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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/38606-8.txt b/38606-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..59192c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/38606-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5819 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Poultry, by Hugh Piper + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Poultry + A Practical Guide to the Choice, Breeding, Rearing, and + Management of all Descriptions of Fowls, Turkeys, + Guinea-fowls, Ducks, and Geese, for Profit and Exhibition. + +Author: Hugh Piper + +Release Date: January 18, 2012 [EBook #38606] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POULTRY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + Transcriber's Note. + + Hyphenation has been standardised. + + ================================== + +[Illustration: White Dorking Cock. Coloured Dorkings. Duck-winged and +Black-breasted Red Game.] + + + + + POULTRY + + A + + Practical Guide + + TO THE + + CHOICE, BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT + + OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF + + FOWLS, TURKEYS, GUINEA-FOWLS, + DUCKS, AND GEESE, + + FOR + + PROFIT AND EXHIBITION. + + BY + + HUGH PIPER, + + AUTHOR OF "PIGEONS: THEIR VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, BREEDING, + AND DISEASES." + + ILLUSTRATED WITH EIGHT COLOURED PLATES. + + Fourth Edition. + + LONDON: + GROOMBRIDGE & SONS. + + MDCCCLXXVII. + + + LONDON: + BARRETT, SONS AND CO., PRINTERS, + SEETHING LANE. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +This work is intended as a practical guide to those about to commence +Poultry keeping, and to provide those who already have experience on the +subject with the most trustworthy information compiled from the best +authorities of all ages, and the most recent improvements in Poultry +Breeding and Management. The Author believes that he has presented his +readers with a greater amount of valuable information and practical +directions on the various points treated than will be found in most +similar works. The book is not the result of the Author's own experience +solely, and he acknowledges the assistance he has received from other +authorities. Among those whom he has consulted he desires specially to +acknowledge his obligations to Mr. Tegetmeier, whose "Poultry Book" +(published by Messrs. Routledge & Sons, London) contains his especial +knowledge of the Diseases of Poultry; and to Mr. L. Wright, whose +excellent and practical Treatise, entitled "The Practical Poultry +Keeper" (published by Messrs. Cassell, Petter & Galpin, London), cannot +be too highly commended. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +GENERAL MANAGEMENT. + + PAGE + CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTION 1 + + Neglect of Poultry-breeding--Profit of Poultry-keeping--Value to the + Farmer--Poultry Shows--Cottage Poultry. + + CHAPTER II.--THE FOWL-HOUSE 6 + + Size of the House--Brick and Wood--Cheap Houses--The + Roof--Ventilation--Light--Warmth--The Flooring--Perches--Movable + Frame--Roosts for Cochin-Chinas and Brahma-Pootras--Nests for + laying--Cleanliness--Fowls' Dung--Doors and + Entrance-holes--Lime-washing--Fumigating--Raising Chickens under + Glass. + + CHAPTER III.--THE FOWL-YARD 18 + + Soil--Situation--Covered Run--Pulverised Earth for deodorising--Diet + for confined Fowls--Height of Wall, &c.--Preventing Fowls from + flying--The Dust-heap--Material for Shells--Gravel--The Gizzard--The + Grass Run. + + CHAPTER IV.--FOOD 27 + + Table of relative constituents and qualities of + Food--Barley--Wheat--Oats--Meal--Refuse Corn--Boiling Grain--Indian + Corn, or Maize--Buckwheat--Peas, Beans and + Tares--Rice--Hempseed--Linseed--Potatoes--Roots--Soft Food--Variety + of Food--Quantity--Mode of Feeding--Number of Meals--Grass and + Vegetables--Insects--Worms--Snails and Slugs--Animal + Food--Water--Fountains. + + CHAPTER V.--EGGS 40 + + Eggs all the Year round--Warmth essential to laying--Forcing + Eggs--Soft Shells--Shape and Colour of Eggs--The Air-bag--Preserving + Eggs--Keeping and Choosing Eggs for setting--Sex of Eggs--Packing + Setting-eggs for travelling. + + CHAPTER VI.--THE SITTING HEN 48 + + Evil of restraining a Hen from sitting--Checking the Desire--A + separate House and Run--Nests for sitting in--Damping Eggs--Filling + for Nests--Choosing their own Nests--Choosing a Hen for + sitting--Number and Age of Eggs--Food and Exercise--Absence from the + Nest--Examining the Eggs--Setting two Hens on the same day--Time of + Incubation--The "tapping" sound--Breaking the Shell--Emerging from + the Shell--Assisting the Chicken--Artificial Mothers--Artificial + Incubation. + + CHAPTER VII.--REARING AND FATTENING FOWLS 63 + + The Chicken's first Food--Cooping the Brood--Basket and + Wooden Coops--Feeding Chickens--Age for Fattening--Barn-door + Fattening--Fattening-Houses--Fattening-Coops--Food--"Cramming"-- + Capons and Poulardes--Killing Poultry--Plucking and packing + Fowls--Preserving Feathers. + + CHAPTER VIII.--STOCK, BREEDING, AND CROSSING 75 + + Well-bred Fowls--Choice of Breed--Signs of Age--Breeding + in-and-in--Number of Hens to one Cock--Choice of a Cock--To prevent + Cocks from fighting--Choice of a Hen--Improved Breeds--Origin of + Breeds--Crossing--Choice of Breeding Stock--Keeping a Breed pure. + + CHAPTER IX.--POULTRY SHOWS 83 + + The first Show--The first Birmingham Show--Influence of + Shows--Exhibition Rules--Hatching for Summer and Winter + Shows--Weight--Exhibition Fowls sitting--Matching Fowls--Imparting + lustre to the Plumage--Washing Fowls--Hampers--Travelling--Treatment + on Return--Washing the Hampers and Linings--Exhibition + Points--Technical Terms. + + +BREEDS. + + CHAPTER X.--COCHIN-CHINAS, OR SHANGHAES 93 + + CHAPTER XI.--BRAHMA-POOTRAS 101 + + CHAPTER XII.--MALAYS 105 + + CHAPTER XIII.--GAME 108 + + CHAPTER XIV.--DORKINGS 112 + + CHAPTER XV.--SPANISH 115 + + CHAPTER XVI.--HAMBURGS 118 + + CHAPTER XVII.--POLANDS 121 + + CHAPTER XVIII.--BANTAMS 124 + + CHAPTER XIX.--FRENCH AND VARIOUS 128 + + CHAPTER XX.--TURKEYS 132 + + CHAPTER XXI.--GUINEA-FOWLS 139 + + CHAPTER XXII.--DUCKS 142 + + CHAPTER XXIII.--GEESE 147 + + CHAPTER XXIV.--DISEASES 150 + + + + +LIST OF PLATES. + + + PAGE + PLATE I.--Facing the Title-page. + + White Dorking Cock--Coloured Dorkings--Duck-winged and + Black-breasted Red Game. + + PLATE II. 93 + + White and Buff Cochin-China--Malay Cock--Light and Dark + Brahma-Pootras. + + PLATE III. 115 + + Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs--Black + Spanish. + + PLATE IV. 121 + + White-crested Black Polish--Golden and Silver-spangled + Polish. + + PLATE V. 124 + + White and Black Bantams--Gold and Silver-laced or Sebright + Bantams--Game Bantams. + + PLATE VI. 128 + + French: Houdans--La Flêche Cock--Crêve-Coeur Hen. + + PLATE VII. 132 + + Turkey--Guinea-Fowls. + + PLATE VIII. 142 + + Toulouse Goose--Rouen Ducks--Aylesbury Ducks. + + + + +PROFITABLE AND ORNAMENTAL POULTRY. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Until of late years the breeding of poultry has been almost generally +neglected in Great Britain. Any kind of mongrel fowl would do for a +farmer's stock, although he fully appreciated the importance of breeding +in respect of his cattle and pigs, and the value of improved seeds. Had +he thought at all upon the subject, it must have occurred to him that +poultry might be improved by breeding from select specimens as much as +any other kind of live stock. The French produce a very much greater +number of fowls and far finer ones for market than we do. In France, +Bonington Mowbray observes, "poultry forms an important part of the live +stock of the farmer, and the poultry-yards supply more animal food to +the great mass of the community than the butchers' shops"; while in +Egypt, and some other countries of the East, from time immemorial, vast +numbers of chickens have been hatched in ovens by artificial heat to +supply the demand for poultry; but in Great Britain poultry-keeping has +been generally neglected, eggs are dear, and all kinds of poultry so +great a luxury that the lower classes and a large number of the middle +seldom, if ever, taste it, except perhaps once a year in the form of a +Christmas goose, while hundreds of thousands cannot afford even this. It +is computed that a million of eggs are eaten daily in London and its +suburbs alone; yet this vast number only gives one egg to every three +mouths. "It is a national waste," says Mr. Edwards, "importing eggs by +the hundreds of millions, and poultry by tens of thousands, when we are +feeding our cattle upon corn, and grudging it to our poultry; although +the return made from the former, it is generally admitted, is not five +per cent. beyond the value of the corn consumed, whereas an immense +percentage can be realised by feeding poultry." A writer in the _Times_, +of February 1, 1853, states that, while it will take five years to +fatten an ox to the weight of sixty stone, which will produce a profit +of £30, the same sum may be realised in five months by feeding an equal +weight of poultry for the table. + +Although fowls are so commonly kept, the proportion to the population is +still very small, and the number of those who rear and manage them +profitably still smaller, chiefly because most people keep them without +system or order, and have not given the slightest attention to the +subject. Nevertheless, it costs no more trouble and much less expense to +keep fowls successfully and profitably, for neglected fowls are always +falling sick, or getting into mischief and causing annoyance, and often +expense and loss. "A man," says Mr. Edwards, "who expects a good return +of flesh and eggs from fowls insufficiently fed and cared for, is like a +miller expecting to get meal from a neglected mill, to which he does not +supply grain." + +The antiquated idea that fowls on a farm did mischief to the crops has +been proved to be false; for if the grain is sown as deeply as it should +be, they cannot reach it by scratching; and, besides, they greatly +prefer worms and insects. Mr. Mechi says, "commend me to poultry as the +farmer's best friend," and considers the value of fowls, in destroying +the vast number of worms, grubs, flies, beetles, insects, larvæ, &c., +which they devour, as incalculable; and the same may be said as to their +destruction of the seeds of weeds. They also consume large quantities of +kitchen and table refuse, which is generally otherwise wasted, and often +allowed to decay and become a source of disease, or at least of +impurity. + +The enormous prices paid at the poultry shows of 1852 and 1853 for fancy +fowls gave a new impulse to poultry-keeping; and many persons who +formerly thought the management of poultry beneath their attention, now +superintend their yards. Mrs. Ferguson Blair, now the Hon. Mrs. +Arbuthnot, the authoress of the "Henwife," whose experience may be +judged by the fact that she gained in four years upwards of 460 prizes +in England and Scotland, and personally superintended the management of +forty separate yards, in which above 1,000 chickens were hatched +annually, says:-- + +"I began to breed poultry for amusement only, then for exhibition, and +lastly, was glad to take the trouble to make it pay, and do not like my +poultry-yard less because it is not a loss. It is impossible to imagine +any occupation more suited to a lady, living in the country, than that +of poultry rearing. If she has any superfluous affection to bestow, let +it be on her chicken-kind and it will be returned cent. per cent. Are +you a lover of nature? come with me and view, with delighted gaze, her +chosen dyes. Are you a utilitarian? rejoice in such an increase of the +people's food. Are you a philanthropist? be grateful that yours has been +the privilege to afford a _possible_ pleasure to the poor man, to whom +so many are _impossible_. Such we often find fond of poultry--no mean +judges of it, and frequently successful in exhibition. A poor man's +pleasure in victory is, at least, as great as that of his richer +brother. Let him, then, have the field whereon to fight for it. +Encourage village poultry-shows, not only by your patronage, but also by +your presence. A taste for such may save many from dissipation and much +evil; no man can win poultry honours and haunt the taproom too." + +For those who desire to encourage a taste for poultry keeping in young +people, and their humbler neighbours, we would recommend our smaller +work on the subject as a suitable present.[1] + +"It becomes," says Miss Harriet Martineau, "an interesting wonder every +year why the rural cottagers of the United Kingdom do not rear fowls +almost universally, seeing how little the cost would be and how great +the demand. We import many millions of eggs annually. Why should we +import any? Wherever there is a cottage family living on potatoes or +better fare, and grass growing anywhere near them, it would be worth +while to nail up a little penthouse, and make nests of clean straw, and +go in for a speculation in eggs and chickens. Seeds, worms, and insects +go a great way in feeding poultry in such places; and then there are the +small and refuse potatoes from the heap, and the outside cabbage leaves, +and the scraps of all sorts. Very small purchases of broken rice (which +is extremely cheap), inferior grain, and mixed meal, would do all else +that is necessary. There would be probably larger losses from vermin +than in better guarded places; but these could be well afforded as a +mere deduction from considerable gains. It is understood that the +keeping of poultry is largely on the increase in the country generally, +and even among cottagers; but the prevailing idea is of competition as +to races and specimens for the poultry-yard, rather than of meeting the +demand for eggs and fowls for the table." + +With the exception of prizes for Dorkings, which are chiefly bred for +market, our poultry-shows have always looked upon fowls as if they were +merely ornamental birds, and have framed their standards of excellence +accordingly, and not with any regard to the production of profitable +poultry, which is much to be regretted. + +Martin Doyle, the cottage economist of Ireland, in his "Hints to Small +Holders," observes that "a few cocks and hens, if they be prevented from +scratching in the garden, are a useful and appropriate stock about a +cottage, the warmth of which causes them to lay eggs in winter--no +trifling advantage to the children when milk is scarce. The French, who +are extremely fond of eggs, and contrive to have them in great +abundance, feed the fowls so well on curds and buckwheat, and keep them +so warm, that they have plenty of eggs even in winter. Now, in our +country (Ireland), especially in a gentleman's fowl yard, there is not +an egg to be had in cold weather; but the warmth of the poor man's cabin +insures him an egg even in the most ungenial season." + +Such fowls obtain fresh air, fresh grass, and fresh ground to scratch +in, and prosper in spite of the most miserable, puny, mongrel stock, +deteriorating year after year from breeding in and in, without the +introduction of fresh blood even of the same indifferent description. +Many an honest cottager might keep himself and family from the parish by +the aid of a small stock of poultry, if some kind poultry-keeper would +present him with two or three good fowls to begin with, for the cottager +has seldom capital even for so small a purchase. + +Considerable profit may be made by the sale of eggs for hatching and +surplus stock, if the breeds kept are good, and the stock known to be +pure and vigorous. The "Henwife" says: "You may reduce your expenses by +selling eggs for setting, at a remunerative price. No one should be +ashamed to own what he is not ashamed to do; therefore, boldly announce +your superfluous eggs for sale, at such a price as you think the public +will pay for them." This is now done extensively by breeders of rank and +eminence, especially through the London _Field_ and agricultural papers. +But, "beware of sending such eggs to market. Every one would be set, and +you might find yourself beaten by your own stock, very likely in your +own local show, and at small cost to the exhibitor." + +The great secret of success in keeping fowls profitably is to hatch +chiefly in March and April; encourage the pullets by proper feeding to +lay at the age of six months; and fatten and dispose of them when about +nineteen months old, just before their first adult moult; and never to +allow a cockerel to exceed the age of fourteen weeks before it is +fattened and disposed of. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE FOWL-HOUSE. + + +In this work we shall consider the accommodation and requisites for +keeping fowls successfully on a moderate scale, and the reader must +adapt them to his own premises, circumstances, and requirements. +Everywhere there must be some alterations, omissions, or compromises. We +shall state the essentials for their proper accommodation, and describe +the mode of constructing houses, sheds, and arranging runs, and the +reader must then form his plan according to his own wishes, resources, +and the capabilities of the place. The climate of Great Britain being so +very variable in itself, and differing in its temperature so much in +different parts, no one manner or material for building the fowl-house +can be recommended for all cases. + +Plans for poultry establishments on large scales for the hatching, +rearing, and fattening of fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese, are given in +our smaller work on Poultry, referred to on page 3. + +The best aspects for the fowl-house are south and south-east, and +sloping ground is preferable to flat. + +"It is only of late years," says Mr. Baily, "poultry-houses have been +much thought of. In large farmyards, where there are cart-houses, +calf-pens, pig-styes, cattle-sheds, shelter under the eaves of barns, +and numerous other roosting-places, not omitting the trees in the +immediate vicinity, they are little required--fowls will generally do +better by choosing for themselves; and it is beyond a doubt healthier +for them to be spread about in this manner, than to be confined to one +place. But a love of order, on the one hand, and a dread of thieves or +foxes on the other, will sometimes make it desirable to have a proper +poultry-house." + +Each family of fowls should, if possible, have a house and run; and if +they are kept as breeding stock, and the breeds are to be preserved +pure, this is essential. And where many kinds are kept, the various +houses must be adapted to the peculiarities of the different breeds, in +order to do justice to them all, and to attain success in each. + +The size of the house and the extent of the yard or run should be +proportioned to the number of fowls kept; but it is better for the house +to be too small than too large, particularly in winter, for the mutual +imparting of animal heat. It is found by experience that when fowls are +crowded into a small space, their desire for laying continues even in +winter; and there is no fear of engendering disease by crowding if the +house is properly ventilated, and thoroughly cleansed every day. Mr. +Baily kept for years a cock and four hens in a portable wooden house six +feet square, and six feet high in the centre, the sides being somewhat +shorter, and says such a house would hold six hens as well as four. +Ventilating holes were made near the top. It had no floor, being placed +upon the ground, and could be moved at pleasure by means of two poles +placed through two staples fixed at the end of each side. A few +Cochin-Chinas may be kept where there is no other convenience than an +outhouse six feet square to serve for their roosting, laying, and +sitting, with a yard of twice that size attached. Mr. Wright "once knew +a young man who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his own +construction, not more than three feet square, and a run of the same +width, under twelve feet long." The French breeders keep their fowls in +as small a space as possible, in order to generate and preserve the +warmth that will induce them to lay; while the English breeders allow +more space for exercise, larger houses, and free circulation of air. The +French mode, is very likely the best for the winter and the English for +the summer, but the two opposite methods may be made available by having +one or more extra houses and runs into which the fowls can be +distributed in the summer. A close, warm roosting-place will cause the +production of more eggs in winter, when they are scarcest and most +valuable, while air and exercise are necessary to rear superior fowls +for the table; and if they can have the run of a farmyard or good fields +in which to pick up grain or insects, their flesh will be far superior +in flavour to that of fowls kept in confinement, or crammed in coops. + +Almost any outbuilding, shed, or lean-to, may be easily and cheaply +converted into a good fowl-house by the exercise of a little thought and +ingenuity. + +The best material to build a house with is brick, but the cheapest to be +durable is board, with the roof also of wood, covered with patent felt. +One objection to timber houses is their being combustible, and easily +ignited, and houses had better be built of a single brick in thickness, +unless cheapness is a great object. + +A lean-to fowl-house may be constructed for a very small sum, with +boards an inch thick, against the west or south side of any wall. +Whenever wood is employed it should be tongued, which is a very cheap +method of providing against warping by heat, or admitting wind or rain; +lying flat against the uprights, it saves material and has an external +appearance far superior to any other method of boarding. If the second +coat of paint is rough cast over with sand, it will greatly improve the +appearance, and the house will not be unsightly even in the ornamental +part of a gentleman's grounds. + +A house may be built very cheaply by driving poles into the ground at +equal distances, and nailing weather-boarding upon their outside. If it +is to be square, one pole should be placed at each corner, and two more +will be required for the door-posts. The house may be made with five, +six, or more sides, as many poles being used as there are sides, and the +door may occupy one side if the house be small and the side narrow, +otherwise two door-posts will be required. If the boards are not tongued +together, the chinks between them must be well caulked by driving in +string or tow with a blunt chisel, for it is not only necessary to keep +out the rain but also to keep out the wind, which has great influence on +the health and laying of the fowls. + +Where double boarding is employed for the sides, the house may be made +much warmer by filling up the space with straw, or still better with +marsh reeds, so durable for thatching. This plan, unfortunately, affords +a shelter for rats, mice, and insects, and therefore, if adopted, it +will be highly advantageous to form the inside boarding in panels, so as +to be removable at pleasure for examination and cleansing. + +For the roof, tiles or slates alone are not sufficient, but, if used, +must have a boarding or ceiling under them; otherwise all the heat +generated by the fowls will escape through the numerous interstices, and +it will be next to impossible to keep the house warm in winter. A +corrugated roof of galvanised iron may be used instead, but a ceiling +also will be absolutely necessary for the sake of warmth. A rough +ceiling of lath and plaster not only preserves the warmth generated by +the fowls and keeps out the cold, but has the great advantage of being +easily lime-washed, an operation that should be performed at least four +or five times a year. Boards alone make a very good and cheap roof. They +may be laid either horizontally, one plank overlapping the other, and +the whole well tarred two or three times, and once every autumn +afterwards; or they may be laid perpendicularly side by side, fitting +closely, in which case they should be well tarred, then covered with old +sheeting, waste calico, or thick brown paper tightly stretched over it, +and afterwards brushed over with hot tar, or a mixture of tar boiled +with a little lime, and applied while hot; this, soaking through the +calico, cements it to the roof, and makes it waterproof. But board +covered with patent felt, and tarred once a year, is the best. The roof +ought to project considerably beyond the walls, in order to prevent the +rain from dripping down them. + +Ventilation is most important, and the house should be high, especially +if there are many fowls, for by having it lofty a current of air can +pass through it far above the level of the fowls, and purify the +atmosphere without causing a draught near them. They very much dislike a +draught, and will alter their positions to avoid it, and if unable to +do so, will seek another roosting-place. Ventilation may be obtained by +leaving out some bricks in the wall or making holes in the boarding; and +when there is a shed at the side of the fowl-house, by boring a few +holes near the top of the wall next to the shed; all ventilators should +be considerably above the perches, in order to avoid a draught near to +the fowls; and should be entirely closed at night in severe weather. The +best method of ventilation for a fowl-house of sufficient size and +height, is by means of an opening in the highest part of the roof, +covered with a lantern of laths or narrow boards, placed one over the +other in a slanting position, with a small space between them like +Venetian blinds. + +Light is essential, not only for the health of the fowls, but in order +that the state of the house may be seen, and the floor and perches may +be well cleansed. It may be admitted either through a common window, a +pane or two of thick glass placed in the sides, or glass tiles in the +roof. It also induces them to take shelter there in rough weather. + +Warmth is the most important point of all. Fowls that roost in cold +houses and exposed places require more food and produce fewer eggs; and +pullets which are usually forward in laying will not easily be induced +to do so in severe weather if their house is not kept warm. It is a +great advantage when the house backs a fire-place or stable. A gentleman +told Mr. Baily that he "had been very successful in raising early +chickens in the north of Scotland, and he attributed much of it to the +following arrangements. He had always from twenty to thirty oxen or +other cattle fattening in a long building; he made his poultry-house to +join this, and had ventilators and openings made in the partition, so +that the heat of the cattle-shed passed into the fowl-house. Little good +has resulted from the use of stoves, or hot-water pipes, for poultry; +but by skilfully taking advantage of every circumstance like that above +mentioned, and by consulting aspect and position, many valuable helps +are obtained." + +A house built of wood in the north of England and Scotland must be +lined, unless artificially warmed. Felt is the best material, as its +strong smell of tar will keep away most insects. Matting is frequently +used, and will make the house sufficiently warm, but it harbours vermin, +and therefore, if used, should be only slightly fastened to the walls, +so that it can be often taken down and well beaten, and, if necessary, +fumigated. + +Various materials are recommended for the flooring. Boards are warm, but +they soon become foul. Beaten earth, with loose dust scattered over it +some inches deep, is excellent for the feet of the birds, but is a +harbour for the minute vermin which are often so troublesome, and even +destructive, to domestic fowls. Mowbray recommends a floor of +"well-rammed chalk or earth, that its surface, being smooth, may present +no impediment to being swept perfectly clean." Chalk laid on dry +coal-ashes to absorb the moisture is excellent. A mixture of cow-dung +and water, about the consistency of paint, put on the surface of the +floor, no thicker than paint, gives it a hard surface which will bear +sweeping down. It is used by the natives of India, not only for the +floors, but often for the walls of their houses, and is supposed to be +healthy in its application, and to keep away vermin. Miss Watts says: +"Dig out the floor to about a foot deep, and fill in with burnt clay, +like that used extensively on railways, the strong gravel which is +called 'metal' in road-making, or any loose dry material of the kind. +Let this be well rammed down, and then lay over it, with a bricklayer's +trowel, a flooring of a compost of cinder-ashes, gravel, quick-lime, and +water. This flooring is without the objections due to those which are +cold and damp, and those which imbibe foul moisture. Stone is too cold +for a flooring; beaten earth or wood becomes foul when the place is +inhabited by living animals; and a flooring of bricks possesses both +these bad qualities united." Bricks are the worst of all materials; they +retain moisture, whether atmospheric or arising from insufficient +drainage; and thus the temperature is kept low, and disease too often +follows, especially rheumatic attacks of the feet and legs. However, +trodden earth makes a very good flooring, and it or other materials may +easily be kept clean by placing moveable boards beneath the perches to +receive the fowl-droppings. The floor should slope from every direction +towards the door, to facilitate its cleansing, and to keep it dry. + +Perches are generally placed too high, probably because it was noticed +that fowls in their natural state, or when at large, usually roost upon +high branches; but it should be observed that, in descending from lofty +branches, they have a considerable distance to fly, and therefore alight +on the ground gently, while in a confined fowl-house the bird flutters +down almost perpendicularly, coming into contact with the floor +forcibly, by which the keel of the breast-bone is often broken, and +bumble-foot in Dorkings and corns are caused. + +Some writers do not object to lofty perches, provided the fowls have a +board with cross-pieces of wood fastened on to it reaching from the +ground to the perch; but this does not obviate the evil, for they will +only use it for ascent, and not for descent. The air, too, at the upper +part of any dwelling-room, or house for animals, is much more impure +than nearer the floor, because the air that has been breathed, and +vapours from the body, are lighter than pure air, and consequently +ascend to the top. The perches should therefore not be more than +eighteen inches from the ground, unless the breed is very small and +light. Perches are also generally made too small and round. When they +are too small in proportion to the size of the birds, they are apt to +cause the breast-bone of heavy fowls to grow crooked, which is a great +defect, and very unsightly in a table-fowl. Those for heavy fowls should +not be less than three inches in diameter. Capital perches may be formed +of fir or larch poles, about three inches in diameter, split into two, +the round side being placed uppermost; the birds' claws cling to it +easily, and the bark is not so hard as planed wood. The perches, if made +of timber, should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off, +as the feet of fowls are not formed for clasping smooth round poles. +Those for chickens should not be thicker than their claws can easily +grasp, and neither too sharp nor too round. + +When more than one row of perches is required they should be ranged +obliquely--that is, one above and behind the other; by which arrangement +each perch forms a step to the next higher one, and an equal convenience +in descending, and the birds do not void their dung over each other. +They should be placed two feet apart, and supported on bars of wood +fixed to the walls at each end; and in order that they may be taken out +to be cleaned, they should not be nailed to the supporter, but securely +placed in niches cut in the bar, or by pieces of wood nailed to it like +the rowlocks of a boat. If the wall space at the sides is required for +laying-boxes, the perches must be shorter than the house, and the +oblique bars which support them must be securely fastened to the back of +the house, and, if necessary, have an upright placed beneath the upper +end of each. + +Some breeders prefer a moveable frame for roosting, formed of two poles +of the required length, joined at each end by two narrow pieces; the +frame being supported upon four or more legs, according to its length +and the weight of the fowls. If necessary it should be strengthened by +rails--connecting the bottoms of the legs, and by pieces crossing from +each angle of the sides and ends. These frames can conveniently be moved +out of the house when they require cleansing. Or it may be made of one +pole supported at each end by two legs spread out widely apart, like two +sides of an equilateral or equal-sided triangle. The perch may be made +more secure for heavy fowls by a rail at each side fastened to each leg, +about three inches from the foot. + +Mr. Baily says: "I had some fowls in a large outhouse, where they were +well provided with perches; as there was plenty of room, I put some +small faggots, cut for firing, at one extremity, and I found many of the +fowls deserted their perches to roost on the faggots, which they +evidently preferred." + +Cochin-Chinas and Brahma Pootras do not require perches, but roost +comfortably on a floor littered down warmly with straw. It should be +gathered up every morning, and the floor cleaned and kept uncovered till +night, when the straw, if clean, should be again laid down. It must be +often changed. A bed of sand is also used, and a latticed floor even +without straw, and some use latticed benches raised about six inches +from the floor. But we should think that latticed roosting-places must +be uncomfortable to fowls, and the dung which falls through is often +unseen, and, consequently, liable to remain for too long a time, while a +portion will stick to the sides of the lattice-work, and be not only +difficult to see, but also to remove when seen. The "Henwife" finds, +however, "that if there are nests, there the Cochins will roost, in +spite of all attempts to make them do otherwise." It is a good plan, in +warm weather, occasionally to sprinkle water over and about the perches, +and scatter a little powdered sulphur over the wetted parts, which will +greatly tend to keep the fowls free from insect parasites. + +The nests for laying in are usually made on the ground, or in a kind of +trough, a little raised; but some use boxes or wicker-baskets, which are +preferable, as they can be removed separately from time to time, and +thoroughly cleansed from dust and vermin, and can also be kept a little +apart from each other. These boxes or troughs should be placed against +the sides of the house, and a board sloping forwards should be fixed +above, to prevent the fowls from roosting upon the edges. If required, a +row of laying-boxes or troughs may be placed on the ground, and another +about a foot or eighteen inches above the floor. The nest should be made +of wheaten, rye, or oaten straw, but never of hay, which is too hot, and +favourable besides to the increase of vermin. Heath cut into short +pieces forms excellent material for nests, but it cannot always be had. +The material must be changed whenever it smells foul or musty, for if it +is allowed to become offensive, the hens will often drop their eggs upon +the ground sooner than go to the nest. When the fowl-house adjoins a +passage, or it can be otherwise so contrived, it is an excellent plan +to have a wooden flap made to open just above the back of the nests, so +that the eggs can be removed without your going into the roosting-house, +treading the dung about, and disturbing any birds that may be there, or +about to enter to lay. Where possible the nests in the roosting-houses +should be used for laying in only; and a separate house should be set +apart for sitting hens. Where there are but a few fowls and only one +house, if a hen is allowed to sit, a separate nest must be made as quiet +as possible for her.--_See_ Chapter VI. + +Cleanliness must be maintained. The _Canada Farmer_ suggested an +admirable plan for keeping the roosting-house clean. A broad shelf, +securely fastened, but moveable, is fixed at the back of the house, +eighteen inches from the ground, and the perch placed four or five +inches above it, a foot from the wall. The nests are placed on the +ground beneath the board, which preserves them from the roosting fowl's +droppings, and keeps them well shaded for the laying or sitting hen, if +the latter is obliged to incubate in the same house, and the nests do +not need a top. The shelf can be easily scraped clean every morning, and +should be lightly sanded afterwards. Thus the floor of the house is +never soiled by the roosting birds, and the broad board at the same time +protects them from upward draughts of air. Where the nests and perches +are not so arranged, the idea may be followed by placing a loose board +below each perch, upon which the dung will fall, and the board can be +taken up every morning and the dung removed. With proper tools, a +properly constructed fowl-house can be kept perfectly clean, and all the +details of management well carried out without scarcely soiling your +hands. A birch broom is the best implement with which to clean the house +if the floor is as hard as it ought to be. A handful of ashes or sand, +sprinkled over the places from which dung has been removed, will absorb +any remaining impurity. + +Fowls' dung is a very valuable manure, being strong, stimulating, and +nitrogenous, possessing great power in forcing the growth of vegetables, +particularly those of the cabbage tribe, and is excellent for growing +strawberries, or indeed almost any plants, if sufficiently diluted; for, +being very strong, it should always be mixed with earth. A fowl, +according to Stevens, will void at least one ounce of dry dung in +twenty-four hours, which is worth at least seven shillings a cwt. + +The door should fit closely, a slight space only being left at the +bottom to admit air. It should have a square hole, which is usually +placed either at the top or bottom, for the poultry to enter to roost. A +hole at the top is generally preferred, as it is inaccessible to vermin. +The fowls ascend by means of a ladder formed of a slanting board, with +strips of wood nailed across to assist their feet; a similar ladder +should be placed inside to enable them to descend, if they are heavy +fowls; but the evil is that, even with this precaution, they are +inclined to fly down, as they do from high perches, without using the +ladder, and thus injure their feet. A hole in the middle of the door +would be preferable to either, and obviate the defects of both. These +holes should be fitted with sliding panels on the inside, so that they +can be closed in order to keep the fowls out while cleaning the house, +or to keep them in until they have laid their eggs, or it may be safe to +let them out in the morning in any neighbourhood or place where they +would else be liable to be stolen. Every day, after the fowls have left +their roosts, the doors and windows should be opened, and a thorough +draught created to purify the house. During the winter months all the +entrance holes should be closed from sunset to sunrise, unless in mild +localities. Where there are many houses, they should, if possible, +communicate with each other by doors, so that they may be cleaned from +end to end, or inspected without the necessity of passing through the +yards, which is especially unpleasant in wet weather. The doors should +be capable of being fastened on either side, to avoid the chance of the +different breeds intermingling while your attention is occupied in +arranging the nests, collecting eggs, &c. See that your fowls are +securely locked in at night, for they are more easily stolen than any +other kind of domestic animals. A good dog in the yard or adjoining +house or stable is an excellent protection. + +Every poultry-house should be lime-washed at least four or five times a +year, and oftener if convenient. Vermin of any kind can be effectually +destroyed by fumigating the place with sulphur. In this operation a +little care is requisite; it should be commenced early in the morning, +by first closing the lattices, and stopping up every crevice through +which air can enter; then place on the ground a pan of lighted charcoal, +and throw on it some brimstone broken into small pieces. Directly this +is done the room should be left, the door kept shut and airtight for +some hours; care too should be taken that the lattices are first opened, +and time given for the vapour to thoroughly disperse before any one +again enters, when every creature within the building will be found +destroyed. + +It is said that a pair of caged guinea-pigs in the fowl-house will keep +away rats. + +In a large establishment, and in a moderate one, if the outlay is not an +object, the pens for the chickens and the passages between the various +houses may be profitably covered with glass, and grapes grown on the +rafters. Raising chickens under glass has been tried with great +success. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE FOWL-YARD. + + +The scarcity of poultry in this country partly arises from all +gallinaceous birds requiring warmth and dryness to keep them in perfect +health, while the climate of Great Britain is naturally moist and cold. + +"The warmest and driest soils," says Mowbray, "are the best adapted to +the breeding and rearing of gallinaceous fowls, more particularly +chickens. A wet soil is the worst, since, however ill affected fowls are +by cold, they endure it better than moisture. Land proper for sheep is +generally also adapted to the successful keeping of poultry and +rabbits." + +But poultry may be reared and kept successfully even on bad soils with +good drainage and attention. The "Henwife" says: "I do not consider any +one soil necessary for success in rearing poultry. Some think a chalk +soil essential for Dorkings, but I have proved the fallacy of this +opinion by bringing up, during three years, many hundreds of these _soi +disant_ delicate birds on the strong blue clay of the Carse of Gowrie, +doubtless thoroughly drained, that system being well understood and +universally practised by the farmers of the district. A coating of +gravel and sand once a year is all that is requisite to secure the +necessary dryness in the runs." The best soil for a poultry-yard is +gravel, or sand resting on chalk or gravel. When the soil is clayey, or +damp from any other cause, it should be thoroughly drained, and the +whole or a good portion of the ground should be raised by the addition +of twelve inches of chalk, or bricklayer's rubbish, over which should be +spread a few inches of sand. Cramp, roup, and some other diseases, more +frequently arise from stagnant wet in the soil than from any other +cause. + +The yard should be sheltered from the north and east winds, and where +this is effected by the position of a shrubbery or plantation in which +the fowls may be allowed to run, it will afford the advantage of +protection, not only from wind and cold, but also shelter from the rain +and the burning sun. It also furnishes harbourage for insects, which +will find them both food and exercise in picking up. Indeed, for all +these purposes a few bushes may be advantageously planted in or +adjoining any poultry-yard. When a tree can be enclosed in a run, it +forms an agreeable object for the eye, and affords shelter to the fowls. + +A covered run or shed for shelter in wet or hot weather is a great +advantage, especially if chickens are reared. It may be constructed with +a few rough poles supporting a roof of patent felt, thatch, or rough +board, plain or painted for preservation, and may be made of any length +and width, from four feet upwards, and of any height from four feet at +the back and three feet in the front, to eight feet at the back and six +feet in the front. The shed should, if possible, adjoin the fowl-house. +It should be wholly or partly enclosed with wire-work, which should be +boarded for a foot from the ground to keep out the wet and snow, and to +keep in small chickens. The roof should project a foot beyond the +uprights which support it, in order to throw the rain well off, and have +a gutter-shoot to carry it away and prevent it from being blown in upon +the enclosed space. The floor should be a little higher than the level +of the yard, both in order to keep it dry and the easier to keep it +clean; and it should be higher at the back than in the front, which will +keep it drained if any wet should be blown in or water upset. If +preferred, moveable netting may be used, so that the fowls can be +allowed their liberty in fine weather, and be confined in wet weather. +But the boarding must be retained to keep out the wet. The ground may be +left in its natural state for the fowls to scratch in, in which case the +surface should be dug up from time to time and replaced with fresh earth +pressed down moderately hard. If the house is large and has a good +window, a shed is not absolutely necessary, especially for a few fowls +only, but it is a valuable addition, and is also very useful to shelter +the coops of the mother hens and their young birds in wet, windy, or hot +weather. + +By daily attention to cleanliness, a few fowls may be kept in such a +covered shed, without having any open run, by employing a thick layer of +dry pulverised earth as a deodoriser, which is to be turned over with a +rake every day, and replaced with fresh dry pulverised earth once a +week. The dry earth entirely absorbs all odour. In a run of this kind, +six square feet should be allowed to each fowl kept, for a smaller +surface of the dry earth becomes moist and will then no longer deodorise +the dung. Sifted ashes spread an inch deep over the floor of the whole +shed will be a good substitute if the dry earth cannot be had. They +should be raked over every other morning, and renewed at least every +fortnight, or oftener if possible. The ground should be dug and turned +over whenever it looks sodden, or gives out any offensive smell; and +three or four times a year the polluted soil below the layer, that is, +the earth to the depth of three or four inches, should be removed and +replaced with fresh earth, gravel, chalk, or ashes.[2] The shed must be +so contrived that the sun can shine upon the fowls during some part of +the day, or they will not continue in health for any length of time, and +it is almost impossible to rear healthy chickens without its light and +warmth; and it will be a great improvement if part of the run is open. +Another shed will be required if chickens are to be reared. + +Fowls that are kept in small spaces or under covered runs will require a +different diet to those that are allowed to roam in fields and pick up +insects, grass, &c., and must be provided with green food, animal food +in place of insects, and be well supplied with mortar rubbish and +gravel. + +The height of the wall, paling, or fencing that surrounds the yard, and +of the partitions, if the yard is divided into compartments for the +purpose of keeping two or more breeds separate and pure, must be +according to the nature of the breed. Three feet in height will be +sufficient to retain Cochins and Brahmas; six feet will be required for +moderate-sized fowls; and eight or nine feet will be necessary to +confine the Game, Hamburg, and Bantam breeds. Galvanised iron +wire-netting is the best material, as it does not rust, and will not +need painting for a long time. It is made of various degrees of +strength, and in different forms, and may be had with meshes varying +from three-fourths of an inch to two inches or more; with very small +meshes at the lower part only, to keep out rats and to keep in chickens; +with spikes upon the top, or with scolloped wire-work, which gives it a +neat and finished appearance; with doors, and with iron standards +terminating in double spikes to fix in the ground, by which wooden posts +are divided, while it can be easily fixed and removed. The meshes should +not be more than two inches wide, and if the meshes of the lower part +are not very small, it should be boarded to about two feet six inches +from the ground, in order to keep out rats, keep in chickens, and to +prevent the cocks fighting through the wire, which fighting is more +dangerous than in the open, for the birds are very liable to injure +themselves in the meshes, and, Dorkings especially, to tear their combs +and toes in them. If iron standards are not attached to the netting, it +should be stretched to stout posts, well fixed in the ground, eight feet +apart, and fastened by galvanised iron staples. A rail at the top gives +a neater appearance, but induces the fowls to perch upon it, which may +tempt them to fly over. + +Where it is not convenient to fix a fence sufficiently high, or when a +hen just out with her brood has to be kept in, a fowl may be prevented +from flying over fences by stripping off the vanes or side shoots from +the first-flight feathers of one wing, usually ten in number, which will +effectually prevent the bird from flying, and will not be unsightly, as +the primary quills are always tucked under the others when not used for +flying. This method answers much better than clipping the quills of each +wing, as the cut points are liable to inflict injuries and cause +irritation in moulting. + +The openness of the feathers of fowls which do not throw off the water +well, like those of most birds, enables them to cleanse themselves +easier from insects and dirt, by dusting their feathers, and then +shaking off the dirt and these minute pests with the dust. For this +purpose one or more ample heaps of sifted ashes, or very dry sand or +earth, for them to roll in, must be placed in the sun, and, if possible, +under shelter, so as to be warm and perfectly dry. Wood ashes are the +best. This dust-heap is as necessary to fowls as water for washing is to +human beings. It cleanses their feathers and skin from vermin and +impurities, promotes the cuticular or skin excretion, and is materially +instrumental in preserving their health. If they should be much troubled +with insects, mix in the heap plenty of wood ashes and a little flour of +sulphur. + +A good supply of old mortar-rubbish, or similar substance, must be kept +under the shed, or in a dry place, to provide material for the +eggshells, or the hens will be liable to lay soft-shelled eggs. Burnt +oyster-shells are an excellent substitute for common lime, and should be +prepared for use by being heated red-hot, and when cold broken into +small pieces with the fingers, but not powdered. Some give chopped or +ground bones, or a lump of chalky marl. Eggshells roughly crushed are +also good, and are greedily devoured by the hens. + +A good supply of gravel is also essential, the small stones which the +fowls swallow being necessary to enable them to digest their hard food. +Fowls swallow all grain whole, their bills not being adapted for +crushing it like the teeth of the rabbit or the horse, and it is +prepared for digestion by the action of a strong and muscular gizzard, +lined with a tough leathery membrane, which forms a remarkable +peculiarity in the internal structure of fowls and turkeys. "By the +action," says Mr. W. H. L. Martin, "of the two thick muscular sides of +this gizzard on each other, the seeds and grains swallowed (and +previously macerated in the crop, and there softened by a peculiar +secretion oozing from glandular pores) are ground up, or triturated in +order that their due digestion may take place. It is a remarkable fact +that these birds are in the habit of swallowing small pebbles, bits of +gravel, and similar substances, which it would seem are essential to +their health. The definite use of these substances, which are certainly +ground down by the mill-like action of the gizzard, has been a matter +of difference among various physiologists, and many experiments, with a +view to elucidate the subject, have been undertaken. It was sufficiently +proved by Spallanzani that the digestive fluid was incapable of +dissolving grains of barley, &c., in their unbruised state; and this he +ascertained by filling small hollow and perforated balls and tubes of +metal or glass with grain, and causing them to be swallowed by turkeys +and other fowls; when examined, after twenty-four and forty-eight hours, +the grains were found to be unaffected by the gastric fluid; but when he +filled similar balls and tubes with bruised grains, and caused them to +be swallowed, he found, after a lapse of the same number of hours, that +they were more or less dissolved by the action of the gastric juice. In +other experiments, he found that metallic tubes introduced into the +gizzard of common fowls and turkeys, were bruised, crushed, and +distorted, and even that sharp-cutting instruments were broken up into +blunt fragments without having produced the slightest injury to the +gizzard. But these experiments go rather to prove the extraordinary +force and grinding powers of the gizzard, than to throw light upon the +positive use of the pebbles swallowed; which, after all, Spallanzani +thought were swallowed without any definite object, but from mere +stupidity. Blumenbach and Dr. Bostock aver that fowls, however well +supplied with food, grow lean without them, and to this we can bear our +own testimony. Yet the question, what is their precise effect? remains +to be answered. Boerhave thought it probable that they might act as +absorbents to superabundant acid; others have regarded them as irritants +or stimulants to digestion; and Borelli supposed that they might really +contribute some degree of nutriment." + +Sir Everard Home, in his "Comparative Anatomy," says: "When the external +form of this organ is first attentively examined, viewing that side +which is anterior in the living bird, and on which the two bellies of +the muscle and middle are more distinct, there being no other part to +obstruct the view, the belly of the muscle on the left side is seen to +be larger than on the right. This appears, on reflection, to be of great +advantage in producing the necessary motion; for if the two muscles were +of equal strength, they must keep a greater degree of exertion than is +necessary; while, in the present case, the principal effect is produced +by that of the left side, and a smaller force is used by that on the +right to bring the parts back again. The two bellies of the muscle, by +their alternate action, produce two effects--the one a constant friction +on the contents of the cavity; the other, a pressure on them. This last +arises from a swelling of the muscle inwards, which readily explains all +the instances which have been given by Spallanzani and others, of the +force of the gizzard upon substances introduced into it--a force which +is found by their experiments always to act in an oblique direction. The +internal cavity, when opened in this distended state, is found to be of +an oval form, the long diameter being in the line of the body; its +capacity nearly equal to the size of a pullet's egg; and on the sides +there are ridges in their horny coat (lining membrane) in the long +direction of the oval. When the horny coat is examined in its internal +structure, the fibres of which it is formed are not found in a direction +perpendicular to the ligamentous substance behind it; but in the upper +portion of the cavity it is obliquely upwards. From this form of cavity +it is evident that no part of the sides is ever intended to be brought +in contact, and that the food is triturated by being mixed with hard +bodies, and acted on by the powerful muscles which form the gizzard." + +The experiments of Spallanzani show that the muscular action of the +gizzard is equally powerful whether the small stones are present or not; +and that they are not at all necessary to the trituration of the firmest +food, or the hardest foreign substances; but it is also quite clear that +when these small stones are put in motion by the muscles of the gizzard +they assist in crushing the grain, and at the same time prevent it from +consolidating into a thick, heavy, compacted mass, which would take a +far longer time in undergoing the digestive process than when separated +and intermingled with the pebbles. + +This was the opinion of the great physiologist, John Hunter, who, in his +treatise "On the Animal Economy," after noticing the grinding powers of +the gizzard, says, in reference to the pebbles swallowed, "We are not, +however, to conclude that stones are entirely useless; for if we compare +the strength of the muscles of the jaws of animals which masticate their +food with those of birds who do not, we shall say that the parts are +well calculated for the purpose of mastication; yet we are not thence to +infer that the teeth in such jaws are useless, even although we have +proof that the gums do the business when the teeth are gone. If pebbles +are of use, which we may reasonably conclude they are, birds have an +advantage over animals having teeth, so far as pebbles are always to be +found, while the teeth are not renewed. If we constantly find in an +organ substances which can only be subservient to the functions of that +organ, should we deny their use, although the part can do its office +without them? The stones assist in grinding down the grain, and, by +separating its parts, allow the gastric juice to come more readily in +contact with it." + +When a paddock is used as a run for a large number of poultry, it should +be enclosed either by a wall or paling, but not by a hedge, as the fowls +can get through it, and will also lay their eggs under the hedge. The +paddock should be well drained, and it will be a great advantage if it +contains a pond, or has a stream of water running through or by it. +Mowbray advises that the grass run should be sown "with common trefoil +or wild clover, with a mixture of burnet, spurry, or storgrass," which +last two kinds "are particularly salubrious to poultry." If the grass is +well rooted before the fowls are allowed to run on it, they may range +there for several hours daily, according to its extent and their number, +but it should be renewed in the spring by sowing where it has become +bare or thin. A dry common, or pasture fields, in which they may freely +wander and pick up grubs, insects, ants' eggs, worms, and leaves of +plants, is a great advantage, and they may be accustomed to return from +it at a call. Where there is a cropped field, orchard, or garden, in +which fowls may roam at certain seasons, when the crops are safe from +injury, each brood should be allowed to wander in it separately for a +few hours daily, or on different days, as may be most convenient. "A +garden dung-heap," says Mr. Baily, "overgrown with artichokes, mallows, +&c., is an excellent covert for chickens, especially in hot weather. +They find shelter and meet with many insects there." When horse-dung is +procured for the garden, or supplied from your stables, some should be +placed in a small trench, and frequently renewed, in which the fowls +will amuse themselves, particularly in winter, by scraping for corn and +worms. When fowls have not the advantage of a grass run they should be +indulged with a square or two of fresh turf, as often as it can be +obtained, on which they will feed and amuse themselves. It should be +heavy enough to enable them to tear off the grass, without being obliged +to drag the turf about with them. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +FOOD. + + +The following table, which first appeared in the "Poultry Diary," will +show at a glance the relative constituents and qualities of the +different kinds of food, and may be consulted with great advantage by +the poultry-keeper, as it will enable him to proportion mixed food +correctly, and to change it according to the production of growth, +flesh, or fat that may be desired, and according to the temperature of +the season. These proportions, of course, are not absolutely invariable, +for the relative proportions of the constituents of the grain will vary +with the soil, manure used, and the growing and ripening characteristics +of the season. + + ------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------+------- + |Flesh- |Warmth-| Bone- | Husk |Water.