobre el estado
+  politico, gobierno y administracion de ... Cuba_ (Madrid, 1853); A.
+  Lopez de Letona, _Isla de Cuba, reflexiones_ (Madrid, 1856); F. A.
+  Conte, _Aspiraciones del partido liberal de Cuba_ (Havana, 1892); P.
+  Valiente, _Reformes dans les iles de Cuba et de Porto Rico_ (Paris,
+  1869); C. de Sedano, _Cuba: Estudios politicos_ (Madrid, 1872); H. H.
+  S. Aimes, _History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511-1868_ (New York, 1907); F.
+  Armas y Cespedes, _De la esclavitud en Cuba_ (Madrid, 1866), and
+  _Regimen politico de las Antillas Espanolas_ (Palma, 1882); R.
+  Cabrera, _Cuba y sus Jueces_ (Havana, 1887; 9th ed., Philadelphia,
+  1895; 8th ed., in English, _Cuba and the Cubans_, Philadelphia, 1896);
+  P. de Alzola y Minondo, _El Problema Cubano_ (Bilbao, 1898); various
+  works by R. M. de Labra, including _La Cuestion social en las Antillas
+  Espanolas_ (Madrid, 1874), _Sistemas coloniales_ (Madrid, 1874), &c.;
+  R. Montoro, _Discursos ... 1878-1893_ (Philadelphia, 1894); Labra _et
+  al._, _El Problema colonial contemporanea_ (2 vols., Madrid, 1894);
+  articles by Em. Castelar _et al._, in Spanish reviews (1895-1898). On
+  the period since 1899 the best two books in English are C. M. Pepper,
+  _To-morrow in Cuba_ (New York, 1899); A. G. Robinson, _Cuba and the
+  Intervention_ (New York, 1905).     (F. S. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Other countries taking only 27,462 long tons out of a total of
+    5,719,777 in the seven fiscal years 1899-1900 to 1905-1906.
+
+  [2] In these same years the trade of the United States with Cuba and
+    Porto Rico was: importations from the islands, $59,221,444 annually;
+    exportations to the islands, $20,017,156. The corresponding figures
+    for Spain were $7,265,142 and $20,035,183; and for the United
+    Kingdom, $714,837 and $11,971,129, the trade with other countries
+    being of much less amount.
+
+  [3] In the preliminary registration by Moderate officials a total
+    electorate was registered of 432,313,--about 30% of the supposed
+    population of the island.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various
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