| + |forming|giving |making | or | | + There is in every | Food. | Food. | Food. | Fibre. | | + 100 lbs. of +-------+-------+-------+---------+ | + |Gluten,|Fat or |Starch,| Mineral | | + | &c. | Oil. | &c. |Substance| | + ------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------+------- + Oats | 15 | 6 | 47 | 2 | 20 | 10 + Oatmeal | 18 | 6 | 63 | 2 | 2 | 9 + Middlings or fine | | | | | | + Sharps | 18 | 6 | 53 | 5 | 4 | 14 + Wheat | 12 | 3 | 70 | 2 | 1 | 12 + Barley | 11 | 2 | 60 | 2 | 14 | 1 + Indian Corn | 11 | 8 | 65 | 1 | 5 | 10 + Rice | 7 |a trace| 80 | a trace | -- | 13 + Beans and Peas | 25 | 2 | 48 | 2 | 8 | 15 + Milk | 4½ | 3 | 5 | ¾ | -- | 86¾ + ------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Barley is more generally used than any other grain, and, reckoned by +weight, is cheaper than wheat or oats; but, unless in the form of meal, +should not be the only grain given, for fowls do not fatten upon it, as, +though possessing a very fair proportion of flesh-forming substances, it +contains a lesser amount of fatty matters than other varieties of corn. +In Surrey barley is the usual grain given, excepting during the time of +incubation, when the sitting hens have oats, as being less heating to +the system than the former. Barley-meal contains the same component +parts as the whole grain, being ground with the husk, but only inferior +barley is made into meal. + +Wheat of the best description is dearer than barley, both by weight and +measure, and possesses but about one-twelfth part more flesh-forming +material, but it is fortunate that the small cheap wheat is the best for +poultry, for Professor Johnston says, "the small or tail corn which the +farmer separates before bringing his grain to market is richer in gluten +(flesh-forming food) than the full-grown grain, and is therefore more +nutritious." The "Henwife" finds "light wheats or tailings the best +grain for daily use, and next to that barley." + +Oats are dearer than barley by weight. The heaviest should be bought, as +they contain very little more husk than the lightest, and are therefore +cheaper in proportion. Oats and oatmeal contain much more flesh-forming +material than any other kind of grain, and double the amount of fatty +material than wheat, and three times as much as barley. Mowbray says +oats are apt to cause scouring, and chickens become tired of them; but +they are recommended by many for promoting laying, and in Kent, Sussex, +and Surrey for fattening. Fowls frequently refuse the lighter samples of +oats, but if soaked in water for a few hours so as to swell the kernel, +they will not refuse them. The meal contains more flesh-forming material +than the whole grain. + +The meal of wheat and barley are much the same as the whole grain, but +oatmeal is drier and separated from a large portion of the husk, which +makes it too dear except for fattening fowls and feeding the youngest +chickens, for which it is the very best food. Fine "middlings," also +termed "sharps" and "thirds," and in London coarse country flour, are +much like oatmeal, but cheaper than the best, and may be cheaply and +advantageously employed instead of oatmeal, or mixed with boiled or +steamed small potatoes or roots. + +Many writers recommend refuse corn for fowls, and the greater number of +poultry-keepers on a small scale perhaps think such light common grain +the cheapest food; but this is a great mistake, as, though young fowls +may be fed on offal and refuse, it is the best economy to give the older +birds the finest kind of grain, both for fattening and laying, and even +the young fowls should be fed upon the best if fine birds for breeding +or exhibition are desired. "Instead of giving ordinary or tail corn to +my fattening or breeding poultry," says Mowbray, "I have always found it +most advantageous to allow the heaviest and the best; thus putting the +confined fowls on a level with those at the barn-door, where they are +sure to get their share of the weightiest and finest corn. This high +feeding shows itself not only in the size and flesh of the fowls, but in +the size, weight, and substantial goodness of their eggs, which, in +these valuable particulars, will prove far superior to the eggs of fowls +fed upon ordinary corn or washy potatoes; two eggs of the former going +further in domestic use than three of the latter." "Sweepings" sometimes +contain poisonous or hurtful substances, and are always dearer, weight +for weight, than sound grain. + +Some poultry-keepers recommend that the grain should be boiled, which +makes it swell greatly, and consequently fills the fowl's crop with a +smaller quantity, and the bird is satisfied with less than if dry grain +be given; but others say that the fowls derive more nutriment from the +same quantity of grain unboiled. Indeed, it seems evident that a portion +of the nutriment must pass into the water, and also evaporate in steam. +The fowl's gizzard being a powerful grinding mill, evidently designed by +Providence for the purpose of crushing the grain into meal, it is clear +that whole grain is the natural diet of fowls, and that softer kinds of +food are chiefly to be used for the first or morning meal for fowls +confined in houses (see p. 34), and for those being fattened +artificially in coops, where it is desired to help the fowl's digestive +powers, and to convert the food into flesh as quickly as possible. + +Indian corn or maize, either whole or in meal, must not be given in too +great a proportion, as it is very fattening from the large quantity of +oil it contains; but mixed with barley or barley-meal, it is a most +economical and useful food. It is useful for a change, but is not a good +food by itself. It may be given once or twice a week, especially in the +winter, with advantage. From its size small birds cannot eat it and rob +the fowls. Whether whole or in meal, the maize should be scalded, that +the swelling may be done before it is eaten. The yellow-coloured maize +is not so good as that which is reddish or rather reddish-brown. + +Buckwheat is about equal to barley in flesh-forming food, and is very +much used on the Continent. Mr. Wright has "a strong opinion that the +enormous production of eggs and fowls in France is to some extent +connected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by French +poultry-keepers." It is not often to be had cheap in this country, but +is hardy and may be grown anywhere at little cost. Mr. Edwards says, he +"obtained (without manure) forty bushels to the acre, on very poor sandy +soil, that would not have produced eighteen bushels of oats. The seed is +angular in form, not unlike hempseed; and is stimulating, from the +quantity of spirit it contains." + +Peas, beans, and tares contain an extraordinary quantity of +flesh-forming material, and very little of fat-forming, but are too +stimulating for general use, and would harden the muscular fibres and +give too great firmness of flesh to fowls that are being fattened, but +where tares are at a low price, or peas or beans plentiful, stock fowls +may be advantageously fed upon any of these, and they may be given +occasionally to fowls that are being fattened. It is better to give them +boiled than in a raw state, especially if they are hard and dry, and the +beans in particular may be too large for the fowls to swallow +comfortably. Near Geneva fowls are fed chiefly upon tares. Poultry +reject the wild tares of which pigeons are so fond. + +Rice is not a cheap food. When boiled it absorbs a great quantity of +water and forms a large substance, but, of course, only contains the +original quantity of grain which is of inferior value, especially for +growing chickens, as it consists almost entirely of starch, and does not +contain quite half the amount of flesh-forming materials as oats. When +broken or slightly damaged it may be had much cheaper, and will do as +well as the finest. Boil it for half an hour in skim-milk or water, and +then let it stand in the water till cold, when it will have swollen +greatly, and be so firm that it can be taken out in lumps, and easily +broken into pieces. In addition to its strengthening and fattening +qualities rice is considered to improve the delicacy of the flesh. Fowls +are especially fond of it at first, but soon grow tired of this food. If +mixed with less cloying food, such as bran, they would probably continue +to relish it. + +Hempseed is most strengthening during moulting time, and should then be +given freely, especially in cold localities. + +Linseed steeped is occasionally given, chiefly to birds intended for +exhibition, to increase the secretion of oil, and give lustre to their +plumage. + +Potatoes, from the large quantity of starch they contain, are not good +unmixed, as regular food, but mixed with bran or meal are most conducive +to good condition and laying. They contain a great proportion of +nutriment, comparatively to their bulk and price; and may be +advantageously and profitably given where the number of eggs produced is +of more consequence than their flavour or goodness. A good morning meal +of soft food for a few fowls may be provided daily almost for nothing by +boiling the potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with enough +bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff dry paste. The +peelings will supply as many fowls as there are persons at the dinner +table. A little salt should always be added, and in winter a slight +sprinkling of pepper is good. + +"It is indispensable," says Mr. Dickson, "to give the potatoes to fowls +not only in a boiled state, but hot; not so hot, however, as to burn +their mouths, as they are stupid enough to do if permitted. They dislike +cold potatoes, and will not eat them willingly. It is likewise requisite +to break all the potatoes a little, for they will not unfrequently leave +a potato when thrown down unbroken, taking it, probably, for a stone, +since the moment the skin is broken and the white of the interior is +brought into view, they fall upon it greedily. When pieces of raw +potatoes are accidentally in their way, fowls will sometimes eat them, +though they are not fond of these, and it is doubtful whether they are +not injurious." + +Mangold-wurtzel, swedes, or other turnips, boiled with a very small +quantity of water, until quite soft, and then thickened with the very +best middlings or meal, is the very best soft food, especially for +Dorkings. + +Soft food should always be mixed rather dry and _friable_, and not +_porridgy_, for they do not like sticky food, which clings round their +beaks and annoys them, besides often causing diarrhoea. There should +never be enough water in food to cause it to glisten in the light. If +the soft food is mixed boiling hot at night and put in the oven, or +covered with a cloth, it will be warm in the morning, in which state it +should always be given in cold weather. + +Fowls have their likes and dislikes as well as human beings, some +preferring one kind of grain to all others, which grain is again +disliked by other fowls. They also grow tired of the same food, and will +thrive all the better for having as much variety of diet as possible, +some little change in the food being made every few days. Fowls should +not be forced or pressed to take food to which they show a dislike. It +is most important to give them chiefly that which they like best, as it +is a rule, with but few exceptions, that what is eaten with most relish +agrees best and is most easily digested; but care must be taken not to +give too much, for one sort of grain being more pleasing to their palate +than another, induces them to eat gluttonously more than is necessary or +healthy. M. Réaumur made many careful experiments upon the feeding of +fowls, and among them found that they were much more easily satisfied +than might be supposed from the greedy voracity which they exhibit when +they are fed, and that the sorts of food most easily digested by them +are those of which they eat the greatest quantity. + +No definite scale can be given for the quantity of food which fowls +require, as it must necessarily vary with the different breeds, sizes, +ages, condition, and health of the fowls; and with the seasons of the +year, and the temperature of the season, much more food being necessary +to keep up the proper degree of animal heat in winter than in summer; +and the amount of seeds, insects, vegetables, and other food that they +may pick up in a run of more or less extent. Over-feeding, whether by +excess of quantity or excess of stimulating constituents, is the cause +of the most general diseases, the greater proportion of these diseases, +and of most of the deaths from natural causes among fowls. When fowls +are neither laying well nor moulting, they should not be fed very +abundantly; for in such a state over-feeding, especially with rich food, +may cause them to accumulate too much fat. A fat hen ceases to lay, or +nearly, while an over-fed cock becomes lazy and useless, and may die of +apoplexy. + +But half-fed fowls never pay whether kept for the table or to produce +eggs. A fowl cannot get fat or make an egg a day upon little or poor +food. A hen producing eggs will eat nearly twice as much food as at +another time. In cold weather give plenty of dry bread soaked in ale. + +Poultry prefer to pick their food off the ground. "No plan," says Mr. +Baily, "is so extravagant or so injurious as to throw down heaps once or +twice per day. They should have it scattered as far and wide as +possible, that the birds may be long and healthily employed in finding +it, and may not accomplish in a few minutes that which should occupy +them for hours. For this reason every sort of feeder or hopper is bad. +It is the nature of fowls to take a grain at a time, and to pick grass +and dirt with it, which assist digestion. They should feed as pheasants, +partridges, grouse, and other game do in a state of nature; if, +contrary to this, they are enabled to eat corn by mouthfuls, their crops +are soon overfilled, and they seek relief in excessive draughts of +water. Nothing is more injurious than this, and the inactivity that +attends the discomfort caused by it lays the foundation of many +disorders. The advantage of scattering the food is, that all then get +their share; while if it is thrown only on a small space the master +birds get the greater part, while the others wait around. In most +poultry-yards more than half the food is wasted; the same quantity is +thrown down day after day, without reference to time of year, alteration +of numbers, or variation of appetite, and that which is not eaten is +trodden about, or taken by small birds. Many a poultry-yard is coated +with corn and meal." + +If two fowls will not run after one piece, they do not want it. If a +trough is used, the best kind is the simplest, being merely a long, open +one, shaped like that used for pigs, but on a smaller scale. It should +be placed about a foot from one of the sides of the yard, behind some +round rails driven into the ground three inches apart, so that the fowls +cannot get into the troughs, so as to upset them, or tread in or +otherwise dirty the food. The rails should be all of the same height, +and a slanting board be fixed over the trough. + +Some persons give but one meal a day, and that generally in the morning; +this is false economy, for the whole of the nutriment contained in the +one meal is absorbed in keeping up the animal heat, and there is no +material for producing eggs. "The number of meals per day," says Mr. +Wright, "best consistent with real economy will vary from two to three, +according to the size of the run. If it be of moderate extent, so that +they can in any degree forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, +at least in summer, and should be given early in the morning and the +last thing before the birds go to roost. In any case, these will be the +principal meals; but when the fowls are kept in confinement they will +require, in addition, a scanty feed at mid-day. The first feeding should +consist of soft food of some kind. The birds have passed a whole night +since they were last fed; and it is important, especially in cold +weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as possible be got into the +system, and not merely into the crop. But if grain be given, it has to +be ground in the poor bird's gizzard before it can be digested, and on a +cold winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial. But, for the +very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the best food which +can be supplied; it is digested slowly, and during the long cold nights +affords support and warmth to the fowls." + +They should be fed at regular hours, and will then soon become +accustomed to them, and not loiter about the house or kitchen door all +day long, expecting food, which they will do if fed irregularly or too +often, and neglect to forage about for themselves, and thus cost more +for food. + +Grass is of the greatest value for all kinds of poultry, and where they +have no paddock, or grass-plot, fresh vegetables must be given them +daily, as green food is essential to the health of all poultry, even of +the very youngest chickens. Cabbage and lettuce leaves, spinach, endive, +turnip-tops, turnips cut into small pieces and scattered like grain, or +cut in two, radish-leaves, or any refuse, but not stale vegetables will +do; but the best thing is a large sod of fresh-cut turf. They are +partial to all the mild succulent weeds, such as chickweed and +_Chenopodium_, or fat-hen, and eat the leaves of most trees and shrubs, +even those of evergreens; but they reject the leaves of strawberries, +celery, parsnips, carrots, potatoes, onions, and leeks. The supply of +green food may be unlimited, but poultry should never be entirely fed on +raw greens. Cabbage and spinach are still more relaxing when boiled than +raw. They are very fond of the fruit of the mulberry and cherry trees, +and will enjoy any that falls, and prevent it from being wasted. + +Insect food is important to fowls, and essential for chickens and laying +hens. "There is no sort of insect, perhaps," says Mr. Dickson, "which +fowls will not eat. They are exceedingly fond of flies, beetles, +grasshoppers, and crickets, but more particularly of every sort of +grub, caterpillar, and maggot, with the remarkable exception of the +caterpillar moth of the magpie (_Abraxas Grossularia_), which no bird +will touch." M. Réaumur mentions the circumstance of a quantity of wheat +stored in a corn-loft being much infected with the caterpillars of the +small corn-moth, which spins a web and unites several grains together. A +young lady devised the plan of taking some chickens to the loft to feed +on the caterpillars, of which they were so fond that in a few days they +devoured them all, without touching a single grain of the corn. Mr. +Dickson observes, that "biscuit-dust from ships' stores, which consists +of biscuit mouldered into meal, mixed with fragments still unbroken, +would be an excellent food for poultry, if soaked in boiling water and +given them hot. It is thus used for feeding pigs near the larger +seaports, where it can sometimes be had in considerable quantity, and at +a very reasonable price. It will be no detriment to this material if it +be full of weevils and their grubs, of which fowls are fonder than of +the biscuit itself." + +There is not any food of which poultry generally are so fond as of +earthworms; but all fowls are not equally fond of them, and some will +not touch them. They will not eat dead worms. Too many ought not to be +given, or they will become too fat and cease laying. When fowls are +intended for the table worms should not be given, as they are said +always more or less to deteriorate the flavour of the flesh. A good +supply may easily be obtained. By stamping hard upon the ground, as +anglers do, worms will rise to the surface; but a better method is to +thrust a strong stake or a three-pronged potato-fork into the ground, to +the depth of a foot or so, and jerk it backwards and forwards, so as to +shake the soil all around. By going out with a light at night in calm, +mild weather, particularly when there is dew, or after rain, a cautious +observer will see large numbers of worms lying on the ground, +gravel-walks, grass-plots or pastures; but they are easily frightened +into their holes, though with caution and dexterity a great number, and +those chiefly of the largest size, may be captured. Mr. Dickson advises +that cottagers' children should be employed to imitate the example of +the rooks, by following the plough or the digger, and collecting the +worms which are disclosed to view; and also to collect cock-chafers, +"and, what would be more advantageous, they might be set to collect the +grubs of this destructive insect after the plough, and thus, while +providing a rich banquet for the poultry, they would be clearing the +fields of a most destructive insect." + +Fowls are very fond of shell snails. They are still more fattening than +worms, and therefore too many must not be given when laying, but they do +not injure the flavour of the flesh. Some will eat slugs, but they are +not generally fond of these, and many fowls will not touch them. + +One great secret of profitable poultry-keeping is, that hens cannot +thrive and lay without a considerable quantity of animal food, and +therefore if they cannot obtain a sufficient quantity in the form of +insects, it must be supplied in meat, which, minced small, should be +given daily and also to all fowls in winter, as insects are then not to +be had. Mr. Baily says: "Do not give fowls meat, but always have the +bones thrown out to them after dinner; they enjoy picking them, and +perform the operation perfectly. Do not feed on raw meat; it makes fowls +quarrelsome, and gives them a propensity to peck each other, especially +in moulting time if the accustomed meat be withheld." They will peck at +the wound of another fowl to procure blood, and even at their own wounds +when within reach. Take care that long pieces of membrane, or thick +skin, tough gristle or sinew, or pieces of bone, are not left sticking +to the meat, or it may choke them, or form a lodgment in the crop. +"Pieces of suet or fat," says Mr. Dickson, "are liked by fowls better +than any other sort of animal food; but, if supplied in any quantity, +will soon render them too fat for continuing to lay. Should there be any +quantity of fat to dispose of, it ought, therefore, to be given at +intervals, and mixed or accompanied with bran, which will serve to fill +their crops without producing too much nutriment." It is a good plan +when there are plenty of bones and scraps of meat to boil them well, and +mix bran or pollard with the liquor before giving them to the fowls, as +it makes the meat easier to mince, and extracts nourishment from the +bones. When minced-meat is required for a large number of fowls, a +mincing or sausage machine will save much time and prepare the meat +better than chopping. They are as fond of fish, whether salted or fresh, +as of flesh. Crumbs, fragments of pastry, and all the refuse and slops +of the kitchen may be given them. Greaves, so much advertised for fowls, +are very bad, rapidly throwing them out of condition, causing their +feathers to fall off, spoiling the flavour of the flesh; they cause +premature decrepitude, and engender many diseases, the most common being +dropsy of an incurable character. + +Where there is no danger from thieves, foxes, or other vermin, and the +run is extensive, it is the best plan to leave the small door of the +fowl-house open, and the fowls will go out at daybreak and pick up many +an "early worm" and insect. The morning meal may be given when the +household has risen. + +A constant supply of fresh clean water is indispensable. Fountains are +preferable to open vessels, in which the fowls are apt to void their +dung, and the chickens to dabble and catch cold, often causing roup, +cramp, &c. The simplest kind of water vessel is a saucer made of red +pottery, containing several circular, concentric troughs, each about an +inch wide, and of the same depth. Chickens cannot get drowned in these +shallow vessels, but unless placed behind rails the water will be +dirtied by the fowls. They are sold at all earthenware shops, and are +used for forcing early mustard in. A capital fountain may be made with +an earthenware jar or flower-pot and a flower-pot saucer. Bore a small +hole in the jar or flower-pot an inch and a half from the edge of the +rim, or detach a piece about three-quarters of an inch deep and one inch +wide, from the rim, and if a flower-pot is used plug the hole in the +bottom airtight with a piece of cork; fill the vessel with water, place +the saucer bottom upwards on the top, press it closely, and quickly turn +both upside down, when the water will flow into the saucer, filling up +the space between it and the vessel up to the same height as the hole +in the side of the jar or flower-pot, therefore the hole in the side of +the rim of the vessel must not be quite so deep as the height of the +side of the saucer; and above all the plug in the flower-pot must be +airtight. This fountain is cheap, simple, and easily cleaned. Water may +also be kept in troughs, or earthenware pans, placed in the same way. +The fountains and pans should be washed and filled with fresh water once +every day, and oftener in warm weather; and they should occasionally be +scoured with sand to remove the green slime which collects on the +surface, and produces roup, gapes, and other diseases. In winter the +vessels should always be emptied at night, in order to avoid ice from +forming in them, which is troublesome to remove, and snow must never be +allowed to fall into them, snow-water being most injurious to poultry. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +EGGS. + + +During the natural process of moulting, hens cease laying because all +the superabundant nutriment is required for the production of the new +feathers. Fowls moult later each time; the moulting occupies a longer +period, and is more severe as it becomes later, and if the weather +should be cold at its termination they seldom recommence laying for some +time. But young fowls moult in spring. Therefore, by having pullets and +hens of different ages, and moulting at different times, a healthy +laying stock may be kept up. Pullets hatched in March, and constantly +fed highly, not only lay eggs abundantly in the autumn, but when killed +in the following February or March, are as fat as any one could or need +desire them to be, and open more like Michaelmas geese than chickens. +When eggs alone are wanted, you can commence by buying in the spring as +many hens as you require, and your run will accommodate, not more than a +year or eighteen months old. If in good health and condition, they will +be already laying, or will begin almost immediately; and, if well housed +and fed, will give a constant supply of eggs until they moult in the +autumn. When these hens have ceased laying, and before they lose their +good condition by moulting, they should be either killed or sold, unless +they are Hamburgs, Brahmas, or Cochins, and replaced by pullets hatched +in March or April, which will have moulted early, and, if properly +housed and fed, will begin to lay by November at the latest, and +continue laying until February or March, when they may be sold or +killed, being then in prime condition, and replaced as before; or, as +they will not stop laying for any length of time, the best may be kept +until the autumn, when, if profit is the chief consideration, they must +be disposed of.[3] But Brahmas, Cochins, and Hamburgs will lay through +the winter up to their second, or even third year. If you commence +poultry-keeping in the autumn you should buy pullets hatched in the +preceding spring. The best and cheapest plan of keeping up a good stock +is to keep a full-feathered Cochin or two for March or April sitting; +and, if necessary, procure eggs of the breed you desire. The Cochin +will sit again, being only too often ready for the task; and the +later-hatched chickens can be fattened profitably for the table. But if +you wish to obtain eggs all the year round, and to avoid replacing of +stock, or object to the trouble of rearing chickens, keep only those +breeds that are non-sitters, as the Hamburgs, Polands, and Spanish; but +you must purchase younger birds from time to time to keep a supply of +laying hens while others are moulting. + +Warmth is most essential for promoting laying. A severe frost will +suddenly stop the laying of even the most prolific hens. "When," says M. +Bosc, "it is wished to have eggs during the cold season, even in the +dead of winter, it is necessary to make the fowls roost over an oven, in +a stable, in a shed where many cattle are kept, or to erect a stove in +the fowl-house on purpose. By such methods, the farmers of Ange have +chickens fit for the table in the month of April, a period when they are +only beginning to be hatched in the farms around Paris, although farther +to the south." It is the winter management of fowls that decides the +question of profit or loss, for hens will be sure to pay in the summer, +even if only tolerably attended to. It is thought by many that each hen +can produce only a certain number of eggs; and if such be the case, it +is very advantageous to obtain a portion of them in winter when they are +generally scarce and can be eaten while fresh, instead of having the +whole number produced in the summer, when so many are spoiled from too +long keeping in consequence of more being produced than are required for +use at the time. + +When the time for her laying approaches, her comb and wattles change +from their previous dull hue to a bright red, the eye brightens, the +gait becomes more spirited, and sometimes she cackles for three or four +days. After laying her egg on leaving the nest the hen utters a loud +cackling cry, to which the cock often responds in a high-pitched kind of +scream; but some hens after laying leave the nest in silence. Some hens +will lay an egg in three days, some every other day, and others every +day. Hens should not be forced. By unnaturally forcing a fowl with +stimulating food, and more particularly with hempseed and tallow +greaves, to lay in two years or so the eggs that should have been the +produce of several, the hen becomes prematurely old and diseased; and it +is reasonable to suppose that the eggs are not so good as they would +have been if nature had been left to run its own course. The eggs ought +to be taken from the nest every afternoon when no more may be expected +to be laid; for if left in the nest, the heat of the hens when laying +next day will tend to corrupt them. + +When the shells of the eggs are somewhat soft, it is because the hens +are rather inclined to grow too fat. It is then proper to mix up a +little chalk in their water, and to put a little mortar rubbish in their +food, the quantity of which should be diminished. We give the following +remarks by an experienced poultry-keeper of the old school, as valuable +from being the result of practice: "The hen sometimes experiences a +difficulty in laying. In this case a few grains of salt or garlic put +into the vent have been successfully tried. The keeper should indeed +make use of the latter mode to find out the place where a hen has laid +without his knowledge; for, as the hen will be in haste to deposit her +egg, her pace towards the nest will be quickened; she may then be +followed and her secret found out." + +"Though one particular form," says Mr. Dickson, "is so common to eggs, +that it is known by the familiar name of egg-shaped, yet all keepers of +poultry must be aware that eggs are sometimes nearly round, and +sometimes almost cylindrical, besides innumerable minor shades of +difference. In fact, eggs differ so much in shape, that it is said +experienced poultry-keepers can tell by the shape of the eggs alone the +hen that laid them; for, strange to say, however different in size the +eggs of any particular hen may be occasionally, they are very rarely +different in form. Among the most remarkable eggs may be mentioned those +of the Shanghae, or Cochin-China fowl, which are of a pale chocolate +colour; and those of the Dorking fowl, which are of a pure white, and +nearly as round as balls. The eggs of the Malay fowls are brown; those +of the Polish fowl, which are very much pointed at one end, are of a +delicate pinkish white; and those of the Bantam are of a long oval." + +A very important part of the egg is the air-bag, or _folliculus æris_, +which is placed at the larger end, between the shell and its lining +membranes. It is, according to Dr. Paris, about the size of the eye of a +small bird in new laid eggs, but enlarges to ten times that size during +the process of incubation. "This air-bag," says Mr. Dickson, "is of such +great importance to the development of the chick, probably by supplying +it with a limited atmosphere of oxygen, that if the blunt end of the egg +be pierced with the point of the smallest needle (a stratagem which +malice not unfrequently suggests), the egg cannot be hatched, but +perishes." + +An egg exposed to the air is continually losing a portion of its +moisture, the place of which is filled by the entrance of air, and the +egg consequently becomes stale, and after a time putrid. M. Réaumur made +many experiments in preserving eggs, and found that, by coating them +with varnish, it was impossible to distinguish those which had been kept +for a year from those newly laid; but varnish, though not expensive, is +not always to be had in country places, and it also remained on the eggs +placed under a hen and impeded the hatching, while in boiling them, the +varnish, not being soluble in hot water, prevented them from being +properly cooked. He tried other substances, and found that fat or +grease, such as suet, lard, dripping, butter, and oil, were well adapted +for the purpose, the best of these being a mixture of mutton and beef +suet thoroughly melted together over a slow fire, and strained through +a linen cloth into an earthen pan. It is only requisite, he says, to +take a piece of the fat or butter about the size of a pea on the end of +the finger, and rub it all over the shell, by passing and repassing the +finger so that no part be left untouched; the transpiration of matter +from the egg being as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat +or grease as by a thick coating, so that no part of the shell be left +ungreased, or the tip of the finger may be dipped into oil and passed +over the shell in the same manner. If it is desired that the eggs should +look clean, they may be afterwards wiped with a towel, for sufficient +grease or oil enters the pores of the shell to prevent all transpiration +without its being necessary that any should be left to fill up the +spaces between the pores. They can be boiled as usual without rubbing +off the fat, as it will melt in the hot water, and when taken out of the +water the little grease that is left upon the egg is easily wiped off +with a napkin. + +Eggs preserved in this manner can also be used for hatching, as the fat +easily melts away by the heat of the hen; and by this means the eggs of +foreign fowls might be carried to a distance, hatched, and naturalised +in this and other countries. The French also find that a mixture of +melted beeswax and olive oil is an excellent preservative. + +Eggs may also be preserved for cooking by packing them in sawdust, in an +earthen vessel, and covering the top with melted mutton suet or fat; as +fruit is sometimes preserved. They are also said to keep well in salt, +in a barrel arranged in layers of salt and eggs alternately. If the salt +should become damp, it would penetrate through the pores of the shell +and pickle them to a certain extent. M. Gagne says that eggs may be +preserved in a mixture made of one bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of +salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, with sufficient water to make +it into a paste of a consistency to receive the eggs, which, it is said, +may be kept in it fresh for two years; but eggs become tasteless when +preserved with lime. It may be as well to mention here that eggs are +comparatively wasted when used in making a rice pudding, as they render +it too hard and dry, and the pudding without them, if properly made, +will be just of the right consistency. + +"Another way to preserve eggs," says Mr. Dickson, "is to have them +cooked in boiling water the same day they are laid. On taking them out +of the water they are marked with red ink, to record their date, and put +away in a cool place, where they will keep, it is said, for several +months. When they are wanted for use, they are again put into hot water +to warm them. The curdy part which is usually seen in new-laid eggs is +so abundant, and the taste is said to be so well preserved, that the +nicest people may be made to believe that they are new laid. At the end +of three or four months, however, the membrane lining the shell becomes +much thickened, and the eggs lose their flavour. Eggs so preserved have +the advantage of not suffering from being carried about." + +"It ought not to be overlooked," says Mr. Dickson, "with respect to the +preservation of eggs, that they not only spoil by the transpiration of +their moisture and the putrid fermentation of their contents, in +consequence of air penetrating through the pores of the shell; but also +by being moved about, and jostled when carried to a distance by sea or +land. Any sort of rough motion indeed ruptures the membranes which keep +the white, the yolk, and the germ of the chick in their proper places, +and upon these becoming mixed, putrefaction soon follows." + +If the eggs are to be kept for setting, place a box, divided by +partitions into divisions for the eggs of the different breeds, in a dry +corner of your kitchen, but not too near to the fire; fill the divisions +with bran previously well dried in an oven; place the eggs in it +upright, with the larger ends uppermost, as soon as they are laid, and +cover them with the bran. Mark each egg in pencil with the date when +laid, and description of breed or cross. They should be kept in a cool +place or a warm place according to the season. Airtight jars, closed +with airtight stoppers, may be used if the eggs are intended to be kept +for a very long time. + +In selecting eggs for setting, choose the freshest, those of moderate +size, well-shaped, and having the air-vessel distinctly visible, either +in the centre of the top of the egg, or slightly to the side, when the +egg is held between the eye and a lighted candle, in a darkened room. +Reject very small eggs, which generally have no yolk, those that are +ill-shaped, and those of equal thickness at both ends, which latter is +the usual shape of eggs with double yolks. These should be avoided, as +they are apt generally to prove unfertile, or produce monstrosities. + +It has been stated that the sex of the embryo chicken can be ascertained +by the position of the air-vessel; that if it be on the top the egg will +produce a cockerel, and if on the side a pullet; but there is no proof +of the truth of this, and, notwithstanding such assertions, it appears +to be impossible to foretell the sex of the chick, from the shape of the +egg or in any other way. + +In selecting eggs for the purpose of producing fowls that are to be kept +for laying only, being non-sitters, choose eggs only from those hens +that are prolific layers, for prolific laying is often as characteristic +of some fowls of a breed as it is of the particular breeds, and by +careful selection this faculty, like others, may be further developed, +or continued if already fully developed. + +If carefully packed, eggs for setting may be carried great +distances--hundreds and even thousands of miles--without injury; +vibration and even moderate shaking, and very considerable changes of +temperature, producing no ill effect upon the germ. The chief point is +to prevent the escape of moisture by evaporation, and consequent +admission of air. A hamper travels with less vibration than a box, and +is therefore preferable, especially for a long journey. They should be +packed in hay, by which they will be preserved from breakage much better +than by being packed in short, close material like bran, chaff, oats, or +sawdust; these being shaken into smaller space by the vibration of +travelling, the eggs often strike and crack each other. The hamper or +box should be large enough to admit of some soft, yielding packing +material being placed all round the eggs. The bottom should be first +covered with a good layer of hay, straw, or moss. It is a good plan to +roll each egg separately in hay or moss, fastened with a little wool or +worsted. They should be covered with well-rubbed straw, pressed down +carefully and gently. The lid of the hamper should be sewed on tightly +all round, or in three or four places at least. If a box is used, the +lid should be fastened by cords or screws, but not with nails, as the +hammering would probably destroy the germ of the egg. + +In procuring eggs for hatching, be sure that the parent birds are of +mature age, but not too old, well-shaped, vigorous, and in perfect +health; that one cock is kept to every six or seven hens; and that they +are well fed and attended to. Have a steady broody hen ready to take the +eggs. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE SITTING HEN. + + +All hens that are inclined to sit should be allowed to hatch and bring +up one brood of chickens a year; for, if altogether restrained from +sitting, a hen suffers much in moulting, and is restless and excited for +the remainder of the season. It is unnatural, and therefore must be +injurious. The period of incubation gives her rest from producing eggs. +The hen that is always stimulated to produce eggs, and not allowed to +vary that process by hatching and bringing up a young brood, must +ultimately suffer from this constant drain upon her system, and the eggs +are said to be unwholesome. + +But hens frequently wish to sit when it is not convenient, or in autumn +or winter, when it is not advisable, unless very late or early chickens +are desired, and every attention can be given to them. To check this +desire, the old-fashioned plan with farmers' wives, of plunging the +broody hen into cold water, and keeping her there for some minutes, was +not only a cruel practice, but often failed to effect its object, and +must naturally always have caused ultimate disease in the poor bird. +When it is absolutely necessary to check the desire of a hen to sit, the +best plan is to let her sit on some nest-eggs for a week, then remove +and coop her for a few days, away from the place where she made her +nest, low diet, as boiled potatoes and boiled rice, and water being +placed near; meanwhile taking away the eggs and destroying the nest, +and, not finding it on her return, she will generally not seek for +another, unless she is a Cochin, or the desire exceedingly strong. + +When a hen wishes to sit, she utters a peculiar cluck, ruffles her +feathers, wanders about, searches obscure corners and recesses, is very +fidgety, feverishly hot, impatient, anxiously restless, and seeks for a +nest. Highly-fed hens feel this desire sooner than those that are not so +highly fed. A hen may be induced to sit at any season, by confining her +in a dark room in a covered basket, only large enough to contain her +nest, keeping her warm, and feeding her on stimulating food, such as +bread steeped in ale, a little raw liver or fresh meat chopped small, +and potatoes mashed warm with milk and oatmeal. + +Every large poultry establishment should have a separate house for the +sitting hens, and the run that should be provided for their relaxation +must be divided from that of the other fowls by wire or lattice work, to +prevent any intrusion. Where there is a large number of sitting hens, +each nest should be numbered, and the date of setting, number and +description of eggs, entered in a diary or memorandum book opposite to +the number; and the number of chickens hatched, and any particulars +likely to be useful on a future occasion, should afterwards be entered. + +A separate house and run for each sitting hen is a great advantage, as +it prevents other hens from going to the nest during her absence, or +herself from returning to the wrong nest, as will often happen in a +common house. The run should not be large, or the hen may be inclined to +wander and stay away too long from her nest. A separate division for the +sitting hen is often otherwise useful, for the purpose of keeping the +cock apart from the hens, or for keeping a few additional birds for +which accommodation has not been prepared, or for the use of a pen of +birds about to be sent for exhibition. + +"Boxes, of which every carpenter knows the form," says Mowbray, "are to +be arranged round the walls, and it is proper to have a sufficient +number, the hens being apt to dispute possession, and sit upon one +another. The board or step at the entrance should be of sufficient +height to prevent the eggs from rolling out. Provision of a few railed +doors may be made for occasional use, to be hung before the entrance, in +order to prevent other hens from intruding to lay their eggs upon those +which sit, a habit to which some are much addicted, and by which a brood +is often injured. The common deep square boxes, uncovered at top, are +extremely improper, because that form obliges the hen to jump down upon +her eggs, whereas for safety she should descend upon them from a very +small height, or in a manner walk in upon them. The same objection lies +against hampers, with the additional one of the wicker-work admitting +the cold in variable weather, during winter or early spring sittings. +Many breeders prefer to have all the nests upon the ground, on account +of the danger of chickens falling from the nests which are placed +above." The ground is preferable for other reasons. The damp arising +from the ground assists very materially in incubation. When fowls sit +upon wooden floors, or in boxes, the eggs become so dry and parched as +to prevent the chicken from disencumbering itself of the shell, and it +is liable to perish in its attempts. Hens in a state of nature make +their nests upon the ground; and fowls, when left to choose a nest for +themselves, generally fix upon a hedge, where the hen conceals herself +under the branches of the hedge, and among the grass. In general, the +sitting places are too close and confined, and very different in this +respect to those that hens select for themselves. + +But nests cannot always be allowed to be made on the ground, unless +properly secured from vermin, particularly from rats, which will +frequently convey away the whole of the eggs from under a hen. And other +considerations may render it necessary to have them on a floor, in boxes +on the ground, or placed above; in which cases the eggs must be kept +properly moistened, for, unless the egg is kept sufficiently damp, its +inner membrane becomes so hard and dry that the chicken cannot break +through, and perishes. When a hen steals her nest in a hedge or clump of +evergreens or bushes, she makes it on the damp ground. She goes in +search of food early in the morning, before the dew is off the grass, +and returns to her nest with her feathers saturated with moisture. This +is the cause of the comparatively successful hatching of the eggs of +wild birds. The old farmers' wives did not understand the necessity of +damping eggs, but frequently complained of their not hatching, although +chickens were found in them, which was, in most cases, entirely caused +by want of damping. If, therefore, the weather is warm and wet, all will +probably go well; but if the air should be very dry, moisture must be +imparted by sprinkling the nest and eggs slightly, when the hen is off +feeding, by means of a small brush dipped in tepid water. A small flat +brush such as is used by painters is excellent for this purpose, as it +does not distribute the water too freely. The ground round about, also, +should be watered with hot water, to cause a steam. But the natural +moisture of a damp soil is preferable, and never fails. + +The nest may be of any shape. A long box divided by partitions into +several compartments is much used, but separate boxes or baskets are +preferable as being more easily cleaned and freed from vermin. Wooden +nest-boxes are preferable to wicker baskets in winter, as the latter let +in the cold air, but many prefer wicker baskets in summer for their +airiness. A round glazed earthen pan, with shelving sides, like those +used in the midland counties for milk, and partially filled with moss, +forms a good nest, the moss being easier kept moist in such a pan than +in a box. The nest should be made so large that the hen can just fill +it, not very deep, and as nearly flat inside at the bottom as possible, +so that the eggs may not lean against each other, or they may get +broken, especially by the hen turning them. + +The best filling for hatching nests is fine dry sand, mould, coal or +wood ashes placed on a cut turf, covering it and lining the sides with a +little well-broken dry grass, moss, bruised straw, lichen, or liverwort +collected from trees, or dry heather, which is the best of all, but +cannot always be had. Hay, though soft at first, soon becomes hard and +matted, and is also said to breed vermin. Straw is good material, but +must be cut into short pieces, for if long straw is used and the hen +should catch her foot in it, and drag it after her when she leaves the +nest, it will disturb, if not break, the eggs. The nests of the sitting +hens in Her Majesty's poultry-yard at Windsor are made of heather, +which offers an excellent medium between the natural damp hedge-nest of +the hen and the dryness of a box filled with straw, and also enables her +to free herself from those insects which are so troublesome to sitting +hens. A thick layer of ashes placed under the straw in cold weather will +keep in the heat of the hen. A little Scotch snuff is a good thing to +keep the nests free from vermin. + +Where only a few fowls are kept, and a separate place cannot be found +for the sitting hen, she can be placed on a nest which should be covered +over with a coop, closed in with a little boarding or some other +contrivance for a day or two, to prevent her being disturbed by any +other fowls that have been accustomed to lay there. They will then soon +use another nest. She should be carefully lifted off her nest, by taking +hold of her under the wings, regularly every morning, exercised and fed, +and then shut in, so that she cannot be annoyed. + +It is best to allow a hen to keep the nest she has chosen when she shows +an inclination to sit; and if she continues to sit steadily, and has not +a sufficient number of eggs under her, or the eggs you desire her to +hatch, remove her gently at night, replace the eggs with the proper +batch, and place her quietly upon the nest again. Hens are very fond of +choosing their own nests in out of the way places; and where the spot is +not unsafe, or too much exposed to the weather, it is best to let her +keep possession, for it has been noticed that, when she selects her own +nest and manages for herself, she generally brings forth a good and +numerous brood. Mr. Tegetmeier observes that he has "reason to believe, +indeed, that whatever care may be taken in keeping eggs, their vitality +is better preserved when they are allowed to remain in the nest. Perhaps +the periodical visits of the hen, while adding to her store of eggs, has +a stimulating influence. The warmth communicated in the half-hour during +which she occupies the nest may have a tendency to preserve the embryo +in a vigorous state." + +It is a good plan, before giving an untried hen choice eggs, to let her +sit upon a few chalk or stale eggs for a few days, and if she continue +to sit with constancy, then to give her the batch for hatching. When +choice can be made out of several broody hens for a valuable batch of +eggs, one should be selected with rather short legs, a broad body, large +wings well furnished with feathers, and having the nails and spurs not +too long or sharp. As a rule, hens which are the best layers are the +worst sitters, and those with short legs are good sitters, while +long-legged hens are not. Dorkings are the best sitters of all breeds, +and by high feeding may be induced to sit in October, especially if they +have moulted early, and with great care and attention chickens may be +reared and made fit for table by Christmas. Early in the spring Dorkings +only should be employed as mothers, for they remain much longer with +their chickens than the Cochin-Chinas, but the latter may safely be +entrusted with a brood after April. Cochins are excellent sitters, and, +from the quantity of "fluff" which is peculiar to them, keep the eggs at +a high and regular degree of heat. Their short legs also are +advantageous for sitting. A Cochin hen can always be easily induced to +sit, and eggs of theirs or of Brahma Pootras for sitting, are not wanted +in the coldest weather. + +Old hens are more steady sitters than pullets, more fond of their brood, +and not so apt as pullets to leave them too soon. Indeed, pullets were +formerly never allowed to sit before the second year of their laying, +but now many eminent authorities think it best to let them sit when they +show a strong desire to do so, considering that the prejudice against +them upon this point is unfounded, and that young hens sit as well as +older fowls. Pullets hatched early will generally begin to lay in +November or December, if kept warm and well fed, and will sit in January +or February. + +Broody hens brought from a distance should be carried in a basket, +covered over with a cloth. + +The number of eggs to be set under a hen must be according to the extent +of her wings and the temperature of the weather. Some say that the +number may vary from nine to fourteen, but others would never give more +than nine in winter and early spring, and eleven in summer, to the +largest hen, and two fewer to the smaller fowls. A Cochin-China may have +fifteen of her own in summer. A hen should not be allowed more eggs than +she can completely cover; for eggs that are not thoroughly covered +become chilled, and fewer and weaker chickens will be hatched from too +large a number than from a more moderate allowance. It is not only +necessary to consider how many eggs a hen can hatch, but also how many +chickens she can cover when they are partly grown. In January and +February, not more than seven or eight eggs should be placed under the +hen, as she cannot cover more than that number of chickens when they +grow large, and exposure to the cold during the long winter nights would +destroy many. "The common order to set egges," says Mascall, "is in +odde numbers, as seven, nyne, eleven, thirteen, &c., whiche is to make +them lye round the neste, and to have the odde egge in the middest." + +Eggs for sitting should be under a fortnight old, if possible, and never +more than a month. Fresh eggs hatch in proper time, and, if good, +produce strong, lively chicks; while stale eggs are hatched sometimes as +much as two days later than new laid, and the chickens are often too +weak to break the shell, while of those well out fewer will probably be +reared. It is certain, as a general rule, that the older the egg the +weaker will be its progeny. Every egg should be marked by a pencil or +ink line drawn quite round it, so that it can be known without touching, +and if another be laid afterwards it may be at once detected and +removed, for hens will sometimes lay several after they have commenced +sitting. Place the eggs under the hen with their larger ends uppermost. + +Let the hen be well fed and supplied with water before putting her on +the nest. Whole barley and soft food, chiefly barley-meal and mashed +potatoes, should be given to her when she comes off the nest, and she +must have as much as she will eat, for she leaves the nest but once +daily, and the full heat of the body cannot be kept up without plenty of +food; or she may have the same food as the general stock. A good supply +of water must be always within her reach. A good-sized shallow box or +pan, containing fine coal-ashes, sand, or dry earth, to cleanse herself +in, should always be ready near to the nest. She should be left +undisturbed, and, as far as possible, allowed to manage her own +business. When a hen shows impatience of her confinement, and frequently +leaves the nest, M. Parmentier advises that half only of her usual meal +should be given, after which she should be replaced on the nest and fed +from the hand with hemp or millet seed, which will induce her to stay +constantly on her eggs. Others will sit so long and closely that they +become faint for want of food. Such hens should not be fed on the nest, +but gently induced with some tempting dainty to take a little exercise, +for they will not leave their eggs of their own accord, and feeding on +the nest has crippled many a good sitter. It is not healthy for the hen +to feed while sitting on or close by the nest, for she requires a little +exercise and rolling in the dust-heap, as well as that the eggs should +be exposed for the air to carry off any of that stagnant vapour which M. +Réaumur proved to be so destructive to the embryo chickens; and it has +also been shown by physiologists that the cooling of the eggs caused by +this absence of the hen is essential to allow a supply of air to +penetrate through the pores of the shell, for the respiration of the +chick. When there are many hens sitting at the same time, it is a good +plan to take them off their nests regularly at the same time every +morning to feed, and afterwards give them an opportunity to cleanse +themselves in a convenient dusting-place, and, if possible, allow them +exercise in a good grass run. A hen should never be caught, but driven +back gently to her nest. + +A good hen will not stay away more than half an hour, unless infested +with vermin, from want of having a proper dust-heap. But hens have often +been absent for more than an hour, and yet have hatched seven or eight +chickens; and instances have been known of their being absent for five +and even for nine hours, and yet hatching a few. The following +remarkable instance is recorded by an excellent authority: "Eggs had +been supplied and a sitting hen lent to a neighbour, and, when she had +set in a granary ten days, she was shut out through the carelessness of +a servant. Being a stranger in the farmyard, the hen was not recognised, +but supposed to have strayed in from an adjoining walk, and thirty hours +elapsed before it was discovered that the hen had left her nest. The +farmer's wife despaired of her brood; but, to her surprise and pleasure, +eight chickens were hatched. The tiled roof of the granary was fully +exposed to the rays of the sun, and the temperature very high, probably +above 80 deg. during the day, and not much lower at night." Valuable +eggs, therefore, should not be abandoned on account of a rather +lengthened absence; and ordinary eggs should not be discarded as +worthless if the hen has already sat upon them for a fortnight or so; +but if she has been sitting for only a few days, it is safer to throw +them away, and have a fresh batch. + +During the hen's absence, always look at the eggs, remove any that may +have been broken, and very gently wash any sticky or dirty eggs with a +flannel dipped in milk-warm water. See that they are dry before putting +them back. If the nest is also dirty, replace it with fresh material of +the same kind. Gently drive the hen back to her nest as quickly as +possible, to prevent any damage from the eggs becoming chilled. If a hen +should break an egg with her feet or otherwise, it should be removed as +soon as it is seen, or she may eat it, and, liking the taste, break and +eat the others. Some hens have a bad habit of breaking and eating the +eggs on which they are sitting, to cure which some recommend to boil an +egg hard, bore a few holes in it, so that the inside can be seen, and +give it while hot to the culprit, who will peck at the holes and burn +herself; but hens with such propensities should be fattened for the +table, for they are generally useless either for sitting or laying. + +Some persons examine the eggs after the hen has sat upon them for six or +seven days, and remove all that are sterile, by which plan more warmth +and space are gained for those that are fertile, and the warmth is not +wasted upon barren eggs. They may be easily proved by holding them near +to the flame of a candle, the eye being kept shaded by one hand, when +the fertile eggs will appear dark and the sterile transparent. Another +plan is to place the eggs on a drum, or between the hands, in the +sunshine, and observe the shadow. If this wavers, by the motion of the +chick, the eggs are good; but if the shadow shows no motion, they are +unfertile. If two hens have been sitting during the same time, and many +unfertile eggs are found in the two nests, all the fertile eggs should +be placed under one hen, and a fresh batch given to the other. The eggs +should not be moved after this time, except by the hen, more especially +when incubation has proceeded for some time, lest the position of the +chick be interfered with, for if taken up a little time before its exit, +and incautiously replaced with the large end lowermost, the chicken, +from its position, will not be able to chip the shell, and must +therefore perish. The forepart of the chicken is towards the biggest end +of the egg, and it is so placed in the shell that the beak is always +uppermost. When the egg of a choice breed has been cracked towards the +end of the period of incubation, the crack may be covered with a slip of +gummed paper, or the unprinted border that is round a sheet of postage +stamps, and the damaged egg will probably yet produce a fine chick. + +It is a good plan to set two hens on the same day, for the two broods +may be united under one if desirable, and on the hatching day, to +prevent the newly-born chickens being crushed by the unhatched eggs, all +that are hatched can be given to one hen, and the other take charge of +the eggs, which are then more likely to be hatched, as, while the +chickens are under the hen, she will sit higher from the eggs, and +afford them less warmth when they require it most. + +The hen of all kinds of gallinaceous fowls, from the Bantam to the +Cochin-China, sits for twenty-one days, at which time, on an average, +the chickens break the shell; but if the eggs are new laid it will often +lessen the time by five or six hours, while stale eggs will always be +behind time. For the purpose of breaking the shell, the yet soft beak of +the chicken is furnished, just above the point of the upper mandible, +with a small, hard, horny scale, which, from the position of the head, +as Mr. Yarrell observes, is brought in contact with the inner surface of +the shell. This scale may be always seen on the beaks of newly-hatched +chickens, but in the course of a short time peels off. It should not be +removed. The peculiar sound, incorrectly called "tapping," so +perceptible within the egg about the nineteenth day of incubation, which +was universally believed to be produced by the bill of the chick +striking against the shell in order to break it and effect its release, +has been incontestably proved, by the late Dr. F. R. Horner, of Hull, in +a paper read by him before the British Association for the Advancement +of Science, to be a totally distinct sound, being nothing more than the +natural respiratory sound in the lungs of the young chick, which first +begins to breathe at that period. Of course there is also an occasional +sound made by the tapping of the beak in endeavouring to break the +shell. + +The time occupied in breaking the shell varies, according to the +strength of the chick, from one to three hours usually, but extends +sometimes to twenty-four, and even more. "I have seen," says Réaumur, +"chicks continue at work for two days together; some work incessantly, +while others take rest at intervals, according to their physical +strength. Some, I have observed, begin to break the shell a great deal +too soon; for, be it observed, they ought, before they make their exit, +to have within them provision enough to serve for twenty-four hours +without taking food, and for this purpose the unconsumed portion of the +yolk enters through the navel. The chick, indeed, which comes out of the +shell without taking up all the yolk is certain to droop and die in a +few days after it is hatched. The assistance which I have occasionally +tried to give to several of them, by way of completing their +deliverance, has afforded me an opportunity of observing those which had +begun to break their shells before this was accomplished; and I have +opened many eggs much fractured, in each of which the chick had as yet +much of the yolk not absorbed. Some chicks have greater obstacles to +overcome than others, since all shells are not of an equal thickness nor +of an equal consistence; and the same inequality takes place in the +lining membrane, and offers still greater difficulty to the emergent +chick. The shells of the eggs of birds of various species are of a +thickness proportionate to the strength of the chick that is obliged to +break through them. The canary-bird would never be able to break the +shell it is enclosed in if that were as thick as the egg of a barn-door +fowl. The chick of a barn-door fowl, again, would in vain try to break +its shell if it were as thick and hard as that of an ostrich; indeed, +though an ostrich ready to be hatched is perhaps thrice as large as the +common chick, it is not easy to conceive how the force of its bill can +be strong enough to break a shell thicker than a china cup, and the +smoothness and gloss of which indicate that it is nearly as +hard--sufficiently so to form, as may be often seen, a firm +drinking-cup. It is the practice in some countries to dip the eggs into +warm water at the time they are expected to chip, on the supposition +that the shell is thereby rendered more fragile, and the labour of the +chick lightened. But, though the water should soften it, upon drying in +the air it would become as hard as at first. When the chick is entirely +or almost out of the shell, it draws its head from under its wing, where +it had hitherto been placed, stretches out its neck, directing it +forwards, but for several minutes is unable to raise it. On seeing for +the first time a chick in this condition, we are led to infer that its +strength is exhausted, and that it is ready to expire; but in most cases +it recruits rapidly, its organs acquire strength, and in a very short +time it appears quite another creature. After having dragged itself on +its legs a little while, it becomes capable of standing on them, and of +lifting up its neck and bending it in various directions, and at length +of holding up its head. At this period the feathers are merely fine +down, but, as they are wet with the fluid of the egg, the chick appears +almost naked. From the multitude of their branchlets these down +feathers resemble minute shrubs; when, however, these branchlets are wet +and sticking to each other, they take up but very little room; as they +dry they become disentangled and separated. The branchlets, plumules, or +beards of each feather are at first enclosed in a membranous tube, by +which they are pressed and kept close together; but as soon as this +dries it splits asunder, an effect assisted also by the elasticity of +the plumules themselves, which causes them to recede and spread +themselves out. This being accomplished, each down feather extends over +a considerable space, and when they all become dry and straight, the +chick appears completely clothed in a warm vestment of soft down." + +If they are not out in a few hours after the shell has been broken, and +the hole is not enlarged, they are probably glued to the shell. Look +through the egg then, and, if all the yolk has passed into the body of +the chicken, you may assist it by enlarging the fracture with a pair of +fine scissors, cutting up towards the large end of the egg, never +downwards. "If," says Miss Watts, "the time has arrived when the chicken +may with safety be liberated, there will be no appearance of blood in +the minute blood-vessels spread over the interior of the shell; they +have done their work, and are no longer needed by the now fully +developed and breathing chick. If there should be the slightest +appearance of blood, resist at once, for its escape would generally be +fatal. Do not attempt to let the chicken out at once, but help it a +little every two or three hours. The object is not to hurry the chicken +out of its shell, but to prevent its being suffocated by being close +shut up within it. If the chick is tolerably strong, and the assistance +needful, it will aid its deliverance with its own exertions." When the +chicken at last makes its way out, do not interfere with it in any way, +or attempt to feed it. Animal heat alone can restore it. Weakness has +caused the delay, and this has probably arisen from insufficient warmth, +perhaps from the hen having had too many eggs to cover thoroughly, or +they may have been stale when set. Should you have to assist it out of +the shell, take it out gently with your fingers, taking great care not +to tear any of its tender skin, when freeing the feathers from the +shell. + +Mr. Wright says: "We never ourselves now attempt to assist a chick from +the shell. If the eggs were fresh, and proper care has been taken to +preserve moisture during incubation, no assistance is ever needed. To +fuss about the nest frets the hen exceedingly; and we have always found +that, even where the poor little creature survived at the time, it never +lived to maturity. Should the reader attempt such assistance, in cases +where an egg has been long chipped, and no further progress made, let +the shell be cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside +membrane; if that be perforated, the viscid fluid inside dries and glues +the chick to the shell. Should this happen, or should both shell and +membrane be perforated at first, introduce the point of a pair of +scissors and cut up the egg towards the large end, where there will be +an empty space, remembering that, if blood flows, all hope is at end. +Then put the chick back under the hen; she will probably squeeze it to +death, it is true--it is so very weak; but it will never live if put by +the fire, at least we always found it so. Indeed, as we have said, we +consider it quite useless to make the attempt at all." + +The fact is, it is scarcely worth while to attempt to assist in the case +of ordinary eggs, but if the breed is valuable the labour may be well +bestowed. + +Some hens are reluctant to give up sitting, and will hatch a second +brood with evident pleasure; but it is cruel to overtask their strength +and patience, and they are sure to suffer, more or less, from the +unnatural exertion. + +Some breeders use a contrivance called an "artificial mother" for broods +hatched under the hen, and it may be employed very advantageously when +any accident has happened to her. It is made in various forms, such as a +wooden frame, or shallow box, open at both ends, and sloping like a +writing-desk, with a perforated lid lined with sheep or lamb's skin, +goose-down, or some similar warm fleecy material hanging down, under and +between which the chickens nestle, heat being applied to the lid either +by hot water or hot air, so as to imitate the warmth of the hen's +breast. When chickens are hatched by artificial means, such as by the +Hydro-Incubator, or the Eccaleobion, or in an oven according to the +method practised by the Egyptians, these protectors are essential; for +without a good substitute for the hen's natural warmth the chickens +would perish. Artificial incubators are now extensively used, and where +gas is laid on they are easily managed, but the chief difficulty is in +rearing the chickens. For information on the subject see the works of +Tegetmeier, Dickson, and Wright, on Poultry. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +REARING AND FATTENING FOWLS. + + +The first want which the chick will feel will be that of warmth, and +there is no warmth so suited for them as that of the hen's body. Some +persons remove the chicks from under the mother as soon as they are +hatched, one by one, placing them in a basket covered up with flannel, +and keep them there in a warm place, until the last chick is out, when +they are put back under the hen. But this is very seldom necessary +unless the weather is very cold and the hen restless, and is generally +more likely to annoy than benefit her. Nor should the hen be induced to +leave the nest, but be left undisturbed until she leaves of her own +accord, when the last hatched chickens will be in a better condition to +follow her than if she had been tempted to leave earlier. In a few hours +they are able to run about and follow their parent; they do not require +to be fed in the nest like most birds, but pick up the food which their +mother shows them; and repose at night huddled up beneath her wings. The +chicken during its development in the egg is nourished by the yolk, and +the remaining portion of the yolk passes into its body previous to its +leaving the shell, being designed for its first nourishment; and the +chicken, therefore, does not require any food whatever during the first +day. The old-fashioned plan, so popular with "practical" farmers' wives, +of cramming a peppercorn down the throat of the newly-hatched chick is +absurd and injurious. + +The first food must be very light and delicate, such as crumbs of bread +soaked in milk, the yolk of an egg boiled hard, and curds; but very +little of anything at first except water, for thirst will come before +hunger. The thirsty hen will herself soon teach the little ones how to +drink. If your chicks be very weakly, you may cram them with crumbs of +good white bread, steeped in milk or wine, but at the same time +recollect that their little craws are not capable of holding more than +the bulk of a pea; so rather under than over feed them. + +As soon as the hen leaves the nest, she should have as much grain as she +can eat, and a good supply of pure, clean water. In winter, or settled +wet weather, she should, if possible, be kept on her nest for a day, +and, when removed, be cooped in a warm, dry shed or outhouse; but in +summer, if the weather be fine, and the chickens well upon their legs, +they may be at once cooped out in the sun, on dry gravel, or if possible +on a nice grass-plot, with food and water within her reach. The hen is +cooped to prevent her from wearying the brood by leading them about +until they are over-tired, besides being exposed to danger from cats, +hawks, and vermin, tumbling into ditches, or getting wet in the high +grass. They can pass in and out between the bars of the coop, and will +come when she calls, or they wish to shelter under her wings. It is a +good plan to place the coop for the first day out upon some dry sand, so +that the hen can cleanse herself comfortably. The common basket coop +should only be used in fine weather, and some straw, kept down by a +stone, matting, or other covering, should be placed on the top, to +shelter them from the mid-day sun; otherwise a wooden coop should be +used, open in front only, about two and a half or three feet square; +well-made of stout, sound boards, with a gabled roof covered with felt; +and at night a thick canvas or matting should be hung over the front, +sufficient space being left for proper ventilation, but not to admit +cold draught, or to allow the chicks to get out. Mr. Wright describes an +excellent coop which is "very common in some parts of France, and +consists of two compartments, separated by a partition of bars, one +compartment being closed in front, the other fronted with bars like the +partition. Each set of bars should have a sliding one to serve as a +door, and the whole coop should be tight and sound. It is best to have +no bottom, but to put it on loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or two +deep. Each half of the coop is about two feet six inches square, and may +or may not be lighted from the top by a small pane of glass. The +advantage of such a coop is that, except in very severe weather, no +further shelter is required, even at night [if placed under a shed]. +During the day the hen is kept in the outer compartment, the chickens +having liberty, and the food and water being placed outside; whilst at +night she is put in the inner portion of the coop, and a piece of canvas +or sacking hung over the bars of the outer half. If the top be glazed, a +little food and the water-vessel may be placed in the outer compartment +at night, and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early in the +morning, being prevented by the canvas from going out into the cold air. +It will be only needful to remove the coop every two days for a few +minutes, to take away the tainted earth and replace it with fresh. There +should, if possible, be a grass-plot in front of the shed, the floor of +which should be covered with dry, loose dust or earth." The hen should +be kept under a coop until the brood has grown strong. Some breeders +object to cooping, on account of its preventing the hen from scratching +for worms and insects for her brood, and which are far superior to the +substitutes with which they must be supplied, unless, indeed, a good +supply of worms, ants' eggs, insects, or gentles can be had. The hen too +has not sufficient exercise after her long sitting. Cooping thus has its +advantages and disadvantages, and its adoption or not should depend upon +circumstances. If it is preferred not to coop the hen, and she should be +inclined to roam too far, a small run may be made with network, or with +the moveable wire-work described on page 21. + +Winter-hatched chickens must be reared and fed in a warm place, which +must be kept at an equal temperature. They return a large profit for the +great care they require in hatching and rearing. + +Chickens should be fed very often; every two hours is not too +frequently. The number of these meals must be reduced by degrees to +four or five, which may be continued until they are full grown. Grain +should not be given to newly-hatched chickens. The very best food for +them, after their first meal of bread-crumbs and egg, is made of two +parts of coarse oatmeal and one part of barley-meal, mixed into a thick +crumbly paste with milk or water. If milk is used, it must be fresh +mixed for each meal, or it will become sour. Cold oatmeal porridge is an +excellent food, and much liked by them. After the first week they may +have cheaper food, such as bran, oatmeal, and Indian meal mixed, or +potatoes mashed with bran. In a few days they may also have some whole +grain, which their little gizzards will then be fully able to grind. +Grits, crushed wheat, or bruised oats, should form the last meal at +night. Bread sopped in water is the worst food they can have, and even +with milk is still inferior to meal. For the first three or four days +they may also have daily the yolk of an egg boiled hard and chopped up +small, which will be sufficient for a dozen chicks; and afterwards, a +piece of cooked meat, rather underdone, the size of a good walnut, +minced fine, should be daily given to the brood until they are three +weeks old. In winter and very early spring this stimulating diet may be +given regularly, and once a day they should also have some stale bread +soaked in ale; and whenever chickens suffer from bad feathering, caused +either by the coldness of the season or delicacy of constitution, they +must be fed highly, and have a daily supply of bread soaked in ale. +Ants' eggs, which are well known as the very best animal diet for young +pheasants, are also excellent for young chickens; and when a nest can be +obtained it should be thrown with its surrounding mould into the run for +them to peck at. Where there is no grass-plot they should have some +grass cut into small pieces, or other vegetable food minced small, until +they are able to peck pieces from the large leaves. Onion tops and leeks +chopped small, cress, lettuce, and cabbage, are much relished by all +young poultry. The French breeders give a few dried nettle seeds +occasionally. Young growing fowls can scarcely have too much food, so +long as they eat it with a good appetite, and do not tread any about, or +otherwise leave it to waste. + +Young poultry cannot thrive if overcrowded. They should not be allowed +to roost on the branches of trees or shrubs, or otherwise out of doors, +even in the warmest weather, or they will acquire the habit of sleeping +out, which cannot be easily overcome; not that they would suffer much +from even severe weather, when once accustomed to roosting out of doors, +but from want of warmth the supply of eggs would decrease, and it would, +in many places, be unsafe and, in most, inconvenient. + +The sooner chickens can be fattened, of course the greater must be the +profit. They should be put up for fattening as soon as they have quitted +the hen, for they are then generally in good condition, but begin to +lose flesh as their bones develop and become stronger, particularly +those fowls which stand high on the leg. + +Fowls are in perfection for eating just before they are fully developed. +By keeping young fowls, especially the cockerels, too long before +fattening them for market or home consumption, they eat up all the +profit that would be made by disposing of them when the pullets have +ceased laying just before their first adult moult, and the cockerels +before their appetites have become large. Fowls intended to be fattened +should be well and abundantly fed from their birth; for if they are +badly fed during their growth they become stunted, the bones do not +attain their full size, and no amount of feeding will afterwards supply +these defects and transform them into fine, large birds. Poultry that +have been constantly fed well from their birth will not only be always +ready for the table, with very little extra attention and feeding, but +their flesh will be superior in juiciness and rich flavour to those +which are fattened up from a poor state. In choosing full-grown fowls +for fattening, the short-legged and early-hatched should be preferred. + +In fattening poultry, "the well-known common methods," Mowbray observes, +"are, first, to give fowls the run of the farmyard, where they thrive +upon the offals of the stables and other refuse, with perhaps some +small regular feeds; but at threshing time they become fat, and are +thence styled barn-door fowls, probably the most delicate and +high-flavoured of all others, both from their full allowance of the +finest corn and from the constant health in which they are kept, by +living in the natural state, and having the full enjoyment of air and +exercise; or secondly, they are confined during a certain number of +weeks in coops; those fowls which are soonest ready being drawn as +wanted." "The former method," says Mr. Dickson, "is immeasurably the +best as regards the flavour and even wholesomeness of the fowls as food, +and though the latter mode may, in some cases, make the fowls fatter, it +is only when they have been always accustomed to confinement; for when +barn-door fowls are cooped up for a week or two under the notion of +improving them for the table, and increasing their fat, it rarely +succeeds, since the fowls generally pine for their liberty, and, +slighting their food, lose instead of gaining additional flesh." + +To fatten fowls that have not the advantage of a barn-door, Mowbray +recommends fattening-houses large enough to contain twenty or thirty +fowls, warm and airy, with well-raised earth floors, slightly littered +down with straw, which should be often changed, and the whole place kept +perfectly clean. "Sandy gravel," he says, "should be placed in several +different layers, and often changed. A sufficient number of troughs for +both water and food should be placed around, that the stock may feed +with as little interruption as possible from each other, and perches in +the same proportion should be furnished for those birds which are +inclined to perch, which few of them will desire after they have begun +to fatten, but it helps to keep them easy and contented until that +period. In this manner fowls may be fattened to the highest pitch, and +yet preserved in a healthy state, their flesh being nearly equal in +quality to the barn-door fowl. To suffer fattening fowls to perch is +contrary to the general practice, since it is supposed to bend and +deform the backbone; but as soon as they become heavy and indolent from +feeding, they will rather incline to roost in the straw, and the +liberty of perching has a tendency to accelerate the period when they +wish for rest." + +The practice of fattening fowls in coops, if carried to a moderate +extent, is not objectionable, and may be necessary in many cases. The +coop may be three feet high, two feet wide, and four feet long, which +will accommodate six or eight birds, according to their size; or it may +be constructed in compartments, each being about nine inches by +eighteen, and about eighteen inches high. The floor should not consist +of board, but be formed of bars two inches wide, and placed two inches +apart. The bars should be laid from side to side, and not from the back +to the front of the coop. They should be two inches wide at the upper +part, with slanting or rounded sides, so as to prevent the dung from +sticking to them instead of falling straight between. The front should +be made of rails three inches apart. The house in which the coops are +placed should be properly ventilated, but free from cold draughts, and +kept of an even temperature, which should be moderately warm. The fronts +of the coops should be covered with matting or other kind of protection +in cold weather. The coop should be placed about two inches from the +ground, and a shallow tray filled with fresh dry earth should be placed +underneath to catch the droppings, and renewed every day. + +When fowls are put up to fat they should not have any food given to them +for some hours, and they will take it then more eagerly than if pressed +upon them when first put into the coop. But little grain should be given +to fowls during the time they are fattening in coops; indeed the chief +secret of success consists in supplying them with the most fattening +food without stint, in such a form that their digestive mills shall find +no difficulty in grinding it. Buckwheat-meal is the best food for +fattening; and to its use the French, in a great measure, owe the +splendid condition of the fowls they send to market. If it cannot be +had, the best substitute is an equal mixture of maize-meal and +barley-meal. The meal may be mixed with skim milk if available. Oatmeal +and barley-meal alternately, mixed with milk, and occasionally with a +little dripping, is good fattening food. Milk is most excellent for all +young poultry. A little chopped green food should be given daily, to +keep their bowels in a proper state. + +The feeding-troughs, which must be kept clean by frequent scouring, +should be placed before the fowls at regular times, and when they have +eaten sufficient it is best to remove them, and place a little gravel +within reach to assist digestion. Each fowl should have as much food as +it will eat at one time, but none should be left to become sour. A +little barley may, however, be scattered within their reach. A good +supply of clean water must be always within their reach. If a bird +appears to be troubled with vermin, some powdered sulphur, well rubbed +into the roots of the feathers, will give immediate relief. The coops +should be thoroughly lime-washed after the fowls are removed, and well +dried before fresh birds are put up in them. + +It is a common practice to fatten poultry in coops by a process called +"cramming," by which they are loaded with greasy fat in a very short +time. But it is evident that such overtaxing of the fowls' digestive +powers, want of exercise and fresh air, confinement in a small space, +and partial deprivation of light, without which nothing living, either +animal or vegetable, can flourish, cannot produce healthy or wholesome +flesh. "Indeed," as Mowbray observes, "it seems contrary to reason, that +fowls fed upon such greasy, impure mixtures can possibly produce flesh +or fat so firm, delicate, high-flavoured, or nourishing, as those +fattened upon more simple and substantial food; as for example, meal and +milk, and perhaps either treacle or sugar. With respect to grease of any +kind, its chief effect must be to render the flesh loose and of a coarse +flavour. Neither can any advantage be gained, except perhaps a +commercial one, by very quick feeding; for real excellence cannot be +obtained but by waiting nature's time, and using the best food. Besides +all this, I have been very unsuccessful in my few attempts to fatten +fowls by cramming; they seem to loathe the crams, to pine, and to lose +the flesh they were put up with, instead of acquiring flesh; and when +crammed fowls do succeed, they must necessarily, in the height of their +fat, be in a state of disease." Mr. Muirhead, poulterer to Her Majesty +in Scotland, says: "With regard to _cramming_, I may say that it is +_wholly_ unnecessary, provided the fowls have abundance of the best food +at regular intervals, fresh air, and a free run; in confinement fowls +may gain fat, but they lose flesh. None but those who have had +experience can form any idea how both qualities can be obtained in a +natural way. I have seen fowls reared at Inchmartine (which had never +been shut up, or had food forced upon them), equal, if not superior, to +the finest Surrey fowl, or those fattened by myself for the Royal +table." + +If "cramming" is practised it should be done in the following manner: +The feeder, usually a female, should take the fowl carefully out of the +fatting-coop by placing both her hands gently under its breast, then sit +down with the bird upon her lap, its rump under her left arm, open its +mouth with the finger and thumb of the left hand, take the pellet with +the right, dip it well into water, milk, or pot liquor, shake the +superfluous moisture from it, put it into the mouth, "cram" it gently +into the gullet with her forefinger, then close the beak and gently +assist it down into the crop with the forefinger and thumb, without +breaking the pellet, and taking great care not to pinch the throat. When +the fowl has been "crammed" it should be carefully carried back to its +coop, both hands being placed under its breast as before. Chickens +should be "crammed" regularly every twelve hours. The "cramming" should +commence with a few pellets, and the number be gradually increased at +each meal until it amounts to about fifteen. But always before you begin +to feed gently feel the fowl's crop to ascertain that the preceding meal +has been digested, and if you find it to contain food, let the bird wait +until it is all digested, and give it fewer pellets at the next meal. If +the "crams" should become hardened in the crop, some lukewarm water must +be given to the bird, or poured down its throat if disinclined to +drink, and the crop be gently pressed with the fingers until the +hardened mass has become loosened so that the gizzard can grind it. + +The food chiefly used in France for "cramming" fowls is buckwheat-meal +bolted very fine and mixed with milk. It should be prepared in the +following manner: Pour the milk, which should be lukewarm in winter, +into a hole made in the heap of meal, mixing it up with a wooden spoon a +little at a time as long as the meal will take up the milk, and make it +into the consistency of dough, keep kneading it until it will not stick +to the hands, then divide it into pieces twice as large as an egg, which +form into rolls generally about as thick as a small finger, but more or +less thick according to the size of the fowls to be fed, and divide the +rolls into pellets about two and a half inches in length by a slanting +cut, which leaves pointed ends, that are easier to "cram" the fowls with +than if they were square. The pellets should be rolled up as dry as +possible. + +The operation of caponising as performed in England is barbarous, +extremely painful, and dangerous. In France it is performed in a much +more scientific and skilful manner. But the small advantage gained by +this unnatural operation is more than counterbalanced by the unnecessary +pain inflicted on the bird, and the great risk of losing it. Capons +never moult, and lose their previously strong, shrill voice. In warm, +dry countries they grow to a large size, and soon fatten, but do not +succeed well in our moist, cold climate. They are not common in this +country, and most of the fowls sold in the London markets as capons are +merely young cockerels well crammed. If capons are kept they should have +a separate house, for the other fowls will not allow those even of their +own family to occupy the same roosting-perch with them. The hens not +only show them indifference, but decided aversion. Hen chickens, +deprived of their reproductive organs in order to fatten them sooner, +are common in France, where they are styled poulardes. + +Fattening ought to be completed in from ten to twenty days. When fowls +are once fattened up they should be killed, for they cannot be kept fat, +but begin to lose flesh and become feverish, which renders their flesh +red and unsaleable, and frequently causes their death. + +Great cruelty is often ignorantly inflicted by poulterers, higglers, and +others, in "twisting the necks" of poultry. An easy mode of killing a +fowl is to give the bird a very sharp blow with a small but heavy blunt +stick, such as a child's bat or wooden sword, at the back of the neck, +about the second or third joint from the head, which will, if properly +done, sever the spine and cause death very speedily. But the knife is +the most merciful means; the bird being first hung up by the legs, the +mouth must be opened wide, and a long, narrow, sharp-pointed knife, like +a long penknife, which instrument is made for the purpose, should be +thrust firmly through the back part of the roof of the mouth up into the +brain, which will cause almost instant death. Another mode of killing is +to pluck a few feathers from the side of the head, just below the ear, +and make a deep incision there. Some say that fowls should not be bled +to death like turkeys and geese, as, from the loss of blood, the flesh +becomes dry and insipid. But when great whiteness of flesh is desired, +the fowl should be hung up by its legs immediately after being killed, +and if it has been killed without the flow of blood, an incision should +be made in the neck so that it may bleed freely. + +Fowls that have been kept without food and water for twelve hours before +being killed will keep much better than if they had been recently fed, +as the food is apt to ferment in the crop and bowels, which often causes +the fowl to turn green in a few hours in warm weather. If empty they +should not be drawn, and they will keep much better. Fowls are easiest +plucked at once, while warm; they should afterwards be scalded by +dipping them for a moment in boiling water, which will give a plump +appearance to any good fowl. Fowls should not be packed for market +before they are quite cold. Old fowls should not be roasted, but boiled, +and they will then prove tolerably good eating. + +The feathers are valuable and should be preserved, which is very easily +managed. "Strip the plumage," says Mr. Wright, "from the quills of the +larger feathers, and mix with the small ones, putting the whole loosely +in paper bags, which should be hung up in the kitchen, or some other +warm place, for a few days to dry. Then let the bags be baked three or +four times for half an hour each time, in a cool oven, drying for two +days between each baking, and the process will be completed. Less +trouble than this will do, and is often made to suffice; but the +feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and may +occasionally become offensive." + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +STOCK, BREEDING, AND CROSSING. + + +Keep only good, healthy, vigorous, well-bred fowls, whether you keep +them to produce eggs or chickens, or both. The ill-bred mongrel fowls +which are so commonly kept, are the most voracious, and consume larger +quantities of food, without turning it to any account; while well-bred +fowls eat less, and quickly convert that into fat, flesh, and eggs. +"Large, well-bred fowls," says Mr. Edwards, "do not consume more food +than ravenous, mongrel breeds. It is the same with fowls as with other +stock. I have at this moment two store pigs, one highly bred, the other +a rough, ill-bred animal. They have, since they left their mothers, been +fed together and upon the same food. The former, I am confident (from +observation), ate considerably less than the latter, which was +particularly ravenous. The former pig, however, is in excellent +condition, kind, and in a measure fat; whereas the latter looks hard, +starved, and thin, and I am sure she will require one-third more food to +make bacon of." + +For the amateur who is content with eggs and chickens, and does not long +for prize cups, excellent birds possessing nearly all the best +characteristics of their breeds, but rendered imperfect by a few +blemishes, may be purchased at a small cost, and will be as good layers +or chicken-producers, and answer his purpose as well as the most +expensive that can be bought. + +The choice of breed must depend upon the object for which the fowls are +kept, whether chiefly for eggs or to produce chickens, or for both; the +climate, soil, and situation; the space that can be allotted to them; +and the amount of attention that can be devoted to their care. If fowls +are to be bred for exhibition, you must be guided by your own taste, +pocket, and resources, as well as by the suitability of the situation +for the particular breed desired. The advantages, disadvantages, and +peculiarities of the various breeds will be described under their +respective heads. + +In commencing poultry-keeping buy only young and healthy birds. No one +sign is infallible to the inexperienced. In general, however, the legs +of a young hen look delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles are soft +and fresh, and her general outline, even in good condition (unless when +fattened for the table), rather light and graceful; whilst an old one +will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks; her comb and wattles look +somewhat harder, drier, and more "scurfy," and her figure is well filled +out. But any of these signs may be deceptive, and the beginner should +use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the "old look," +which he will soon learn to know. + +All authorities agree that a cock is in his prime at two years of age, +though some birds show every sign of full vigour when only four months +old. It is agreed by nearly all the greatest authorities that the ages +of the cocks and hens should be different; however, good birds may be +bred from parents of the same age, but they should not be less than a +year old. The strongest chickens are obtained from two-year old hens by +a cockerel of about a year old; but such broods contain a disproportion +of cocks, and, therefore, most poultry-keepers prefer to breed from +well-grown pullets of not less than nine months with a cock of two years +of age. The cock should not be related to the hens. It is, therefore, +not advisable to purchase him from the same breeder of whom you procure +the hens. Do not let him be the parent of chickens from pullets that are +his own offspring. Breeding in-and-in causes degeneracy in fowls as in +all other animals. Some birds retain all their fire and energy until +five or even six years of age, but they are beyond their prime after the +third, or at the latest their fourth year; and should be replaced by +younger birds of the same breed, but from a different stock. + +Poultry-breeders differ with respect to the proper number of hens that +should be allowed to one cock. Columella, who wrote upon poultry about +two thousand years ago, advised twelve hens to one cock, but stated that +"our ancestors did use to give but five hens." Stephanus gave the same +number as Columella. Bradley, and the authors of the "Complete Farmer," +and the article upon the subject in "Rees's Cyclopædia," give seven or +eight; and those who breed game-cocks are particular in limiting the +number of hens to four or five for one cock, in order to obtain strong +chickens. If fine, strong chickens be desired for fattening or breeding, +there should not be more than five or six hens to one cock; but if the +supply of eggs is the chief consideration, ten or twelve may be allowed; +indeed, if eggs are the sole object, he can be dispensed with +altogether, and his food saved, as hens lay, if there be any difference, +rather better without one. + +The russet red is the most hardy colour, white the most delicate, and +black the most prolific. General directions for the choice of fowls, as +to size, shape, and colour, cannot be applicable to all breeds, which +must necessarily vary upon these points. But in all breeds the cock +should, as M. Parmentier says, "carry his head high, have a quick, +animated look, a strong, shrill voice (except in the Cochins, which have +a fuller tone), a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles +of the same colour, strong wings, muscular thighs, thick legs furnished +with strong spurs, the claws rather bent and sharply pointed. He ought +also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the +ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself, as to treat +his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in +caressing the hens, quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting +them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night." + +To prevent cocks from fighting, old Mascall, following Columella, says: +"Now, to slacke that heate of jealousie, ye shall slitte two pieces of +thicke leather, and put them on his legges, and those will hang over his +feete, which will correct the vehement heate of jealousie within him"; +and M. Parmentier observes that "such a bit of leather will cause the +most turbulent cock to become as quiet as a man who is fettered at the +feet, hands, and neck." + +The hen should be of good constitution and temper, and, if required to +sit, large in the body and wide in the wings, so as to cover many eggs +and shelter many chickens, but short in the legs, or she could not sit +well. M. Parmentier advises the rejection of savage, quarrelsome, or +peevish hens, as such are seldom favourites with the cocks, scarcely +ever lay, and do not hatch well; also all above four or five years of +age, those that are too fat to lay, and those whose combs and claws are +rough, which are signs that they have ceased to lay. Hens should not be +kept over their third year unless very good or choice. Hens are not +uncommon with the plumage and spurs of the cock, and which imitate, +though badly, his full-toned crow. In such fowls the power of producing +eggs is invariably lost from internal disease, as has been fully +demonstrated by Mr. Yarrell in the "Philosophical Transactions" for +1827, and in the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1831. Such +birds should be fattened and killed as soon as observed. + +By careful study of the characteristics of the various breeds, breeding +from select specimens, and judicious crossing, great size may be +attained, maturity early developed, facility in putting on flesh +encouraged, hardiness of constitution and strength gained, and the +inclination to sit or the faculty of laying increased. + +Sir John Sebright, speaking of breeding cattle, says: "Animals may be +said to be improved when any desired quality has been increased by art +beyond what that quality was in the same breed in a state of nature. The +swiftness of the racehorse, the propensity to fatten in cattle, and to +produce fine wool in sheep, are improvements which have been made in +particular varieties in the species to which these animals belong. What +has been produced by art must be continued by the same means, for the +most improved breeds will soon return to a state of nature, or perhaps +defects will arise which did not exist when the breed was in its natural +state, unless the greatest attention is paid to the selection of the +individuals who are to breed together." + +The exact origin of the common domestic fowl and its numerous varieties +is unknown. It is doubtless derived from one or more of the wild or +jungle fowls of India. Some naturalists are of opinion that it is +derived from the common jungle fowl known as the _Gallus Bankiva_ of +Temminck, or _Gallus Ferrugineus_ of Gmelin, which very closely +resembles the variety known as Black-breasted Red Game, except that the +tail of the cock is more depressed; while others consider it to have +been produced by the crossing of that species with one or more others, +as the Malay gigantic fowl, known as the _Gallus giganteus_ of Temminck, +Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl, _Gallus sonneratii_, and probably some other +species. At what period or by what people it was reclaimed is not known, +but it was probably first domesticated in India. The writers of +antiquity speak of it as a bird long domesticated and widely spread in +their days. Very likely there are many species unknown to us in Sumatra, +Java, and the rich woods of Borneo. + +The process by which the various breeds have been produced "is simple +and easily understood," says Mr. Wright. "Even in the wild state the +original breed will show some amount of variation in colour, form, and +size; whilst in domestication the tendency to change, as every one +knows, is very much increased. By breeding from birds which show any +marked feature, stock is obtained of which a portion will possess that +feature in an _increased degree_; and by again selecting the best +specimens, the special points sought may be developed to almost any +degree required. A good example of such a process of development may be +seen in the 'white face' so conspicuous in the Spanish breed. White ears +will be observed occasionally in all fowls; even in such breeds as +Cochins or Brahmas, where white ear-lobes are considered almost fatal +blemishes; they continually occur, and by selecting only white-eared +specimens to breed from, they might be speedily fixed in any variety as +one of the characteristics. A large pendent white ear-lobe once firmly +established, traces of the white _face_ will now and then be found, and +by a similar method is capable of development and fixture; whilst any +colour of plumage or of leg may be obtained and established in the same +way. The original amount of character required is _very_ slight; a +single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give that characteristic to a +whole breed. Any peculiarity of _constitution_, such as constant laying, +or frequent incubation, may be developed and perpetuated in a similar +manner, all that is necessary being care and time. That such has been +the method employed in the formation of the more distinct races of our +poultry, is proved by the fact that a continuance of the same careful +selection is needful to perpetuate them in perfection. If the very best +examples of a breed are selected as the starting-point, and the produce +is bred from indiscriminately for many generations, the distinctive +points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and there is also a more or +less gradual but sure return to the primitive wild type, in size and +even colour of the plumage. The purest black or white originally, +rapidly becomes first marked with, and ultimately changed into, the +original red or brown, whilst the other features simultaneously +disappear. If, however, the process of artificial selection be carried +too far, and with reference _only to one_ prominent point, any breed is +almost sure to suffer in the other qualities which have been neglected, +and this has been the case with the very breed already mentioned--the +white-faced Spanish. We know from old fanciers that this breed was +formerly considered hardy, and even in winter rarely failed to afford a +constant supply of its unequalled large white eggs. But of late years +attention has been so _exclusively_ directed to the 'white-face,' that +whilst this feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never +before known, the breed has become one of the most delicate of all, and +the laying qualities of at least many strains have greatly fallen off. +It would be difficult to avoid such evil results if it were not for a +valuable compensating principle, which admits of _crossing_. That +principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection by a +foreign breed, may be introduced by crossing into a strain it is desired +to improve, and every other characteristic of the cross be, by +selection, afterwards bred out again. Or one or more of these additional +characteristics may be also retained, and thus a _new variety_ be +established, as many have been within the last few years." + +Size may be imparted to the Dorking by crossing it with the Cochin, and +the disposition to feather on the legs bred out again by judicious +selection; and the constitution may be strengthened by crossing with the +Game breed. Game fowls that have deteriorated in size, strength, and +fierceness, by a long course of breeding in-and-in, may have all these +qualities restored by crossing with the fierce, powerful, and gigantic +Malay, and his peculiarities may be afterwards bred out. The size of the +eggs of the Hamburg might very probably be increased without decreasing, +or with very slightly decreasing, the number of eggs, by crossing with a +Houdan cock; and the size would also be increased for the table. The +French breeds, Crêve-Coeur, Houdan, and La Flêche, gain in size and +hardiness by being crossed with the Brahma cock. The cross between a +Houdan cock and a Brahma hen "produces," says the "Henwife," "the finest +possible chickens for market, but not to breed from. Pure Brahmas and +Houdans alone must be kept for that purpose; I have always found the +second cross worthless." + +In crossing, the cockerels will more or less resemble the male, and the +pullets the hen. "Long experience," says Mr. Wright, "has ascertained +that the male bird has most influence upon the colour of the progeny, +and also upon the comb, and what may be called the 'fancy points,' of +any breed generally; whilst the form, size, and useful qualities are +principally derived from the hen." + +Breed only from the strongest and healthiest fowls. In the breeding of +poultry it is a rule, as in all other cases of organised life, that the +best-shaped be used for the purpose of propagation. If a cock and hen +have both the same defect, however trifling it may be, they should never +be allowed to breed together, for the object is to improve the breed, +not to deteriorate it, even in the slightest degree. Hens should never +be allowed to associate with a cock of a different breed if you wish to +keep the breed pure, and if you desire superior birds, not even with an +inferior male of their own variety. "No time," says Mr. Baily, "has ever +been fixed as necessary to elapse before hens that have been running +with cocks of divers breeds, and afterwards been placed with their +legitimate partners, can be depended upon to produce purely-bred +chickens; I am disposed to think at least two months. Time of year may +have much to do with it. In the winter the escape of a hen from one run +to the other, or the intrusion of a cock, is of little moment; but it +may be serious in the spring, and destroy the hopes of a season." Many +poultry-keepers separate the cocks and hens after the breeding season, +considering that stronger chickens will be thereby obtained the next +season. Where there is a separate house and run for the sitting hen this +can be conveniently done when that compartment is vacant. In order to +preserve a breed perfectly pure, it will be necessary, where there is +not a large stock of the race, to breed from birds sprung from the same +parents, but the blood should be crossed every year by procuring one or +more fowls of the same breed from a distance, or by the exchange of eggs +with some neighbouring stock, of colour and qualities as nearly allied +as possible with the original breed. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +POULTRY SHOWS. + + +A few years ago poultry shows were unknown. In 1846, the first was held +in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, in the Regent's Park; Mr. +Baily being the sole judge. It was a very fair beginning, but did not +succeed, and it was not till the Cochin-China breed was introduced into +this country, and the first Birmingham show was held, that these +exhibitions became successful. + +In 1849, "the first poultry show that was ever held in 'the good old +town of Birmingham,' was beset with all the untried difficulties of such +a scheme, when without the experiences of the present day, then +altogether unavailable, a few spirited individuals carried to a +successful issue an event that has now proved the foster-parent of the +many others of similar character that abound in almost every principal +town of the United Kingdom. It is quite essential, that I may be clearly +understood, to preface my narrative by assuring fanciers that in those +former days poultry amateurs were by no means as general as at the +present time; few and far between were their locations; and though even +then, among the few who felt interest in fowls, emulation existed, +generally speaking, the keeping of poultry was regarded as 'a useless +hobby,' 'a mere individual caprice,' 'an idle whim from which no good +result could by possibility accrue'; nay, sometimes it was hinted, 'What +a pity they have not something better to employ them during leisure +hours!' and they were styled 'enthusiasts.' But have not the records of +every age proved that enthusiasts are invariably the pioneers of +improvement? And time, too, substantiated the verity of this rule in +reference to our subject; for, among other proofs, it brought +incontestable evidence that the raising of poultry was by no means the +unremunerative folly idlers supposed it to be, and hesitated not rashly +to declaim it; likewise, that it simply required to be fairly brought +under public notice, to prove its general utility, and to induce the +acknowledgment of how strangely so important a source of emolument had +been hitherto neglected and overlooked." + +At the Birmingham Show of 1852, about five thousand fowls were +exhibited, and the specimens sold during the four days of the show +amounted to nearly two thousand pounds, notwithstanding the high prices +affixed to the pens, and that many were placed at enormous prices +amounting to a prohibition, the owners not wishing to sell them. The +Birmingham shows now generally comprise from one to two thousand pens of +fowls and water-fowls, arranged in nearly one hundred classes; besides +an equal proportion of pigeons. This show is the finest and most +important, but there are many others of very high character and great +extent. Poultry is also now exhibited to a considerable extent at +agricultural meetings. + +Any one may see the wonderful improvement that has been made in +poultry-breeding by visiting the next Birmingham or other first-class +show, and comparing the fowls there exhibited with those of his earliest +recollections, and with those mongrels and impure breeds which may still +be seen in too many farmyards. Points that were said to be impossible of +attainment have been obtained with comparative ease by perserverance and +skill, and the worst birds of a show are now often superior to the chief +prize fowls of former days. Indeed, "a modern prize bird," says the +"Henwife," "almost merits the character which a Parisian waiter gave of +a melon, when asked to pronounce whether it was a fruit or a vegetable, +'Gentlemen,' said he, 'a melon is neither; it is a work of art.'" + +Such shows must have great influence on the improvement of the breeds +and the general management of poultry, though like all other prize +exhibitions they have certain disadvantages. "We cannot but think," says +Mr. Wright, "that our poultry shows have, to some extent, by the +character of the judging, hindered the improvement of many breeds. It +will be readily admitted in _theory_ that a breed of fowls becomes more +and more valuable as its capacity of producing eggs is increased, and +the quantity and quality of its flesh are improved, with a small amount +of bone and offal in proportion. But, if we except the Dorking, which +certainly is judged to some extent as a table fowl, all this is +_totally_ lost sight of both by breeders and judges, and attention is +fixed exclusively upon colour, comb, face, and other equally fancy +'points.' Beauty and utility might be _both_ secured. The French have +taught us a lesson of some value in this respect. Within a comparatively +recent period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four new +varieties, which, although inferior in some points to others of older +standing, are all eminently valuable as table fowls; and which in one +particular are superior to any English variety, not even excepting the +Dorking--we mean the very small proportion of bone and offal. This is +really useful and scientific breeding, brought to bear upon _one_ +definite object, and we do trust the result will prove suggestive with +regard to others equally valuable. We should be afraid to say how much +might be done if English breeders would bring _their_ perseverance and +experience to bear in a similar direction. Agricultural Societies in +particular might be expected in _their_ exhibitions to show some +interest in the improvement of poultry regarded as _useful stock_, and +to them especially we commend the matter." + +The rules and regulations relating to exhibitions vary at different +shows, and may be obtained by applying to the secretary. Notices of +exhibitions are advertised in the local papers, and in the _Field_ and +other London papers of an agricultural character. + +In breeding birds for exhibition the number of hens to one cock should +not exceed four or five, but if only two or three hens of the breed are +possessed, the proper number of his harem should be made up by the +addition of hens of another breed, those being chosen whose eggs are +easily known from the others. + +If it is intended to rear the chickens for exhibition at the June, +July, or August shows, the earlier they are hatched the better, and +therefore a sitting should be made in January, if you have a young, +healthy hen broody. Set her on the ground in a warm, sheltered, and +quiet place, perfectly secure from rain, or from any flow of snow water. +Feed her well, and keep water and small quantities of food constantly +within her reach, so that she may not be tempted to leave the nest in +search of food; for the eggs soon chill in winter. Mix the best oatmeal +with hot water, and give it to her warm twice a day. A few grains of +hempseed as a stimulant may be given in the middle of the day. The great +difficulty to overcome in rearing early chickens is to sustain their +vital powers during the very long winter nights, when they are for so +many hours without food, the only substitute for which is warmth, and +this can only be well got from the hen. Consequently a young +Cochin-China with plenty of "fluff" will provide most warmth. The hen +should not be set on more than five, or at most seven eggs; for if she +has more, although she may sufficiently cover the chickens while very +small, she will not be able to do so when they grow larger, and the +outer ones will be chilled unless they manage to push themselves into +the inside places, and then the displaced chickens being warm are sure +to get more chilled than the others; and so the greater number of the +brood, even if they survive, will probably be weakly, puny things, +through the greedy desire to rear so many, while if she hatch but five +chickens she will probably rear four. The hen should be cooped until the +chickens are at least ten weeks old, and covered up at night with +matting, sacking, or a piece of carpet. + +Give them plenty of curd, chopped egg, and oatmeal, mixed with new milk. +Stiff oatmeal porridge is the best stock food. Some onion tops minced +fine will be an excellent addition if they can be had. They should have +some milk to drink. Feed the hen well. The best warmth the chickens can +have is that of their mother, and the best warmth for her is generated +by generous, but proper, food, and a good supply of it. Early chickens +rearing for show should be fed twice after dark, say at eight and +eleven o'clock, and again at seven in the morning, so that they will not +be without food for more than eight hours. The hen should be fed at the +same times, and she will become accustomed to it, and call the chickens +to feed; it will also generate more warmth in her for their benefit. +Yolk of egg beaten up and given to drink is most strengthening for +weakly chickens; or it may be mixed with their oatmeal. The tender +breeds should not be hatched till April or May, unless in a mild +climate, or with exceptional advantages. + +For winter exhibition, March and April hatched birds are preferable to +those hatched earlier. Not more than seven eggs should be set, for a hen +cannot scratch up insects and worms and find peculiar herbage for more +than six chickens. If the chickens have not a good grass run, they must +be supplied with abundance of green food. + +They should not be allowed to roost before they are three months old, +and the perches must be sufficiently large. Mr. Wright recommends a bed +of clean, dry ashes, an inch deep, for those that leave the hen before +the proper age for roosting, and does not allow his chickens, even while +with the hen, to bed upon straw, considering the ashes to be much +cleaner and also warmer. + +The chickens intended to be exhibited should be distinguished from their +companions by small stripes of different coloured silks loosely sewn +round their legs, which distinguishing colours should be entered in the +poultry-book. A few good birds should always be kept in reserve to fill +up the pen in case of accidents. + +Weight is more important in the December and later winter shows than at +those held between August and November, but at all shows feather and +other points of competitors being equal weight must carry the day, Game +and Bantams excepted. It is not safe to trust to the apparent weight of +a bird, for the feathers deceive, and it is therefore advisable to weigh +the birds occasionally. Each should be weighed in a basket, allowance +being made for the weight of the basket, and they should if possible be +weighed before a meal. But fowls that are over-fattened, as some judges +very improperly desire, cannot be in good health anymore than "crammed" +fowls, and are useless for breeding, producing at best a few puny, +delicate, or sickly chickens; thus making the exhibition a mere "show," +barren of all useful results. + +Pullets continue to grow until they begin to lay, which almost or quite +stops their growth; and therefore if great size is desired for +exhibition, they should be kept from the cockerels and partly from +stimulating food until a month before the show, when they will be +required to be matched in pens. During this month they should have extra +food and attention. + +If fowls intended for exhibition are allowed to sit, the chickens are +apt to cause injury to their plumage, and loss of condition, while if +prevented from sitting, they are liable to suffer in moulting. Their +chickens may be given to other hens, but the best and safest plan is to +set a broody exhibition hen on duck's eggs, which will satisfy her +natural desire for sitting, while the young ducklings will give her much +less trouble, and leave her sooner than a brood of her own kind. + +All the birds in a pen should match in comb, colour of their legs, and +indeed in every particular. Mr. Baily mentions "a common fault in +exhibitors who send two pens composed of three excellent and three +inferior birds, so divided as to form perhaps one third class and one +highly commended pen: whereas a different selection would make one of +unusual merit. If an amateur who wishes to exhibit has fifteen fowls to +choose from, and to form a pen of a cock and two hens, he should study +and scan them closely while feeding at his feet in the morning. He +should then have a place similar to an exhibition pen, wherein he can +put the selected birds; they should be raised to the height at which he +can best see them, and before he has looked long at them defects will +become apparent one after the other till, in all probability, neither of +the subjects of his first selection will go to the show. We also advise +him rather to look for defects than to dwell on beauties--the latter +are always prominent enough. The pen of which we speak should be a +moveable one for convenience' sake, and it is well to leave the fowls in +it for a time that they may become accustomed to each other, and also to +an exhibition pen." Birds that are strangers should never be put into +the same hamper, for not only the cocks but even the hens will fight +with and disfigure each other. + +Some give linseed for a few days before the exhibition to impart lustre +to the plumage, by increasing the secretion of oil. A small quantity of +the meal should be mixed with their usual soft food, as fowls generally +refuse the whole grain. But buckwheat and hempseed, mixed in equal +proportions, if given for the evening meal during the last ten or twelve +days, is healthier for the bird, much liked, and will not only impart +equal lustre to the plumage, but also improve the appearance of the comb +and wattles. + +Spanish fowls should be kept in confinement for some days before the +show, with just enough light to enable them to feed and perch, and the +place should be littered with clean straw. This greatly improves their +condition; why we know not, but it is an established fact. Game fowls +should be kept in for a few days, and fed on meal, barley, and bread, +with a few peas, which tend to make the plumage hard, but will make them +too fat if given freely. Dark and golden birds should be allowed to run +about till they have to be sent off. Remove all scurf or dead skin from +the comb, dry dirt from the beak, and stains from the plumage, and wash +their legs clean. White and light fowls that have a good grass run and +plenty of clean straw in their houses and yards to scratch in, will +seldom require washing, but town birds, and country ones if not +perfectly clean, should be washed the day before the show with tepid +water and mild white soap rubbed on flannel, care being taken to wash +the feathers downwards, so as not to break or ruffle them; afterwards +wiped with a piece of flannel that has been thoroughly soaked in clean +water, and gently dried with soft towels before the fire; or the bird +may be entirely dipped into a pan of warm water, then rinsed thoroughly +in cold water, wiped with a flannel, and placed in a basket with soft +straw before a fire to dry. They should then be shut up in their houses +with plenty of clean straw. They should have their feet washed if dirty, +and be well fed with soft nourishing food just before being put into the +travelling-basket, for hard food is apt to cause fever and heat while +travelling, and, having to be digested without gravel or exercise, +causes indigestion, which ruffles the plumage, dulls its colour, darkens +the comb, and altogether spoils the appearance of the bird. Sopped or +steeped bread is excellent. + +The hampers should always be round or oval in form, as fowls invariably +creep into corners and destroy their plumage. They should be high enough +for the cocks to stand upright in, without touching the top with their +combs. Some exhibitors prefer canvas tops to wicker lids, considering +that the former preserve the fowls' combs from injury if they should +strike against the top, while others prefer the latter as being more +secure, and allowing one hamper to be placed upon another if necessary, +and also preserving the fowls from injury if a heavy hamper or package +should otherwise be placed over it. A good plan is to have a double +canvas top, the space between being filled with hay. A thick layer of +hay or straw should be placed at the bottom of the basket. Wheaten straw +is the best in summer and early autumn, and oat or barley straw later in +the year and during winter. A good lining also is essential; coarse +calico stitched round the inside of the basket is the best. Ducks and +geese do not require their hampers to be lined, except in very cold +weather; and the best lining for them is made by stitching layers of +pulled straw round the inside of the basket. Turkeys should have their +hampers lined, for although they are very hardy, cold and wet damage +their appearance more than other poultry. Take care that the geese +cannot get at the label, for they will eat it, and also devour the +hempen fastenings if within their reach. + +Be very careful in entering your birds for exhibition; describe their +ages, breed, &c., exactly and accurately, and see yourself to the +packing and labelling of their hampers. + +Mr. F. Wragg, the superintendent of the poultry-yard of R. W. Boyle, +Esq., whose fowls have a sea voyage from Ireland besides the railway +journey, and yet always appear in splendid condition and "bloom," ties +on one side of the hamper, "near the top, a fresh-pulled cabbage, and on +the other side a good piece of the bottom side of a loaf, of which they +will eat away all the soft part. Before starting, I give each bird half +a tablespoonful of port wine, which makes them sleep a good part of the +journey. Of course, if I go with my birds, as I generally do, I see that +they, as well as myself, have 'refreshment' on the road."[A] The cabbage +will always be a treat, and the loaf and wine may be added for long +journeys. + +Birds are frequently over-fed at the show, particularly with barley, +which cannot be properly digested for want of gravel and exercise; and +therefore, if upon their return their crops are hard and combs look +dark, give a tablespoonful of castor oil; but if they look well do not +interfere with them. They should not have any grain, but be fed +sparingly on stale bread soaked in warm ale, with two or three mouthfuls +of tepid water, for liquid is most hurtful if given in quantity. They +should not be put into the yard with the other fowls which may treat +them, after their absence, as intruders, but be joined with them at +night when the others have gone to roost. On the next day give them a +moderate allowance of soft food with a moderate supply of water, or +stale bread sopped in water, and a sod of grass or half a cabbage leaf +each, but no other green food; and on the following day they may have +their usual food. + +When the fowls are brought back, take out the linings, wash them, and +put them by to be ready for the next show; and after the exhibition +season, on a fine dry day, wash the hampers, dry them thoroughly, and +put them in a dry place. Never use them as quiet berths for sick birds, +which are sure to infect them and cause the illness of the next +occupants; or as nesting-places for sitting hens, which may leave +insects in the crevices that will be difficult to eradicate. + +In our descriptions of the various Breeds, we have given sufficient +general information upon the Exhibition Points from the best +authorities; but considerable differences of opinion have been expressed +of late years, and eminent breeders dissent in some cases even from the +generally recognised authority of the popular "Standard of Excellence." +We, therefore, advise intending exhibitors to ascertain the standards to +be followed at the show and the predilections of the judges, and to +breed accordingly, or, if they object to the views held, not to compete +at that exhibition. + + +TECHNICAL TERMS. + +_Coverts._--The _upper_ and _lower wing coverts_ are those ranges of +feathers which cover the primary quills; and the _tail coverts_ are +those feathers growing on each side of the tail, and are longer than the +body feathers, but shorter than those of the tail. + +_Dubbing._--Cutting off the comb and wattles of a cock; an operation +usually confined to Game cocks. + +_Ear-lobe._--The small feathers covering the organ of hearing, which is +placed a little behind the eye. + +_Flight._--The last five feathers of each wing. + +_Fluff._--The silky feathers growing on the thighs and hinder parts of +Cochin-China fowls. + +_Hackles._--The _neck hackles_ are feathers growing from the neck, and +covering the shoulders and part of the back; and the _saddle hackles_ +those growing from the end of the back, and falling over the sides. + +_Legs._--The _legs_ are properly the lower and scaly limbs, the upper +part covered with feathers and frequently mis-called legs, being +correctly styled the _thighs_. + +_Primary Quills._--The long, strong quills, usually ten in number, +forming the chief portion of each wing, and the means of flight. + +_Vulture-hocked._--Feathers growing from the thigh, and projecting +backwards below the knee. + +[Illustration: Buff and White Cochin-China. Malay Cock. Light and Dark +Brahmas.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +COCHIN-CHINAS, OR SHANGHAES. + + +Like many other fowls these possess a name which is incorrectly applied, +for they came from Shanghae, not Cochin-China, where they were +comparatively unknown. Mr. Fortune, who, from his travels in China, is +well qualified to give an opinion, states that they are a Chinese breed, +kept in great numbers at Shanghae; the real Cochin-China breed being +small and elegantly shaped. But all attempts to give them the name of +the port from which they were brought have failed, and the majority of +breeders persist in calling them Cochins. In the United States both +names are used, the feather-legged being called Shanghaes, and the +clean-legged Cochins. + +The first Shanghae fowls brought to this country were sent from India to +Her Majesty, which gave them great importance; and the eggs having been +freely distributed by the kindness of the Queen and the Prince Consort, +the breed was soon widely spread. They were first introduced into this +country when the northern ports of China, including Shanghae, were +thrown open to European vessels on the conclusion of the Chinese war in +1843; but some assign the date of their introduction from 1844 to 1847, +and say that those called Cochins, exhibited by the Queen in 1843, were +not the true breed, having been not only entirely without feathers on +the shanks, but also altogether different in form and general +characteristics. A pair which were sent by Her Majesty for exhibition at +the Dublin Cattle Show in April, 1846, created such a sensation from +their great size and immense weight, and the full, loud, deep-pitched +crowing of the cock, that almost every one seemed desirous to possess +some of the breed, and enormous prices were given for the eggs and +chickens. With his propensity for exaggeration, Paddy boasted that they +laid five eggs in two days, each weighing three ounces, that the fowls +equalled turkeys in size, and "Cochin eggs became in as great demand as +though they had been laid by the fabled golden goose. Philosophers, +poets, merchants, and sweeps had alike partook of the mania; and +although the latter could hardly come up to the price of a real Cochin, +there were plenty of vagabond dealers about, with counterfeit crossed +birds of all kinds, which were advertised to be the genuine article. For +to such a pitch did the excitement rise, that they who never kept a fowl +in their lives, and would hardly know a Bantam from a Dorking, puzzled +their shallow brains as to the proper place to keep them, and the proper +diet to feed them on." Their justly-deserved popularity speedily grew +into a mania, and the price which had been from fifteen to thirty +shillings each, then considered a high price for a fowl, rose to ten +pounds for a fine specimen, and ultimately a hundred guineas was +repeatedly paid for a single cock, and was not an uncommon price for a +pair of really fine birds. "They were afterwards bred," says Miss Watts, +"for qualities difficult of attainment, and, as the result proved, +little worth trying for," and "fowls with _many_ excellent qualities +were blamed for not being _perfect_," and they fell from their high +place, and were as unjustly depreciated as they had been unduly exalted. + +"Had these birds," wrote Mr. Baily many years since, "been shy +breeders--if like song birds the produce of a pair were four, or at most +five, birds in the year, prices might have been maintained; but as they +are marvellous layers they increased. They bred in large numbers, and +consequently became cheaper, and then the mania ended, because those who +dealt most largely in them did so not from a love of the birds or the +pursuit, but as a speculation. As they had over-praised them before, +they now treated them with contempt. Anything like a moderate profit was +despised, and the birds were left to their own merits. These were +sufficient to ensure their popularity, and now after fluctuating in +value more than anything except shares, after being over-praised and +then abused, they have remained favourites with a large portion of the +public, sell at a remunerating price, and form one of the largest +classes at all the great exhibitions." This has proved to be a perfectly +correct view, and the breed is now firmly established in public +estimation, and unusually fine birds will still sell for from five to +twenty pounds each. The mania did great service to the breeding and +improvement of poultry by awakening an interest in the subject +throughout the kingdom which has lasted. + +They are the best of all fowls for a limited space, and not inclined to +wander even when they have an extensive run. They cannot fly, and a +fence three feet high will keep them in. But if kept in a confined space +they must have an unlimited supply of green food. They give us eggs when +they are most expensive, and indeed, with regard to new-laid eggs, when +they are almost impossible to be had at any price. They begin to lay +soon after they are five months old, regardless of the season or +weather, and lay throughout the year, except when requiring to sit, +which they do twice or thrice a year, and some oftener. Pullets will +sometimes lay at fourteen weeks, and want to sit before they are six +months old. Cochins have been known to lay twice in a day, but not again +on the following day, and the instances are exceptional. Their eggs are +of a pale chocolate colour, of excellent flavour, and usually weigh +2-1/4 ounces each. They are excellent sitters and mothers. Pullets will +frequently hatch, lay again, and sit with the chickens of the first +brood around them. Cochins are most valuable as sitters early in the +year, being broody when other fowls are beginning to lay; but unless +cooped they are apt to leave their chickens too soon, especially for +early broods, and lay again. They are very hardy, and their chickens +easy to rear, doing well even in bleak places without any unusual care. +But they are backward in fledging, chickens bred from immature fowls +being the most backward. Those which are cockerels show their flight +feathers earliest. They are very early matured. + +A writer in the _Poultry Chronicle_ well says: "These fowls were sent +to provide food for man; by many they are not thought good table fowls; +but when others fail, if you keep them, you shall never want the luxury +of a really new-laid egg on your breakfast table. The snow may fall, the +frost may be thick on your windows when you first look out on a December +morning, but your Cochins will provide you eggs. Your children shall +learn gentleness and kindness from them, for they are kind and gentle, +and you shall be at peace with your neighbours, for they will not wander +nor become depredators. They have fallen in price because they were +unnaturally exalted; but their sun is not eclipsed; they have good +qualities, and valuable. They shall now be within the reach of all; and +will make the delight of many by their domestic habits, which will allow +them to be kept where others would be an annoyance." They will let you +take them off their roost, handle and examine them, and put them back +without struggling. + +The fault of the Cochin-Chinas as table birds is, that they produce most +meat on the inferior parts; thus, there is generally too little on the +breast which is the prime part of a fowl, while the leg which is an +inferior part, is unusually fleshy, but it must be admitted that the leg +is more tender than in other breeds. A greater quantity of flesh may be +raised within a given time, on a certain quantity of food, from these +fowls than from any other breed. The cross with the Dorking is easily +reared, and produces a very heavy and well-shaped fowl for the table, +and a good layer. + +"A great hue and cry," says Miss Watts, "has been raised against the +Cochin-Chinas as fowls for the table, but we believe none have bestowed +attention on breeding them with a view to this valuable consideration. +Square, compact, short-legged birds have been neglected for a certain +colour of feather, and a broad chest was given up for the wedge-form at +the very time that was pronounced a fault in the fowl. It is said that +yellow-legged fowls are yellow also in the skin, and that white skin and +white legs accompany each other; but how pertinaciously the yellow leg +of the Cochin is adhered to! Yet all who have bred them will attest +that a little careful breeding would perpetuate white-legged Cochins. +Exhibitions are generally excellent; but to this fowl they certainly +have only been injurious, by exaggerating useless and fancy qualities at +the expense of those which are solid and useful. Who would favour, or +even sanction, a Dorking in which size and shape, and every property we +value in them, was sacrificed to an endeavour to breed to a particular +colour? and this is what we have been doing with the Cochin-China. Many +breeders say, eat Cochins while very young; but we have found them much +better for the table as fowls than as chickens. A fine Cochin, from five +to seven months old, is like a turkey, and very juicy and fine in +flavour." + +A peculiar characteristic of these birds, technically called "fluff," is +a quantity of beautifully soft, long feathers, covering the thighs till +they project considerably, and garnishing all the hinder parts of the +bird in the same manner, so that the broadest part of the bird is +behind. Its quality is a good indication of the breed; if fine and downy +the birds are probably well-bred, but if rank and coarse they are +inferior. The cocks are frequently somewhat scanty in "fluff," but +should be chosen with as much as possible; but vulture-hocks which often +accompany the heaviest feathered birds should be avoided, as they now +disqualify at the best shows. "The fluff," says a good authority, "in +the hen especially, should so cover the tail feathers as to give the +appearance of a very short back, the line taking an upward direction +from within an inch or so of the point of junction with the hackle." The +last joint of the wings folds up, so that the ends of the flight +feathers are concealed by the middle feathers, and their extremities are +again covered by the copious saddle, which peculiarity has caused them +to be also called the ostrich-fowl. + +A good Cochin cock should be compact, large, and square built; broad +across the loins and hind-quarters; with a deep keel; broad, short back; +short neck; small, delicately-shaped, well-arched head; short, strong, +curved beak; rather small, finely and evenly serrated, straight, single, +erect comb, wholly free from reduplications and sprigs; brilliant red +face, and pendant wattles; long hanging ear-lobe, of pure red, white +being inadmissible; bright, bold eye, approaching the plumage in colour; +rich, full, long hackle; small, closely-folded wings; short tail, +scarcely any in some fine specimens, not very erect, with slightly +twisted glossy feathers falling over it like those of the ostrich; stout +legs set widely apart, yellow and heavily feathered to the toe; and +erect carriage. The chief defect of the breed is narrowness of breast, +which should therefore be sought for as full as possible. + +The hen's body is much deeper in proportion than that of the cock. She +resembles him upon most points, but differs in some; her comb having +many indentations; the fluff being softer, and of almost silky quality; +the tail has upright instead of falling feathers, and comes to a blunt +point; and her carriage is less upright. + +Cochins lose their beauty earlier than any other breed, and moult with +more difficulty each time. They are in their greatest beauty at from +nine to eighteen months old. The cocks' tails increase with age. In +buying Cochins avoid clean legs, fifth toes, which show that it has been +crossed with the Dorking, double combs that betray Malay blood, and long +tails, particularly taking care that the cock has not, and ascertaining +that he never had, sickle feathers. The cock ought not to weigh less +than ten or eleven pounds, and a very fine bird will reach thirteen; the +hens from eight to ten pounds. + +The principal colours now bred are Buff, Cinnamon, Partridge, Grouse, +Black, and White. The Buff and White are the most popular. + +Buff birds may have black in the tails of both sexes, but the less there +is the better. Black-pencilling in the hackle is considered +objectionable at good shows. The cock's neck hackles, wing coverts, +back, and saddle hackles, are usually of a rich gold colour, but his +breast and the lower parts of his body should match with those of his +hens. Buff birds generally produce chickens lighter than themselves. +Most birds become rather lighter at each moult. In making up an +exhibition pen, observe that Grouse and Partridge hens should have a +black-breasted cock; and that Buff and Cinnamon birds should not be +placed together, but all the birds in the pen should be either Buff or +Cinnamon. The Cinnamon are of two shades, the Light Cinnamon and the +Silver, which is a pale washy tint, that looks very delicate and pretty +when perfectly clean. Silver Cinnamon hens should not be penned with a +pale Yellow cock, but with one as near to their own tint as can be +found. Mr. Andrews's celebrated strain of Cochins sometimes produced +both cocks and hens which were Silver Cinnamon, with streaks of gold in +the hackle. + +In Partridge birds the cock's neck and saddle hackles should be of a +bright red, striped with black, his back and wings of dark red, the +latter crossed with a well-defined bar of metallic greenish black, and +the breast and under parts of his body should be black, and not mottled. +The hen's neck hackles should be of bright gold, striped with black, and +all the other portions of her body of a light brown, pencilled with very +dark brown. The Grouse are very dark Partridge, have a very rich +appearance, and are particularly beautiful when laced. They are far from +common, and well worth cultivating. The Partridge are more mossed in +their markings, and not so rich in colour as the Grouse. Cuckoo Cochins +are marked like the Cuckoo Dorkings, and difficult to breed free of +yellow. + +The White and Black were introduced later than the others. Mr. Baily +says the White were principally bred from a pair imported and given to +the Dean of Worcester, and which afterwards became the property of Mrs. +Herbert, of Powick. White Cochins for exhibition must have yellow legs, +and they are prone to green. The origin of the Black is disputed. It is +said to be a sport from the White, or to have been produced by a cross +between the Buff and the White. By careful breeding it has been fixed as +a decided sub-variety, but it is difficult, if not almost impossible, to +rear a cock to complete maturity entirely free from coloured feathers. +They keep perfectly pure in colour till six months old, after which age +they sometimes show a golden patch or red feathers upon the wing, or a +few streaks of red upon the hackle, of so dark a shade as to be +imperceptible except in a strong light, and are often found on close +examination to have white under feathers, and others barred with white. + +The legs in all the colours should be yellow. Flesh-coloured legs are +admissible, but green, black, or white are defects. In the Partridge and +Grouse a slight wash, as of indigo, appears to be thrown over them, +which in the Black assumes a still darker shade; but in all three yellow +should appear partially even here beneath the scales, as the pink tinge +does in the Buff and White birds. + +Cochin-Chinas being much inclined to accumulate internal fat, which +frequently results in apoplexy, should not be fed on food of a very +fattening character, such as Indian corn. They are liable to have +inflamed feet if they are obliged to roost on very high, small, or sharp +perches, or allowed to run over sharp-edged stones. + +They are also subject to an affection called White Comb, which is a +white mouldy eruption on the comb and wattles like powdered chalk; and +if not properly treated in time, will spread over the whole body, +causing the feathers to fall off. It is caused by want of cleanliness, +over-stimulating or bad food, and most frequently by want of green food, +which must be supplied, and the place rubbed with an ointment composed +of two parts of cocoanut oil, and one of turmeric powder, to which some +persons add one half part of sulphur; and six grains of jalap may be +given to clear the bowels. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +BRAHMA-POOTRAS. + + +It is a disputed point among great authorities whether Brahmas form a +distinct variety, or whether they originated in a cross with the Cochin, +and have become established by careful breeding. When they were first +introduced, Mr. Baily considered them to be a distinct breed, and has +since seen nothing to alter his opinion. Their nature and habits are +quite dissimilar, for they wander from home and will get their own +living where a Cochin would starve, have more spirit, deeper breasts, +are hardier, lay larger eggs, are less prone to sit, and never produce a +clean-legged chicken. Whatever their origin, by slow and sure degrees, +without any mania, they have become more and more popular, standing upon +their own merits, and are now one of the most favourite varieties. + +"The worst accusation," says Miss Watts, "their enemies can advance +against them is, that no one knows their origin; but this is applicable +to them only as it is when applied to Dorkings, Spanish, Polands, and +all the other kinds which have been brought to perfection by careful +breeding, working on good originals. All we have in England are +descended from fowls imported from the United States, and the best +account of them is, that a sailor (rather vague, certainly) appeared in +an American town (Boston or New York, I forget which) with a new kind of +fowl for sale, and that a pair bought from him were the parents of all +the Brahmas. Uncertain as this appears, the accounts of those who +pretend to trace their origin as cross-bred fowls is, at least, equally +so, and I believe we may just act towards the Brahmas as we do with +regard to Dorkings and other good fowls, and be satisfied to possess a +first-rate, useful kind, although we may be unable to trace its +genealogical tree back to the root. Whatever may be their origin, I find +them distinct in their characteristics. I have found them true to their +points, generation after generation, in all the years that I have kept +them. The pea-comb is very peculiar, and I have never had one chicken +untrue in this among all that I have bred. Their habits are very unlike +the Cochins. Although docile, they are much less inert; they lay a +larger number of eggs, and sit less frequently. Many of my hens only +wish to sit once a year; a few oftener than that, perhaps twice or even +three times in rare instances, but never at the end of each small batch +of eggs, as I find (my almost equal favourites) the Cochins do. The +division of Light and Dark Brahmas is a fancy of the judges, which any +one who keeps them can humour with a little care in breeding. My idea of +their colour is, that it should be black and grey (iron grey, with more +or less of a blue tinge, and devoid of any brown) on a clear white +ground, and I do not care whether the white or the marking predominates. +I believe breeders could bear me out, if they would, when I say many +fowls which pass muster as Brahmas are the result of a cross, employed +to increase size and procure the heavy colour which some of the judges +affect." + +For strength of constitution, both as chickens and fowls, they surpass +all other breeds. Brahmas like an extensive range, but bear confinement +as well as any fowls, and keep cleaner in dirty or smoky places than any +that have white feathers. They are capital foragers where they have +their liberty, are smaller eaters and less expensive to keep than +Cochins, and most prolific in eggs. They lay regularly on an average +five fine large eggs a week all the year round, even when snow is on the +ground, except when moulting or tending their brood. Mr. Boyle, of Bray, +Ireland, the most eminent breeder of Dark Brahmas in Great Britain, says +he has "repeatedly known pullets begin to lay in autumn, and _never +stop_--let it be hail, rain, snow, or storm--for a single day till next +spring." They usually lay from thirty to forty eggs before they seek to +sit. The hens do not sit so often as Cochins, and a week's change of +place will generally banish the desire. They put on flesh well, with +plenty of breast-meat, and are more juicy and better shaped for the +table than most Cochins; though, after they are six months old, the +flesh is much inferior to that of the Dorking. A cross with a Dorking or +Crêve-Coeur cock produces the finest possible table fowl, carrying +almost incredible quantities of meat of excellent quality. + +The chickens are hardy and easy to rear. They vary in colour when first +hatched, being all shades of brown, yellow, and grey, and are often +streaked on the back and spotted about the head; but this variety gives +place, as the feathers come, to the mixture of black, white, and grey, +which forms the distinguishing colour of the Brahma. Mr. Baily has +"hatched them in snow, and reared them all out of doors without any +other shelter than a piece of mat or carpet thrown over the coop at +night." They reach their full size at an early age, and the pullets are +in their prime at eight months. Miss Watts noticed that Brahmas "are +more clever in the treatment of themselves when they are ill than other +fowls; when they get out of order, they will generally fast until eating +is no longer injurious," which peculiarity is corroborated by the +experienced "Henwife." The feathers of the Brahma-Pootra are said to be +nearly equal to goose feathers. + +The head should have a slight fulness over the eye, giving breadth to +the top; a full, pearl eye is much admired, but far from common; comb +either a small single, or pea-comb--the single resembling that of the +Cochin; the neck short; the breast wide and full; the legs short, +yellow, and well-feathered, but not so fully as in the finest Cochins; +and the tail short but full, and in the cock opening into a fan. They +should be wide and deep made, large and weighty, and have a free, noble +carriage, equally distinct from the waddle of the Cochin, and the erect +bearing of the Malay. Unlike the Cochins, they keep constantly to their +colour, which is a mixture of black, white, and grey; the lightest being +almost white, and the darkest consisting of grey markings on a white +ground. The colour is entirely a matter of taste, but the bottom colour +should always be grey. + +"After breeding Brahmas for many years," says Miss Watts, "through many +generations and crosses (always, however, keeping to families imported +direct from America), we are quite confirmed in the opinion that the +pea-comb is _the_ comb for the Brahma; and this seems now a settled +question, for single-combed birds never take prizes when passable +pea-combed birds are present. The leading characteristic of the peculiar +comb, named by the Americans the pea-comb, is its triple character. It +may be developed and separated almost like three combs, or nearly united +into one; but its triple form is always evident. What we think most +beautiful is, where the centre division is a little fluted, slightly +serrated, and flanked by two little side combs. The degree of the +division into three varies, and the peculiarities of the comb may be +less perceptible in December than when the hens are laying; but the +triple character of the pea-comb is always evident. It shows itself in +the chick at a few days old, in three tiny paralleled lines." It is +thick at the base, and like three combs joined into one, the centre comb +being higher than the other, but the comb altogether must be low, +rounded at the top, and the indentations must not be deep. Whether +single or triple, all the combs in a pen should be uniform. + +The dark and light varieties should not be crossed, as, according to Mr. +Teebay, who was formerly the most extensive and successful breeder of +Brahmas in England, the result is never satisfactory. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +MALAYS. + + +This was the first of the gigantic Asiatic breeds imported into this +country, and in height and size exceeds any fowl yet known. The origin +of the Malay breed is supposed to be the _Gallus giganteus_ of Temminck. +"This large and very remarkable species," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "is +a native of Java and Sumatra. The comb is thick and low, and destitute +of serrations, appearing as if it had been partially cut off; the +wattles are small, and the throat is bare. The neck is covered with +elongated feathers, or hackles, of a pale golden-reddish colour, which +advance upon the back, and hackles of the same colour cover the rump, +and drop on each side of the base of the tail. The middle of the back +and the shoulders of the wings are of a dark chestnut, the feathers +being of a loose texture. The greater wing-coverts are of a glossy +green, and form a bar of that colour across the wing. The primary and +secondary quill feathers are yellowish, with a tinge of rufous. The tail +feathers are of a glossy green. The under surface uniformly is of a +glossy blackish green, but the base of each feather is a chestnut, and +this colour appears on the least derangement of the plumage. The limbs +are remarkably stout, and the robust tarsi are of a yellow colour. The +voice is a sort of crow--hoarse and short, and very different from the +clear notes of defiance uttered by our farmyard chanticleer. This +species has the habit, when fatigued, of resting on the tarsi or legs, +as we have seen the emu do under similar circumstances." + +In the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1832, we find the +following notice respecting this breed, by Colonel Sykes, who observed +it domesticated in the Deccan: "Known by the name of the Kulm cock by +Europeans in India. Met with only as a domestic bird; and Colonel Sykes +has reason to believe that it is not a native of India, but has been +introduced by the Mussulmans from Sumatra or Java. The iris of the real +game bird should be whitish or straw yellow. Colonel Sykes landed two +cocks and a hen in England in June, 1831. They bore the winter well; the +hen laid freely, and has reared two broods of chickens. The cock has not +the shrill clear pipe of the domestic bird, and his scale of note +appears more limited. A cock in the possession of Colonel Sykes stood +twenty-six inches high to the crown of the head; but they attain a +greater height. Length from the tip of the bill to the insertion of the +tail, twenty-three inches. Hen one-third smaller than the male. Shaw +very justly describes the habit of the cock, of resting, when tired, on +the first joint of the leg." + +It is a long, large, heavy bird, standing remarkably upright, having an +almost uninterrupted slope from the head to the insertion of the tail; +with very long, though strong, yellow legs, quite free from feathers; +long, stout, firm thighs, and stands very erect; the cock, when full +grown, being at least two feet six inches, and sometimes over three feet +in height, and weighing from eight to eleven pounds. The head has great +fulness over the eye, and is flattened above, resembling that of the +snake. The small, thick, hard comb, scarcely rising from the head, and +barely as long, like half a strawberry, resembles that of a Game fowl +dubbed. The wattles are very small; the neck closely feathered, and like +a rope, with a space for an inch below the beak bare of feathers. It has +a hard, cruel expression of face; a brilliant bold eye, pearled around +the edge of the lids; skinny red face; very strong curved yellow beak; +and small, drooping tail, with very beautiful, though short, sickle +feathers. The hen resembles the cock upon all these points, but is +smaller. + +Their colours now comprise different shades of red and deep chestnut, in +combination with rich browns, and there are also black and white +varieties, each of which should be uniform. The feathers should be hard +and close, which causes it to be heavier than it appears. + +Malays are inferior to most other breeds as layers, but the pullets +commence laying early, and are often good winter layers. Their eggs, +which weigh about 2-1/2 ounces each, are of a deep buff or pale +chocolate colour, surpass all others in flavour, and are so rich that +two of them are considered to be equal to three of ordinary fowls. They +are nearly always fertile. + +Their chief excellence is as table fowls, carrying, as they do, a great +quantity of meat, which, when under a year old, is of very good quality +and flavour. Crossed with the Spanish and Dorking, they produce +excellent table fowls; the latter cross being also good layers. + +Malays are good sitters and mothers, if they have roomy nests. Their +chickens should not be hatched after June, as they feather slowly, and +are delicate; but the adult birds are hardy enough, and seem especially +adapted to crowded localities, such as courts and alleys. "Malays," says +Mr. Baily, "will live anywhere; they will inhabit a back yard of small +dimensions; they will scratch in the dust-hole, and roost under the +water-butt; and yet not only lay well, but show in good condition when +requisite." Like the Game fowl, it is terribly pugnacious, and in its +native country is kept and trained for fighting. This propensity, which +is still greater in confinement, is its greatest disadvantage. When +closely confined they are apt to eat each other's feathers, the cure for +which is turning them into a grass run, and giving them a good supply of +lettuce leaves, with an occasional purgative of six grains of jalap. The +Chittagong is said to be a variety of the Malay. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +GAME. + + +This is the kind expressly called the English breed by Buffon and the +French writers, and is the noblest and most beautiful of all breeds, +combining an admirable figure, brilliant plumage, and stately gait. It +is most probably derived from the larger or continental Indian species +of the Javanese, or Bankiva Jungle Fowl--the _Gallus Bankiva_ of +Temminck--which is a distinct species, distinguished chiefly from the +Javanese fowl by its larger size. (_See_ page 124.) Of this continental +species, Sir W. Jardine states that he has seen three or four specimens, +all of which came from India proper. The Game cock is the undisputed +king of all poultry, and is unsurpassed for courage. The Malay is more +cruel and ferocious, but has less real courage. Game fowls are in every +respect fighting birds, and, although cock-fighting is now very properly +prohibited by law, Game fowls are always judged mainly in reference to +fighting qualities. But their pugnacious disposition renders them very +troublesome, especially if they have not ample range, although it does +not disqualify them for small runs to the extent generally supposed. A +blow with his spur is dangerous, and instances have been recorded of +very severe injuries inflicted upon children, even causing death. An old +newspaper states that "Mr. Johnson, a farmer in the West Riding of +Yorkshire, who has a famous breed of the Game fowl, has had the great +misfortune to lose his little son, a boy of three years old, who was +attacked by a Game cock, and so severely injured that he died shortly +afterwards." High-bred hens are quite as pugnacious as the cocks. The +chickens are very quarrelsome, and both cocks and hens fight so +furiously, that frequently one-half of a brood is destroyed, and the +other half have to be killed. + +Game fowls are hardy when they can have liberty, but cannot be well kept +in a confined space. They eat little, and are excellent for an +unprotected place, because by their activity they avoid danger +themselves, and by their courage defend their chickens from enemies. The +hen is a prolific layer, and, if she has a good run, equal to any breed. +The eggs, though of moderate size only, are remarkable for delicacy of +flavour. She is an excellent sitter, and still more excellent mother. +The chickens are easily reared, require little food, and are more robust +in constitution than almost any other variety. + +The flesh of the Game fowl is beautifully white, and superior to that of +all other breeds for richness and delicacy of flavour. They should never +be put up to fat, as they are impatient of confinement. "They are in no +way fit for the fattening-coop," says Mr. Baily. "They cannot bear the +extra food without excitement, and that is not favourable to obesity. +Nevertheless, they have their merits. If they are reared like pheasants +round a keeper's house, and allowed to run semi-wild in the woods, to +frequent sunny banks and dry ditches, they will grow up like them; they +will have little fat, but they will be full of meat. They must be eaten +young; and a Game pullet four or five months old, caught up wild in this +way, and killed two days before she is eaten, is, perhaps, the most +delicious chicken there is in point of flavour." + +The Game-fowl continues to breed for many years without showing any +signs of decay, and in this respect is superior to the Cochin, Brahma, +and even to the Dorking. + +The cock's head should be long, but fine; beak long, curved, and strong; +comb single, small, upright, and bright red; wattles and face bright +red; eyes large and brilliant; neck long, arched, and strong; breast +well developed; back short and broad between the shoulders, but tapering +to the tail; thighs muscular, but short compared to the shanks; spur +low; foot flat, with powerful claws, and his carriage erect. The form of +the hen should resemble the above on a smaller scale, with small, fine +comb and face, and wattles of a less intense red. The feathers of both +should be very hard, firm, and close, very strong in the quills, and +seem so united that it should be almost impossible to ruffle them, each +feather if lifted up falling readily into its original place. Size is +not a point of merit, from four to six pounds being considered +sufficient, and better than heavier weights. Among the list of +imperfections in Game cocks, Sketchley enumerates "flat sides, short +legs, thin thighs, crooked or indented breast, short thin neck, +imperfect eye, and duck or short feet." + +"It is the custom," says Miss Watts, "consequently imperative, that all +birds which are exhibited should have been dubbed, and this should not +be done until the comb is so much developed that it will not spring +again after the dubbing. This will be safe if the chicken is nearly six +months old, but some are more set than others at a certain age. A keen +pair of scissors is the best instrument with which to operate. Hold the +fowl with a firm hand, cut away the deaf ears and wattles, then cut the +comb, cutting a certain distance from the back, and then from the front +to join this cut, taking especial care not to go too near the skull. +Some operators put a finger inside the mouth to get a firm purchase. We +should like to see dubbing done away with, leaving these beautiful fowls +as nature makes them; but since amateurs and shows will not agree to +this, it is best to give directions for dubbing, as an operation +bunglingly performed is sure to give unnecessary pain." To save the bird +from excessive loss of blood his wattles are usually cut off a week +later. Every superfluous piece of flesh and skin should be removed. + +The "Henwife" well says: "Why these poor birds are condemned to submit +to this cruel operation is a mystery, unfathomable, I suspect, even by +the judges themselves. Cock-fighting being forbidden by law, the cocks +should, on principle, be left undubbed, as a protest against this brutal +amusement. The comb of the Game male bird is as beautifully formed as +that of the Dorking; why then rob it of this great ornament? It is +asserted that it is necessary to remove the comb to prevent the cocks +injuring each other fatally in fighting; but this is not true; a Dorking +will fight for the championship as ardently as any Game bird, and yet +his comb is spared. Cockerels will not quarrel if kept apart from hens +until the breeding season, when they should be separated, and put on +their several walks. If pugnaciously inclined I do not believe that the +absence of the comb will save the weaker opponent from destruction; +therefore I raise my voice for pity, in favour of the beautiful Game +cock." + +The colours are various, and they are classed into numerous varieties +and sub-varieties, of which the chief are--Black-breasted Red; +Brown-Red; Silver Duck-wing Greys, so called from the feathers +resembling those of a duck; Greys; Blues; Duns; Piles, or Pieds; Black; +White; and Brassy-winged, which is Black with yellow on the lesser wing +coverts. Colours and markings must be allowed a somewhat wide range in +this breed; and figure, with courage, may be held to prove purity of +blood though the colour be doubtful. Mr. Douglas considers the +Black-breasted Red the finest feathered Game, and states that he never +found any come so true to colour as a brood of that variety. White in +the tail feathers is highly objectionable, though not an absolute +disqualification. White fowls should be entirely white, with white legs. +The rules for the coloured legs are very undecided. Light legs match +light-coloured birds best. No particular colour is imperative, but it +should harmonise with the plumage, and all in a pen must agree. + +The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds with willow legs, and the +worst the Greys. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +DORKINGS. + + +This is one of the finest breeds, and especially English. A pure Dorking +is distinguished by an additional or fifth toe. There are several +varieties, which are all comprised in two distinct classes--the White +and the Coloured. The rose-combed white breed is _the_ Dorking of the +old fanciers, and most probably the original breed, from which the +coloured varieties were produced by crossing it with the old Sussex, or +some other large coloured fowl. "That such was the case," says Mr. +Wright, "is almost proved by the fact that only a few years ago nothing +was more uncertain than the appearance of the fifth toe in coloured +chickens, even of the best strains. Such uncertainty in any important +point is always an indication of mixed blood; and that it was so in this +case is shown by the result of long and careful breeding, which has now +rendered the fifth toe permanent, and finally established the variety." +Mr. Brent says: "The _old_ Dorking, the _pure_ Dorking, the _only_ +Dorking, is the _White_ Dorking. It is of good size, compact and plump +form, with short neck, short white legs, five toes, a full rose-comb, a +large breast, and a plumage of spotless white. The practice of crossing +with a Game cock was much in vogue with the old breeders, to improve a +worn-out stock (which, however, would have been better accomplished by +procuring a fresh bird of the same kind, but not related). This cross +shows itself in single combs, loss of a claw, or an occasional red +feather, but what is still more objectionable, in pale-yellow legs and a +yellow circle about the beak, which also indicates a yellowish skin. +These, then, are faults to be avoided. As regards size, the White +Dorking is generally inferior to the Sussex fowl (or 'coloured +Dorking'), but in this respect it only requires attention and careful +breeding. The pure White Dorking may truly be considered as fancy stock, +as well as useful, because they will breed true to their points; but the +grey Sussex, Surrey or Coloured Dorking, often sport. To the breeders +and admirers of the so-called 'Coloured Dorkings' I would say, continue +to improve the fowl of your choice, but let him be known by his right +title; do not support him on another's fame, nor yet deny that the +rose-comb or fifth toe is essential to a Dorking, because your +favourites are not constant to those points. The absence of the fifth +claw to the Dorking would be a great defect, but to the Sussex fowl +(erroneously called a 'Coloured Dorking') it is my opinion it would be +an improvement, provided the leg did not get longer with the loss." + +The fifth toe should not be excessively large, or too far above the +ordinary toe. + +The White Dorking must have the plumage uniformly white, though in the +older birds the hackle and saddle may attain a light golden tint. The +rose-comb is preferable, and the beak and legs should be light and +clear. + +The Coloured Dorking is now bred to great size and beauty. It is a +large, plump, compact, square-made bird, with short white legs, and +should have a well-developed fifth toe. The plumage is very varied, and +may have a wide range, and might almost be termed immaterial, provided a +coarse mealy appearance be avoided, and the pen is well matched. This +latitude in respect of plumage is so generally admitted that the +assertion "you cannot breed Dorkings true to colour," has almost +acquired the authority of a proverb. They may be shown with either rose +or single combs, but all the birds in a pen must match. + +The Dorking is the perfection of a table bird, combining +delicately-flavoured white flesh, which is produced in greatest quantity +in the choicest parts--the breast, merry-thought, and wings--equal +distribution of fat, and symmetrical shape. Mr. Baily prefers the +Speckled or Grey to the White, as "they are larger, hardier, and fatten +more readily, and although it may appear anomalous, it is not less true +that white-feathered poultry has a tendency to yellowness in the flesh +and fat." Size is an important point in Dorkings. Coloured prize birds +weigh from seven to fourteen pounds, and eight months' chickens six or +seven pounds. The White Dorking is smaller. + +They are not good layers, except when very young, and are bad winter +layers. The eggs are large, averaging 2-3/4 ounces, pure white, very +much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each end. The hen is an +excellent sitter and mother. The chickens are very delicate, requiring +more care when young than most breeds, and none show a greater +mortality, no more than two-thirds of a brood usually surviving the +fourth week of their life. They should not be hatched before March, and +must be kept on gravel soil, hard clay, or other equally dry ground, and +never on brick, stone, or wooden flooring. + +This breed will only thrive on a dry soil. They are fond of a wide +range, and cannot be kept within a fence of less than seven feet in +height. When allowed unlimited range they appear to grow hardy, and are +as easily reared as any other breed if not hatched too early. If kept in +confinement they should have fresh turf every day, besides other +vegetable food. Dorkings degenerate more than any breed by +inter-breeding, and rapidly decrease in size. + +Dorkings are peculiarly subject to a chronic inflammation or abscess of +the foot, known as "bumble-foot," which probably originated in heavy +fowls descending from high perches and walking over sharp stones. The +additional toe may have rendered them more liable to this disease. It +may now arise from the same cause, and is best prevented by using broad, +low perches, and keeping their runs clear of sharp, rough stones, but it +also appears to have become hereditary in some birds. There is no cure +for it when matured except its removal, and this operation fails oftener +than it succeeds; but Mr. Tegetmeier states, that he has in early cases +removed the corn-like or wart-like tumours on the ball of the foot with +which the disease begins, and cauterised the part with nitrate of silver +successfully. + +[Illustration: Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs. Black +Spanish] + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +SPANISH. + + +This splendid breed was originally imported from Spain, and is +characterised by its peculiar white face, which in the cock should +extend from the comb downwards, including the entire face, and meet +beneath in a white cravat, hidden by the wattles; and in the hen should +be equally striking. The plumage is perfectly black, with brilliant +metallic lustre, reflecting rich green and purple tints. The tail should +resemble a sickle in the cock, and be square in the hen. The comb should +be of a bright red, large, and high, upright in the cock, but pendent in +the hen; the legs blue, clean, and long, and the bearing proud and +gallant. + +With care they will thrive in a very small space, and are perhaps better +adapted for town than any other variety. They are tolerably hardy when +grown, but suffer much from cold and wet. Their combs and wattles are +liable to be injured by severe cold, from which these fowls should be +carefully protected. If frost-bitten, the parts should be rubbed with +snow or cold water, and the birds must not be taken into a warm room +until recovered. + +The Spanish are excellent layers, producing five or six eggs weekly from +February to August, and two or three weekly from November to February, +and also laying earlier than any other breed except the Brahma, the +pullets beginning to lay before they are six months old. Although the +hens are only of an average size, and but moderate eaters, their eggs +are larger than those of any other breed, averaging 3-1/2 ounces, and +some weighing 4-1/2 ounces, each. The shells are very thin and white, +and the largest eggs are laid in the spring. + +The flesh is excellent, but the body is small compared to that of the +Dorking. They very seldom show any inclination to sit, and if they hatch +a brood are bad nurses. The chickens are very delicate, and are best +hatched at the end of April and during May. They do not feather till +almost three-parts grown, and require a steady mother that will keep +with them till they are safely feathered, and therefore the eggs should +be set under a Dorking hen, because that breed remains longer with the +chicks than any other. They almost always have white feathers in the +flight of the wings, but these become black. + +"In purchasing Spanish fowls," says an excellent authority, "blue legs, +the entire absence of white or coloured feathers in the plumage, and a +large white face, with a very large, high comb, which should be erect in +the cock, though pendent in the hen, should be insisted on." Legginess +is a fault that breeders must be careful to avoid. + +The cockerels show the white face earlier than the pullets, and a blue, +shrivelly appearance in the face of the chickens is a better sign of +future whiteness than a red fleshiness. Pullets are rarely fully +white-faced till above a year old. "The white face," says an excellent +authority, "should always extend well around the eye, and up to the +point of junction with the comb, though a line of short black feathers +is there frequently seen to intrude its undesired presence. It is +certainly objectionable, and the less of it the better; but any attempt +to remove or disguise this eyesore should be followed by immediate +disqualification." Some exhibitors of Spanish shave the down of the +edges of the white-face, in order to make it smooth and larger. This +disgraceful practice is not allowed at the Birmingham Show. + +"One test of condition," says Mr. Baily, "more particularly of the +pullets, is the state of the comb, which will be red, soft, and +developed, just in proportion to the condition of the bird. While +moulting--and they are almost naked during this process--the comb +entirely shrivels up." + +The White-faced WHITE SPANISH is thought to be merely a sport of the +White-faced Black Spanish. But, whatever their origin may have been, +they possess every indication of common blood with their Black +relatives, and their claims to appear by their side in the exhibition +room are as good as those of the White Cochins and the White Polish. The +plumage is uniformly white, but in all other respects they resemble the +Black breed. From the absence of contrast of colour shown in the face, +comb, and plumage of the Black Spanish, the White variety is far less +striking in appearance. + +The ANDALUSIAN are so called from having been brought from the Spanish +province of Andalusia. This breed is of a bluish grey, sometimes +slightly laced with a darker shade, but having the neck hackles and tail +feathers of a glossy black, with red face and white ears. The chickens +are very hardy, and feather well, and earlier than the Spanish. + +The MINORCA is so called from having been imported from that island, and +is a larger and more compactly-formed breed, resembling the Spanish in +its general characteristics; black, with metallic lustre, but with red +face, and having only the ear-lobes white; showing even a larger comb, +and with shorter legs. They are better as table fowls than the Spanish, +but the Andalusian are superior to either. The Minorca is the best layer +of all the Spanish breeds, its chickens are tolerably hardy, and it is +altogether far superior to the White-faced breed. + +ANCONA is a provincial term applied to black and white mottled, or +"cuckoo," which on all other points resemble Minorcas, but are smaller. + +The "Black Rot," to which Spanish fowls are subject, is a blackening of +the comb, swelling of the legs and feet, and general wasting of the +system; and can only be cured in the earlier stages by frequent purgings +with castor oil, combined with warm nourishing food, and strong ale, or +other stimulants, given freely. They are also subject to a peculiar kind +of swelled face, which first appears like a small knob under the skin, +and increases till it has covered one side of the face. It is considered +to be incurable. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +HAMBURGS. + + +This breed is medium-sized, and should have a brilliant red, +finely-serrated rose-comb, terminating in a spike at the back, taper +blue legs, ample tail, exact markings, a well-developed white deaf-ear, +and a quick, spirited bearing. They are classed in three varieties, the +Pencilled, Spangled, and Black varieties, with the sub-varieties of Gold +and Silver in the two former. + +The Pencilled Hamburg is of two ground colours, gold and silver, that +is, of a brown yellow or white, and very minutely marked. The hens of +both colours should have the body clearly pencilled across with several +bars of black. The hackle in both sexes should be free from dark marks. +In the Golden-pencilled variety the cock should be of one uniform red +all over his body without any pencilling whatever, and his tail copper +colour; but many first-class birds have pure black tails and the sickle +feathers should be shaded with a rich bronze or copper. In the +Silver-pencilled variety the cock is often nearly white, with yellowish +wing-coverts, and a brown or chestnut patch on the flight feathers of +his wing. The tail should be black and the sickle feathers tinged with a +reddish white. + +The Speckled or Spangled Hamburg, also called Pheasant Fowl, from the +false idea that the pheasant was one of its parents, is of two kinds, +the Golden-speckled and Silver-speckled, according to their ground +colour, the marking taking the form of a spot upon each feather. They +have very full double and firmly fixed combs, the point at the end +turning upwards, a dark rim round the eyes, blue legs, and mixed hackle. +They were also called Moss Fowls, and Mooneys, the latter probably +because the end of every feather should have a black rim on the yellow +or white ground. In the Golden-spangled some judges prefer cocks with a +pure black breast, but others desire them spangled. + +"One chief cause of discussion," says Miss Watts, "relating to the +Hamburg, regarded the markings on the cocks. The Yorkshire breed, which +had been a favourite in that county for many years, produced henny +cocks--_i.e._ cocks with plumage resembling that of a hen. The feathers +of the hackle were not narrow and elongated like those of cocks +generally, but were short and rounded like those of the hen; the +saddle-feathers were the same, and the tail, instead of being graced +with fine flowing sickle feathers, was merely square like that of a hen. +The Lancashire Mooneys, on the contrary, produce cocks with as fine +flowing plumage as need grace any chanticleer in the land, and +tails with sickle-feathers twenty-two inches long, fine flowing +saddle-feathers, and abundant hackle. The hen-tail cocks had the +markings, as well as the form, of the hen; the long feathers of the +others cannot, from their form, have these markings. On this question +party-spirit ran high: York and Lancaster, Cavalier and Roundhead, were +small discussions compared with it; but the hen-cocks were beaten, and +we now seldom hear of them. A mixture of the two breeds has been tried; +but by it valuable qualities and purity of race have been sacrificed." + +The Black Hamburg is of a beautiful black with a metallic lustre, and is +a noble-looking bird, the cocks often weighing seven pounds. There is +little doubt that it was produced by crossing with the Spanish, which +blood shows itself in the white face, which is often half apparent, and +in the darker legs. But it is well established as a distinct variety, +and good birds breed true to colour and points. The cocks' combs are +larger, and the hens' legs shorter, than the other varieties. + +Bolton Bays and Greys, Chitteprats, Turkish, and Creoles or Corals, +Pencilled Dutch fowls, and Dutch every-day layers, are but incorrect +names for the Hamburgs, with which they are identical. + +The Hamburgs do not attain to their full beauty until three years old. +"As a general rule," says Mr. Baily, "no true bred Hamburg fowl has +top-knot, single comb, white legs, any approach to feather on the legs, +white tail, or spotted hackle." The white ear-lobe being so +characteristic a feature in all the Hamburgs, becomes most important in +judging their merits. Weight is not considered, but still the Pencilled +cock should not weigh less than four and a half pounds, nor the hen than +three and a half; and the Spangled cock five pounds and the hen four. + +The Hamburgs are most prolific layers naturally, without +over-stimulating feeding, surpassing all others in the number of their +eggs, and deserve their popular name of "everlasting layers." Their eggs +are white, and do not weigh more than 1-1/2 ounce to 1-3/4 ounce each; +and the hens are known to average 240 eggs yearly. Not being large +eaters, they are very profitable fowls to keep. The eggs of the +Golden-spangled are the largest, and it is the hardiest variety, but the +Pencilled lay more. The Black variety produces large eggs, and lays a +greater number than any known breed. + +They very seldom show any desire to sit except when they have a free +woodland range, for even if free it must be wild to induce any desire to +perpetuate the species, and they never sit if confined to a yard. The +chickens should not be hatched earlier than May, but in the South of +England they will do very well if hatched by a Cochin-China hen at the +beginning of March. They are small birds for table, but of excellent +quality. + +Hamburgs do not bear confinement well, and will not thrive without a +good run; a grass field is the best. Being small and light, even a +ten-feet fence will not keep them within a small run. They may indeed be +kept in a shed, but the number must be very few in proportion to its +size, and they must be kept dry and scrupulously clean. They +are excellent guards in the country, for if disturbed in their +roosting-place they will make a great noise. The breed has improved in +this country, and British bred fowls are much stronger than the imported +birds. + +[Illustration: White-crested Black. Golden and Silver-spangled. + +POLISH.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +POLANDS. + + +This breed might with good reason be divided into more families, but it +is usual to rank as Polands all fowls with their chief distinguishing +characteristic, a full, large, round, compact tuft on the head. The +breed "is quite unknown in Poland, and takes its name," says Mr. +Dickson, "from some resemblance having been fancied between its tufted +crest and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by the +Polish soldiers." It is much esteemed in Egypt, and equally abundant at +the Cape of Good Hope, where their legs are feathered. Some travellers +assert that the Mexican poultry are crested, and that what are called +Poland fowls are natives of either Mexico or South America; but others +believe that they are natives of the East, and that they, as well as all +the other fowls on the Continent of America, have been introduced from +the Old World. + +The Golden-spangled and Silver-spangled are the most beautiful +varieties, the first being of a gold colour and the second white, both +spangled with black. The more uniform the colour of the tuft is with +that of the bird, the higher it is valued. + +The Black Poland is of a deep velvety black; has a large, white, round +tuft, and should not have a comb, but many have a little comb in the +form of two small points before the tuft. The tuft to be perfect should +be entirely white, but it is rare to meet with one without a slight +bordering of black, or partly black, feathers round the front. + +There are also Yellow, laced with white, Buff or Chamois, spangled with +white, Blue, Grey, Black, and White mottled. All the sub-varieties +should be of medium size, neat compact form, plump, full-breasted, and +have lead-coloured legs and ample tails. + +The top-knot of the cock should be composed of straight feathers, +growing from the centre of the crown, and falling over outside, but not +so much as to intercept the sight, and form a circular crest. That of +the hen should be formed of feathers growing out and turning in at the +extremity, so as to resemble a cauliflower, and it should be even, firm, +and as nearly round as possible. Large, uneven top-knots composed of +loose feathers do not equal smaller but firm and well-shaped crests. The +white ear-lobe is essential in all the varieties. + +"Beards" in Polands were formerly not admired. Among the early birds +brought from the continent, not one in a hundred was bearded, and those +that were so were often rejected, and it was a question of dispute +whether the pure bird should have them or not. Bearded birds at shows +were the exceptions, but an unbearded pen of Polands is now seldom or +ever seen. + +There was formerly a breed of White, with black top-knots, but that is +lost, although it seems to have been not only the most ornamental, but +the largest and most valuable of all the Polish varieties. The last +specimen known was seen by Mr. Brent at St. Omer in 1854, and it is +possible that the breed may still exist in France or Ireland. + +The SERAI TA-OOK, or FOWL OF THE SULTAN, is the latest Polish fowl +introduced into this country. They were imported in 1854 by Miss Watts, +who says: "With regard to the name, Serai is the name of the Sultan's +palace; Tä-ook is Turkish for fowl; the simplest translation of this is, +Sultan's fowls, or fowls of the Sultan; a name which has the double +advantage of being the nearest to be found to that by which they have +been known in their own country, and of designating the country from +which they came. In general habits they are brisk and happy-tempered, +but not kept in as easily as Cochin-Chinas. They are very good layers; +their eggs are large and white; they are non-sitters, and small eaters. +A grass run with them will remain green long after the crop would have +been cleared by either Brahmas or Cochins, and with scattered food they +soon become satisfied and walk away. They are the size of our English +Poland fowls. Their plumage is white and flowing; they have a full-sized +compact Poland tuft on the head, are muffed, have a good flowing tail, +short well-feathered legs, and five toes upon each foot. The comb is +merely two little points, and the wattles very small. We have never seen +fowls more fully decorated--full tail, abundant furnishing, in hackle +almost touching the ground, boots, vulture-hocks, beards, whiskers, and +full round Poland crests. Their colour is pure white." + +They are prolific layers during spring and summer. Their eggs are white, +and weigh from 2 ounces to 2-1/4 ounces each, the Spangled varieties +producing the largest. They rarely sit, and generally leave their eggs +after five or six days, and are not good mothers. The chickens require +great care for six weeks. They should never be hatched by heavy hens, as +the prominence in the skull which supports the top-knot is never +completely covered with bone, and very sensible to injury. Like the Game +breed they improve in feather for several years. Polands never thrive on +a wet or cold soil, and are more affected by bad weather than any other +breed; the top-knots being very liable to be saturated with wet. +They are easily fattened, and their flesh is white, juicy, and +rich-flavoured, but they are not sufficiently large for the market. + +Mr. Hewitt cautions breeders against attempting to seize birds suddenly, +as the crest obscures their sight, and, being taken by surprise, they +are frequently so frightened as to die in the hand. They should, +therefore, always be spoken to, or their attention otherwise attracted +before being touched. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +Bantams. + + +Of this breed one kind is Game, and resembles the Game fowl, except in +size; another is feathered to the very toes, the feathers on the tarsi, +or beam of the leg, being long and stiff, and often brushing the ground. +They are peculiarly fancy fowls. There are several varieties, the White, +Black, Nankin, Partridge, Booted or Feather-legged, Game, and the +Golden-laced and Silver-laced, or Sebright Bantam. All should be very +small, varying from fourteen to twenty ounces in the hen, and from +sixteen to twenty-four in the cock. The head should be narrow; beak +curved; forehead rounded; eyes bright; back short; body round and full; +breast very prominent; legs short and clean, except in the Booted +variety; wings depressed; and the carriage unusually erect, the back of +the neck and the tail feathers almost touching; and the whole bearing +graceful, bold, and proud. + +[Illustration: Black. Sebright's Gold and Silver-laced. White. Game. + +BANTAMS.] + +"The Javanese jungle-fowl" (_Gallus Bankiva_), says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, +"the Ayam-utan of the Malays, is a native of Java; but either a variety +or a distinct species of larger size, yet very similar in colouring, is +found in continental India. The Javanese, or Bankiva jungle-fowl, is +about the size of an ordinary Bantam, and in plumage resembles the +black-breasted red Game-bird of our country, with, a steel-blue mark +across the wings. The comb is high, its edge is deeply serrated, and the +wattles are rather large. The hackle feathers of the neck and rump are +long and of a glossy golden orange; the shoulders are chestnut red, the +greater wing-coverts deep steel-blue, the quill feathers brownish black, +edged with pale, reddish yellow, or sandy red. The tail is of a black +colour, with metallic reflections of green and blue. The under parts are +black the naked space round the eyes, the comb, and wattles are +scarlet. The hen closely resembles a brown hen of the Game breed, except +in being very much smaller. That this bird, or its continental ally, is +one of the sources--perhaps the main source--of our domestic race, +cannot be doubted. It inter-breeds freely with our common poultry, and +the progeny is fertile. Most beautiful cross-breeds between the Bankiva +jungle-fowl and Bantam may be seen in the gardens of the Zoological +Society." + +"That the Bankiva jungle-fowl of Java, or its larger continental +variety, if it be not a distinct species (and of which Sir W. Jardine +states that he has seen several specimens), is one of the sources of our +domestic breeds, cannot, we think, be for a moment doubted. It would be +difficult to discover any difference between a clean-limbed, +black-breasted red Bantam-cock, and a cock Bankiva jungle-fowl. Indeed, +the very term Bantam goes far to prove their specific identity. Bantam +is a town or city at the bottom of a bay on the northern coast of Java; +it was first visited by the Portuguese in 1511, at which time a great +trade was carried on by the town with Arabia, Hindostan, and China, +chiefly in pepper. Subsequently it fell into the hands of the Dutch, and +was at one time the great rendezvous for European shipping. It is now a +place of comparative insignificance. From this it would seem that the +jungle-fowls domesticated and sold to the Europeans at Bantam continued +to be designated by the name of the place where they were obtained, and +in process of time the name was appropriated to all our dwarfish +breeds." + +Game Bantams are exact miniatures of real Game fowls, in Black-breasted +red, Duck-wing, and other varieties. The cocks must not have the strut +of the Bantam, but the bold, martial bearing of the Game cock. Their +wings should be carried closely, and their feathers be hard and close. +The Duck-wing cock's lower wing-coverts should be marked with blue, +forming a bar across each wing. + +The SEBRIGHT, or GOLD AND SILVER-LACED BANTAM, is a breed with clean +legs, and of most elegantly spangled plumage, which was bred and has +been brought to great perfection by Sir John Sebright, after whom they +are named. The attitude of the cock is singularly bold and proud, the +head being often thrown so much back as to meet the tail feathers, which +are simple like those of a hen, the ordinary sickle-like feathers being +abbreviated and broad. The Gold-laced Sebright Bantams should have +golden brownish-yellow plumage, each feather being bordered with a +lacing of black; the tail square like that of the hen, without sickle +feathers, and carried well over the back, each feather being tipped with +black, a rose-comb pointed at the back, the wings drooping to the +ground, neither saddle nor neck hackles, clean lead-coloured legs and +feet, and white ear-lobes; and the hen should correspond exactly with +him, but be much smaller. The Silver-laced birds have exactly the same +points except in the ground feathering, which should be silvery, and the +nearer the shade approaches to white the more beautiful will be the +bird. Their carriage should resemble that of a good Fantail pigeon. + +The BLACK BANTAMS should be uniform in colour, with well-developed white +ear-lobes, rose-combs, full hackles, sickled and flowing tail, and deep +slate-coloured legs. The WHITE BANTAMS should have white legs and beak. +Both should be of tiny size. + +The NANKIN, or COMMON YELLOW BANTAM, is probably the nearest approach to +the original type of the family--the "Bankiva fowl." The cock "has a +large proportion of red and dark chestnut on the body, with a full black +tail; while the hen is a pale orange yellow, with a tail tipped with +black, and the hackle lightly pencilled with the same colour, and clean +legs. Combs vary, but the rose is decidedly preferable. True-bred +specimens of these birds being by no means common, considerable +deviations from the above description may consequently be expected in +birds passing under this appellation." + +The BOOTED BANTAMS have their legs plumed to the toes, not on one side +only like Cochin-Chinas, but completely on both, with stiff, long +feathers, which brush the ground. The most beautiful specimens are of a +pure white. "Feathered-legged Bantams," says Mr. Baily, "may be of any +colour; the old-fashioned birds were very small, falcon-hocked, and +feathered, with long quill feathers to the extremity of the toe. Many of +them were bearded. They are now very scarce; indeed, till exhibitions +brought them again into notice, these beautiful specimens of their tribe +were all neglected and fast passing away. Nothing but the Sebright was +cultivated; but now we bid fair to revive the pets of our ancestors in +all their beauty." + +The PEKIN, or COCHIN BANTAMS, were taken from the Summer Palace at Pekin +during the Chinese war, and brought to this country. They exactly +resemble the Buff Cochins in all respects except size. They are very +tame. + +The JAPANESE BANTAM is a recent importation, and differs from most of +the other varieties in having a very large single comb. It has very +short well-feathered legs, and the colour varies. Some are quite white, +some have pure white bodies, with glossy, jet-black tails, others are +mottled and buff. They throw the tail up and the head back till they +nearly meet, as in the Fantailed pigeon. They are said to be the +constant companions of man in their native country, and have a droll and +good-natured expression. + +All the Bantam cocks are very pugnacious, and though the hens are good +mothers to their own chickens, they will attack any stranger with fury. +They are good layers of small but exquisitely-flavoured eggs. But no +breed produces so great a proportion of unfertile eggs. June is the best +month for hatching, as the chickens are delicate. They feather more +quickly than most breeds, and are apt to die at that period through the +great drain upon the system in producing feathers. When fully feathered +they are quite hardy. The hens are excellent mothers. The chickens +require a little more animal food than other fowls, and extra attention +for a week or two in keeping them dry. Bantams are very useful in a +garden, eating many slugs and insects, and doing little damage. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +FRENCH AND VARIOUS. + + +The French breeds are remarkable for great weight and excellent quality +of flesh, with a very small proportion of bones and offal; their +breeders having paid great attention to those important, substantial, +and commercial points instead of devoting almost exclusive attention to +colour and other fancy points as we have done. As a rule they are all +non-sitters, or sit but rarely. + +[Illustration: Houdans. La Flêche, cock. Crêve-Coeur, hen. + +FRENCH.] + +The CRÊVE-COEUR has been known the longest and most generally. This +breed is said to derive its name from a village so called in Normandy, +whence its origin can be distinctly traced; but others fancifully say, +from the resemblance of its peculiar comb to a broken heart. It is +scarce, and pure-bred birds are difficult to procure. The Crêve-Coeur +is a fine large bird, black in plumage, or nearly so, with short, clean +black legs, square body, deep chest, and a large and extraordinary crest +or comb, which is thus described by M. Jacque: "Various, but always +forming two horns, sometimes parallel, straight, and fleshy; sometimes +joined at the base, slightly notched, pointed, and separating at their +extremities; sometimes adding to this latter description interior +ramifications like the horns of a young stag. The comb, shaped like +horns, gives the Crêve-Coeur the appearance of a devil." It is +bearded, and has a top-knot or crest behind the comb. They are very +quiet, walk slowly, scratch but little, do not fly, are very tame, +ramble but little, and prefer seeking their food on the dunghill in the +poultry-yard to wandering afar off. They are the most contented of all +breeds in confinement, and will thrive in a limited space. They are +tame, tractable fowls, but inclined to roup and similar diseases in our +climate, and therefore prosper most on a dry, light soil, and can +scarcely have too much sun. They are excellent layers of very large +white eggs. + +The chickens grow so fast, and are so inclined to fatten, that they may +be put up at from ten to twelve weeks of age, and well fattened in +fifteen days. The Crêve-Coeur is a splendid table bird, both for the +quantity and quality of its flesh. The hen is heavy in proportion to the +cock, weighing eight and a half pounds against his nine and a half, and +the pullets always outweigh the cockerels. + +LA FLÊCHE is thus described by M. Jacque: "A strong, firm body, well +placed on its legs, and long muscular feet, appearing less than it +really is, because the feathers are close; every muscular part well +developed; black plumage. The La Flêche is the tallest of all French +cocks; it has many points of resemblance with the Spanish, from which I +believe it to be descended by crossing with the Crêve-Coeur. Others +believe that it is connected with the Brêda, which it does, in fact, +resemble, in some particulars. It has white, loose, and transparent +skin; short, juicy, and delicate flesh, which puts on fat easily." + +"The comb is transversal, double, forming two horns bending forward, +united at their base, divided at their summits, sometimes even and +pointed, sometimes having ramifications on the inner sides. A little +double 'combling' protrudes from the upper part of the nostrils, and +although hardly as large as a pea, this combling, which surmounts the +sort of rising formed by the protrusion of the nostrils, contributes to +the singular aspect of the head. This measured prominence of the comb +seems to add to the characteristic depression of the beak, and gives the +bird a likeness to a rhinoceros." The plumage is jet black, with a very +rich metallic lustre; large ear-lobe of pure white; bright red face, +unusually free from feathers; and bright lead-coloured legs, with hard, +firm scales. They are very handsome, showy, large, and lively birds, +more inclined to wander than the Crêve-Coeur, and hardier when full +grown; but their chickens are even more delicate in wet weather, and +should not be hatched before May. They are easily reared, and grow +quickly. They are excellent layers of very large white eggs, but do not +lay well in winter, unless under very favourable circumstances, and +resemble the Spanish in the size and number of their eggs, and the time +and duration of laying. Their flesh is excellent, juicy, and resembles +that of the Game fowl, and the skin white and transparent, but the legs +are dark. This breed is larger and has more style than the Crêve-Coeur, +and is better adapted to our climate; but the fowls lack constitution, +particularly the cocks, and are very liable to leg weakness and disease +of the knee-joint, and when they get out of condition seldom recover. +They are found in the north of France, but are not common even there. + +The HOUDAN has the size, deep compact body, short legs, and fifth toe of +the Dorking. They are generally white, some having black spots as large +as a shilling, are bearded, and should have good top-knots of black and +white feathers, falling backwards like a lark's crest; and the +remarkable comb is thus described by M. Jacque: "Triple, transversal in +the direction of the beak, composed of two flattened spikes, of long and +rectangular form, opening from right to left, like two leaves of a book; +thick, fleshy, and variegated at the edges. A third spike grows between +these two, having somewhat the shape of an irregular strawberry, and the +size of a long nut. Another, quite detached from the others, about the +size of a pea, should show between the nostrils, above the beak." + +Mr. F. H. Schröder, of the National Poultry Company, considered that +this surpassed all the French breeds, combining the size, shape, and +quality of flesh of the Dorking with earlier maturity; prolific laying +of good-sized eggs, which are nearly always fertile, and on this point +the opposite of the Dorking; and early and rapid feathering in the +chickens, which are, notwithstanding, hardier than any breeds except the +Cochin and Brahma. They are very hardy, never sick, and will thrive in a +small space. They are smaller than the Crêve-Coeur or La Flêche, but +well shaped and plump; and for combining size and quality of flesh with +quantity and size of eggs nothing can surpass them. + +SCOTCH DUMPIES, GO LAIGHS, BAKIES, or CREEPERS, are almost extinct; but +they are profitable fowls, and ought to be more common, as they are very +hardy, productive layers of fine large eggs, and their flesh is white +and of excellent quality. They should have large, heavy bodies; short, +white, clean legs, not above an inch and a half or two inches in length. +The plumage is a mixture of black or brown, and white. They are good +layers of fine large eggs. They cannot be surpassed as sitters and +mothers, and are much valued by gamekeepers for hatching the eggs of +pheasants. The cocks should weigh six or seven and the hen five or six +pounds. + +The SILKY fowl is so called from its plumage, which is snowy white, +being all discomposed and loose, and of a silky appearance, resembling +spun glass. The comb and wattles are purple; the bones and the +periosteum, or membrane covering the bones, black, and the skin blue or +purple; but the flesh, however, is white and tender, and superior to +that of most breeds. It is a good layer of small, round, and excellent +eggs. The cock generally weighs less than three, and the hen less than +two, pounds. It comes from Japan and China, and generally thrives in our +climate. The chickens are easily reared if not hatched before April nor +later than June. They are capital foster mothers for partridges, and +other small and tender game. + +The RUMPKIN, or RUMPLESS fowl, a Persian breed, not only lacks the +tail-feathers but the tail itself. It is hardy, of moderate size, and +varies in colour, but is generally black or brown, and from the absence +of tail appears rounder than other fowls. The hens are good layers, but +the eggs are often unfertile. They are good sitters and mothers, and the +flesh is of fair quality. + +The FRIESLAND, so named from confounding the term "frizzled" with +Friesland, is remarkable from having all the feathers, except those of +the wings and tail, frizzled, or curled up the wrong way. It is small, +very delicate, and a shower drenches it to the skin. + +BARN-DOOR fowl are a mongrel race, compounded by chance, usually of the +Game, Dorking, and Polish breeds. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +TURKEYS. + + +Turkeys are not considered profitable except on light, dry soils, which +is said to be the cause of their success in Norfolk. They prosper, +however, in Ireland; but although the air there is moist, the soil is +dry, except in the boggy districts. Miss Watts believes that "any place +in which turkeys are properly reared and fed may compete with Norfolk. +Very fine birds may be seen in Surrey, and other places near London." +The general opinion of the best judges is, that they can barely be made +to repay the cost of their food, which is doubtless owing to the usual +great mortality among the chicks, which loss outbalances all profit; but +others make them yield a fair profit, simply because, from good +situation and judicious management, they rear all, or nearly all, the +chicks. A single brood may be reared with ease on a small farm or +private establishment without much extra expense, where sufficient +attention can be devoted to them; but to make them profitable they +should be bred on a large scale, and receive exclusive attention. They +should have a large shed or house, with a boarded floor, to themselves. + +[Illustration: Turkey and Guinea-fowls.] + +Turkeys must have space, for they are birds of rambling habits, and only +fitted for the farmyard, or extensive runs, delighting to wander in the +fields in quest of insects, on which, with green herbage, berries, +beech-mast, and various seeds, they greedily feed. The troop will ramble +about all day, returning to roost in the evening, when they should have +a good supply of grain; and another should be given in the morning, +which will not only induce them to return home regularly every night, +but keep them in good store condition, so that they can at any time be +speedily fattened. Peas, vetches, tares, and most sorts of pulse, are +almost poisonous to them. Their feeding-place must be separate from +the other poultry, or they will gobble up more than their share. Turkeys +will rarely roost in a fowl-house, and should have a very high open +shed, the perches being placed as high as possible. They are extremely +hardy, roosting, if allowed, on the highest trees in the severest +weather. But this should be prevented, as their feet are apt to become +frost-bitten in severe weather. The chickens are as delicate. Wet is +fatal to them, and the very slightest shower even in warm weather will +frequently destroy half a brood. + +The breeding birds should be carefully selected, any malformation almost +invariably proving itself hereditary. The cock is at maturity when a +year old, but not in his prime till he has attained his third year, and +is entering upon his fourth, and he continues in vigour for three or +four years more. He should be vigorous, broad-breasted, clean-legged, +with ample wings, well-developed tail, bright eyes, and the carunculated +skin of the neck full and rapid in its changes of colour. The largest +possible hen should be chosen, the size of the brood depending far more +upon the female than the male. One visit to the male is sufficient to +render all the eggs fertile, and the number of hens may be unlimited, +but to obtain fine birds, twelve or fifteen hens to one cock is the best +proportion. The hen breeds in the spring following that in which she was +hatched, but is not in her prime till two or three years old, and +continues for two or three years in full vigour. + +The hen generally commences laying about the middle of March, but +sometimes earlier. When from her uttering a peculiar cry and prying +about in quest of a secret spot for sitting, it is evident that she is +ready to lay, she should be confined in the shed, barn, or other place +where the nest has been prepared for her, and let out when she has laid +an egg. The nest should be made of straw and dried leaves, in a large +wicker basket, in a quiet secluded place, and an egg or nest-egg of +chalk should be placed in it to induce her to adopt it. Turkeys like to +choose their own laying-places, and keep to them though their eggs are +removed daily, provided a nest-egg is left there. They will wander to a +distance in search of a secluded spot for laying, and pay their visits +to the nest so cleverly that sometimes they keep it a secret and hatch a +brood there, which, however, does not generally prove a strong or large +one as in the case of ordinary fowls. When a hen has chosen a safe, +quiet, and sheltered place for her nest, it is best to give her more +eggs when she shows a desire to sit, and let her stay there. The hen +generally lays from fifteen to twenty eggs, sometimes fewer and often +many more. As soon as seven are produced, they should be placed under a +good common hen, a Cochin is the best, and the remainder can be put +under her when she wants to sit. The best hatching period is from the +end of March to May, and none should be hatched later than June. The +broody hens may be placed on their eggs in any quiet place, as they are +patient, constant sitters, and will not leave their eggs wherever they +may be put. A hen may be allowed from nine to fifteen eggs, according to +her size. During the time the hen is sitting she requires constant +attention. She must occasionally be taken off the nest to feed, and +regularly supplied with fresh water; otherwise she will continue to sit +without leaving for food, till completely exhausted. In general, do not +let the cock go near the sitting hen, or he will destroy the eggs or +chicks; but some behave well, and may be left at large with safety. She +should not be disturbed or visited by any one but the person she is +accustomed to be fed by, and the eggs should not be touched +unnecessarily. + +The chickens break the shell from the twenty-sixth to the twenty-ninth +day, but sometimes as late as the thirty-first. Let them remain in the +nest for twenty-four hours, but remove the shells, and next morning +place the hen under a roomy coop or crate, on boards, in a warm +outhouse. Keep her and her brood cooped up for two months, moving the +coop every fine day into a dry grass field, but keep them in an outhouse +in cold or wet weather. The chicks having a great tendency to diarrhoea, +the very best food for the first week is hard-boiled eggs, chopped +small, mixed with minced dandelion, and when that cannot be had, with +boiled nettles. They may then have boiled egg, bread-crumbs, and +barley-meal for a fortnight, when the egg may be replaced by boiled +potato, and small grain may soon be added. Do not force them to eat, but +give them a little food on the tip of your finger, and they will soon +learn to pick it out of the trough. A little hempseed, suet, onion-tops, +green mustard, and nettle-tops, chopped very fine, should be mixed with +their food. Curds are excellent food, and easily prepared by mixing +powdered alum with milk slightly warmed, in the proportion of one +teaspoonful of alum to four quarts of milk, and, when curdled, +separating the curds from the whey. They should be squeezed very dry, +and must always be given in a soft state. Water should be given but +sparingly, and never allowed to stand by them, but when they have had +sufficient it should be taken or thrown away. The water must be put in +pans so contrived or placed that they cannot wet themselves. (_See_ page +38.) Fresh milk is apt to disagree with the young chicks, and is not +necessary. If a chick shows weakness, or has taken cold, give it some +carraway seeds. + +In their wild state the turkey rears only one brood in a season, and it +is not advisable to induce the domesticated bird by any expedients to +hatch a second, for it would be not only detrimental to her, but the +brood would be hatched late in the season, and very difficult to rear, +while those reared would not be strong, healthy birds. + +The coop should be like that used for common fowls, but two feet broad, +and higher, being about three feet high in front and one foot at the +back; this greater slant of the roof being made in order to confine her +movements, as otherwise she would move about too much, and trample upon +her brood. When they have grown larger they must have a larger coop, +made of open bars wide enough apart for them to go in and out, but too +close to let in fowls to eat their delicate food, and the hen must be +placed under it with them. A large empty crate, such as is used to +contain crockery-ware, will make a good coop for large poults; but if +one cannot be had, a coop may be made of laths or rails, with the bars +four inches apart; it should be about five feet long, four feet broad, +and three feet high. + +Keep her cooped for two months, moving the coop every fine, dry day into +a grass field, but on cold or wet days keep them in the outhouse. If she +is allowed her liberty before they are well grown and strong, she will +wander away with them through the long grass, hedges, and ditches, over +highway, common, and meadow, mile after mile, losing them on the road, +and straying on with the greatest complacency, and perfectly satisfied +so long as she has one or two following her, and never once turning her +head to see how her panting chicks are getting on, nor troubled when +they squat down tired out, and implore her plaintively to come back; and +all this arises from sheer heedlessness, and not from want of affection, +for she will fight for her brood as valiantly as any pheasant will for +hers. When full grown they should never be allowed to roam with her +while there is heavy dew or white frost on the grass, but be kept in +till the fields and hedgerows are dry. They will pick up many seeds and +insects while wandering about in the fields with her, but must be fed by +hand three or four times a day at regular intervals. + +They cease to be chicks or chickens, and are called turkey-poults when +the male and female distinctive characteristics are fairly established, +the carunculated skin and comb of the cock being developed, which is +called "shooting the red," or "putting out the red," and begins when +they are eight or ten weeks old. It is the most critical period of their +lives--much more so than moulting, and during the process their food +must be increased in quantity, and made more nourishing by the addition +of boiled egg-yolks, bread crumbled in ale, wheaten flour, bruised +hempseed, and the like, and they must be well housed at night. When this +process is completed they will be hardy, and able to take care of +themselves; but till they are fully fledged it will be advisable to keep +them from rain and cold, and not to try their hardness too suddenly. + +Vegetables, as chopped nettles, turnip-tops, cabbage sprouts, onions, +docks, and the like, boiled down and well mixed with barley-meal, +oatmeal, or wheaten flour, and curds, if they can be afforded, form +excellent food for the young poults; also steamed potatoes, boiled +carrots, turnips, and the like. With this diet may be given buckwheat, +barley, oats, beans, and sunflower seeds. + +When they are old enough to be sent to the stubble and fields, they are +placed in charge of a boy or girl of from twelve to fifteen years old, +who can easily manage one hundred poults. They are driven with a long +bean stick, and the duties of the turkey-herd is to keep the cocks from +fighting, to lead them to every place where there are acorns, +beech-mast, corn, wild fruit, insects, or other food to be picked up. He +must not allow them to get fatigued with too long rambles, as they are +not fully grown, and must shelter them from the burning sun, and hasten +them home on the approach of rain. The best times for these rambles are +from eight to ten in the morning, when the dew is off the grass, and +from four till seven in the evening, before it begins to fall. + +Turkeys are crammed for the London markets. The process of fattening may +commence when they are six months old, as they require a longer time to +become fit for the market than fowls. The large birds which are seen at +Christmas are usually males of the preceding year, and about twenty +months old. All experienced breeders repudiate "cramming." To obtain +fine birds the chickens must be fed abundantly from their birth until +they are sent to market, and while they are being fattened they should +be sent to the fields and stubble for a shorter time daily, and their +food must be increased in quantity and improved in quality. Early +hatched, well fed young Norfolk cocks will frequently weigh twenty-three +pounds by Christmas of the same year, and two-year-old birds will +sometimes attain to twenty pounds. When two or more years old they are +called "stags." + +The domesticated turkey can scarcely be said to be divided into distinct +breeds like the common fowl, the several varieties being distinguished +by colour only, but identical in their form and habits. They vary +considerably in colour--some being of a bronzed black, others of a +coppery tint, of a delicate fawn colour, or buff, and some of pure +white. The dark coloured birds are generally considered the most hardy, +and are usually the largest. The chief varieties are the Cambridge, +Norfolk, Irish, American, and French. + +The Cambridge combines enormous size, a tendency to fatten speedily, and +first-rate flavour. The tortoiseshell character of its plumage gives the +adult birds a very prepossessing appearance around the homestead, and a +striking character in the exhibition room. The colours may vary from +pale to dark grey, with a deep metallic brown tint, and light legs. The +legs should be stout and long. + +The Norfolk breed is more compact and smaller-boned, and produces a +large quantity of meat of delicate whiteness and excellent quality. The +cocks are almost as heavy as the Cambridge breed, but the hens are +smaller and more compact. The Norfolk should be jet, not blue black, and +free from any other colour, being uniform throughout, including the legs +and feet. + +All the birds in a pen must be uniform. + +The American wild turkey has become naturalised in this country, but +being of a very wandering disposition is best adapted to be kept in +parks and on large tracts of wild land. It is slender in shape, but of +good size, with uniform metallic bronze plumage, the flight feathers +being barred with white, and the tail alternately with white, rich dark +brown, and black, and with bright pink legs. The wattles are smaller +than in the other breeds, and of a bluish tinge. They are very hardy, +but more spiteful than others, and are said to be also more prolific. +Crosses often take place in America between the wild and tame races, and +are highly valued both for their appearance and for the table. Eggs of +the wild turkey have also often been taken from their nests, and hatched +under the domesticated hen. The flavour of the flesh of the American +breed is peculiar and exceedingly good, but they do not attain a large +size. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +GUINEA-FOWLS. + + +The Guinea-fowl, Gallina, or Pintado (_Numida Meleagris_), is the true +meleagris of the ancients, a term generically applied by Belon, +Aldrovandus, and Gesner to the turkey, and now retained, although the +error is acknowledged, in order to prevent confusion. It is a native of +Africa, where it is extensively distributed. They associate in large +flocks and frequent open glades, the borders of forests, and banks of +rivers, which offer abundant supplies of grain, berries, and insects, in +quest of which they wander during the day, and collect together at +evening, and roost in clusters on the branches of trees or shrubs. +Several other wild species are known, some of which are remarkable for +their beauty; but the common Guinea-fowl is the only one domesticated in +Europe. The Guinea-fowl is about twenty-two inches long, and from +standing high on its legs, and having loose, full plumage, appears to be +larger than it really is, for when plucked it does not weigh more than +an ordinary Dorking. It is very plump and well-proportioned. The +Guinea-fowl is not bred so much as the turkey in England or France, is +very rare in the northern parts of Europe, and in India is bred almost +exclusively by Europeans, although it thrives as well there as in its +native country. It "is turbulent and restless," says Mr. Dickson, +"continually moving from place to place, and domineering over the whole +poultry-yard, boldly attacking even the fiercest turkey cock, and +keeping all in alarm by its petulant pugnacity"; and the males, although +without spurs, can inflict serious injury on other poultry with their +short, hard beaks. The Guinea-fowls make very little use of their wings, +and if forced to take to flight, fly but a short distance, then alight, +and trust to their rapid mode of running, and their dexterity in +threading the mazes of brushwood and dense herbage, for security. They +are shy, wary, and alert. + +It is not much kept, its habits being wandering, and requiring an +extensive range, but as it picks up nearly all its food, and is very +prolific, it may be made very profitable in certain localities. The +whole management of both the young and the old may be precisely the same +as that of turkeys, in hatching, feeding, and fattening. This "species," +says Mr. Dickson, "differs from all other poultry, in its being +difficult to distinguish the cock from the hen, the chief difference +being in the colour of the wattles, which are more of a red hue in the +cock, and more tinged with blue in the hen. The cock has also a more +stately strut." + +They mate in pairs, and therefore an equal number of cocks and hens must +be kept, or the eggs will prove unfertile. To obtain stock, some of +their eggs must be procured, and placed under a common hen; for if old +birds are bought, they will wander away for miles in search of their old +home, and never return. They should be fed regularly, and must always +have one meal at night, or they will scarcely ever roost at home. They +will not sleep in the fowl-house, but prefer roosting in the lower +branches of a tree, or on a thick bush, and retire early. They make a +peculiar, harsh, querulous noise, which is oft-repeated, and not +agreeable. The hens are prolific layers, beginning in May, and +continuing during the whole summer. Their eggs are small, but of +excellent flavour, of a pale yellowish red, finely dotted with a darker +tint, and remarkable for the hardness of the shell. The hen usually lays +on a dry bank, in secret places; and a hedgerow a quarter of a mile off +is quite as likely to contain her nest as any situation nearer her home. +She is very shy, and, if the eggs are taken from her nest, will desert +it, and find another; a few should, therefore, always be left, and it +should never be visited when she is in sight. But she often contrives to +elude all watching, and hatch a brood, frequently at a late period, +when the weather is too cold for the chickens. As the Guinea-fowl seldom +shows much disposition to incubate if kept under restraint, and +frequently sits too late in the season to rear a brood in this country, +it is a general practice to place her eggs under a common fowl--Game and +Bantams are the best for the purpose. About twenty of the earliest eggs +should be set in May. The Guinea-hen will hatch another brood when she +feels inclined. They sit for twenty-six to twenty-nine or thirty days. +When she sits in due season she generally rears a large brood, twenty +not being an unusual number. + +The chickens are very tender, and should not be hatched too early in +spring, as a cold March wind is generally fatal to them. They must be +treated like those of the turkey, and as carefully. They should be fed +almost immediately, within six hours of being hatched, abundantly, and +often; and they require more animal food than other chickens. Egg boiled +hard, chopped very fine, and mixed with oatmeal, is the best food. They +will die if kept without food for three or four hours; and should have a +constant supply near them until they are allowed to have full liberty +and forage for themselves. They will soon pick up insects, &c., and will +keep themselves in good condition with a little extra food. They are +very strong on their legs, and those hatched under common hens may be +allowed to range with her at the end of six weeks, and be fed on the +same food and at the same times as other chickens. + +The Guinea-fowl may be considered as somewhat intermediate between the +pheasant and turkey. After the pheasant season, young birds that have +been hatched the same year are excellent substitutes for that fine game, +and fetch a fair price. They should never be fattened, but have a good +supply of grain and meal for a week or two before being killed. The +flesh of the young bird is very delicate, juicy, and well-flavoured, but +the old birds, even of the second year, are dry, tough, and tasteless. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +DUCKS. + + +Ducks will not pay if all their food has to be bought, except it is +purchased wholesale, and they are reared for town markets, for their +appetites are voracious, and they do not graze like geese. They may be +kept in a limited space, but more profitably and conveniently where they +have the run of a paddock, orchard, kitchen garden, flat common, green +lane, or farmyard, with ditches and water. They will return at night, +and come to the call of the feeder. Nothing comes amiss to them--green +vegetables, especially when boiled, all kinds of meal made into +porridge, all kinds of grain, bread, oatcake, the refuse and offal of +the kitchen, worms, slugs, snails, insects and their larvæ, are devoured +eagerly. Where many fowls are kept, a few ducks may be added profitably, +for they may be fed very nearly on what the hens refuse. + +Ducks require water to swim in, but "it is a mistake," says Mr. Baily, +"to imagine that ducks require a great deal of water. They may be kept +where there is but very little, and only want a pond or tank just deep +enough to swim in. The early Aylesbury ducklings that realise such large +prices in the London market have hardly ever had a swim; and in rearing +ducks, where size is a desideratum, they will grow faster and become +larger when kept in pens, farmyards, or in pastures, than where they are +at and in the water all day." Where a large number of geese and ducks +are kept, water on a sufficient scale, and easily accessible, should be +in the neighbourhood. + +[Illustration: Toulouse Goose. + +Rouen and Aylesbury Ducks.] + +Ducks, being aquatic birds, do not require heated apartments, nor roosts +on which to perch during the night. They squat on the floors, which must +be dry and warm. They should, if possible, be kept in a house separate +from the other poultry, and it should have a brick floor, so that it +can be easily washed. In winter the floor should be littered with a thin +layer of straw, rushes, or fern leaves, fresh every day. The +hatching-houses should be separated from the lodging apartments, and +provided with boxes for the purpose of incubation and hatching. + +In its wild state the duck pairs with a single mate: the domestic duck +has become polygamous, and five ducks may be allowed to one drake, but +not more than two or three ducks should be given to one drake if eggs +are required for setting. + +Ducks begin laying in January, and usually from that time only during +the spring; but those hatched in March will often lay in the autumn, and +continue for two or three months. They usually lay fifty or sixty eggs, +and have been known to produce 250. The faculty of laying might be +greatly developed, as it has been in some breeds of fowls; but they have +been hitherto chiefly bred for their flesh. They require constant +watching when beginning to lay, for they drop their eggs everywhere but +in the nest made for them, but as they generally lay in the night, or +early in the morning, when in perfect health, they should therefore be +kept in every morning till they have laid. One of the surest signs of +indisposition among them is irregularity in laying. "The eggs of the +duck," says Mr. Dickson, "are readily known from those of the common +fowl by their bluish colour and larger size, the shell being smoother, +not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When boiled, the white is never +curdy like that of a new-laid hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, +while the yolk is much darker in colour. The flavour is by no means so +delicate. For omelets, however, as well as for puddings and pastry, duck +eggs are much better than hen's eggs, giving a finer colour and flavour, +and requiring less butter; qualities so highly esteemed in Picardy, that +the women will sometimes go ten or twelve miles for duck eggs to make +their holiday cakes." + +A hen is often made to hatch ducklings, being considered a better nurse +than a duck, which is apt to take them while too young to the pond, +dragging them under beetling banks in search of food, and generally +leaving half of them in the water unable to get out; and if the fly or +the gnat is on the water, she will stay there till after dark, and lose +part of her brood. Ducks' eggs may be advantageously placed under a +broody exhibition hen. (_See_ page 88.) A turkey is much better than +either, from the large expanse of the wings in covering the broods, and +the greater heat of body; but if the duck is a good sitter, it is best +to let her hatch her own eggs, taking care to keep her and them from the +water till they are strong. The nest should be on the ground, and in a +damp place. Choose the freshest eggs, and place from nine to eleven +under her. Feed her morning and evening while sitting, and place food +and water within her reach. The duck always covers her eggs upon leaving +them, and loose straw should be placed near the house for that purpose. + +They are hatched in thirty days. They may generally be left with their +mother upon the nest for her own time. When she moves coop her on the +short grass if fine weather, or under shelter if otherwise, for a week +or ten days, when they may be allowed to swim for half an hour at a +time. When hatched they require constant feeding. A little curd, +bread-crumbs, and meal, mixed with chopped green food, is the best food +when first hatched. Boiled cold oatmeal porridge is the best food for +ducklings for the first ten days; afterwards barley-meal, pollard, and +oats, with plenty of green food. Never give them hard spring water to +drink, but that from a pond. Ducklings are easily reared, soon able to +shift for themselves, and to pick up worms, slugs, and insects, and can +be cooped together in numbers at night if protected from rats. An old +pigsty is an excellent place for a brood of young ducks. + +Ducklings should not be allowed to go on the water till feathers have +supplied the place of their early down, for the latter will get +saturated with the water while the former throws off the wet. "Though +the young ducklings," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "take early to the +water, it is better that they should gain a little strength before they +be allowed to venture into ponds or rivers; a shallow vessel of water +filled to the brim and sunk in the ground will suffice for the first +week or ten days, and this rule is more especially to be adhered to when +they are under the care of a common hen, which cannot follow them into +the pond, and the calls of which when there they pay little or no regard +to. Rats, weasels, pike, and eels are formidable foes to ducklings: we +have known entire broods destroyed by the former, which, having their +burrows in a steep bank around a sequestered pond, it was found +impossible to extirpate." If the ducklings stay too long in the water +they will have diarrhoea, in which case coop them close for a few +days, and mix bean-meal or oatmeal with their ordinary food. + +A troop of ducks will do good service to a kitchen garden in the summer +or autumn, when they can do no mischief by devouring delicate salads and +young sprouting vegetables. They will search industriously for snails, +slugs, woodlice, and millipedes, and gobble them up eagerly, getting +positively fat on slugs and snails. Strawberries, of which they are very +fond, must be protected from them. Where steamed food is daily prepared +for pigs and cattle, a portion of this mixed with bran and barley-meal +is the cheapest mode of satisfying their voracious appetites. They +should never be stinted in food. + +To fatten ducks let them have as much substantial food as they will eat, +bruised oats and peameal being the standard, plenty of exercise, and +clean water. Boiled roots mixed with a little barley-meal is excellent +food, with a little milk added during fattening. They require neither +penning up nor cramming to acquire plumpness, and if well fed should be +fit for market in eight or ten weeks. Celery imparts a delicious +flavour. + +The Aylesbury is the finest breed, and should be of a spotless white, +with long, flat, broad beak of a pale flesh colour, grey eyes, long head +and neck, broad and flat body and breast, and orange legs, placed wide +apart. As it lays early, its ducklings are the earliest ready for +market. They have produced 150 large eggs in a year, and are better +sitters than the Rouen. + +The Rouen is hardy and easily reared, but rarely lay till February or +March. They thrive better in most parts of England than the Aylesburys, +and care less for the water than the other varieties. They are very +handsome, and weigh eight or nine pounds each, and their flesh is +excellent. + +The Muscovy duck is so called, says Ray, "not because it comes from +Muscovy, but because it exhales a somewhat powerful odour of musk." +Little is known of its origin, which is generally thought to be South +America; nor has the date of its introduction into Europe been +ascertained. "This species," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "will inter-breed +with the common duck, but we believe the progeny are not fertile. The +Musk duck greatly exceeds the ordinary kind in size, and moreover, +differs in the colours and character of the plumage, in general contour, +and the form of the head. The general colour is glossy blue-black, +varied more or less with white; the head is crested, and a space of +naked scarlet skin, more or less clouded with violet, surrounds the eye, +continued from scarlet caruncles on the base of the beak; the top of the +head is crested, the feathers of the body are larger, more lax, softer, +and less closely compacted together than in the common duck, and seem to +indicate less aquatic habits. The male far surpasses the female in size; +there are no curled feathers in his tail." The male is fierce and +quarrelsome, and when enraged has a savage appearance, and utters deep, +hoarse sounds. The flesh is very good, but the breed is inferior as a +layer to the Aylesbury or Rouen. + +The Buenos Ayres, Labrador, or East Indian, brought most probably from +the first-named country, is a small and very beautiful variety, with the +plumage of a uniform rich, lustrous, greenish-black, and dark legs and +bills; the drake rarely weighing five pounds, and the duck four pounds. +Their eggs are often smeared over with a slatey-coloured matter, but the +shell is really of a dull white. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +GEESE. + + +Geese require much the same management as ducks. They may be kept +profitably where there is a rough pasture or common into which they may +be turned, and the pasturage is not rendered bare by sheep, as is +generally the case; but even when the pasturage is good, a supply of +oats, barley, or other grain should be allowed every morning and +evening. Where the pasturage is poor or bad, the old geese become thin +and weak, and the young broods never thrive and often die unless fully +fed at home. A goose-house for four should not be less than eight feet +long by six feet wide and six or seven feet high, with a smooth floor of +brick. A little clean straw should be spread over it every other day, +after removing that previously used, and washing the floor. Each goose +should have a compartment two feet and a half square for laying and +sitting, as she will always lay where she deposited her first egg. The +house must be well ventilated. All damp must be avoided. A pigsty makes +a capital pen. Although a pond is an advantage, they do not require more +than a large trough or tank to bathe in. + +For breeding not more than four geese should be kept to one gander. +Their breeding powers continue to more than twenty years old. It is +often difficult to distinguish the sexes, no one sign being infallible +except close examination. The goose lays early in a mild spring, or in +an ordinary season, if fed high throughout the winter with corn, and on +the commencement of the breeding season on boiled barley, malt, fresh +grains, and fine pollard mixed up with ale, or other stimulants; by +which two broods may be obtained in a year. The common goose lays from +nine to seventeen eggs, usually about thirteen, and generally carries +straws about previously to laying. Thirteen eggs are quite enough for +the largest goose to sit on. They sit from thirty to thirty-five days. +March or early April is the best period for hatching, and the geese +should therefore begin to sit in February or early March; for goslings +hatched at any time after April are difficult to rear. Food and water +should be placed near to her, for she sits closely. She ought to leave +her nest daily and take a bath in a neighbouring pond. The gander is +very attentive, and sits by her, and is vigilant and daring in her +defence. When her eggs are placed under a common hen they should be +sprinkled with water daily or every other day, for the moisture of the +goose's breast is beneficial to them. (See page 50.) A turkey is an +excellent mother for goslings. + +She should be cooped for a few days on a dry grass-plot or meadow, with +grain and water by her, of which the goslings will eat; and they should +also be supplied with chopped cabbage or beet leaves, or other green +food. They must have a dry bed under cover and be protected from rats. +Their only dangers are heavy rains, damp floors, and vermin; and they +require but little care for the first fortnight; while the old birds are +singularly free from maladies of all kinds common to poultry. When a +fortnight old they may be allowed to go abroad with their mother and +frequent the pond. "It has been formerly recommended," says Mowbray, "to +keep the newly-hatched gulls in house during a week, lest they get cramp +from the damp earth; but we did not find this indoor confinement +necessary; penning the goose and her brood between four hurdles upon a +piece of dry grass well sheltered, putting them out late in the morning, +or not at all in severe weather, and ever taking them in early in the +evening. Sometimes we have pitched double the number of hurdles, for the +convenience of two broods, there being no quarrels among this sociable +and harmless part of the feathered race. We did not even find it +necessary to interpose a parting hurdle, which, on occasion, may be +always conveniently done. For the first range a convenient field +containing water is to be preferred to an extensive common, over which +the gulls or goslings are dragged by the goose, until they become +cramped or tired, some of them squatting down and remaining behind at +evening." All the hemlock or deadly nightshade within range should be +destroyed. When the corn is garnered the young geese may be turned into +the stubble which they will thoroughly glean, and many of them will be +in fine condition by Michaelmas. Green geese are young geese fattened at +about the age of four months, usually on oatmeal and peas, mixed with +skim-milk or butter-milk, or upon oats or other grain, and are very +delicate. In fattening geese for Christmas give oats mixed with water +for the first fortnight, and afterwards barley-meal made into a +crumbling porridge. They should be allowed to bathe for a few hours +before being killed, for they are then plucked more easily and the +feathers are in better condition. Their feathers, down, and quills are +very valuable. + +Geese are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, as well as +young trees, and must therefore be carefully kept out of orchards and +plantations. Their dung, though acrid and apt to injure at first, will, +when it is mellowed, much enrich the ground. + +The Toulouse or Grey Goose is very large, of uniform grey plumage, with +long neck, having a kind of dewlap under the throat; the abdominal pouch +very much developed, almost touching the ground; short legs; flat feet; +short, broad tail; and very upright carriage, almost like a penguin. The +Toulouse lays a large number of eggs, sometimes as many as thirty, and +even more, but rarely wishes to sit, and is a very bad mother. + +The Emden or pure White is very scarce. The bill is flesh-colour, and +the legs and feet orange. They require a pond. The Toulouse, crossed +with the large white or dark-coloured common breed, produces greater +weight than either, and the objection to the former as indifferent +sitters and mothers is avoided; but is not desirable for breeding stock, +and must have a pond like the White. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +DISEASES. + + +It is more economical to kill at once rather than attempt to cure common +fowls showing symptoms of any troublesome disease, and so save trouble, +loss of their carcases, and the risk of infection. But if the fowls are +favourites, or valuable, it may be desirable to use every means of cure. + +See to a sick fowl at once; prompt attention may prevent serious +illness, and loss of the bird. When a fowl's plumage is seen to be +bristled up and disordered, and its wings hanging or dragging, it should +be at once removed from the others, and looked to. Pale and livid combs +are as certain a sign of bad health in fowls, as the paleness or +lividness of the lips is in human beings. Every large establishment +should have a warm, properly ventilated, and well-lighted house, +comfortably littered down with clean straw, to be used as a hospital, +and every fowl should be removed to it upon showing any symptoms of +illness, even if the disease is not infectious, for sick fowls are often +pecked at, ill treated, and disliked by their healthy companions. Bear in +mind that prevention is better than cure, and that proper management and +housing, good feeding, pure water and greens, cleanliness and exercise, +will prevent all, or nearly all, these diseases. + +APOPLEXY arises from over-feeding, and can seldom be treated in time to +be of service. The only remedy is bleeding, by opening the large vein +under the wing, and pouring cold water on the head for a few minutes. +Open the vein with a lancet, or if that is not at hand, with a +sharp-pointed penknife; make the incision lengthways, not across, and +press the vein with your thumb between the opening and the body, when +the blood will flow. If the fowl should recover, feed it on soft, low +food for a few days, and keep it quiet. It occurs most often in laying +hens, which frequently die on the nest while ejecting the egg; and is +frequently caused by too much of very stimulating food, such as +hempseed, or improper diet of greaves, and also by giving too much pea +or bean meal. + +HARD CROP, or being CROP-BOUND, is caused by too much food, especially +of hard grain, being taken into the crop, so that it cannot be softened +by maceration, and is therefore unable to be passed into the stomach. +Although the bird has thus too large a supply of food in its crop, the +stomach becomes empty, and the fowl eats still more food. Sometimes a +fowl swallows a bone that is too large to pass into the stomach, and +being kept in the crop forms a kernel, around which fibrous and other +hard material collects. Mr. Baily says: "Pour plenty of warm water down +the throat, and loosen the food till it is soft. Then give a +tablespoonful of castor-oil, or about as much jalap as will lie on a +shilling, mixed in butter; make a pill of it, and slide it into the +crop. The fowl will be well in the morning. If the crop still remain +hard after this, an operation is the only remedy. The feathers should +be picked off the crop in a straight line down the middle. Generally +speaking, the crop will be found full of grass or hay, that has formed a +ball or some inconveniently-shaped substance. (I once took a piece of +carrot three inches long out of a crop.) When the offence has been +removed, the crop should be washed out with warm water. It should then +be sewn up with coarse thread, and the suture rubbed with grease. +Afterwards the outer skin should be served the same. The crop and skin +must not be sewed together. For three or four days the patient should +have only gruel; no hard food for a fortnight." The slit should be made +in the upper part of the crop, and just large enough to admit a blunt +instrument, with which you must gently remove the hardened mass. + +DIARRHOEA is caused by exposure to much cold and wet, reaction after +constipation from having had too little green food, unwholesome food, +and dirt. Feed on warm barley-meal, or oatmeal mashed with a little warm +ale, and some but not very much green food, and give five grains of +powdered chalk, one grain of opium, and one grain of powdered +ipecacuanha twice a day till the looseness is checked. Boiled rice, with +a little chalk and cayenne pepper mixed, will also check the complaint. +When the evacuations are coloured with blood, the diarrhoea has become +dysentery, and cure is very doubtful. + +GAPES, a frequent yawning or gaping, is caused by worms in the windpipe, +which may be removed by introducing a feather, stripped to within an +inch of the point, into the windpipe, turning it round quickly, and then +drawing it out, when the parasites will be found adhering with slime +upon it; but if this be not quickly and skilfully done, and with some +knowledge of the anatomy of the parts touched, the bird may be killed +instead of cured. Another remedy is to put the fowl into a box, placing +in it at the same time a sponge dipped in spirits of turpentine on a hot +water plate filled with boiling water, and repeating this for three or +four days. Some persons recommend, as a certain cure in a few days, half +a teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine mixed with a handful of grain, +giving that quantity to two dozen of chickens each day. A pinch of salt +put as far back into the mouth as possible is also said to be effectual. + +LEG WEAKNESS, shown by the bird resting on the first joint, is generally +caused by the size and weight of the body being too great for the +strength of the legs; and this being entirely the result of weakness, +the remedy is to give strength by tonics and more nourishing food. The +quality should be improved, but the quantity must not be increased, as +the disease has been caused by over-feeding having produced too much +weight for the strength of the legs. Frequent bathing in cold water is +very beneficial. This is best effected by tying a towel round the fowl, +and suspending it over a pail of water, with the legs only immersed. + +LOSS OF FEATHERS is almost always caused by want of green food, or +dust-heap for cleansing. Let the fowls have both, and remove them to a +grass run if possible. But nothing will restore the feathers till the +next moult. Fowls, when too closely housed or not well supplied with +green food and lime, sometimes eat each other's feathers, destroying the +plumage till the next moult. In such cases green food and mortar rubbish +should be supplied, exercise allowed, the injured fowl should be removed +to a separate place, and the pecked parts rubbed over with sulphur +ointment. Cut or broken feathers should be pulled out at once. + +PIP, a dry scale on the tongue, is not a disease, but the symptom of +some disease, being only analogous to "a foul tongue" in human beings. +Do not scrape the tongue, nor cut off the tip, but cure the roup, +diarrhoea, bad digestion, gapes, or whatever the disease may be, and +the pip will disappear. + +ROUP is caused by exposure to excessive wet or very cold winds. It +begins with a slight hoarseness and catching of the breath as if from +cold, and terminates in an offensive discharge from the nostrils, froth +in the corners of the eyes, and swollen lids. It is very contagious. +Separate the fowl from the others, keep it warm, add some "Douglass +Mixture" (see "Moulting") to its water daily, wash its head once or +twice daily with tepid water, feed it with meal, only mixed with hot ale +instead of water, and plenty of green food. Mr. Wright advises half a +grain of cayenne pepper with half a grain of powdered allspice in a +bolus of the meal, or one of Baily's roup pills to be given daily. Mr. +Tegetmeier recommends one grain of sulphate of copper daily. Another +advises a spoonful of castor-oil at once, and a few hours afterwards one +of Baily's roup pills, and to take the scale off the tongue, which can +easily be done by holding the beak open with your left hand, and +removing the scale with the thumbnail of your right hand; with a pill +every morning for a week. If not almost well in a week it will be better +to kill it. + +THE THRUSH may be cured by washing the tongue and mouth with borax +dissolved in tincture of myrrh and water. + +PARALYSIS generally affects the legs and renders the fowl unable to +move. It is chiefly caused by over-stimulating food. There is no known +remedy for this disease, and the fowl seldom if ever recovers. Although +chiefly affecting the legs of fowls, it is quite a different disease +from LEG WEAKNESS. + +VERTIGO results from too great a flow of blood to the head, and is +generally caused by over-feeding. Pouring cold water upon the fowl's +head, or holding it under a tap for a few minutes, will check this +complaint, and the bird should then be purged by a dose of castor-oil or +six grains of jalap. + + +MOULTING. + +All birds, but especially old fowls, require more warmth and more +nourishing diet during this drain upon their system, and should roost in +a warm, sheltered, and properly-ventilated house, free from all draught. +Do not let them out early in the morning, if the weather is chilly, but +feed them under cover, and give them every morning warm, soft food, such +as bread and ale, oatmeal and milk, potatoes mashed up in pot-liquor, +with a little pepper and a little boiled meat, as liver, &c., cut small, +and a little hempseed with their grain at night. Give them in their +water some iron or "Douglass Mixture," which consists of one ounce of +sulphate of iron and one drachm of sulphuric acid dissolved in one quart +of water; a teaspoonful of the mixture is to be added to each pint of +drinking water. This chalybeate is an excellent tonic for weakly young +chickens, and young birds that are disposed to outgrow their strength. +It increases their appetite, improves the health, imparts strength, +brightens the colour of the comb, and increases the stamina of the +birds. When chickens droop and seem to suffer as the feathers on the +head grow, give them once a day meat minced fine and a little +canary-seed. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + + +[Footnote 1: Piper on Poultry: their Varieties, Management, Breeding, +and Diseases; Price 1s. Groombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row, London.] + +[Footnote 2: The Practical Poultry Keeper. By Mr. L. Wright. Cassell, +Petter & Galpin.] + +[Footnote 3: The Practical Poultry Keeper. By Mr. L. Wright. Cassell, +Petter & Galpin.] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Poultry, by Hugh Piper + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POULTRY *** + +***** This file should be named 38606-8.txt or 38606-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/6/0/38606/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Poultry + A Practical Guide to the Choice, Breeding, Rearing, and + Management of all Descriptions of Fowls, Turkeys, + Guinea-fowls, Ducks, and Geese, for Profit and Exhibition. + +Author: Hugh Piper + +Release Date: January 18, 2012 [EBook #38606] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POULTRY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_cover.jpg" width="600" height="844" alt="" /> </div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">White Dorking Cock. Coloured Dorkings. Duck-winged and Black-breasted Red Game.</span> </div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> +<h1>POULTRY</h1> +<h3>A</h3> +<h2>Practical Guide</h2> +<h5>TO THE</h5> +<h4>CHOICE, BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT</h4> +<h5>OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF</h5> +<h2>FOWLS, TURKEYS, GUINEA-FOWLS,<br /> + DUCKS, AND GEESE,</h2> +<h5>FOR</h5> +<h4>PROFIT AND EXHIBITION.</h4> +<h4> </h4> +<h5>BY</h5> +<h3> <br /> + HUGH PIPER,</h3> +<h5>AUTHOR OF "PIGEONS: THEIR VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, BREEDING,<br /> + AND DISEASES."</h5> +<h4>ILLUSTRATED WITH EIGHT COLOURED PLATES.</h4> +<h3>Fourth Edition.</h3> +<h3>LONDON:<br /> + GROOMBRIDGE & SONS.</h3> +<h5>MDCCCLXXVII.</h5> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> +<h4> LONDON:<br /> + BARRETT, SONS AND CO., PRINTERS,<br /> + SEETHING LANE.</h4> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> +<p>This work is intended as a practical guide to those + about to commence Poultry keeping, and to provide those + who already have experience on the subject with the most + trustworthy information compiled from the best authorities + of all ages, and the most recent improvements in Poultry + Breeding and Management. The Author believes that he + has presented his readers with a greater amount of valuable + information and practical directions on the various + points treated than will be found in most similar works. + The book is not the result of the Author's own experience + solely, and he acknowledges the assistance he has received + from other authorities. Among those whom he has consulted + he desires specially to acknowledge his obligations + to Mr. Tegetmeier, whose "Poultry Book" (published by + Messrs. Routledge & Sons, London) contains his especial + knowledge of the Diseases of Poultry; and to Mr. L. + Wright, whose excellent and practical Treatise, entitled + "The Practical Poultry Keeper" (published by Messrs. + Cassell, Petter & Galpin, London), cannot be too highly + commended.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3> GENERAL MANAGEMENT.</h3> +<div class="c7"> + <table summary="contents" style="border-collapse: collapse" id="table1"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td class="tdr"><span><small>PAGE</small></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER I.—<span class="smcap">Introduction</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Neglect of Poultry-breeding—Profit of Poultry-keeping—Value + to the Farmer—Poultry Shows—Cottage Poultry.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER II.—<span class="smcap">The Fowl-House</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Size of the House—Brick and Wood—Cheap Houses—The Roof—Ventilation—Light—Warmth—The + Flooring—Perches—Movable + Frame—Roosts for Cochin-Chinas and Brahma-Pootras—Nests + for laying—Cleanliness—Fowls' Dung—Doors and Entrance-holes—Lime-washing—Fumigating—Raising + Chickens under Glass.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER III.—<span class="smcap">The Fowl-Yard</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Soil—Situation—Covered Run—Pulverised Earth for deodorising—Diet + for confined Fowls—Height of Wall, &c.—Preventing + Fowls from flying—The Dust-heap—Material for Shells—Gravel—The + Gizzard—The Grass Run.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER IV.—<span class="smcap">Food</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Table of relative constituents and qualities of Food—Barley—Wheat—Oats—Meal—Refuse + Corn—Boiling Grain—Indian Corn, + or Maize—Buckwheat—Peas, Beans and Tares—Rice—Hempseed—Linseed—Potatoes—Roots—Soft + Food—Variety of Food—Quantity—Mode + of Feeding—Number of Meals—Grass and <span class="pagenum"> <a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>Vegetables—Insects—Worms—Snails and Slugs—Animal Food—Water—Fountains.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER V.—<span class="smcap">Eggs</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Eggs all the Year round—Warmth essential to laying—Forcing + Eggs—Soft Shells—Shape and Colour of Eggs—The Air-bag—Preserving + Eggs—Keeping and Choosing Eggs for setting—Sex of + Eggs—Packing Setting-eggs for travelling.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER VI.—<span class="smcap">The Sitting Hen</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Evil of restraining a Hen from sitting—Checking the Desire—A + separate House and Run—Nests for sitting in—Damping Eggs—Filling + for Nests—Choosing their own Nests—Choosing a Hen + for sitting—Number and Age of Eggs—Food and Exercise—Absence + from the Nest—Examining the Eggs—Setting two Hens on + the same day—Time of Incubation—The "tapping" sound—Breaking + the Shell—Emerging from the Shell—Assisting the + Chicken—Artificial Mothers—Artificial Incubation.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER VII.—<span class="smcap">Rearing and Fattening Fowls</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">The Chicken's first Food—Cooping the Brood—Basket and Wooden + Coops—Feeding Chickens—Age for Fattening—Barn-door Fattening—Fattening-Houses—Fattening-Coops—Food—"Cramming"—Capons + and Poulardes—Killing Poultry—Plucking and + packing Fowls—Preserving Feathers.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER VIII.—<span class="smcap">Stock, Breeding, and Crossing</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Well-bred Fowls—Choice of Breed—Signs of Age—Breeding in-and-in—Number + of Hens to one Cock—Choice of a Cock—To + prevent Cocks from fighting—Choice of a Hen—Improved Breeds—Origin + of Breeds—Crossing—Choice of Breeding Stock—Keeping + a Breed pure.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER IX.—<span class="smcap">Poultry Shows</span></b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">The first Show—The first Birmingham Show—Influence of Shows—Exhibition + Rules—Hatching for Summer and Winter Shows—Weight—Exhibition + Fowls sitting—Matching Fowls—Imparting + lustre to the Plumage—Washing Fowls—Hampers—Travelling—Treatment + on Return—Washing the Hampers and Linings—Exhibition Points—Technical Terms.</td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3> BREEDS.</h3> +<table summary="breeds" style="border-collapse: collapse" id="table2"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">X.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cochin-Chinas, or Shanghaes</span></td> + <td class="tdr"> <a href="#CHAPTER_X">93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XI.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Brahma-Pootras</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">101</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Malays</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">105</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Game</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">108</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XIV.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Dorkings</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">112</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XV.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Spanish</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XVI.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hamburgs</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">118</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XVII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Polands</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">121</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XVIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Bantams</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">124</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XIX.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">French and Various</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XX.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Turkeys</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XXI.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Guinea-Fowls</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">139</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XXII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ducks</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">142</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XXIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Geese</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">147</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XXIV.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Diseases</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> <br /> +</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_PLATES" id="LIST_OF_PLATES"></a>LIST OF PLATES.</h2> +<div class="c7"> + <table summary="ilos" style="border-collapse: collapse" + id="table3"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr"><span><small>PAGE</small></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE I.—Facing the <a href="#Page_i">Title-page</a>.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">White Dorking Cock—Coloured Dorkings—Duck-winged and + Black-breasted Red Game.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE II. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">White and Buff Cochin-China—Malay Cock—Light and Dark + Brahma-Pootras.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE III. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs—Black + Spanish.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE IV. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">White-crested Black Polish—Golden and Silver-spangled + Polish.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE V. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdl">White and Black Bantams—Gold and Silver-laced or Sebright + Bantams—Game Bantams.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE VI. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">French: Houdans—La Flêche Cock—Crêve-Cœur Hen.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE VII. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">Turkey—Guinea-Fowls.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE VIII. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">Toulouse Goose—Rouen Ducks—Aylesbury Ducks.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PROFITABLE_AND_ORNAMENTAL" id="PROFITABLE_AND_ORNAMENTAL"></a>PROFITABLE AND ORNAMENTAL</h2> +<h1>POULTRY.</h1> +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> +<p>Until of late years the breeding of poultry has been + almost generally neglected in Great Britain. Any kind of + mongrel fowl would do for a farmer's stock, although he + fully appreciated the importance of breeding in respect of his + cattle and pigs, and the value of improved seeds. Had he + thought at all upon the subject, it must have occurred to + him that poultry might be improved by breeding from + select specimens as much as any other kind of live stock. + The French produce a very much greater number of fowls + and far finer ones for market than we do. In France, + Bonington Mowbray observes, "poultry forms an important + part of the live stock of the farmer, and the poultry-yards + supply more animal food to the great mass of the + community than the butchers' shops"; while in Egypt, and + some other countries of the East, from time immemorial, + vast numbers of chickens have been hatched in ovens by + artificial heat to supply the demand for poultry; but in + Great Britain poultry-keeping has been generally neglected, + eggs are dear, and all kinds of poultry so great a luxury + that the lower classes and a large number of the middle + seldom, if ever, taste it, except perhaps once a year in the + form of a Christmas goose, while hundreds of thousands + cannot afford even this. It is computed that a + million of eggs are eaten daily in London and its suburbs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> alone; yet this vast number only gives one egg to every + three mouths. "It is a national waste," says Mr. Edwards, + "importing eggs by the hundreds of millions, and poultry + by tens of thousands, when we are feeding our cattle upon + corn, and grudging it to our poultry; although the return + made from the former, it is generally admitted, is not five + per cent. beyond the value of the corn consumed, whereas + an immense percentage can be realised by feeding poultry." + A writer in the <i>Times</i>, of February 1, 1853, states that, + while it will take five years to fatten an ox to the weight + of sixty stone, which will produce a profit of £30, the same + sum may be realised in five months by feeding an equal + weight of poultry for the table.</p> +<p>Although fowls are so commonly kept, the proportion to + the population is still very small, and the number of those + who rear and manage them profitably still smaller, chiefly + because most people keep them without system or order, + and have not given the slightest attention to the subject. + Nevertheless, it costs no more trouble and much less + expense to keep fowls successfully and profitably, for + neglected fowls are always falling sick, or getting into + mischief and causing annoyance, and often expense and + loss. "A man," says Mr. Edwards, "who expects a good + return of flesh and eggs from fowls insufficiently fed and + cared for, is like a miller expecting to get meal from a + neglected mill, to which he does not supply grain."</p> +<p>The antiquated idea that fowls on a farm did mischief to + the crops has been proved to be false; for if the grain is + sown as deeply as it should be, they cannot reach it by + scratching; and, besides, they greatly prefer worms and + insects. Mr. Mechi says, "commend me to poultry as + the farmer's best friend," and considers the value of fowls, + in destroying the vast number of worms, grubs, flies, beetles, + insects, larvæ, &c., which they devour, as incalculable; and + the same may be said as to their destruction of the seeds of + weeds. They also consume large quantities of kitchen and + table refuse, which is generally otherwise wasted, and often + allowed to decay and become a source of disease, or at + least of impurity.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> +<p>The enormous prices paid at the poultry shows of 1852 + and 1853 for fancy fowls gave a new impulse to poultry-keeping; + and many persons who formerly thought the + management of poultry beneath their attention, now superintend + their yards. Mrs. Ferguson Blair, now the Hon. + Mrs. Arbuthnot, the authoress of the "Henwife," whose + experience may be judged by the fact that she gained in + four years upwards of 460 prizes in England and Scotland, + and personally superintended the management of forty + separate yards, in which above 1,000 chickens were hatched + annually, says:—</p> +<p>"I began to breed poultry for amusement only, then for + exhibition, and lastly, was glad to take the trouble to make + it pay, and do not like my poultry-yard less because it is + not a loss. It is impossible to imagine any occupation + more suited to a lady, living in the country, than that of + poultry rearing. If she has any superfluous affection to + bestow, let it be on her chicken-kind and it will be returned + cent. per cent. Are you a lover of nature? come with me + and view, with delighted gaze, her chosen dyes. Are you + a utilitarian? rejoice in such an increase of the people's + food. Are you a philanthropist? be grateful that yours + has been the privilege to afford a <i>possible</i> pleasure to the + poor man, to whom so many are <i>impossible</i>. Such we + often find fond of poultry—no mean judges of it, and frequently + successful in exhibition. A poor man's pleasure in + victory is, at least, as great as that of his richer brother. + Let him, then, have the field whereon to fight for it. Encourage + village poultry-shows, not only by your patronage, + but also by your presence. A taste for such may save + many from dissipation and much evil; no man can win + poultry honours and haunt the taproom too."</p> +<p>For those who desire to encourage a taste for poultry + keeping in young people, and their humbler neighbours, we + would recommend our smaller work on the subject as a + suitable present.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> +<p>"It becomes," says Miss Harriet Martineau, "an interesting + wonder every year why the rural cottagers of the United + Kingdom do not rear fowls almost universally, seeing how + little the cost would be and how great the demand. We + import many millions of eggs annually. Why should we + import any? Wherever there is a cottage family living + on potatoes or better fare, and grass growing anywhere + near them, it would be worth while to nail up a little penthouse, + and make nests of clean straw, and go in for a + speculation in eggs and chickens. Seeds, worms, and + insects go a great way in feeding poultry in such places; + and then there are the small and refuse potatoes from the + heap, and the outside cabbage leaves, and the scraps of all + sorts. Very small purchases of broken rice (which is + extremely cheap), inferior grain, and mixed meal, would do + all else that is necessary. There would be probably larger + losses from vermin than in better guarded places; but these + could be well afforded as a mere deduction from considerable + gains. It is understood that the keeping of poultry is + largely on the increase in the country generally, and even + among cottagers; but the prevailing idea is of competition + as to races and specimens for the poultry-yard, rather than + of meeting the demand for eggs and fowls for the table."</p> +<p>With the exception of prizes for Dorkings, which are + chiefly bred for market, our poultry-shows have always + looked upon fowls as if they were merely ornamental birds, + and have framed their standards of excellence accordingly, + and not with any regard to the production of profitable + poultry, which is much to be regretted.</p> +<p>Martin Doyle, the cottage economist of Ireland, in his + 'Hints to Small Holders,' observes that "a few cocks and + hens, if they be prevented from scratching in the garden, + are a useful and appropriate stock about a cottage, the + warmth of which causes them to lay eggs in winter—no + trifling advantage to the children when milk is scarce. The + French, who are extremely fond of eggs, and contrive to + have them in great abundance, feed the fowls so well on + curds and buckwheat, and keep them so warm, that they + have plenty of eggs even in winter. Now, in our country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> (Ireland), especially in a gentleman's fowl yard, there is not + an egg to be had in cold weather; but the warmth of the + poor man's cabin insures him an egg even in the most + ungenial season."</p> +<p>Such fowls obtain fresh air, fresh grass, and fresh ground + to scratch in, and prosper in spite of the most miserable, + puny, mongrel stock, deteriorating year after year from + breeding in and in, without the introduction of fresh blood + even of the same indifferent description. Many an honest + cottager might keep himself and family from the parish + by the aid of a small stock of poultry, if some kind + poultry-keeper would present him with two or three good + fowls to begin with, for the cottager has seldom capital + even for so small a purchase.</p> +<p>Considerable profit may be made by the sale of eggs for hatching and surplus + stock, if the breeds kept are good, and the stock known to be pure and vigorous. + The 'Henwife' + says: "You may reduce your expenses by selling + eggs for setting, at a remunerative price. No one should + be ashamed to own what he is not ashamed to do; therefore, + boldly announce your superfluous eggs for sale, at + such a price as you think the public will pay for them." + This is now done extensively by breeders of rank and + eminence, especially through the London <i>Field</i> and agricultural + papers. But, "beware of sending such eggs to + market. Every one would be set, and you might find + yourself beaten by your own stock, very likely in your own + local show, and at small cost to the exhibitor."</p> +<p>The great secret of success in keeping fowls profitably is to + hatch chiefly in March and April; encourage the pullets by + proper feeding to lay at the age of six months; and fatten + and dispose of them when about nineteen months old, just + before their first adult moult; and never to allow a cockerel + to exceed the age of fourteen weeks before it is fattened + and disposed of.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> +<h3>THE FOWL-HOUSE.</h3> +<p>In this work we shall consider the accommodation and + requisites for keeping fowls successfully on a moderate + scale, and the reader must adapt them to his own premises, + circumstances, and requirements. Everywhere there must + be some alterations, omissions, or compromises. We shall + state the essentials for their proper accommodation, and + describe the mode of constructing houses, sheds, and + arranging runs, and the reader must then form his plan + according to his own wishes, resources, and the capabilities + of the place. The climate of Great Britain being so very + variable in itself, and differing in its temperature so much + in different parts, no one manner or material for building + the fowl-house can be recommended for all cases.</p> +<p>Plans for poultry establishments on large scales for the + hatching, rearing, and fattening of fowls, turkeys, ducks, + and geese, are given in our smaller work on Poultry, referred + to on <a href="#Page_3">page 3</a>.</p> +<p>The best aspects for the fowl-house are south and south-east, + and sloping ground is preferable to flat.</p> +<p>"It is only of late years," says Mr. Baily, "poultry-houses + have been much thought of. In large farmyards, + where there are cart-houses, calf-pens, pig-styes, cattle-sheds, + shelter under the eaves of barns, and numerous other + roosting-places, not omitting the trees in the immediate + vicinity, they are little required—fowls will generally do + better by choosing for themselves; and it is beyond a doubt + healthier for them to be spread about in this manner, than + to be confined to one place. But a love of order, on the one + hand, and a dread of thieves or foxes on the other, will + sometimes make it desirable to have a proper poultry-house."</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<p>Each family of fowls should, if possible, have a house + and run; and if they are kept as breeding stock, and the + breeds are to be preserved pure, this is essential. And + where many kinds are kept, the various houses must be + adapted to the peculiarities of the different breeds, in order + to do justice to them all, and to attain success in each.</p> +<p>The size of the house and the extent of the yard or run + should be proportioned to the number of fowls kept; but + it is better for the house to be too small than too large, + particularly in winter, for the mutual imparting of animal + heat. It is found by experience that when fowls are + crowded into a small space, their desire for laying continues + even in winter; and there is no fear of engendering + disease by crowding if the house is properly ventilated, + and thoroughly cleansed every day. Mr. Baily kept for + years a cock and four hens in a portable wooden house six + feet square, and six feet high in the centre, the sides being + somewhat shorter, and says such a house would hold six + hens as well as four. Ventilating holes were made near + the top. It had no floor, being placed upon the ground, + and could be moved at pleasure by means of two poles + placed through two staples fixed at the end of each side. + A few Cochin-Chinas may be kept where there is no other + convenience than an outhouse six feet square to serve for + their roosting, laying, and sitting, with a yard of twice that + size attached. Mr. Wright "once knew a young man + who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his + own construction, not more than three feet square, and a + run of the same width, under twelve feet long." The + French breeders keep their fowls in as small a space as + possible, in order to generate and preserve the warmth + that will induce them to lay; while the English breeders + allow more space for exercise, larger houses, and free circulation + of air. The French mode, is very likely the best + for the winter and the English for the summer, but the + two opposite methods may be made available by having + one or more extra houses and runs into which the fowls + can be distributed in the summer. A close, warm roosting-place + will cause the production of more eggs in winter,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> when they are scarcest and most valuable, while air and + exercise are necessary to rear superior fowls for the table; + and if they can have the run of a farmyard or good fields + in which to pick up grain or insects, their flesh will be far + superior in flavour to that of fowls kept in confinement, or + crammed in coops.</p> +<p>Almost any outbuilding, shed, or lean-to, may be easily + and cheaply converted into a good fowl-house by the exercise + of a little thought and ingenuity.</p> +<p>The best material to build a house with is brick, but the + cheapest to be durable is board, with the roof also of wood, + covered with patent felt. One objection to timber houses + is their being combustible, and easily ignited, and houses + had better be built of a single brick in thickness, unless + cheapness is a great object.</p> +<p>A lean-to fowl-house may be constructed for a very small + sum, with boards an inch thick, against the west or south + side of any wall. Whenever wood is employed it should + be tongued, which is a very cheap method of providing + against warping by heat, or admitting wind or rain; lying + flat against the uprights, it saves material and has an + external appearance far superior to any other method of + boarding. If the second coat of paint is rough cast over + with sand, it will greatly improve the appearance, and the + house will not be unsightly even in the ornamental part of + a gentleman's grounds.</p> +<p>A house may be built very cheaply by driving poles into + the ground at equal distances, and nailing weather-boarding + upon their outside. If it is to be square, one pole should + be placed at each corner, and two more will be required + for the door-posts. The house may be made with five, six, + or more sides, as many poles being used as there are sides, + and the door may occupy one side if the house be small + and the side narrow, otherwise two door-posts will be required. + If the boards are not tongued together, the chinks + between them must be well caulked by driving in string or + tow with a blunt chisel, for it is not only necessary to keep + out the rain but also to keep out the wind, which has great + influence on the health and laying of the fowls.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> +<p>Where double boarding is employed for the sides, the + house may be made much warmer by filling up the space + with straw, or still better with marsh reeds, so durable for + thatching. This plan, unfortunately, affords a shelter for + rats, mice, and insects, and therefore, if adopted, it will be + highly advantageous to form the inside boarding in panels, + so as to be removable at pleasure for examination and + cleansing.</p> +<p>For the roof, tiles or slates alone are not sufficient, but, + if used, must have a boarding or ceiling under them; otherwise + all the heat generated by the fowls will escape through + the numerous interstices, and it will be next to impossible + to keep the house warm in winter. A corrugated roof of + galvanised iron may be used instead, but a ceiling also will + be absolutely necessary for the sake of warmth. A rough + ceiling of lath and plaster not only preserves the warmth + generated by the fowls and keeps out the cold, but has the + great advantage of being easily lime-washed, an operation + that should be performed at least four or five times a year. + Boards alone make a very good and cheap roof. They + may be laid either horizontally, one plank overlapping the + other, and the whole well tarred two or three times, and + once every autumn afterwards; or they may be laid perpendicularly + side by side, fitting closely, in which case they + should be well tarred, then covered with old sheeting, + waste calico, or thick brown paper tightly stretched over + it, and afterwards brushed over with hot tar, or a mixture + of tar boiled with a little lime, and applied while hot; + this, soaking through the calico, cements it to the roof, and + makes it waterproof. But board covered with patent felt, + and tarred once a year, is the best. The roof ought to + project considerably beyond the walls, in order to prevent + the rain from dripping down them.</p> +<p>Ventilation is most important, and the house should be + high, especially if there are many fowls, for by having it + lofty a current of air can pass through it far above the + level of the fowls, and purify the atmosphere without + causing a draught near them. They very much dislike a + draught, and will alter their positions to avoid it, and if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> unable to do so, will seek another roosting-place. Ventilation + may be obtained by leaving out some bricks in the + wall or making holes in the boarding; and when there is a + shed at the side of the fowl-house, by boring a few holes + near the top of the wall next to the shed; all ventilators + should be considerably above the perches, in order to avoid + a draught near to the fowls; and should be entirely closed + at night in severe weather. The best method of ventilation + for a fowl-house of sufficient size and height, is by means + of an opening in the highest part of the roof, covered with + a lantern of laths or narrow boards, placed one over the + other in a slanting position, with a small space between + them like Venetian blinds.</p> +<p>Light is essential, not only for the health of the fowls, + but in order that the state of the house may be seen, and + the floor and perches may be well cleansed. It may be + admitted either through a common window, a pane or two + of thick glass placed in the sides, or glass tiles in the roof. + It also induces them to take shelter there in rough + weather.</p> +<p>Warmth is the most important point of all. Fowls that + roost in cold houses and exposed places require more food + and produce fewer eggs; and pullets which are usually + forward in laying will not easily be induced to do so in + severe weather if their house is not kept warm. It is a + great advantage when the house backs a fire-place or stable. + A gentleman told Mr. Baily that he "had been very successful + in raising early chickens in the north of Scotland, + and he attributed much of it to the following arrangements. + He had always from twenty to thirty oxen or other cattle + fattening in a long building; he made his poultry-house to + join this, and had ventilators and openings made in the + partition, so that the heat of the cattle-shed passed into + the fowl-house. Little good has resulted from the use of + stoves, or hot-water pipes, for poultry; but by skilfully + taking advantage of every circumstance like that above + mentioned, and by consulting aspect and position, many + valuable helps are obtained."</p> +<p>A house built of wood in the north of England and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> Scotland must be lined, unless artificially warmed. Felt + is the best material, as its strong smell of tar will keep + away most insects. Matting is frequently used, and will + make the house sufficiently warm, but it harbours vermin, + and therefore, if used, should be only slightly fastened to + the walls, so that it can be often taken down and well + beaten, and, if necessary, fumigated.</p> +<p>Various materials are recommended for the flooring. + Boards are warm, but they soon become foul. Beaten + earth, with loose dust scattered over it some inches deep, + is excellent for the feet of the birds, but is a harbour for + the minute vermin which are often so troublesome, and + even destructive, to domestic fowls. Mowbray recommends + a floor of "well-rammed chalk or earth, that its surface, + being smooth, may present no impediment to being swept + perfectly clean." Chalk laid on dry coal-ashes to absorb + the moisture is excellent. A mixture of cow-dung and + water, about the consistency of paint, put on the surface of + the floor, no thicker than paint, gives it a hard surface + which will bear sweeping down. It is used by the natives + of India, not only for the floors, but often for the walls of + their houses, and is supposed to be healthy in its application, + and to keep away vermin. Miss Watts says: "Dig + out the floor to about a foot deep, and fill in with burnt + clay, like that used extensively on railways, the strong + gravel which is called 'metal' in road-making, or any loose + dry material of the kind. Let this be well rammed down, + and then lay over it, with a bricklayer's trowel, a flooring + of a compost of cinder-ashes, gravel, quick-lime, and water. + This flooring is without the objections due to those which + are cold and damp, and those which imbibe foul moisture. + Stone is too cold for a flooring; beaten earth or wood + becomes foul when the place is inhabited by living animals; + and a flooring of bricks possesses both these bad qualities + united." Bricks are the worst of all materials; they retain + moisture, whether atmospheric or arising from insufficient + drainage; and thus the temperature is kept low, and disease + too often follows, especially rheumatic attacks of the + feet and legs. However, trodden earth makes a very good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> flooring, and it or other materials may easily be kept clean + by placing moveable boards beneath the perches to receive + the fowl-droppings. The floor should slope from every + direction towards the door, to facilitate its cleansing, and + to keep it dry.</p> +<p>Perches are generally placed too high, probably because + it was noticed that fowls in their natural state, or when at + large, usually roost upon high branches; but it should be + observed that, in descending from lofty branches, they have + a considerable distance to fly, and therefore alight on the + ground gently, while in a confined fowl-house the bird + flutters down almost perpendicularly, coming into contact + with the floor forcibly, by which the keel of the breast-bone + is often broken, and bumble-foot in Dorkings and corns + are caused.</p> +<p>Some writers do not object to lofty perches, provided + the fowls have a board with cross-pieces of wood fastened + on to it reaching from the ground to the perch; but this + does not obviate the evil, for they will only use it for + ascent, and not for descent. The air, too, at the upper + part of any dwelling-room, or house for animals, is much + more impure than nearer the floor, because the air that + has been breathed, and vapours from the body, are lighter + than pure air, and consequently ascend to the top. The + perches should therefore not be more than eighteen inches + from the ground, unless the breed is very small and light. + Perches are also generally made too small and round. + When they are too small in proportion to the size of the + birds, they are apt to cause the breast-bone of heavy fowls + to grow crooked, which is a great defect, and very unsightly + in a table-fowl. Those for heavy fowls should not + be less than three inches in diameter. Capital perches + may be formed of fir or larch poles, about three inches in + diameter, split into two, the round side being placed uppermost; + the birds' claws cling to it easily, and the bark is not + so hard as planed wood. The perches, if made of timber, + should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off, + as the feet of fowls are not formed for clasping smooth + round poles. Those for chickens should not be thicker<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> than their claws can easily grasp, and neither too sharp + nor too round.</p> +<p>When more than one row of perches is required they + should be ranged obliquely—that is, one above and behind + the other; by which arrangement each perch forms a step + to the next higher one, and an equal convenience in descending, + and the birds do not void their dung over each + other. They should be placed two feet apart, and supported + on bars of wood fixed to the walls at each end; + and in order that they may be taken out to be cleaned, + they should not be nailed to the supporter, but securely + placed in niches cut in the bar, or by pieces of wood nailed + to it like the rowlocks of a boat. If the wall space at the + sides is required for laying-boxes, the perches must be + shorter than the house, and the oblique bars which support + them must be securely fastened to the back of the house, + and, if necessary, have an upright placed beneath the upper + end of each.</p> +<p>Some breeders prefer a moveable frame for roosting, + formed of two poles of the required length, joined at each + end by two narrow pieces; the frame being supported + upon four or more legs, according to its length and the + weight of the fowls. If necessary it should be strengthened + by rails—connecting the bottoms of the legs, and by pieces + crossing from each angle of the sides and ends. These + frames can conveniently be moved out of the house when + they require cleansing. Or it may be made of one pole + supported at each end by two legs spread out widely apart, + like two sides of an equilateral or equal-sided triangle. The + perch may be made more secure for heavy fowls by a rail + at each side fastened to each leg, about three inches from + the foot.</p> +<p>Mr. Baily says: "I had some fowls in a large outhouse, + where they were well provided with perches; as there was + plenty of room, I put some small faggots, cut for firing, at + one extremity, and I found many of the fowls deserted + their perches to roost on the faggots, which they evidently + preferred."</p> +<p>Cochin-Chinas and Brahma Pootras do not require<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> perches, but roost comfortably on a floor littered down + warmly with straw. It should be gathered up every + morning, and the floor cleaned and kept uncovered till + night, when the straw, if clean, should be again laid down. + It must be often changed. A bed of sand is also used, and + a latticed floor even without straw, and some use latticed + benches raised about six inches from the floor. But we + should think that latticed roosting-places must be uncomfortable + to fowls, and the dung which falls through is + often unseen, and, consequently, liable to remain for too + long a time, while a portion will stick to the sides of the + lattice-work, and be not only difficult to see, but also to + remove when seen. The "Henwife" finds, however, "that + if there are nests, there the Cochins will roost, in spite of + all attempts to make them do otherwise." It is a good + plan, in warm weather, occasionally to sprinkle water over + and about the perches, and scatter a little powdered + sulphur over the wetted parts, which will greatly tend to + keep the fowls free from insect parasites.</p> +<p>The nests for laying in are usually made on the ground, + or in a kind of trough, a little raised; but some use boxes + or wicker-baskets, which are preferable, as they can be + removed separately from time to time, and thoroughly + cleansed from dust and vermin, and can also be kept a + little apart from each other. These boxes or troughs + should be placed against the sides of the house, and a + board sloping forwards should be fixed above, to prevent + the fowls from roosting upon the edges. If required, a + row of laying-boxes or troughs may be placed on the + ground, and another about a foot or eighteen inches above + the floor. The nest should be made of wheaten, rye, or + oaten straw, but never of hay, which is too hot, and + favourable besides to the increase of vermin. Heath cut + into short pieces forms excellent material for nests, but it + cannot always be had. The material must be changed + whenever it smells foul or musty, for if it is allowed to + become offensive, the hens will often drop their eggs upon + the ground sooner than go to the nest. When the fowl-house + adjoins a passage, or it can be otherwise so contrived,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> it is an excellent plan to have a wooden flap made to open + just above the back of the nests, so that the eggs can + be removed without your going into the roosting-house, + treading the dung about, and disturbing any birds that + may be there, or about to enter to lay. Where possible + the nests in the roosting-houses should be used for laying + in only; and a separate house should be set apart for + sitting hens. Where there are but a few fowls and + only one house, if a hen is allowed to sit, a separate + nest must be made as quiet as possible for her.—<i>See</i> <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chapter VI.</a></p> +<p>Cleanliness must be maintained. The <i>Canada Farmer</i> suggested an admirable plan for keeping the roosting-house + clean. A broad shelf, securely fastened, but moveable, is + fixed at the back of the house, eighteen inches from the + ground, and the perch placed four or five inches above it, + a foot from the wall. The nests are placed on the ground + beneath the board, which preserves them from the roosting + fowl's droppings, and keeps them well shaded for the laying + or sitting hen, if the latter is obliged to incubate in the + same house, and the nests do not need a top. The shelf can + be easily scraped clean every morning, and should be + lightly sanded afterwards. Thus the floor of the house is + never soiled by the roosting birds, and the broad board at + the same time protects them from upward draughts of air. + Where the nests and perches are not so arranged, the idea + may be followed by placing a loose board below each + perch, upon which the dung will fall, and the board can be + taken up every morning and the dung removed. With + proper tools, a properly constructed fowl-house can be kept + perfectly clean, and all the details of management well + carried out without scarcely soiling your hands. A birch + broom is the best implement with which to clean the house + if the floor is as hard as it ought to be. A handful of ashes + or sand, sprinkled over the places from which dung has + been removed, will absorb any remaining impurity.</p> +<p>Fowls' dung is a very valuable manure, being strong, + stimulating, and nitrogenous, possessing great power in + forcing the growth of vegetables, particularly those of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> cabbage tribe, and is excellent for growing strawberries, + or indeed almost any plants, if sufficiently diluted; for, + being very strong, it should always be mixed with earth. + A fowl, according to Stevens, will void at least one ounce of + dry dung in twenty-four hours, which is worth at least + seven shillings a cwt.</p> +<p>The door should fit closely, a slight space only being left + at the bottom to admit air. It should have a square hole, + which is usually placed either at the top or bottom, for the + poultry to enter to roost. A hole at the top is generally + preferred, as it is inaccessible to vermin. The fowls ascend + by means of a ladder formed of a slanting board, with + strips of wood nailed across to assist their feet; a similar + ladder should be placed inside to enable them to descend, + if they are heavy fowls; but the evil is that, even with this + precaution, they are inclined to fly down, as they do from + high perches, without using the ladder, and thus injure + their feet. A hole in the middle of the door would be preferable + to either, and obviate the defects of both. These + holes should be fitted with sliding panels on the inside, so + that they can be closed in order to keep the fowls out + while cleaning the house, or to keep them in until they + have laid their eggs, or it may be safe to let them out in + the morning in any neighbourhood or place where they + would else be liable to be stolen. Every day, after the fowls + have left their roosts, the doors and windows should be + opened, and a thorough draught created to purify the house. + During the winter months all the entrance holes should be + closed from sunset to sunrise, unless in mild localities. + Where there are many houses, they should, if possible, + communicate with each other by doors, so that they may + be cleaned from end to end, or inspected without the necessity + of passing through the yards, which is especially + unpleasant in wet weather. The doors should be capable + of being fastened on either side, to avoid the chance of the + different breeds intermingling while your attention is occupied + in arranging the nests, collecting eggs, &c. See that + your fowls are securely locked in at night, for they are + more easily stolen than any other kind of domestic animals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> A good dog in the yard or adjoining house or stable is an + excellent protection.</p> +<p>Every poultry-house should be lime-washed at least four + or five times a year, and oftener if convenient. Vermin of + any kind can be effectually destroyed by fumigating the + place with sulphur. In this operation a little care is requisite; + it should be commenced early in the morning, by + first closing the lattices, and stopping up every crevice + through which air can enter; then place on the ground a + pan of lighted charcoal, and throw on it some brimstone + broken into small pieces. Directly this is done the room + should be left, the door kept shut and airtight for some + hours; care too should be taken that the lattices are first + opened, and time given for the vapour to thoroughly disperse + before any one again enters, when every creature + within the building will be found destroyed.</p> +<p>It is said that a pair of caged guinea-pigs in the fowl-house + will keep away rats.</p> +<p>In a large establishment, and in a moderate one, if the + outlay is not an object, the pens for the chickens and the + passages between the various houses may be profitably + covered with glass, and grapes grown on the rafters. + Raising chickens under glass has been tried with great + success.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> +<h3>THE FOWL-YARD.</h3> +<p>The scarcity of poultry in this country partly arises + from all gallinaceous birds requiring warmth and dryness + to keep them in perfect health, while the climate of Great + Britain is naturally moist and cold.</p> +<p>"The warmest and driest soils," says Mowbray, "are + the best adapted to the breeding and rearing of gallinaceous + fowls, more particularly chickens. A wet soil is the + worst, since, however ill affected fowls are by cold, they + endure it better than moisture. Land proper for sheep is + generally also adapted to the successful keeping of poultry + and rabbits."</p> +<p>But poultry may be reared and kept successfully even + on bad soils with good drainage and attention. The + "Henwife" says: "I do not consider any one soil necessary + for success in rearing poultry. Some think a chalk + soil essential for Dorkings, but I have proved the fallacy + of this opinion by bringing up, during three years, many + hundreds of these <i>soi disant</i> delicate birds on the strong + blue clay of the Carse of Gowrie, doubtless thoroughly + drained, that system being well understood and universally + practised by the farmers of the district. A coating of + gravel and sand once a year is all that is requisite to secure + the necessary dryness in the runs." The best soil for a + poultry-yard is gravel, or sand resting on chalk or gravel. + When the soil is clayey, or damp from any other cause, it + should be thoroughly drained, and the whole or a good + portion of the ground should be raised by the addition of + twelve inches of chalk, or bricklayer's rubbish, over which + should be spread a few inches of sand. Cramp, roup, + and some other diseases, more frequently arise from stagnant + wet in the soil than from any other cause.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> +<p>The yard should be sheltered from the north and east + winds, and where this is effected by the position of a shrubbery + or plantation in which the fowls may be allowed to + run, it will afford the advantage of protection, not only + from wind and cold, but also shelter from the rain and the + burning sun. It also furnishes harbourage for insects, + which will find them both food and exercise in picking up. + Indeed, for all these purposes a few bushes may be advantageously + planted in or adjoining any poultry-yard. When + a tree can be enclosed in a run, it forms an agreeable object + for the eye, and affords shelter to the fowls.</p> +<p>A covered run or shed for shelter in wet or hot weather + is a great advantage, especially if chickens are reared. It + may be constructed with a few rough poles supporting a + roof of patent felt, thatch, or rough board, plain or painted + for preservation, and may be made of any length and width, + from four feet upwards, and of any height from four feet at the + back and three feet in the front, to eight feet at the back and six + feet in the front. The shed should, if possible, adjoin the fowl-house. + It should be wholly or partly enclosed with wire-work, + which should be boarded for a foot from the ground + to keep out the wet and snow, and to keep in small chickens. + The roof should project a foot beyond the uprights which + support it, in order to throw the rain well off, and have a + gutter-shoot to carry it away and prevent it from being blown + in upon the enclosed space. The floor should be a little + higher than the level of the yard, both in order to keep it + dry and the easier to keep it clean; and it should be higher + at the back than in the front, which will keep it drained if + any wet should be blown in or water upset. If preferred, + moveable netting may be used, so that the fowls can be + allowed their liberty in fine weather, and be confined in + wet weather. But the boarding must be retained to keep + out the wet. The ground may be left in its natural state + for the fowls to scratch in, in which case the surface should + be dug up from time to time and replaced with fresh earth + pressed down moderately hard. If the house is large and + has a good window, a shed is not absolutely necessary, + especially for a few fowls only, but it is a valuable addition,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> and is also very useful to shelter the coops of the mother + hens and their young birds in wet, windy, or hot weather.</p> +<p>By daily attention to cleanliness, a few fowls may be kept + in such a covered shed, without having any open run, by + employing a thick layer of dry pulverised earth as a deodoriser, + which is to be turned over with a rake every day, + and replaced with fresh dry pulverised earth once a week. + The dry earth entirely absorbs all odour. In a run of this + kind, six square feet should be allowed to each fowl kept, + for a smaller surface of the dry earth becomes moist and + will then no longer deodorise the dung. Sifted ashes + spread an inch deep over the floor of the whole shed will + be a good substitute if the dry earth cannot be had. They + should be raked over every other morning, and renewed at + least every fortnight, or oftener if possible. The ground + should be dug and turned over whenever it looks sodden, or + gives out any offensive smell; and three or four times a + year the polluted soil below the layer, that is, the earth to + the depth of three or four inches, should be removed and + replaced with fresh earth, gravel, chalk, or ashes.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The + shed must be so contrived that the sun can shine upon the + fowls during some part of the day, or they will not continue + in health for any length of time, and it is almost impossible + to rear healthy chickens without its light and warmth; and + it will be a great improvement if part of the run is open. + Another shed will be required if chickens are to be reared.</p> +<p>Fowls that are kept in small spaces or under covered + runs will require a different diet to those that are allowed + to roam in fields and pick up insects, grass, &c., and must + be provided with green food, animal food in place of + insects, and be well supplied with mortar rubbish and + gravel.</p> +<p>The height of the wall, paling, or fencing that surrounds + the yard, and of the partitions, if the yard is divided into + compartments for the purpose of keeping two or more + breeds separate and pure, must be according to the nature + of the breed. Three feet in height will be sufficient to + retain Cochins and Brahmas; six feet will be required for + moderate-sized fowls; and eight or nine feet will be necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> to confine the Game, Hamburg, and Bantam breeds. + Galvanised iron wire-netting is the best material, as it does + not rust, and will not need painting for a long time. It is + made of various degrees of strength, and in different forms, + and may be had with meshes varying from three-fourths of + an inch to two inches or more; with very small meshes at + the lower part only, to keep out rats and to keep in + chickens; with spikes upon the top, or with scoloped + wire-work, which gives it a neat and finished appearance; + with doors, and with iron standards terminating in double + spikes to fix in the ground, by which wooden posts are + divided, while it can be easily fixed and removed. The + meshes should not be more than two inches wide, and if + the meshes of the lower part are not very small, it should + be boarded to about two feet six inches from the ground, + in order to keep out rats, keep in chickens, and to prevent + the cocks fighting through the wire, which fighting is + more dangerous than in the open, for the birds are very + liable to injure themselves in the meshes, and, Dorkings + especially, to tear their combs and toes in them. If iron + standards are not attached to the netting, it should be + stretched to stout posts, well fixed in the ground, eight feet + apart, and fastened by galvanised iron staples. A rail at + the top gives a neater appearance, but induces the fowls to + perch upon it, which may tempt them to fly over.</p> +<p>Where it is not convenient to fix a fence sufficiently high, + or when a hen just out with her brood has to be kept in, a + fowl may be prevented from flying over fences by stripping + off the vanes or side shoots from the first-flight feathers of + one wing, usually ten in number, which will effectually + prevent the bird from flying, and will not be unsightly, as + the primary quills are always tucked under the others when + not used for flying. This method answers much better + than clipping the quills of each wing, as the cut points are + liable to inflict injuries and cause irritation in moulting.</p> +<p>The openness of the feathers of fowls which do not throw + off the water well, like those of most birds, enables them + to cleanse themselves easier from insects and dirt, by dusting + their feathers, and then shaking off the dirt and these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> minute pests with the dust. For this purpose one or more + ample heaps of sifted ashes, or very dry sand or earth, for + them to roll in, must be placed in the sun, and, if possible, + under shelter, so as to be warm and perfectly dry. Wood + ashes are the best. This dust-heap is as necessary to fowls + as water for washing is to human beings. It cleanses their + feathers and skin from vermin and impurities, promotes the + cuticular or skin excretion, and is materially instrumental + in preserving their health. If they should be much troubled + with insects, mix in the heap plenty of wood ashes + and a little flour of sulphur.</p> +<p>A good supply of old mortar-rubbish, or similar substance, + must be kept under the shed, or in a dry place, to + provide material for the eggshells, or the hens will be + liable to lay soft-shelled eggs. Burnt oyster-shells are an + excellent substitute for common lime, and should be prepared + for use by being heated red-hot, and when cold broken + into small pieces with the fingers, but not powdered. + Some give chopped or ground bones, or a lump of chalky + marl. Eggshells roughly crushed are also good, and are + greedily devoured by the hens.</p> +<p>A good supply of gravel is also essential, the small stones + which the fowls swallow being necessary to enable them to + digest their hard food. Fowls swallow all grain whole, + their bills not being adapted for crushing it like the teeth + of the rabbit or the horse, and it is prepared for digestion + by the action of a strong and muscular gizzard, lined with + a tough leathery membrane, which forms a remarkable + peculiarity in the internal structure of fowls and turkeys. + "By the action," says Mr. W. H. L. Martin, "of the two + thick muscular sides of this gizzard on each other, the + seeds and grains swallowed (and previously macerated in + the crop, and there softened by a peculiar secretion oozing + from glandular pores) are ground up, or triturated in order + that their due digestion may take place. It is a remarkable + fact that these birds are in the habit of swallowing small + pebbles, bits of gravel, and similar substances, which it + would seem are essential to their health. The definite use + of these substances, which are certainly ground down by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> the mill-like action of the gizzard, has been a matter of + difference among various physiologists, and many experiments, + with a view to elucidate the subject, have been + undertaken. It was sufficiently proved by Spallanzani that + the digestive fluid was incapable of dissolving grains of + barley, &c., in their unbruised state; and this he ascertained + by filling small hollow and perforated balls and tubes of + metal or glass with grain, and causing them to be swallowed + by turkeys and other fowls; when examined, after twenty-four + and forty-eight hours, the grains were found to be + unaffected by the gastric fluid; but when he filled similar + balls and tubes with bruised grains, and caused them to be + swallowed, he found, after a lapse of the same number of + hours, that they were more or less dissolved by the action + of the gastric juice. In other experiments, he found that + metallic tubes introduced into the gizzard of common fowls + and turkeys, were bruised, crushed, and distorted, and even + that sharp-cutting instruments were broken up into blunt + fragments without having produced the slightest injury to + the gizzard. But these experiments go rather to prove the + extraordinary force and grinding powers of the gizzard, + than to throw light upon the positive use of the pebbles + swallowed; which, after all, Spallanzani thought were + swallowed without any definite object, but from mere + stupidity. Blumenbach and Dr. Bostock aver that fowls, + however well supplied with food, grow lean without them, + and to this we can bear our own testimony. Yet the question, + what is their precise effect? remains to be answered. + Boerhave thought it probable that they might act as + absorbents to superabundant acid; others have regarded + them as irritants or stimulants to digestion; and Borelli + supposed that they might really contribute some degree of + nutriment."</p> +<p>Sir Everard Home, in his "Comparative Anatomy," + says: "When the external form of this organ is first + attentively examined, viewing that side which is anterior in + the living bird, and on which the two bellies of the muscle + and middle are more distinct, there being no other part to + obstruct the view, the belly of the muscle on the left side is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> seen to be larger than on the right. This appears, on + reflection, to be of great advantage in producing the necessary + motion; for if the two muscles were of equal strength, + they must keep a greater degree of exertion than is necessary; + while, in the present case, the principal effect is + produced by that of the left side, and a smaller force is used + by that on the right to bring the parts back again. The + two bellies of the muscle, by their alternate action, produce + two effects—the one a constant friction on the contents of + the cavity; the other, a pressure on them. This last arises + from a swelling of the muscle inwards, which readily + explains all the instances which have been given by Spallanzani + and others, of the force of the gizzard upon substances + introduced into it—a force which is found by their experiments + always to act in an oblique direction. The internal + cavity, when opened in this distended state, is found to be + of an oval form, the long diameter being in the line of the + body; its capacity nearly equal to the size of a pullet's + egg; and on the sides there are ridges in their horny coat + (lining membrane) in the long direction of the oval. When + the horny coat is examined in its internal structure, the + fibres of which it is formed are not found in a direction perpendicular + to the ligamentous substance behind it; but in + the upper portion of the cavity it is obliquely upwards. + From this form of cavity it is evident that no part of the + sides is ever intended to be brought in contact, and that the + food is triturated by being mixed with hard bodies, and + acted on by the powerful muscles which form the gizzard."</p> +<p>The experiments of Spallanzani show that the muscular + action of the gizzard is equally powerful whether the small + stones are present or not; and that they are not at all + necessary to the trituration of the firmest food, or the hardest + foreign substances; but it is also quite clear that when + these small stones are put in motion by the muscles of the + gizzard they assist in crushing the grain, and at the same + time prevent it from consolidating into a thick, heavy, compacted + mass, which would take a far longer time in undergoing + the digestive process than when separated and + intermingled with the pebbles.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> +<p>This was the opinion of the great physiologist, John + Hunter, who, in his treatise "On the Animal Economy," + after noticing the grinding powers of the gizzard, says, in + reference to the pebbles swallowed, "We are not, however, + to conclude that stones are entirely useless; for if we compare + the strength of the muscles of the jaws of animals + which masticate their food with those of birds who do not, + we shall say that the parts are well calculated for the + purpose of mastication; yet we are not thence to infer that + the teeth in such jaws are useless, even although we have + proof that the gums do the business when the teeth are + gone. If pebbles are of use, which we may reasonably + conclude they are, birds have an advantage over animals + having teeth, so far as pebbles are always to be found, + while the teeth are not renewed. If we constantly find in + an organ substances which can only be subservient to the + functions of that organ, should we deny their use, although + the part can do its office without them? The stones assist + in grinding down the grain, and, by separating its parts, + allow the gastric juice to come more readily in contact + with it."</p> +<p>When a paddock is used as a run for a large number of + poultry, it should be enclosed either by a wall or paling, + but not by a hedge, as the fowls can get through it, and + will also lay their eggs under the hedge. The paddock + should be well drained, and it will be a great advantage if + it contains a pond, or has a stream of water running through + or by it. Mowbray advises that the grass run should be + sown "with common trefoil or wild clover, with a mixture + of burnet, spurry, or storgrass," which last two kinds "are + particularly salubrious to poultry." If the grass is well + rooted before the fowls are allowed to run on it, they may + range there for several hours daily, according to its extent + and their number, but it should be renewed in the spring + by sowing where it has become bare or thin. A dry + common, or pasture fields, in which they may freely wander + and pick up grubs, insects, ants' eggs, worms, and leaves + of plants, is a great advantage, and they may be accustomed + to return from it at a call. Where there is a cropped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> field, orchard, or garden, in which fowls may roam at + certain seasons, when the crops are safe from injury, each + brood should be allowed to wander in it separately for a + few hours daily, or on different days, as may be most + convenient. "A garden dung-heap," says Mr. Baily, + "overgrown with artichokes, mallows, &c., is an excellent + covert for chickens, especially in hot weather. They find + shelter and meet with many insects there." When horse-dung + is procured for the garden, or supplied from your + stables, some should be placed in a small trench, and + frequently renewed, in which the fowls will amuse themselves, + particularly in winter, by scraping for corn and + worms. When fowls have not the advantage of a grass + run they should be indulged with a square or two of fresh + turf, as often as it can be obtained, on which they will feed + and amuse themselves. It should be heavy enough to enable + them to tear off the grass, without being obliged to drag + the turf about with them.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> +<h3>FOOD.</h3> +<p>The following table, which first appeared in the "Poultry + Diary," will show at a glance the relative constituents and + qualities of the different kinds of food, and may be consulted + with great advantage by the poultry-keeper, as it will + enable him to proportion mixed food correctly, and to + change it according to the production of growth, flesh, + or fat that may be desired, and according to the temperature + of the season. These proportions, of course, are not + absolutely invariable, for the relative proportions of the + constituents of the grain will vary with the soil, manure + used, and the growing and ripening characteristics of the + season.</p> +<div class="center"> + <table summary="food" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td rowspan="2" + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> There is in every<br /> + 100 lbs. of</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Flesh-<br /> + forming<br /> + Food.</td> + <td colspan="2" + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Warmth-giving<br /> + Food.</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Bone-<br /> + making<br /> + Food.</td> + <td rowspan="2" + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Husk<br /> + or<br /> + Fibre.</td> + <td rowspan="2" + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Water.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Gluten,<br /> + &c.</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Fat or<br /> + Oil.</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Starch,<br /> + &c.</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Mineral<br /> + Substance</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Oats</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 15</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 6</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 47</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 20</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 10</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Oatmeal</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 18</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 6</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 63</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 9</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl">Middlings or fine Sharps</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 18</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 6</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 53</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 5</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 4</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Wheat</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 12</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 3</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 70</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 1</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Barley</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 11</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 60</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 14</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Indian Corn</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 11</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 8</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 65</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 1</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 5</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 10</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Rice</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 7</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> a trace</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 80</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> a trace</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> --</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 13</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Beans and Peas</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 25</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 48</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 8</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Milk</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 4½</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 3</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 5</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc">¾</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> --</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 86¾</td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> +<p>Barley is more generally used than any other grain, and, + reckoned by weight, is cheaper than wheat or oats; but, + unless in the form of meal, should not be the only grain + given, for fowls do not fatten upon it, as, though possessing + a very fair proportion of flesh-forming substances, it contains + a lesser amount of fatty matters than other varieties + of corn. In Surrey barley is the usual grain given, excepting + during the time of incubation, when the sitting + hens have oats, as being less heating to the system than + the former. Barley-meal contains the same component + parts as the whole grain, being ground with the husk, but + only inferior barley is made into meal.</p> +<p>Wheat of the best description is dearer than barley, both + by weight and measure, and possesses but about one-twelfth + part more flesh-forming material, but it is fortunate + that the small cheap wheat is the best for poultry, for Professor + Johnston says, "the small or tail corn which the + farmer separates before bringing his grain to market is + richer in gluten (flesh-forming food) than the full-grown + grain, and is therefore more nutritious." The "Henwife" + finds "light wheats or tailings the best grain for daily use, + and next to that barley."</p> +<p>Oats are dearer than barley by weight. The heaviest + should be bought, as they contain very little more husk + than the lightest, and are therefore cheaper in proportion. + Oats and oatmeal contain much more flesh-forming material + than any other kind of grain, and double the amount + of fatty material than wheat, and three times as much as + barley. Mowbray says oats are apt to cause scouring, and + chickens become tired of them; but they are recommended + by many for promoting laying, and in Kent, Sussex, and + Surrey for fattening. Fowls frequently refuse the lighter + samples of oats, but if soaked in water for a few hours so + as to swell the kernel, they will not refuse them. The + meal contains more flesh-forming material than the whole + grain.</p> +<p>The meal of wheat and barley are much the same as the + whole grain, but oatmeal is drier and separated from a + large portion of the husk, which makes it too dear except<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> for fattening fowls and feeding the youngest chickens, for + which it is the very best food. Fine "middlings," also + termed "sharps" and "thirds," and in London coarse + country flour, are much like oatmeal, but cheaper than the + best, and may be cheaply and advantageously employed + instead of oatmeal, or mixed with boiled or steamed small + potatoes or roots.</p> +<p>Many writers recommend refuse corn for fowls, and the + greater number of poultry-keepers on a small scale perhaps + think such light common grain the cheapest food; but + this is a great mistake, as, though young fowls may be fed + on offal and refuse, it is the best economy to give the older + birds the finest kind of grain, both for fattening and laying, + and even the young fowls should be fed upon the best if + fine birds for breeding or exhibition are desired. "Instead + of giving ordinary or tail corn to my fattening or breeding + poultry," says Mowbray, "I have always found it most + advantageous to allow the heaviest and the best; thus + putting the confined fowls on a level with those at the + barn-door, where they are sure to get their share of the + weightiest and finest corn. This high feeding shows itself + not only in the size and flesh of the fowls, but in the size, + weight, and substantial goodness of their eggs, which, in + these valuable particulars, will prove far superior to the + eggs of fowls fed upon ordinary corn or washy potatoes; + two eggs of the former going further in domestic use than + three of the latter." "Sweepings" sometimes contain + poisonous or hurtful substances, and are always dearer, + weight for weight, than sound grain.</p> +<p>Some poultry-keepers recommend that the grain should + be boiled, which makes it swell greatly, and consequently + fills the fowl's crop with a smaller quantity, and the bird is + satisfied with less than if dry grain be given; but others + say that the fowls derive more nutriment from the same + quantity of grain unboiled. Indeed, it seems evident that a + portion of the nutriment must pass into the water, and + also evaporate in steam. The fowl's gizzard being a + powerful grinding mill, evidently designed by Providence + for the purpose of crushing the grain into meal, it is clear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> that whole grain is the natural diet of fowls, and that + softer kinds of food are chiefly to be used for the first or + morning meal for fowls confined in houses (see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>), and + for those being fattened artificially in coops, where it is + desired to help the fowl's digestive powers, and to convert + the food into flesh as quickly as possible.</p> +<p>Indian corn or maize, either whole or in meal, must not + be given in too great a proportion, as it is very fattening + from the large quantity of oil it contains; but mixed with + barley or barley-meal, it is a most economical and useful + food. It is useful for a change, but is not a good food by + itself. It may be given once or twice a week, especially in + the winter, with advantage. From its size small birds + cannot eat it and rob the fowls. Whether whole or in + meal, the maize should be scalded, that the swelling may + be done before it is eaten. The yellow-coloured maize is not + so good as that which is reddish or rather reddish-brown.</p> +<p>Buckwheat is about equal to barley in flesh-forming + food, and is very much used on the Continent. Mr. + Wright has "a strong opinion that the enormous production + of eggs and fowls in France is to some extent + connected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by + French poultry-keepers." It is not often to be had cheap + in this country, but is hardy and may be grown anywhere + at little cost. Mr. Edwards says, he "obtained (without + manure) forty bushels to the acre, on very poor sandy soil, + that would not have produced eighteen bushels of oats. + The seed is angular in form, not unlike hempseed; and is + stimulating, from the quantity of spirit it contains."</p> +<p>Peas, beans, and tares contain an extraordinary quantity + of flesh-forming material, and very little of fat-forming, + but are too stimulating for general use, and would harden + the muscular fibres and give too great firmness of flesh to + fowls that are being fattened, but where tares are at a low + price, or peas or beans plentiful, stock fowls may be + advantageously fed upon any of these, and they may + be given occasionally to fowls that are being fattened. It + is better to give them boiled than in a raw state, especially + if they are hard and dry, and the beans in particular may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> be too large for the fowls to swallow comfortably. Near + Geneva fowls are fed chiefly upon tares. Poultry reject + the wild tares of which pigeons are so fond.</p> +<p>Rice is not a cheap food. When boiled it absorbs a great + quantity of water and forms a large substance, but, of + course, only contains the original quantity of grain which + is of inferior value, especially for growing chickens, as + it consists almost entirely of starch, and does not contain + quite half the amount of flesh-forming materials as oats. + When broken or slightly damaged it may be had much + cheaper, and will do as well as the finest. Boil it for half + an hour in skim-milk or water, and then let it stand in the + water till cold, when it will have swollen greatly, and be so + firm that it can be taken out in lumps, and easily broken + into pieces. In addition to its strengthening and fattening + qualities rice is considered to improve the delicacy of the + flesh. Fowls are especially fond of it at first, but soon grow + tired of this food. If mixed with less cloying food, such as + bran, they would probably continue to relish it.</p> +<p>Hempseed is most strengthening during moulting time, + and should then be given freely, especially in cold localities.</p> +<p>Linseed steeped is occasionally given, chiefly to birds + intended for exhibition, to increase the secretion of oil, and + give lustre to their plumage.</p> +<p>Potatoes, from the large quantity of starch they contain, + are not good unmixed, as regular food, but mixed with + bran or meal are most conducive to good condition and + laying. They contain a great proportion of nutriment, + comparatively to their bulk and price; and may be advantageously + and profitably given where the number of + eggs produced is of more consequence than their flavour or + goodness. A good morning meal of soft food for a few fowls + may be provided daily almost for nothing by boiling the + potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with enough + bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff dry paste. + The peelings will supply as many fowls as there are persons + at the dinner table. A little salt should always + be added, and in winter a slight sprinkling of pepper + is good.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> +<p>"It is indispensable," says Mr. Dickson, "to give the + potatoes to fowls not only in a boiled state, but hot; not + so hot, however, as to burn their mouths, as they are + stupid enough to do if permitted. They dislike cold potatoes, + and will not eat them willingly. It is likewise + requisite to break all the potatoes a little, for they will not + unfrequently leave a potato when thrown down unbroken, + taking it, probably, for a stone, since the moment the skin + is broken and the white of the interior is brought into + view, they fall upon it greedily. When pieces of raw + potatoes are accidentally in their way, fowls will sometimes + eat them, though they are not fond of these, and it is + doubtful whether they are not injurious."</p> +<p>Mangold-wurtzel, swedes, or other turnips, boiled with + a very small quantity of water, until quite soft, and then + thickened with the very best middlings or meal, is the + very best soft food, especially for Dorkings.</p> +<p>Soft food should always be mixed rather dry and <i>friable</i>, + and not <i>porridgy</i>, for they do not like sticky food, which + clings round their beaks and annoys them, besides often + causing diarrhœa. There should never be enough water in + food to cause it to glisten in the light. If the soft food is + mixed boiling hot at night and put in the oven, or covered + with a cloth, it will be warm in the morning, in which state + it should always be given in cold weather.</p> +<p>Fowls have their likes and dislikes as well as human + beings, some preferring one kind of grain to all others, + which grain is again disliked by other fowls. They also + grow tired of the same food, and will thrive all the + better for having as much variety of diet as possible, some + little change in the food being made every few days. + Fowls should not be forced or pressed to take food to + which they show a dislike. It is most important to give + them chiefly that which they like best, as it is a rule, + with but few exceptions, that what is eaten with most + relish agrees best and is most easily digested; but care + must be taken not to give too much, for one sort of grain + being more pleasing to their palate than another, induces + them to eat gluttonously more than is necessary or healthy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> M. Réaumur made many careful experiments upon the + feeding of fowls, and among them found that they were + much more easily satisfied than might be supposed from the + greedy voracity which they exhibit when they are fed, and + that the sorts of food most easily digested by them are + those of which they eat the greatest quantity.</p> +<p>No definite scale can be given for the quantity of food + which fowls require, as it must necessarily vary with the + different breeds, sizes, ages, condition, and health of the + fowls; and with the seasons of the year, and the temperature + of the season, much more food being necessary to keep + up the proper degree of animal heat in winter than in + summer; and the amount of seeds, insects, vegetables, and + other food that they may pick up in a run of more or less + extent. Over-feeding, whether by excess of quantity or + excess of stimulating constituents, is the cause of the most + general diseases, the greater proportion of these diseases, + and of most of the deaths from natural causes among + fowls. When fowls are neither laying well nor moulting, + they should not be fed very abundantly; for in such a state + over-feeding, especially with rich food, may cause them + to accumulate too much fat. A fat hen ceases to lay, or + nearly, while an over-fed cock becomes lazy and useless, + and may die of apoplexy.</p> +<p>But half-fed fowls never pay whether kept for the table + or to produce eggs. A fowl cannot get fat or make an egg + a day upon little or poor food. A hen producing eggs will + eat nearly twice as much food as at another time. In cold + weather give plenty of dry bread soaked in ale.</p> +<p>Poultry prefer to pick their food off the ground. "No + plan," says Mr. Baily, "is so extravagant or so injurious as + to throw down heaps once or twice per day. They should + have it scattered as far and wide as possible, that the birds + may be long and healthily employed in finding it, and may + not accomplish in a few minutes that which should occupy + them for hours. For this reason every sort of feeder or + hopper is bad. It is the nature of fowls to take a grain at + a time, and to pick grass and dirt with it, which assist + digestion. They should feed as pheasants, partridges,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> grouse, and other game do in a state of nature; if, contrary + to this, they are enabled to eat corn by mouthfuls, + their crops are soon overfilled, and they seek relief in + excessive draughts of water. Nothing is more injurious + than this, and the inactivity that attends the discomfort + caused by it lays the foundation of many disorders. The + advantage of scattering the food is, that all then get their + share; while if it is thrown only on a small space the master + birds get the greater part, while the others wait around. + In most poultry-yards more than half the food is wasted; + the same quantity is thrown down day after day, without + reference to time of year, alteration of numbers, or variation + of appetite, and that which is not eaten is trodden + about, or taken by small birds. Many a poultry-yard is + coated with corn and meal."</p> +<p>If two fowls will not run after one piece, they do not + want it. If a trough is used, the best kind is the simplest, + being merely a long, open one, shaped like that used for + pigs, but on a smaller scale. It should be placed about a + foot from one of the sides of the yard, behind some round + rails driven into the ground three inches apart, so that + the fowls cannot get into the troughs, so as to upset them, + or tread in or otherwise dirty the food. The rails should + be all of the same height, and a slanting board be fixed + over the trough.</p> +<p>Some persons give but one meal a day, and that generally + in the morning; this is false economy, for the whole + of the nutriment contained in the one meal is absorbed in + keeping up the animal heat, and there is no material for + producing eggs. "The number of meals per day," says + Mr. Wright, "best consistent with real economy will vary + from two to three, according to the size of the run. If + it be of moderate extent, so that they can in any degree + forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, at least in + summer, and should be given early in the morning and + the last thing before the birds go to roost. In any case, + these will be the principal meals; but when the fowls are + kept in confinement they will require, in addition, a scanty + feed at mid-day. The first feeding should consist of soft<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> food of some kind. The birds have passed a whole night + since they were last fed; and it is important, especially in + cold weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as possible + be got into the system, and not merely into the crop. But + if grain be given, it has to be ground in the poor bird's + gizzard before it can be digested, and on a cold winter's + morning the delay is anything but beneficial. But, for + the very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the + best food which can be supplied; it is digested slowly, and + during the long cold nights affords support and warmth + to the fowls."</p> +<p>They should be fed at regular hours, and will then soon + become accustomed to them, and not loiter about the + house or kitchen door all day long, expecting food, which + they will do if fed irregularly or too often, and neglect to + forage about for themselves, and thus cost more for food.</p> +<p>Grass is of the greatest value for all kinds of poultry, and + where they have no paddock, or grass-plot, fresh vegetables + must be given them daily, as green food is essential to the + health of all poultry, even of the very youngest chickens. + Cabbage and lettuce leaves, spinach, endive, turnip-tops, + turnips cut into small pieces and scattered like grain, or + cut in two, radish-leaves, or any refuse, but not stale + vegetables will do; but the best thing is a large sod of + fresh-cut turf. They are partial to all the mild succulent + weeds, such as chickweed and <i>Chenopodium</i>, or fat-hen, and + eat the leaves of most trees and shrubs, even those of evergreens; + but they reject the leaves of strawberries, celery, + parsnips, carrots, potatoes, onions, and leeks. The supply + of green food may be unlimited, but poultry should never + be entirely fed on raw greens. Cabbage and spinach are + still more relaxing when boiled than raw. They are very + fond of the fruit of the mulberry and cherry trees, and will + enjoy any that falls, and prevent it from being wasted.</p> +<p>Insect food is important to fowls, and essential for + chickens and laying hens. "There is no sort of insect, + perhaps," says Mr. Dickson, "which fowls will not eat. + They are exceedingly fond of flies, beetles, grasshoppers, + and crickets, but more particularly of every sort of grub,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> caterpillar, and maggot, with the remarkable exception of + the caterpillar moth of the magpie (<i>Abraxas grossularia</i>), + which no bird will touch." M. Réaumur mentions the + circumstance of a quantity of wheat stored in a corn-loft + being much infected with the caterpillars of the small corn-moth, + which spins a web and unites several grains together. + A young lady devised the plan of taking some chickens to + the loft to feed on the caterpillars, of which they were so + fond that in a few days they devoured them all, without + touching a single grain of the corn. Mr. Dickson observes, + that "biscuit-dust from ships' stores, which consists of + biscuit mouldered into meal, mixed with fragments still + unbroken, would be an excellent food for poultry, if soaked + in boiling water and given them hot. It is thus used for + feeding pigs near the larger seaports, where it can sometimes + be had in considerable quantity, and at a very + reasonable price. It will be no detriment to this material + if it be full of weevils and their grubs, of which fowls are + fonder than of the biscuit itself."</p> +<p>There is not any food of which poultry generally are so + fond as of earthworms; but all fowls are not equally fond + of them, and some will not touch them. They will not eat + dead worms. Too many ought not to be given, or they + will become too fat and cease laying. When fowls are + intended for the table worms should not be given, as they + are said always more or less to deteriorate the flavour of + the flesh. A good supply may easily be obtained. By + stamping hard upon the ground, as anglers do, worms will + rise to the surface; but a better method is to thrust a + strong stake or a three-pronged potato-fork into the ground, + to the depth of a foot or so, and jerk it backwards and + forwards, so as to shake the soil all around. By going out + with a light at night in calm, mild weather, particularly + when there is dew, or after rain, a cautious observer will + see large numbers of worms lying on the ground, gravel-walks, + grass-plots or pastures; but they are easily frightened + into their holes, though with caution and dexterity a great + number, and those chiefly of the largest size, may be captured. + Mr. Dickson advises that cottagers' children should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> be employed to imitate the example of the rooks, by following + the plough or the digger, and collecting the worms + which are disclosed to view; and also to collect cock-chafers, + "and, what would be more advantageous, they + might be set to collect the grubs of this destructive insect + after the plough, and thus, while providing a rich banquet + for the poultry, they would be clearing the fields of a most + destructive insect."</p> +<p>Fowls are very fond of shell snails. They are still more + fattening than worms, and therefore too many must not be + given when laying, but they do not injure the flavour of + the flesh. Some will eat slugs, but they are not generally + fond of these, and many fowls will not touch them.</p> +<p>One great secret of profitable poultry-keeping is, that + hens cannot thrive and lay without a considerable quantity + of animal food, and therefore if they cannot obtain a + sufficient quantity in the form of insects, it must be supplied + in meat, which, minced small, should be given daily + and also to all fowls in winter, as insects are then not to + be had. Mr. Baily says: "Do not give fowls meat, but + always have the bones thrown out to them after dinner; + they enjoy picking them, and perform the operation perfectly. + Do not feed on raw meat; it makes fowls quarrelsome, + and gives them a propensity to peck each other, + especially in moulting time if the accustomed meat be + withheld." They will peck at the wound of another fowl to + procure blood, and even at their own wounds when within + reach. Take care that long pieces of membrane, or thick + skin, tough gristle or sinew, or pieces of bone, are not left + sticking to the meat, or it may choke them, or form a lodgment + in the crop. "Pieces of suet or fat," says Mr. + Dickson, "are liked by fowls better than any other sort of + animal food; but, if supplied in any quantity, will soon + render them too fat for continuing to lay. Should there + be any quantity of fat to dispose of, it ought, therefore, to + be given at intervals, and mixed or accompanied with bran, + which will serve to fill their crops without producing too + much nutriment." It is a good plan when there are plenty + of bones and scraps of meat to boil them well, and mix<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> bran or pollard with the liquor before giving them to the + fowls, as it makes the meat easier to mince, and extracts + nourishment from the bones. When minced-meat is + required for a large number of fowls, a mincing or sausage + machine will save much time and prepare the meat better + than chopping. They are as fond of fish, whether salted + or fresh, as of flesh. Crumbs, fragments of pastry, and all + the refuse and slops of the kitchen may be given them. + Greaves, so much advertised for fowls, are very bad, rapidly + throwing them out of condition, causing their feathers to + fall off, spoiling the flavour of the flesh; they cause premature + decrepitude, and engender many diseases, the most + common being dropsy of an incurable character.</p> +<p>Where there is no danger from thieves, foxes, or other + vermin, and the run is extensive, it is the best plan to leave + the small door of the fowl-house open, and the fowls will + go out at daybreak and pick up many an "early worm" + and insect. The morning meal may be given when the + household has risen.</p> +<p>A constant supply of fresh clean water is indispensable. + Fountains are preferable to open vessels, in which the + fowls are apt to void their dung, and the chickens to dabble + and catch cold, often causing roup, cramp, &c. The + simplest kind of water vessel is a saucer made of red + pottery, containing several circular, concentric troughs, + each about an inch wide, and of the same depth. Chickens + cannot get drowned in these shallow vessels, but unless + placed behind rails the water will be dirtied by the fowls. + They are sold at all earthenware shops, and are used for + forcing early mustard in. A capital fountain may be made + with an earthenware jar or flower-pot and a flower-pot + saucer. Bore a small hole in the jar or flower-pot an inch + and a half from the edge of the rim, or detach a piece + about three-quarters of an inch deep and one inch wide, + from the rim, and if a flower-pot is used plug the hole in + the bottom airtight with a piece of cork; fill the vessel with + water, place the saucer bottom upwards on the top, press it + closely, and quickly turn both upside down, when the + water will flow into the saucer, filling up the space between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> it and the vessel up to the same height as the hole in the + side of the jar or flower-pot, therefore the hole in the side + of the rim of the vessel must not be quite so deep as the + height of the side of the saucer; and above all the plug in + the flower-pot must be airtight. This fountain is cheap, + simple, and easily cleaned. Water may also be kept in + troughs, or earthenware pans, placed in the same way. The + fountains and pans should be washed and filled with fresh + water once every day, and oftener in warm weather; and + they should occasionally be scoured with sand to remove + the green slime which collects on the surface, and produces + roup, gapes, and other diseases. In winter the vessels + should always be emptied at night, in order to avoid ice + from forming in them, which is troublesome to remove, and + snow must never be allowed to fall into them, snow-water + being most injurious to poultry.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2> +<h3>EGGS.</h3> +<p>During the natural process of moulting, hens cease + laying because all the superabundant nutriment is required + for the production of the new feathers. Fowls moult later + each time; the moulting occupies a longer period, and is + more severe as it becomes later, and if the weather should + be cold at its termination they seldom recommence laying + for some time. But young fowls moult in spring. Therefore, + by having pullets and hens of different ages, and + moulting at different times, a healthy laying stock may be + kept up. Pullets hatched in March, and constantly fed + highly, not only lay eggs abundantly in the autumn, but + when killed in the following February or March, are as fat + as any one could or need desire them to be, and open more + like Michaelmas geese than chickens. When eggs alone + are wanted, you can commence by buying in the spring as + many hens as you require, and your run will accommodate, + not more than a year or eighteen months old. If in good + health and condition, they will be already laying, or will + begin almost immediately; and, if well housed and fed, + will give a constant supply of eggs until they moult in the + autumn. When these hens have ceased laying, and before + they lose their good condition by moulting, they should be + either killed or sold, unless they are Hamburgs, Brahmas, + or Cochins, and replaced by pullets hatched in March + or April, which will have moulted early, and, if properly + housed and fed, will begin to lay by November at the + latest, and continue laying until February or March, when + they may be sold or killed, being then in prime condition, + and replaced as before; or, as they will not stop laying for + any length of time, the best may be kept until the autumn, + when, if profit is the chief consideration, they must be disposed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> of.<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> But Brahmas, Cochins, and Hamburgs will lay + through the winter up to their second, or even third year. + If you commence poultry-keeping in the autumn you + should buy pullets hatched in the preceding spring. The + best and cheapest plan of keeping up a good stock is to + keep a full-feathered Cochin or two for March or April + sitting; and, if necessary, procure eggs of the breed you + desire. The Cochin will sit again, being only too often + ready for the task; and the later-hatched chickens can be + fattened profitably for the table. But if you wish to obtain + eggs all the year round, and to avoid replacing of stock, or + object to the trouble of rearing chickens, keep only those + breeds that are non-sitters, as the Hamburgs, Polands, and + Spanish; but you must purchase younger birds from time + to time to keep a supply of laying hens while others are + moulting.</p> +<p>Warmth is most essential for promoting laying. A + severe frost will suddenly stop the laying of even the most + prolific hens. "When," says M. Bosc, "it is wished to + have eggs during the cold season, even in the dead of + winter, it is necessary to make the fowls roost over an oven, + in a stable, in a shed where many cattle are kept, or to + erect a stove in the fowl-house on purpose. By such + methods, the farmers of Ange have chickens fit for the + table in the month of April, a period when they are only + beginning to be hatched in the farms around Paris, + although farther to the south." It is the winter management + of fowls that decides the question of profit or loss, + for hens will be sure to pay in the summer, even if only + tolerably attended to. It is thought by many that each + hen can produce only a certain number of eggs; and if + such be the case, it is very advantageous to obtain a portion + of them in winter when they are generally scarce and + can be eaten while fresh, instead of having the whole + number produced in the summer, when so many are spoiled + from too long keeping in consequence of more being produced + than are required for use at the time.</p> +<p>When the time for her laying approaches, her comb and + wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> the eye brightens, the gait becomes more spirited, and + sometimes she cackles for three or four days. After laying + her egg on leaving the nest the hen utters a loud cackling + cry, to which the cock often responds in a high-pitched + kind of scream; but some hens after laying leave the nest + in silence. Some hens will lay an egg in three days, some + every other day, and others every day. Hens should not + be forced. By unnaturally forcing a fowl with stimulating + food, and more particularly with hempseed and tallow + greaves, to lay in two years or so the eggs that should have + been the produce of several, the hen becomes prematurely + old and diseased; and it is reasonable to suppose that the + eggs are not so good as they would have been if nature + had been left to run its own course. The eggs ought to + be taken from the nest every afternoon when no more may + be expected to be laid; for if left in the nest, the heat + of the hens when laying next day will tend to corrupt + them.</p> +<p>When the shells of the eggs are somewhat soft, it is + because the hens are rather inclined to grow too fat. It is + then proper to mix up a little chalk in their water, and to + put a little mortar rubbish in their food, the quantity of + which should be diminished. We give the following + remarks by an experienced poultry-keeper of the old + school, as valuable from being the result of practice: "The + hen sometimes experiences a difficulty in laying. In this + case a few grains of salt or garlic put into the vent have + been successfully tried. The keeper should indeed make + use of the latter mode to find out the place where a hen + has laid without his knowledge; for, as the hen will be in + haste to deposit her egg, her pace towards the nest will be + quickened; she may then be followed and her secret found + out."</p> +<p>"Though one particular form," says Mr. Dickson, "is + so common to eggs, that it is known by the familiar name + of egg-shaped, yet all keepers of poultry must be aware + that eggs are sometimes nearly round, and sometimes + almost cylindrical, besides innumerable minor shades of + difference. In fact, eggs differ so much in shape, that it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> said experienced poultry-keepers can tell by the shape of + the eggs alone the hen that laid them; for, strange to say, + however different in size the eggs of any particular hen + may be occasionally, they are very rarely different in form. + Among the most remarkable eggs may be mentioned those + of the Shanghae, or Cochin-China fowl, which are of a + pale chocolate colour; and those of the Dorking fowl, + which are of a pure white, and nearly as round as balls. + The eggs of the Malay fowls are brown; those of the + Polish fowl, which are very much pointed at one end, are + of a delicate pinkish white; and those of the Bantam are + of a long oval."</p> +<p>A very important part of the egg is the air-bag, or <i>folliculus æris</i>, which is placed at the larger end, between + the shell and its lining membranes. It is, according to Dr. + Paris, about the size of the eye of a small bird in new laid + eggs, but enlarges to ten times that size during the process + of incubation. "This air-bag," says Mr. Dickson, "is of + such great importance to the development of the chick, + probably by supplying it with a limited atmosphere of + oxygen, that if the blunt end of the egg be pierced with + the point of the smallest needle (a stratagem which malice + not unfrequently suggests), the egg cannot be hatched, but + perishes."</p> +<p>An egg exposed to the air is continually losing a portion + of its moisture, the place of which is filled by the entrance + of air, and the egg consequently becomes stale, and after a + time putrid. M. Réaumur made many experiments in + preserving eggs, and found that, by coating them with varnish, + it was impossible to distinguish those which had been + kept for a year from those newly laid; but varnish, though + not expensive, is not always to be had in country places, + and it also remained on the eggs placed under a hen and + impeded the hatching, while in boiling them, the varnish, + not being soluble in hot water, prevented them from being + properly cooked. He tried other substances, and found + that fat or grease, such as suet, lard, dripping, butter, and + oil, were well adapted for the purpose, the best of these + being a mixture of mutton and beef suet thoroughly melted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth + into an earthen pan. It is only requisite, he says, to take + a piece of the fat or butter about the size of a pea on the + end of the finger, and rub it all over the shell, by passing + and repassing the finger so that no part be left untouched; + the transpiration of matter from the egg being as effectually + stopped by the thinnest layer of fat or grease as by a + thick coating, so that no part of the shell be left ungreased, + or the tip of the finger may be dipped into oil and passed + over the shell in the same manner. If it is desired that + the eggs should look clean, they may be afterwards wiped + with a towel, for sufficient grease or oil enters the pores of + the shell to prevent all transpiration without its being + necessary that any should be left to fill up the spaces + between the pores. They can be boiled as usual without + rubbing off the fat, as it will melt in the hot water, and + when taken out of the water the little grease that is left + upon the egg is easily wiped off with a napkin.</p> +<p>Eggs preserved in this manner can also be used for + hatching, as the fat easily melts away by the heat of the + hen; and by this means the eggs of foreign fowls might be + carried to a distance, hatched, and naturalised in this and + other countries. The French also find that a mixture of + melted beeswax and olive oil is an excellent preservative.</p> +<p>Eggs may also be preserved for cooking by packing them + in sawdust, in an earthen vessel, and covering the top with + melted mutton suet or fat; as fruit is sometimes preserved. + They are also said to keep well in salt, in a barrel arranged + in layers of salt and eggs alternately. If the salt should + become damp, it would penetrate through the pores of the + shell and pickle them to a certain extent. M. Gagne says + that eggs may be preserved in a mixture made of one + bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces + of cream of tartar, with sufficient water to make it into a + paste of a consistency to receive the eggs, which, it is said, + may be kept in it fresh for two years; but eggs become + tasteless when preserved with lime. It may be as well to + mention here that eggs are comparatively wasted when used + in making a rice pudding, as they render it too hard and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> dry, and the pudding without them, if properly made, will + be just of the right consistency.</p> +<p>"Another way to preserve eggs," says Mr. Dickson, + "is to have them cooked in boiling water the same day + they are laid. On taking them out of the water they are + marked with red ink, to record their date, and put away in + a cool place, where they will keep, it is said, for several + months. When they are wanted for use, they are again + put into hot water to warm them. The curdy part which is + usually seen in new-laid eggs is so abundant, and the taste + is said to be so well preserved, that the nicest people may + be made to believe that they are new laid. At the end of + three or four months, however, the membrane lining the + shell becomes much thickened, and the eggs lose their + flavour. Eggs so preserved have the advantage of not + suffering from being carried about."</p> +<p>"It ought not to be overlooked," says Mr. Dickson, + "with respect to the preservation of eggs, that they not + only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the + putrid fermentation of their contents, in consequence of air + penetrating through the pores of the shell; but also by + being moved about, and jostled when carried to a distance + by sea or land. Any sort of rough motion indeed ruptures + the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the + germ of the chick in their proper places, and upon these + becoming mixed, putrefaction soon follows."</p> +<p>If the eggs are to be kept for setting, place a box, divided + by partitions into divisions for the eggs of the different + breeds, in a dry corner of your kitchen, but not too near to + the fire; fill the divisions with bran previously well dried in + an oven; place the eggs in it upright, with the larger ends + uppermost, as soon as they are laid, and cover them with + the bran. Mark each egg in pencil with the date when + laid, and description of breed or cross. They should be + kept in a cool place or a warm place according to the season. + Airtight jars, closed with airtight stoppers, may be used + if the eggs are intended to be kept for a very long time.</p> +<p>In selecting eggs for setting, choose the freshest, those + of moderate size, well-shaped, and having the air-vessel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> distinctly visible, either in the centre of the top of the egg, + or slightly to the side, when the egg is held between the + eye and a lighted candle, in a darkened room. Reject + very small eggs, which generally have no yolk, those that + are ill-shaped, and those of equal thickness at both ends, + which latter is the usual shape of eggs with double yolks. + These should be avoided, as they are apt generally to prove + unfertile, or produce monstrosities.</p> +<p>It has been stated that the sex of the embryo chicken + can be ascertained by the position of the air-vessel; that if + it be on the top the egg will produce a cockerel, and if on + the side a pullet; but there is no proof of the truth of + this, and, notwithstanding such assertions, it appears to be + impossible to foretell the sex of the chick, from the shape of + the egg or in any other way.</p> +<p>In selecting eggs for the purpose of producing fowls + that are to be kept for laying only, being non-sitters, + choose eggs only from those hens that are prolific layers, + for prolific laying is often as characteristic of some fowls of + a breed as it is of the particular breeds, and by careful + selection this faculty, like others, may be further developed, + or continued if already fully developed.</p> +<p>If carefully packed, eggs for setting may be carried + great distances—hundreds and even thousands of miles—without + injury; vibration and even moderate shaking, and + very considerable changes of temperature, producing no ill + effect upon the germ. The chief point is to prevent the + escape of moisture by evaporation, and consequent admission + of air. A hamper travels with less vibration than a + box, and is therefore preferable, especially for a long + journey. They should be packed in hay, by which they + will be preserved from breakage much better than by being + packed in short, close material like bran, chaff, oats, or + sawdust; these being shaken into smaller space by the + vibration of travelling, the eggs often strike and crack each + other. The hamper or box should be large enough to + admit of some soft, yielding packing material being placed + all round the eggs. The bottom should be first covered + with a good layer of hay, straw, or moss. It is a good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> plan to roll each egg separately in hay or moss, fastened + with a little wool or worsted. They should be covered + with well-rubbed straw, pressed down carefully and gently. + The lid of the hamper should be sewed on tightly all round, + or in three or four places at least. If a box is used, the lid + should be fastened by cords or screws, but not with nails, + as the hammering would probably destroy the germ of the + egg.</p> +<p>In procuring eggs for hatching, be sure that the parent + birds are of mature age, but not too old, well-shaped, + vigorous, and in perfect health; that one cock is kept to + every six or seven hens; and that they are well fed and + attended to. Have a steady broody hen ready to take the + eggs.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2> +<h3>THE SITTING HEN.</h3> +<p>All hens that are inclined to sit should be allowed to + hatch and bring up one brood of chickens a year; for, if + altogether restrained from sitting, a hen suffers much in + moulting, and is restless and excited for the remainder of + the season. It is unnatural, and therefore must be injurious. + The period of incubation gives her rest from producing + eggs. The hen that is always stimulated to produce + eggs, and not allowed to vary that process by hatching + and bringing up a young brood, must ultimately suffer + from this constant drain upon her system, and the eggs are + said to be unwholesome.</p> +<p>But hens frequently wish to sit when it is not convenient, + or in autumn or winter, when it is not advisable, unless + very late or early chickens are desired, and every attention + can be given to them. To check this desire, the old-fashioned + plan with farmers' wives, of plunging the broody + hen into cold water, and keeping her there for some + minutes, was not only a cruel practice, but often failed to + effect its object, and must naturally always have caused + ultimate disease in the poor bird. When it is absolutely + necessary to check the desire of a hen to sit, the best plan + is to let her sit on some nest-eggs for a week, then remove + and coop her for a few days, away from the place where + she made her nest, low diet, as boiled potatoes and boiled + rice, and water being placed near; meanwhile taking away + the eggs and destroying the nest, and, not finding it on + her return, she will generally not seek for another, unless + she is a Cochin, or the desire exceedingly strong.</p> +<p>When a hen wishes to sit, she utters a peculiar cluck, + ruffles her feathers, wanders about, searches obscure corners + and recesses, is very fidgety, feverishly hot, impatient,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> anxiously restless, and seeks for a nest. Highly-fed hens + feel this desire sooner than those that are not so highly fed. + A hen may be induced to sit at any season, by confining + her in a dark room in a covered basket, only large enough + to contain her nest, keeping her warm, and feeding her on + stimulating food, such as bread steeped in ale, a little raw + liver or fresh meat chopped small, and potatoes mashed + warm with milk and oatmeal.</p> +<p>Every large poultry establishment should have a separate + house for the sitting hens, and the run that should be provided + for their relaxation must be divided from that of the + other fowls by wire or lattice work, to prevent any intrusion. + Where there is a large number of sitting hens, each + nest should be numbered, and the date of setting, number + and description of eggs, entered in a diary or memorandum + book opposite to the number; and the number of chickens + hatched, and any particulars likely to be useful on a future + occasion, should afterwards be entered.</p> +<p>A separate house and run for each sitting hen is a great + advantage, as it prevents other hens from going to the nest + during her absence, or herself from returning to the wrong + nest, as will often happen in a common house. The run + should not be large, or the hen may be inclined to wander + and stay away too long from her nest. A separate division + for the sitting hen is often otherwise useful, for the + purpose of keeping the cock apart from the hens, or for + keeping a few additional birds for which accommodation + has not been prepared, or for the use of a pen of birds + about to be sent for exhibition.</p> +<p>"Boxes, of which every carpenter knows the form," says + Mowbray, "are to be arranged round the walls, and it is + proper to have a sufficient number, the hens being apt to + dispute possession, and sit upon one another. The board + or step at the entrance should be of sufficient height to + prevent the eggs from rolling out. Provision of a few + railed doors may be made for occasional use, to be hung + before the entrance, in order to prevent other hens from + intruding to lay their eggs upon those which sit, a habit to + which some are much addicted, and by which a brood is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> often injured. The common deep square boxes, uncovered at + top, are extremely improper, because that form obliges the + hen to jump down upon her eggs, whereas for safety she + should descend upon them from a very small height, or in + a manner walk in upon them. The same objection lies + against hampers, with the additional one of the wicker-work + admitting the cold in variable weather, during winter + or early spring sittings. Many breeders prefer to have all + the nests upon the ground, on account of the danger of + chickens falling from the nests which are placed above." + The ground is preferable for other reasons. The damp + arising from the ground assists very materially in incubation. + When fowls sit upon wooden floors, or in boxes, the eggs + become so dry and parched as to prevent the chicken from + disencumbering itself of the shell, and it is liable to perish + in its attempts. Hens in a state of nature make their + nests upon the ground; and fowls, when left to choose a + nest for themselves, generally fix upon a hedge, where the + hen conceals herself under the branches of the hedge, and + among the grass. In general, the sitting places are too + close and confined, and very different in this respect to + those that hens select for themselves.</p> +<p>But nests cannot always be allowed to be made on the + ground, unless properly secured from vermin, particularly + from rats, which will frequently convey away the whole of + the eggs from under a hen. And other considerations may + render it necessary to have them on a floor, in boxes on + the ground, or placed above; in which cases the eggs must + be kept properly moistened, for, unless the egg is kept + sufficiently damp, its inner membrane becomes so hard and + dry that the chicken cannot break through, and perishes. + When a hen steals her nest in a hedge or clump of evergreens + or bushes, she makes it on the damp ground. She + goes in search of food early in the morning, before the dew + is off the grass, and returns to her nest with her feathers + saturated with moisture. This is the cause of the comparatively + successful hatching of the eggs of wild birds. The + old farmers' wives did not understand the necessity of + damping eggs, but frequently complained of their not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> hatching, although chickens were found in them, which + was, in most cases, entirely caused by want of damping. + If, therefore, the weather is warm and wet, all will probably + go well; but if the air should be very dry, moisture + must be imparted by sprinkling the nest and eggs slightly, + when the hen is off feeding, by means of a small brush + dipped in tepid water. A small flat brush such as is used + by painters is excellent for this purpose, as it does not distribute + the water too freely. The ground round about, + also, should be watered with hot water, to cause a steam. + But the natural moisture of a damp soil is preferable, and + never fails.</p> +<p>The nest may be of any shape. A long box divided by + partitions into several compartments is much used, but + separate boxes or baskets are preferable as being more + easily cleaned and freed from vermin. Wooden nest-boxes + are preferable to wicker baskets in winter, as the latter let + in the cold air, but many prefer wicker baskets in summer + for their airiness. A round glazed earthen pan, with + shelving sides, like those used in the midland counties for + milk, and partially filled with moss, forms a good nest, the + moss being easier kept moist in such a pan than in a box. + The nest should be made so large that the hen can just fill + it, not very deep, and as nearly flat inside at the bottom as + possible, so that the eggs may not lean against each other, + or they may get broken, especially by the hen turning + them.</p> +<p>The best filling for hatching nests is fine dry sand, + mould, coal or wood ashes placed on a cut turf, covering it + and lining the sides with a little well-broken dry grass, + moss, bruised straw, lichen, or liverwort collected from + trees, or dry heather, which is the best of all, but cannot + always be had. Hay, though soft at first, soon becomes + hard and matted, and is also said to breed vermin. Straw + is good material, but must be cut into short pieces, for if + long straw is used and the hen should catch her foot in it, + and drag it after her when she leaves the nest, it will disturb, + if not break, the eggs. The nests of the sitting hens + in Her Majesty's poultry-yard at Windsor are made of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> heather, which offers an excellent medium between the + natural damp hedge-nest of the hen and the dryness of a + box filled with straw, and also enables her to free herself + from those insects which are so troublesome to sitting hens. + A thick layer of ashes placed under the straw in cold + weather will keep in the heat of the hen. A little Scotch + snuff is a good thing to keep the nests free from vermin.</p> +<p>Where only a few fowls are kept, and a separate place + cannot be found for the sitting hen, she can be placed on a + nest which should be covered over with a coop, closed in + with a little boarding or some other contrivance for a day + or two, to prevent her being disturbed by any other fowls + that have been accustomed to lay there. They will then + soon use another nest. She should be carefully lifted off + her nest, by taking hold of her under the wings, regularly + every morning, exercised and fed, and then shut in, + so that she cannot be annoyed.</p> +<p>It is best to allow a hen to keep the nest she has + chosen when she shows an inclination to sit; and if she continues + to sit steadily, and has not a sufficient number of + eggs under her, or the eggs you desire her to hatch, + remove her gently at night, replace the eggs with the + proper batch, and place her quietly upon the nest again. + Hens are very fond of choosing their own nests in out of + the way places; and where the spot is not unsafe, or too + much exposed to the weather, it is best to let her keep + possession, for it has been noticed that, when she selects + her own nest and manages for herself, she generally brings + forth a good and numerous brood. Mr. Tegetmeier observes + that he has "reason to believe, indeed, that whatever care + may be taken in keeping eggs, their vitality is better preserved + when they are allowed to remain in the nest. + Perhaps the periodical visits of the hen, while adding to + her store of eggs, has a stimulating influence. The warmth + communicated in the half-hour during which she occupies + the nest may have a tendency to preserve the embryo in a + vigorous state."</p> +<p>It is a good plan, before giving an untried hen choice + eggs, to let her sit upon a few chalk or stale eggs for a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> days, and if she continue to sit with constancy, then to + give her the batch for hatching. When choice can be + made out of several broody hens for a valuable batch of + eggs, one should be selected with rather short legs, a broad + body, large wings well furnished with feathers, and having + the nails and spurs not too long or sharp. As a rule, hens + which are the best layers are the worst sitters, and those + with short legs are good sitters, while long-legged hens are + not. Dorkings are the best sitters of all breeds, and by + high feeding may be induced to sit in October, especially + if they have moulted early, and with great care and + attention chickens may be reared and made fit for table by + Christmas. Early in the spring Dorkings only should be + employed as mothers, for they remain much longer with + their chickens than the Cochin-Chinas, but the latter may + safely be entrusted with a brood after April. Cochins are + excellent sitters, and, from the quantity of "fluff" which is + peculiar to them, keep the eggs at a high and regular + degree of heat. Their short legs also are advantageous + for sitting. A Cochin hen can always be easily induced to + sit, and eggs of theirs or of Brahma Pootras for sitting, + are not wanted in the coldest weather.</p> +<p>Old hens are more steady sitters than pullets, more fond + of their brood, and not so apt as pullets to leave them too + soon. Indeed, pullets were formerly never allowed to sit + before the second year of their laying, but now many + eminent authorities think it best to let them sit when they + show a strong desire to do so, considering that the prejudice + against them upon this point is unfounded, and that + young hens sit as well as older fowls. Pullets hatched + early will generally begin to lay in November or December, + if kept warm and well fed, and will sit in January or + February.</p> +<p>Broody hens brought from a distance should be carried + in a basket, covered over with a cloth.</p> +<p>The number of eggs to be set under a hen must be + according to the extent of her wings and the temperature + of the weather. Some say that the number may vary from + nine to fourteen, but others would never give more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> nine in winter and early spring, and eleven in summer, to + the largest hen, and two fewer to the smaller fowls. A + Cochin-China may have fifteen of her own in summer. + A hen should not be allowed more eggs than she can completely + cover; for eggs that are not thoroughly covered + become chilled, and fewer and weaker chickens will be + hatched from too large a number than from a more moderate + allowance. It is not only necessary to consider how + many eggs a hen can hatch, but also how many chickens + she can cover when they are partly grown. In January + and February, not more than seven or eight eggs should + be placed under the hen, as she cannot cover more than + that number of chickens when they grow large, and exposure + to the cold during the long winter nights would + destroy many. "The common order to set egges," says + Mascall, "is in odde numbers, as seven, nyne, eleven, + thirteen, &c., whiche is to make them lye round the neste, + and to have the odde egge in the middest."</p> +<p>Eggs for sitting should be under a fortnight old, if possible, + and never more than a month. Fresh eggs hatch in + proper time, and, if good, produce strong, lively chicks; + while stale eggs are hatched sometimes as much as two + days later than new laid, and the chickens are often too + weak to break the shell, while of those well out fewer will + probably be reared. It is certain, as a general rule, that + the older the egg the weaker will be its progeny. Every + egg should be marked by a pencil or ink line drawn quite + round it, so that it can be known without touching, and if + another be laid afterwards it may be at once detected and + removed, for hens will sometimes lay several after they + have commenced sitting. Place the eggs under the hen + with their larger ends uppermost.</p> +<p>Let the hen be well fed and supplied with water before + putting her on the nest. Whole barley and soft food, + chiefly barley-meal and mashed potatoes, should be given + to her when she comes off the nest, and she must have as + much as she will eat, for she leaves the nest but once daily, + and the full heat of the body cannot be kept up without + plenty of food; or she may have the same food as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> general stock. A good supply of water must be always + within her reach. A good-sized shallow box or pan, containing + fine coal-ashes, sand, or dry earth, to cleanse herself + in, should always be ready near to the nest. She should + be left undisturbed, and, as far as possible, allowed to + manage her own business. When a hen shows impatience + of her confinement, and frequently leaves the nest, + M. Parmentier advises that half only of her usual meal + should be given, after which she should be replaced on the + nest and fed from the hand with hemp or millet seed, which + will induce her to stay constantly on her eggs. Others + will sit so long and closely that they become faint for want + of food. Such hens should not be fed on the nest, but + gently induced with some tempting dainty to take a little + exercise, for they will not leave their eggs of their own + accord, and feeding on the nest has crippled many a good + sitter. It is not healthy for the hen to feed while sitting + on or close by the nest, for she requires a little exercise + and rolling in the dust-heap, as well as that the eggs + should be exposed for the air to carry off any of that + stagnant vapour which M. Réaumur proved to be so + destructive to the embryo chickens; and it has also been + shown by physiologists that the cooling of the eggs caused + by this absence of the hen is essential to allow a supply + of air to penetrate through the pores of the shell, for the + respiration of the chick. When there are many hens sitting + at the same time, it is a good plan to take them off their + nests regularly at the same time every morning to feed, + and afterwards give them an opportunity to cleanse themselves + in a convenient dusting-place, and, if possible, allow + them exercise in a good grass run. A hen should never be + caught, but driven back gently to her nest.</p> +<p>A good hen will not stay away more than half an hour, + unless infested with vermin, from want of having a proper + dust-heap. But hens have often been absent for more than + an hour, and yet have hatched seven or eight chickens; + and instances have been known of their being absent for + five and even for nine hours, and yet hatching a few. The + following remarkable instance is recorded by an excellent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> authority: "Eggs had been supplied and a sitting hen + lent to a neighbour, and, when she had set in a granary + ten days, she was shut out through the carelessness of a + servant. Being a stranger in the farmyard, the hen was + not recognised, but supposed to have strayed in from an + adjoining walk, and thirty hours elapsed before it was discovered + that the hen had left her nest. The farmer's wife + despaired of her brood; but, to her surprise and pleasure, + eight chickens were hatched. The tiled roof of the granary + was fully exposed to the rays of the sun, and the temperature + very high, probably above 80 deg. during the day, and + not much lower at night." Valuable eggs, therefore, + should not be abandoned on account of a rather lengthened + absence; and ordinary eggs should not be discarded as + worthless if the hen has already sat upon them for a fortnight + or so; but if she has been sitting for only a few + days, it is safer to throw them away, and have a fresh + batch.</p> +<p>During the hen's absence, always look at the eggs, + remove any that may have been broken, and very gently + wash any sticky or dirty eggs with a flannel dipped in + milk-warm water. See that they are dry before putting + them back. If the nest is also dirty, replace it with fresh + material of the same kind. Gently drive the hen back to + her nest as quickly as possible, to prevent any damage + from the eggs becoming chilled. If a hen should break an + egg with her feet or otherwise, it should be removed as + soon as it is seen, or she may eat it, and, liking the taste, + break and eat the others. Some hens have a bad habit of + breaking and eating the eggs on which they are sitting, to + cure which some recommend to boil an egg hard, bore a + few holes in it, so that the inside can be seen, and give it + while hot to the culprit, who will peck at the holes and + burn herself; but hens with such propensities should be + fattened for the table, for they are generally useless either + for sitting or laying.</p> +<p>Some persons examine the eggs after the hen has sat + upon them for six or seven days, and remove all that are + sterile, by which plan more warmth and space are gained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> for those that are fertile, and the warmth is not wasted + upon barren eggs. They may be easily proved by holding + them near to the flame of a candle, the eye being kept + shaded by one hand, when the fertile eggs will appear dark + and the sterile transparent. Another plan is to place the + eggs on a drum, or between the hands, in the sunshine, + and observe the shadow. If this wavers, by the motion of + the chick, the eggs are good; but if the shadow shows no + motion, they are unfertile. If two hens have been sitting + during the same time, and many unfertile eggs are found + in the two nests, all the fertile eggs should be placed under + one hen, and a fresh batch given to the other. The eggs + should not be moved after this time, except by the hen, + more especially when incubation has proceeded for some + time, lest the position of the chick be interfered with, + for if taken up a little time before its exit, and incautiously + replaced with the large end lowermost, the chicken, from + its position, will not be able to chip the shell, and must + therefore perish. The forepart of the chicken is towards + the biggest end of the egg, and it is so placed in the shell + that the beak is always uppermost. When the egg of a + choice breed has been cracked towards the end of the + period of incubation, the crack may be covered with a slip + of gummed paper, or the unprinted border that is round + a sheet of postage stamps, and the damaged egg will + probably yet produce a fine chick.</p> +<p>It is a good plan to set two hens on the same day, for + the two broods may be united under one if desirable, and + on the hatching day, to prevent the newly-born chickens + being crushed by the unhatched eggs, all that are hatched + can be given to one hen, and the other take charge of the + eggs, which are then more likely to be hatched, as, while + the chickens are under the hen, she will sit higher from + the eggs, and afford them less warmth when they require + it most.</p> +<p>The hen of all kinds of gallinaceous fowls, from the + Bantam to the Cochin-China, sits for twenty-one days, at + which time, on an average, the chickens break the shell; + but if the eggs are new laid it will often lessen the time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> by five or six hours, while stale eggs will always be behind + time. For the purpose of breaking the shell, the yet soft + beak of the chicken is furnished, just above the point of the + upper mandible, with a small, hard, horny scale, which, + from the position of the head, as Mr. Yarrell observes, is + brought in contact with the inner surface of the shell. + This scale may be always seen on the beaks of newly-hatched + chickens, but in the course of a short time peels + off. It should not be removed. The peculiar sound, incorrectly + called "tapping," so perceptible within the egg + about the nineteenth day of incubation, which was universally + believed to be produced by the bill of the chick + striking against the shell in order to break it and effect + its release, has been incontestably proved, by the late Dr. + F. R. Horner, of Hull, in a paper read by him before the + British Association for the Advancement of Science, to be + a totally distinct sound, being nothing more than the + natural respiratory sound in the lungs of the young chick, + which first begins to breathe at that period. Of course + there is also an occasional sound made by the tapping of + the beak in endeavouring to break the shell.</p> +<p>The time occupied in breaking the shell varies, according + to the strength of the chick, from one to three hours + usually, but extends sometimes to twenty-four, and even + more. "I have seen," says Réaumur, "chicks continue at + work for two days together; some work incessantly, while + others take rest at intervals, according to their physical + strength. Some, I have observed, begin to break the shell + a great deal too soon; for, be it observed, they ought, + before they make their exit, to have within them provision + enough to serve for twenty-four hours without taking food, + and for this purpose the unconsumed portion of the yolk + enters through the navel. The chick, indeed, which comes + out of the shell without taking up all the yolk is certain to + droop and die in a few days after it is hatched. The + assistance which I have occasionally tried to give to several + of them, by way of completing their deliverance, has + afforded me an opportunity of observing those which had + begun to break their shells before this was accomplished;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> and I have opened many eggs much fractured, in each of + which the chick had as yet much of the yolk not absorbed. + Some chicks have greater obstacles to overcome than + others, since all shells are not of an equal thickness nor of + an equal consistence; and the same inequality takes place + in the lining membrane, and offers still greater difficulty to + the emergent chick. The shells of the eggs of birds of + various species are of a thickness proportionate to the + strength of the chick that is obliged to break through + them. The canary-bird would never be able to break the + shell it is enclosed in if that were as thick as the egg of + a barn-door fowl. The chick of a barn-door fowl, again, + would in vain try to break its shell if it were as thick and + hard as that of an ostrich; indeed, though an ostrich ready + to be hatched is perhaps thrice as large as the common + chick, it is not easy to conceive how the force of its bill + can be strong enough to break a shell thicker than a china + cup, and the smoothness and gloss of which indicate that + it is nearly as hard—sufficiently so to form, as may be + often seen, a firm drinking-cup. It is the practice in some + countries to dip the eggs into warm water at the time they + are expected to chip, on the supposition that the shell is + thereby rendered more fragile, and the labour of the chick + lightened. But, though the water should soften it, upon + drying in the air it would become as hard as at first. + When the chick is entirely or almost out of the shell, it + draws its head from under its wing, where it had hitherto + been placed, stretches out its neck, directing it forwards, + but for several minutes is unable to raise it. On seeing + for the first time a chick in this condition, we are led to + infer that its strength is exhausted, and that it is ready to + expire; but in most cases it recruits rapidly, its organs + acquire strength, and in a very short time it appears quite + another creature. After having dragged itself on its legs + a little while, it becomes capable of standing on them, and + of lifting up its neck and bending it in various directions, + and at length of holding up its head. At this period the + feathers are merely fine down, but, as they are wet with + the fluid of the egg, the chick appears almost naked.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> From the multitude of their branchlets these down feathers + resemble minute shrubs; when, however, these branchlets + are wet and sticking to each other, they take up but very + little room; as they dry they become disentangled and separated. + The branchlets, plumules, or beards of each feather + are at first enclosed in a membranous tube, by which they + are pressed and kept close together; but as soon as this + dries it splits asunder, an effect assisted also by the elasticity + of the plumules themselves, which causes them to + recede and spread themselves out. This being accomplished, + each down feather extends over a considerable + space, and when they all become dry and straight, the + chick appears completely clothed in a warm vestment of + soft down."</p> +<p>If they are not out in a few hours after the shell has been + broken, and the hole is not enlarged, they are probably glued + to the shell. Look through the egg then, and, if all the + yolk has passed into the body of the chicken, you may assist + it by enlarging the fracture with a pair of fine scissors, + cutting up towards the large end of the egg, never downwards. + "If," says Miss Watts, "the time has arrived when + the chicken may with safety be liberated, there will be no + appearance of blood in the minute blood-vessels spread + over the interior of the shell; they have done their work, + and are no longer needed by the now fully developed and + breathing chick. If there should be the slightest appearance + of blood, resist at once, for its escape would generally + be fatal. Do not attempt to let the chicken out at once, + but help it a little every two or three hours. The object + is not to hurry the chicken out of its shell, but to prevent + its being suffocated by being close shut up within it. If + the chick is tolerably strong, and the assistance needful, it + will aid its deliverance with its own exertions." When + the chicken at last makes its way out, do not interfere with + it in any way, or attempt to feed it. Animal heat alone can + restore it. Weakness has caused the delay, and this has + probably arisen from insufficient warmth, perhaps from the + hen having had too many eggs to cover thoroughly, or + they may have been stale when set. Should you have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> to assist it out of the shell, take it out gently with your + fingers, taking great care not to tear any of its tender + skin, when freeing the feathers from the shell.</p> +<p>Mr. Wright says: "We never ourselves now attempt to + assist a chick from the shell. If the eggs were fresh, and + proper care has been taken to preserve moisture during + incubation, no assistance is ever needed. To fuss about + the nest frets the hen exceedingly; and we have always + found that, even where the poor little creature survived at + the time, it never lived to maturity. Should the reader + attempt such assistance, in cases where an egg has been long + chipped, and no further progress made, let the shell be + cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside membrane; + if that be perforated, the viscid fluid inside dries + and glues the chick to the shell. Should this happen, or + should both shell and membrane be perforated at first, + introduce the point of a pair of scissors and cut up the egg + towards the large end, where there will be an empty space, + remembering that, if blood flows, all hope is at end. Then + put the chick back under the hen; she will probably + squeeze it to death, it is true—it is so very weak; but + it will never live if put by the fire, at least we always found + it so. Indeed, as we have said, we consider it quite + useless to make the attempt at all."</p> +<p>The fact is, it is scarcely worth while to attempt to assist + in the case of ordinary eggs, but if the breed is valuable + the labour may be well bestowed.</p> +<p>Some hens are reluctant to give up sitting, and will + hatch a second brood with evident pleasure; but it is cruel + to overtask their strength and patience, and they are + sure to suffer, more or less, from the unnatural exertion.</p> +<p>Some breeders use a contrivance called an "artificial + mother" for broods hatched under the hen, and it may be + employed very advantageously when any accident has happened + to her. It is made in various forms, such as a wooden + frame, or shallow box, open at both ends, and sloping like + a writing-desk, with a perforated lid lined with sheep + or lamb's skin, goose-down, or some similar warm fleecy + material hanging down, under and between which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> chickens nestle, heat being applied to the lid either by hot + water or hot air, so as to imitate the warmth of the hen's + breast. When chickens are hatched by artificial means, + such as by the Hydro-Incubator, or the Eccaleobion, or in an + oven according to the method practised by the Egyptians, + these protectors are essential; for without a good substitute + for the hen's natural warmth the chickens would perish. + Artificial incubators are now extensively used, and where + gas is laid on they are easily managed, but the chief difficulty + is in rearing the chickens. For information on the + subject see the works of Tegetmeier, Dickson, and Wright, + on Poultry.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2> +<h3>REARING AND FATTENING FOWLS.</h3> +<p>The first want which the chick will feel will be that of + warmth, and there is no warmth so suited for them as that + of the hen's body. Some persons remove the chicks from + under the mother as soon as they are hatched, one by one, + placing them in a basket covered up with flannel, and + keep them there in a warm place, until the last chick + is out, when they are put back under the hen. But this is + very seldom necessary unless the weather is very cold and + the hen restless, and is generally more likely to annoy than + benefit her. Nor should the hen be induced to leave the + nest, but be left undisturbed until she leaves of her own + accord, when the last hatched chickens will be in a better + condition to follow her than if she had been tempted + to leave earlier. In a few hours they are able to run + about and follow their parent; they do not require to be + fed in the nest like most birds, but pick up the food + which their mother shows them; and repose at night + huddled up beneath her wings. The chicken during its + development in the egg is nourished by the yolk, and the + remaining portion of the yolk passes into its body previous + to its leaving the shell, being designed for its first nourishment; + and the chicken, therefore, does not require any food + whatever during the first day. The old-fashioned plan, so + popular with "practical" farmers' wives, of cramming a + peppercorn down the throat of the newly-hatched chick + is absurd and injurious.</p> +<p>The first food must be very light and delicate, such as + crumbs of bread soaked in milk, the yolk of an egg boiled + hard, and curds; but very little of anything at first except + water, for thirst will come before hunger. The thirsty hen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> will herself soon teach the little ones how to drink. If + your chicks be very weakly, you may cram them with + crumbs of good white bread, steeped in milk or wine, but + at the same time recollect that their little craws are not + capable of holding more than the bulk of a pea; so rather + under than over feed them.</p> +<p>As soon as the hen leaves the nest, she should have as + much grain as she can eat, and a good supply of pure, + clean water. In winter, or settled wet weather, she should, + if possible, be kept on her nest for a day, and, when + removed, be cooped in a warm, dry shed or outhouse; + but in summer, if the weather be fine, and the chickens + well upon their legs, they may be at once cooped out in + the sun, on dry gravel, or if possible on a nice grass-plot, + with food and water within her reach. The hen is cooped + to prevent her from wearying the brood by leading them + about until they are over-tired, besides being exposed to + danger from cats, hawks, and vermin, tumbling into ditches, + or getting wet in the high grass. They can pass in and + out between the bars of the coop, and will come when she + calls, or they wish to shelter under her wings. It is a + good plan to place the coop for the first day out upon + some dry sand, so that the hen can cleanse herself comfortably. + The common basket coop should only be used + in fine weather, and some straw, kept down by a stone, + matting, or other covering, should be placed on the top, to + shelter them from the mid-day sun; otherwise a wooden + coop should be used, open in front only, about two and + a half or three feet square; well-made of stout, sound + boards, with a gabled roof covered with felt; and at night + a thick canvas or matting should be hung over the front, + sufficient space being left for proper ventilation, but not to + admit cold draught, or to allow the chicks to get out. + Mr. Wright describes an excellent coop which is "very + common in some parts of France, and consists of two + compartments, separated by a partition of bars, one compartment + being closed in front, the other fronted with bars + like the partition. Each set of bars should have a sliding + one to serve as a door, and the whole coop should be tight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> and sound. It is best to have no bottom, but to put it on + loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or two deep. Each half + of the coop is about two feet six inches square, and may + or may not be lighted from the top by a small pane of + glass. The advantage of such a coop is that, except in + very severe weather, no further shelter is required, even at + night [if placed under a shed]. During the day the hen + is kept in the outer compartment, the chickens having + liberty, and the food and water being placed outside; + whilst at night she is put in the inner portion of the coop, + and a piece of canvas or sacking hung over the bars of the + outer half. If the top be glazed, a little food and the + water-vessel may be placed in the outer compartment at + night, and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early + in the morning, being prevented by the canvas from going + out into the cold air. It will be only needful to remove + the coop every two days for a few minutes, to take away + the tainted earth and replace it with fresh. There should, + if possible, be a grass-plot in front of the shed, the floor + of which should be covered with dry, loose dust or earth." + The hen should be kept under a coop until the brood has + grown strong. Some breeders object to cooping, on account + of its preventing the hen from scratching for worms + and insects for her brood, and which are far superior to + the substitutes with which they must be supplied, unless, + indeed, a good supply of worms, ants' eggs, insects, or + gentles can be had. The hen too has not sufficient exercise + after her long sitting. Cooping thus has its advantages + and disadvantages, and its adoption or not should depend + upon circumstances. If it is preferred not to coop the hen, + and she should be inclined to roam too far, a small run may + be made with network, or with the moveable wire-work + described on <a href="#Page_21">page 21</a>.</p> +<p>Winter-hatched chickens must be reared and fed in + a warm place, which must be kept at an equal temperature. + They return a large profit for the great care they + require in hatching and rearing.</p> +<p>Chickens should be fed very often; every two hours is + not too frequently. The number of these meals must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> reduced by degrees to four or five, which may be continued + until they are full grown. Grain should not be + given to newly-hatched chickens. The very best food for + them, after their first meal of bread-crumbs and egg, is + made of two parts of coarse oatmeal and one part of barley-meal, + mixed into a thick crumbly paste with milk or + water. If milk is used, it must be fresh mixed for each + meal, or it will become sour. Cold oatmeal porridge is an + excellent food, and much liked by them. After the first + week they may have cheaper food, such as bran, oatmeal, + and Indian meal mixed, or potatoes mashed with bran. + In a few days they may also have some whole grain, which + their little gizzards will then be fully able to grind. Grits, + crushed wheat, or bruised oats, should form the last meal + at night. Bread sopped in water is the worst food they + can have, and even with milk is still inferior to meal. + For the first three or four days they may also have daily + the yolk of an egg boiled hard and chopped up small, + which will be sufficient for a dozen chicks; and afterwards, + a piece of cooked meat, rather underdone, the size of a + good walnut, minced fine, should be daily given to the + brood until they are three weeks old. In winter and very + early spring this stimulating diet may be given regularly, + and once a day they should also have some stale bread + soaked in ale; and whenever chickens suffer from bad + feathering, caused either by the coldness of the season or + delicacy of constitution, they must be fed highly, and + have a daily supply of bread soaked in ale. Ants' eggs, + which are well known as the very best animal diet for + young pheasants, are also excellent for young chickens; + and when a nest can be obtained it should be thrown with + its surrounding mould into the run for them to peck at. + Where there is no grass-plot they should have some grass + cut into small pieces, or other vegetable food minced small, + until they are able to peck pieces from the large leaves. + Onion tops and leeks chopped small, cress, lettuce, and + cabbage, are much relished by all young poultry. The + French breeders give a few dried nettle seeds occasionally. + Young growing fowls can scarcely have too much food, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> long as they eat it with a good appetite, and do not tread + any about, or otherwise leave it to waste.</p> +<p>Young poultry cannot thrive if overcrowded. They + should not be allowed to roost on the branches of trees or + shrubs, or otherwise out of doors, even in the warmest + weather, or they will acquire the habit of sleeping out, + which cannot be easily overcome; not that they would suffer + much from even severe weather, when once accustomed to + roosting out of doors, but from want of warmth the supply + of eggs would decrease, and it would, in many places, + be unsafe and, in most, inconvenient.</p> +<p>The sooner chickens can be fattened, of course the + greater must be the profit. They should be put up for + fattening as soon as they have quitted the hen, for they are + then generally in good condition, but begin to lose flesh as + their bones develop and become stronger, particularly + those fowls which stand high on the leg.</p> +<p>Fowls are in perfection for eating just before they are + fully developed. By keeping young fowls, especially the + cockerels, too long before fattening them for market + or home consumption, they eat up all the profit that would + be made by disposing of them when the pullets have + ceased laying just before their first adult moult, and the + cockerels before their appetites have become large. Fowls + intended to be fattened should be well and abundantly fed + from their birth; for if they are badly fed during their + growth they become stunted, the bones do not attain their + full size, and no amount of feeding will afterwards supply + these defects and transform them into fine, large birds. + Poultry that have been constantly fed well from their birth + will not only be always ready for the table, with very little + extra attention and feeding, but their flesh will be superior + in juiciness and rich flavour to those which are fattened + up from a poor state. In choosing full-grown fowls for + fattening, the short-legged and early-hatched should be + preferred.</p> +<p>In fattening poultry, "the well-known common + methods," Mowbray observes, "are, first, to give fowls the + run of the farmyard, where they thrive upon the offals of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> the stables and other refuse, with perhaps some small + regular feeds; but at threshing time they become fat, and + are thence styled barn-door fowls, probably the most delicate + and high-flavoured of all others, both from their full + allowance of the finest corn and from the constant health + in which they are kept, by living in the natural state, and + having the full enjoyment of air and exercise; or secondly, + they are confined during a certain number of weeks in + coops; those fowls which are soonest ready being drawn as + wanted." "The former method," says Mr. Dickson, "is + immeasurably the best as regards the flavour and even + wholesomeness of the fowls as food, and though the + latter mode may, in some cases, make the fowls fatter, it is + only when they have been always accustomed to confinement; + for when barn-door fowls are cooped up for a week + or two under the notion of improving them for the table, + and increasing their fat, it rarely succeeds, since the fowls + generally pine for their liberty, and, slighting their food, + lose instead of gaining additional flesh."</p> +<p>To fatten fowls that have not the advantage of a barn-door, + Mowbray recommends fattening-houses large enough + to contain twenty or thirty fowls, warm and airy, with + well-raised earth floors, slightly littered down with straw, + which should be often changed, and the whole place kept + perfectly clean. "Sandy gravel," he says, "should be + placed in several different layers, and often changed. A + sufficient number of troughs for both water and food + should be placed around, that the stock may feed with as + little interruption as possible from each other, and perches + in the same proportion should be furnished for those birds + which are inclined to perch, which few of them will desire + after they have begun to fatten, but it helps to keep them + easy and contented until that period. In this manner + fowls may be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved + in a healthy state, their flesh being nearly equal in + quality to the barn-door fowl. To suffer fattening fowls to + perch is contrary to the general practice, since it is supposed + to bend and deform the backbone; but as soon as + they become heavy and indolent from feeding, they will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> rather incline to roost in the straw, and the liberty of + perching has a tendency to accelerate the period when they + wish for rest."</p> +<p>The practice of fattening fowls in coops, if carried to a + moderate extent, is not objectionable, and may be necessary + in many cases. The coop may be three feet high, two + feet wide, and four feet long, which will accommodate six + or eight birds, according to their size; or it may be constructed + in compartments, each being about nine inches by + eighteen, and about eighteen inches high. The floor should + not consist of board, but be formed of bars two inches + wide, and placed two inches apart. The bars should be + laid from side to side, and not from the back to the front + of the coop. They should be two inches wide at the upper + part, with slanting or rounded sides, so as to prevent the dung + from sticking to them instead of falling straight between. + The front should be made of rails three inches apart. The + house in which the coops are placed should be properly + ventilated, but free from cold draughts, and kept of an + even temperature, which should be moderately warm. The + fronts of the coops should be covered with matting or + other kind of protection in cold weather. The coop should + be placed about two inches from the ground, and a shallow + tray filled with fresh dry earth should be placed underneath + to catch the droppings, and renewed every day.</p> +<p>When fowls are put up to fat they should not have any + food given to them for some hours, and they will take it + then more eagerly than if pressed upon them when first + put into the coop. But little grain should be given to + fowls during the time they are fattening in coops; indeed + the chief secret of success consists in supplying them with + the most fattening food without stint, in such a form that + their digestive mills shall find no difficulty in grinding it. + Buckwheat-meal is the best food for fattening; and to its + use the French, in a great measure, owe the splendid condition + of the fowls they send to market. If it cannot be + had, the best substitute is an equal mixture of maize-meal + and barley-meal. The meal may be mixed with skim + milk if available. Oatmeal and barley-meal alternately,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> mixed with milk, and occasionally with a little dripping, is + good fattening food. Milk is most excellent for all young + poultry. A little chopped green food should be given + daily, to keep their bowels in a proper state.</p> +<p>The feeding-troughs, which must be kept clean by + frequent scouring, should be placed before the fowls at + regular times, and when they have eaten sufficient it + is best to remove them, and place a little gravel within + reach to assist digestion. Each fowl should have as much + food as it will eat at one time, but none should be left to + become sour. A little barley may, however, be scattered + within their reach. A good supply of clean water must be + always within their reach. If a bird appears to be troubled + with vermin, some powdered sulphur, well rubbed into the + roots of the feathers, will give immediate relief. The + coops should be thoroughly lime-washed after the fowls + are removed, and well dried before fresh birds are put up + in them.</p> +<p>It is a common practice to fatten poultry in coops by a + process called "cramming," by which they are loaded with + greasy fat in a very short time. But it is evident that + such overtaxing of the fowls' digestive powers, want of + exercise and fresh air, confinement in a small space, and + partial deprivation of light, without which nothing living, + either animal or vegetable, can flourish, cannot produce + healthy or wholesome flesh. "Indeed," as Mowbray observes, + "it seems contrary to reason, that fowls fed upon + such greasy, impure mixtures can possibly produce flesh + or fat so firm, delicate, high-flavoured, or nourishing, + as those fattened upon more simple and substantial food; + as for example, meal and milk, and perhaps either treacle + or sugar. With respect to grease of any kind, its chief + effect must be to render the flesh loose and of a coarse + flavour. Neither can any advantage be gained, except + perhaps a commercial one, by very quick feeding; for + real excellence cannot be obtained but by waiting nature's + time, and using the best food. Besides all this, I have + been very unsuccessful in my few attempts to fatten fowls + by cramming; they seem to loathe the crams, to pine, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> to lose the flesh they were put up with, instead of acquiring + flesh; and when crammed fowls do succeed, they must + necessarily, in the height of their fat, be in a state of + disease." Mr. Muirhead, poulterer to Her Majesty in + Scotland, says: "With regard to <i>cramming</i>, I may say + that it is <i>wholly</i> unnecessary, provided the fowls have + abundance of the best food at regular intervals, fresh air, and + a free run; in confinement fowls may gain fat, but they + lose flesh. None but those who have had experience can + form any idea how both qualities can be obtained in + a natural way. I have seen fowls reared at Inchmartine + (which had never been shut up, or had food forced upon + them), equal, if not superior, to the finest Surrey fowl, + or those fattened by myself for the Royal table."</p> +<p>If "cramming" is practised it should be done in the + following manner: The feeder, usually a female, should + take the fowl carefully out of the fatting-coop by placing + both her hands gently under its breast, then sit down with + the bird upon her lap, its rump under her left arm, open + its mouth with the finger and thumb of the left hand, take + the pellet with the right, dip it well into water, milk, or + pot liquor, shake the superfluous moisture from it, put it + into the mouth, "cram" it gently into the gullet with her + forefinger, then close the beak and gently assist it down + into the crop with the forefinger and thumb, without + breaking the pellet, and taking great care not to pinch the + throat. When the fowl has been "crammed" it should be + carefully carried back to its coop, both hands being placed + under its breast as before. Chickens should be "crammed" + regularly every twelve hours. The "cramming" should + commence with a few pellets, and the number be gradually + increased at each meal until it amounts to about + fifteen. But always before you begin to feed gently feel + the fowl's crop to ascertain that the preceding meal has + been digested, and if you find it to contain food, let the + bird wait until it is all digested, and give it fewer pellets + at the next meal. If the "crams" should become hardened + in the crop, some lukewarm water must be given to + the bird, or poured down its throat if disinclined to drink,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> and the crop be gently pressed with the fingers until the + hardened mass has become loosened so that the gizzard can + grind it.</p> +<p>The food chiefly used in France for "cramming" fowls + is buckwheat-meal bolted very fine and mixed with milk. + It should be prepared in the following manner: Pour the + milk, which should be lukewarm in winter, into a hole + made in the heap of meal, mixing it up with a wooden + spoon a little at a time as long as the meal will take up the + milk, and make it into the consistency of dough, keep + kneading it until it will not stick to the hands, then divide + it into pieces twice as large as an egg, which form into + rolls generally about as thick as a small finger, but more + or less thick according to the size of the fowls to be fed, + and divide the rolls into pellets about two and a half inches + in length by a slanting cut, which leaves pointed ends, that + are easier to "cram" the fowls with than if they were + square. The pellets should be rolled up as dry as + possible.</p> +<p>The operation of caponising as performed in England is + barbarous, extremely painful, and dangerous. In France + it is performed in a much more scientific and skilful + manner. But the small advantage gained by this unnatural + operation is more than counterbalanced by the + unnecessary pain inflicted on the bird, and the great risk + of losing it. Capons never moult, and lose their previously + strong, shrill voice. In warm, dry countries they + grow to a large size, and soon fatten, but do not succeed + well in our moist, cold climate. They are not common in + this country, and most of the fowls sold in the London + markets as capons are merely young cockerels well + crammed. If capons are kept they should have a separate + house, for the other fowls will not allow those even of their + own family to occupy the same roosting-perch with them. + The hens not only show them indifference, but decided + aversion. Hen chickens, deprived of their reproductive + organs in order to fatten them sooner, are common in + France, where they are styled poulardes.</p> +<p>Fattening ought to be completed in from ten to twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> days. When fowls are once fattened up they should be + killed, for they cannot be kept fat, but begin to lose flesh + and become feverish, which renders their flesh red and + unsaleable, and frequently causes their death.</p> +<p>Great cruelty is often ignorantly inflicted by poulterers, + higglers, and others, in "twisting the necks" of poultry. + An easy mode of killing a fowl is to give the bird a very + sharp blow with a small but heavy blunt stick, such as a + child's bat or wooden sword, at the back of the neck, about + the second or third joint from the head, which will, if + properly done, sever the spine and cause death very + speedily. But the knife is the most merciful means; the + bird being first hung up by the legs, the mouth must be + opened wide, and a long, narrow, sharp-pointed knife, like + a long penknife, which instrument is made for the purpose, + should be thrust firmly through the back part of the roof of + the mouth up into the brain, which will cause almost instant + death. Another mode of killing is to pluck a few feathers + from the side of the head, just below the ear, and make a + deep incision there. Some say that fowls should not be + bled to death like turkeys and geese, as, from the loss + of blood, the flesh becomes dry and insipid. But when + great whiteness of flesh is desired, the fowl should be + hung up by its legs immediately after being killed, and if + it has been killed without the flow of blood, an incision + should be made in the neck so that it may bleed freely.</p> +<p>Fowls that have been kept without food and water for + twelve hours before being killed will keep much better + than if they had been recently fed, as the food is apt + to ferment in the crop and bowels, which often causes the + fowl to turn green in a few hours in warm weather. If + empty they should not be drawn, and they will keep much + better. Fowls are easiest plucked at once, while warm; + they should afterwards be scalded by dipping them for a + moment in boiling water, which will give a plump appearance + to any good fowl. Fowls should not be packed for + market before they are quite cold. Old fowls should not + be roasted, but boiled, and they will then prove tolerably + good eating.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> +<p>The feathers are valuable and should be preserved, which + is very easily managed. "Strip the plumage," says Mr. + Wright, "from the quills of the larger feathers, and mix + with the small ones, putting the whole loosely in paper + bags, which should be hung up in the kitchen, or some + other warm place, for a few days to dry. Then let the + bags be baked three or four times for half an hour each + time, in a cool oven, drying for two days between each + baking, and the process will be completed. Less trouble + than this will do, and is often made to suffice; but the + feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and + may occasionally become offensive."</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> +<h3>STOCK, BREEDING, AND CROSSING.</h3> +<p>Keep only good, healthy, vigorous, well-bred fowls, + whether you keep them to produce eggs or chickens, or + both. The ill-bred mongrel fowls which are so commonly + kept, are the most voracious, and consume larger quantities + of food, without turning it to any account; while + well-bred fowls eat less, and quickly convert that into fat, + flesh, and eggs. "Large, well-bred fowls," says Mr. + Edwards, "do not consume more food than ravenous, + mongrel breeds. It is the same with fowls as with other + stock. I have at this moment two store pigs, one highly + bred, the other a rough, ill-bred animal. They have, + since they left their mothers, been fed together and upon + the same food. The former, I am confident (from observation), + ate considerably less than the latter, which was particularly + ravenous. The former pig, however, is in excellent + condition, kind, and in a measure fat; whereas the latter + looks hard, starved, and thin, and I am sure she will require + one-third more food to make bacon of."</p> +<p>For the amateur who is content with eggs and chickens, + and does not long for prize cups, excellent birds possessing + nearly all the best characteristics of their breeds, but rendered + imperfect by a few blemishes, may be purchased at + a small cost, and will be as good layers or chicken-producers, + and answer his purpose as well as the most expensive + that can be bought.</p> +<p>The choice of breed must depend upon the object for + which the fowls are kept, whether chiefly for eggs or to + produce chickens, or for both; the climate, soil, and + situation; the space that can be allotted to them; and the + amount of attention that can be devoted to their care. If + fowls are to be bred for exhibition, you must be guided by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> your own taste, pocket, and resources, as well as by the + suitability of the situation for the particular breed desired. + The advantages, disadvantages, and peculiarities of the + various breeds will be described under their respective + heads.</p> +<p>In commencing poultry-keeping buy only young and + healthy birds. No one sign is infallible to the inexperienced. + In general, however, the legs of a young hen look delicate + and smooth, her comb and wattles are soft and fresh, and + her general outline, even in good condition (unless when + fattened for the table), rather light and graceful; whilst + an old one will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks; + her comb and wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and + more "scurfy," and her figure is well filled out. But any + of these signs may be deceptive, and the beginner should + use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the + "old look," which he will soon learn to know.</p> +<p>All authorities agree that a cock is in his prime at two + years of age, though some birds show every sign of full + vigour when only four months old. It is agreed by nearly all + the greatest authorities that the ages of the cocks and hens + should be different; however, good birds may be bred from + parents of the same age, but they should not be less than a + year old. The strongest chickens are obtained from two-year + old hens by a cockerel of about a year old; but such + broods contain a disproportion of cocks, and, therefore, + most poultry-keepers prefer to breed from well-grown + pullets of not less than nine months with a cock of two + years of age. The cock should not be related to the hens. + It is, therefore, not advisable to purchase him from the + same breeder of whom you procure the hens. Do not let + him be the parent of chickens from pullets that are his own + offspring. Breeding in-and-in causes degeneracy in fowls + as in all other animals. Some birds retain all their fire and + energy until five or even six years of age, but they are + beyond their prime after the third, or at the latest their + fourth year; and should be replaced by younger birds of the + same breed, but from a different stock.</p> +<p>Poultry-breeders differ with respect to the proper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> number of hens that should be allowed to one cock. + Columella, who wrote upon poultry about two thousand + years ago, advised twelve hens to one cock, but stated that + "our ancestors did use to give but five hens." Stephanus + gave the same number as Columella. Bradley, and the + authors of the "Complete Farmer," and the article upon + the subject in "Rees's Cyclopædia," give seven or eight; + and those who breed game-cocks are particular in limiting + the number of hens to four or five for one cock, in order to + obtain strong chickens. If fine, strong chickens be desired + for fattening or breeding, there should not be more than + five or six hens to one cock; but if the supply of eggs is + the chief consideration, ten or twelve may be allowed; + indeed, if eggs are the sole object, he can be dispensed with + altogether, and his food saved, as hens lay, if there be any + difference, rather better without one.</p> +<p>The russet red is the most hardy colour, white the most + delicate, and black the most prolific. General directions + for the choice of fowls, as to size, shape, and colour, cannot + be applicable to all breeds, which must necessarily vary + upon these points. But in all breeds the cock should, as + M. Parmentier says, "carry his head high, have a quick, + animated look, a strong, shrill voice (except in the Cochins, + which have a fuller tone), a fine red comb, shining as if + varnished, large wattles of the same colour, strong wings, + muscular thighs, thick legs furnished with strong spurs, + the claws rather bent and sharply pointed. He ought also + to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch + the ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself, + as to treat his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, + spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens, quick in + defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping + them together, and in assembling them at night."</p> +<p>To prevent cocks from fighting, old Mascall, following + Columella, says: "Now, to slacke that heate of jealousie, + ye shall slitte two pieces of thicke leather, and put them on + his legges, and those will hang over his feete, which will + correct the vehement heate of jealousie within him"; and + M. Parmentier observes that "such a bit of leather will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> cause the most turbulent cock to become as quiet as a man + who is fettered at the feet, hands, and neck."</p> +<p>The hen should be of good constitution and temper, + and, if required to sit, large in the body and wide in the + wings, so as to cover many eggs and shelter many chickens, + but short in the legs, or she could not sit well. M. + Parmentier advises the rejection of savage, quarrelsome, + or peevish hens, as such are seldom favourites with the + cocks, scarcely ever lay, and do not hatch well; also all + above four or five years of age, those that are too fat to + lay, and those whose combs and claws are rough, which + are signs that they have ceased to lay. Hens should not + be kept over their third year unless very good or choice. + Hens are not uncommon with the plumage and spurs of + the cock, and which imitate, though badly, his full-toned + crow. In such fowls the power of producing eggs is invariably + lost from internal disease, as has been fully demonstrated + by Mr. Yarrell in the "Philosophical Transactions" + for 1827, and in the "Proceedings of the Zoological + Society" for 1831. Such birds should be fattened and + killed as soon as observed.</p> +<p>By careful study of the characteristics of the various + breeds, breeding from select specimens, and judicious + crossing, great size may be attained, maturity early developed, + facility in putting on flesh encouraged, hardiness of + constitution and strength gained, and the inclination to sit + or the faculty of laying increased.</p> +<p>Sir John Sebright, speaking of breeding cattle, says: + "Animals may be said to be improved when any desired + quality has been increased by art beyond what that quality + was in the same breed in a state of nature. The swiftness + of the racehorse, the propensity to fatten in cattle, and to + produce fine wool in sheep, are improvements which have + been made in particular varieties in the species to which + these animals belong. What has been produced by art + must be continued by the same means, for the most + improved breeds will soon return to a state of nature, or + perhaps defects will arise which did not exist when the breed + was in its natural state, unless the greatest attention is paid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> to the selection of the individuals who are to breed + together."</p> +<p>The exact origin of the common domestic fowl and its + numerous varieties is unknown. It is doubtless derived + from one or more of the wild or jungle fowls of India. + Some naturalists are of opinion that it is derived from the + common jungle fowl known as the <i>Gallus bankiva</i> of Temminck, + or <i>Gallus ferrugineus</i> of Gmelin, which very closely + resembles the variety known as Black-breasted Red Game, + except that the tail of the cock is more depressed; while + others consider it to have been produced by the crossing + of that species with one or more others, as the Malay + gigantic fowl, known as the <i>Gallus giganteus</i> of Temminck, + Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl, <i>Gallus sonneratii</i>, and probably + some other species. At what period or by what people + it was reclaimed is not known, but it was probably first + domesticated in India. The writers of antiquity speak of + it as a bird long domesticated and widely spread in their + days. Very likely there are many species unknown to us + in Sumatra, Java, and the rich woods of Borneo.</p> +<p>The process by which the various breeds have been produced + "is simple and easily understood," says Mr. Wright. + "Even in the wild state the original breed will show some + amount of variation in colour, form, and size; whilst in + domestication the tendency to change, as every one + knows, is very much increased. By breeding from birds + which show any marked feature, stock is obtained of + which a portion will possess that feature in an <i>increased + degree</i>; and by again selecting the best specimens, the + special points sought may be developed to almost + any degree required. A good example of such a + process of development may be seen in the 'white face' so + conspicuous in the Spanish breed. White ears will be + observed occasionally in all fowls; even in such breeds as + Cochins or Brahmas, where white ear-lobes are considered + almost fatal blemishes; they continually occur, and by + selecting only white-eared specimens to breed from, they + might be speedily fixed in any variety as one of the + characteristics. A large pendent white ear-lobe once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> firmly established, traces of the white <i>face</i> will now and + then be found, and by a similar method is capable of development + and fixture; whilst any colour of plumage or of + leg may be obtained and established in the same way. + The original amount of character required is <i>very</i> slight; + a single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give that + characteristic to a whole breed. Any peculiarity of <i>constitution</i>, + such as constant laying, or frequent incubation, + may be developed and perpetuated in a similar manner, all + that is necessary being care and time. That such has been + the method employed in the formation of the more distinct + races of our poultry, is proved by the fact that a continuance + of the same careful selection is needful to perpetuate + them in perfection. If the very best examples of + a breed are selected as the starting-point, and the produce + is bred from indiscriminately for many generations, the + distinctive points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and + there is also a more or less gradual but sure return to the + primitive wild type, in size and even colour of the plumage. + The purest black or white originally, rapidly becomes first + marked with, and ultimately changed into, the original red + or brown, whilst the other features simultaneously disappear. + If, however, the process of artificial selection be + carried too far, and with reference <i>only to one</i> prominent + point, any breed is almost sure to suffer in the other + qualities which have been neglected, and this has been the + case with the very breed already mentioned—the white-faced + Spanish. We know from old fanciers that this breed + was formerly considered hardy, and even in winter rarely + failed to afford a constant supply of its unequalled large + white eggs. But of late years attention has been so <i>exclusively</i> directed to the 'white-face,' that whilst this + feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never + before known, the breed has become one of the most + delicate of all, and the laying qualities of at least many + strains have greatly fallen off. It would be difficult to + avoid such evil results if it were not for a valuable compensating + principle, which admits of <i>crossing</i>. That + principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> by a foreign breed, may be introduced by crossing into a + strain it is desired to improve, and every other characteristic + of the cross be, by selection, afterwards bred out + again. Or one or more of these additional characteristics + may be also retained, and thus a <i>new variety</i> be established, + as many have been within the last few years."</p> +<p>Size may be imparted to the Dorking by crossing it with + the Cochin, and the disposition to feather on the legs bred + out again by judicious selection; and the constitution may + be strengthened by crossing with the Game breed. Game + fowls that have deteriorated in size, strength, and fierceness, + by a long course of breeding in-and-in, may have all these + qualities restored by crossing with the fierce, powerful, and + gigantic Malay, and his peculiarities may be afterwards + bred out. The size of the eggs of the Hamburg might + very probably be increased without decreasing, or with + very slightly decreasing, the number of eggs, by crossing + with a Houdan cock; and the size would also be increased + for the table. The French breeds, Crêve-Cœur, Houdan, + and La Flêche, gain in size and hardiness by being crossed + with the Brahma cock. The cross between a Houdan cock + and a Brahma hen "produces," says the "Henwife," "the + finest possible chickens for market, but not to breed from. + Pure Brahmas and Houdans alone must be kept for that + purpose; I have always found the second cross worthless."</p> +<p>In crossing, the cockerels will more or less resemble the + male, and the pullets the hen. "Long experience," says + Mr. Wright, "has ascertained that the male bird has most + influence upon the colour of the progeny, and also upon + the comb, and what may be called the 'fancy points,' of + any breed generally; whilst the form, size, and useful + qualities are principally derived from the hen."</p> +<p>Breed only from the strongest and healthiest fowls. In + the breeding of poultry it is a rule, as in all other cases of + organised life, that the best-shaped be used for the purpose + of propagation. If a cock and hen have both the same + defect, however trifling it may be, they should never be + allowed to breed together, for the object is to improve the + breed, not to deteriorate it, even in the slightest degree.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> Hens should never be allowed to associate with a cock of + a different breed if you wish to keep the breed pure, and if + you desire superior birds, not even with an inferior male of + their own variety. "No time," says Mr. Baily, "has ever + been fixed as necessary to elapse before hens that have been + running with cocks of divers breeds, and afterwards been + placed with their legitimate partners, can be depended + upon to produce purely-bred chickens; I am disposed to + think at least two months. Time of year may have much + to do with it. In the winter the escape of a hen from one + run to the other, or the intrusion of a cock, is of little + moment; but it may be serious in the spring, and destroy + the hopes of a season." Many poultry-keepers separate + the cocks and hens after the breeding season, considering + that stronger chickens will be thereby obtained the next + season. Where there is a separate house and run for the + sitting hen this can be conveniently done when that compartment + is vacant. In order to preserve a breed perfectly + pure, it will be necessary, where there is not a large stock + of the race, to breed from birds sprung from the same + parents, but the blood should be crossed every year by + procuring one or more fowls of the same breed from a distance, + or by the exchange of eggs with some neighbouring + stock, of colour and qualities as nearly allied as possible + with the original breed.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2> +<h3>POULTRY SHOWS.</h3> +<p>A few years ago poultry shows were unknown. In 1846, + the first was held in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, + in the Regent's Park; Mr. Baily being the sole judge. It + was a very fair beginning, but did not succeed, and it was + not till the Cochin-China breed was introduced into this + country, and the first Birmingham show was held, that + these exhibitions became successful.</p> +<p>In 1849, "the first poultry show that was ever held in + 'the good old town of Birmingham,' was beset with all the + untried difficulties of such a scheme, when without the + experiences of the present day, then altogether unavailable, + a few spirited individuals carried to a successful issue an + event that has now proved the foster-parent of the many + others of similar character that abound in almost every + principal town of the United Kingdom. It is quite essential, + that I may be clearly understood, to preface my + narrative by assuring fanciers that in those former days + poultry amateurs were by no means as general as at the + present time; few and far between were their locations; + and though even then, among the few who felt interest in + fowls, emulation existed, generally speaking, the keeping + of poultry was regarded as 'a useless hobby,' 'a mere + individual caprice,' 'an idle whim from which no good + result could by possibility accrue'; nay, sometimes it was + hinted, 'What a pity they have not something better to + employ them during leisure hours!' and they were styled + 'enthusiasts.' But have not the records of every age + proved that enthusiasts are invariably the pioneers of improvement? + And time, too, substantiated the verity of + this rule in reference to our subject; for, among other + proofs, it brought incontestable evidence that the raising of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> poultry was by no means the unremunerative folly idlers + supposed it to be, and hesitated not rashly to declaim it; + likewise, that it simply required to be fairly brought under + public notice, to prove its general utility, and to induce + the acknowledgment of how strangely so important a source + of emolument had been hitherto neglected and overlooked."</p> +<p>At the Birmingham Show of 1852, about five thousand + fowls were exhibited, and the specimens sold during the + four days of the show amounted to nearly two thousand + pounds, notwithstanding the high prices affixed to the pens, + and that many were placed at enormous prices amounting + to a prohibition, the owners not wishing to sell them. The + Birmingham shows now generally comprise from one to + two thousand pens of fowls and water-fowls, arranged in + nearly one hundred classes; besides an equal proportion of + pigeons. This show is the finest and most important, but + there are many others of very high character and great + extent. Poultry is also now exhibited to a considerable + extent at agricultural meetings.</p> +<p>Any one may see the wonderful improvement that has + been made in poultry-breeding by visiting the next Birmingham + or other first-class show, and comparing the fowls + there exhibited with those of his earliest recollections, and + with those mongrels and impure breeds which may still be + seen in too many farmyards. Points that were said to be + impossible of attainment have been obtained with comparative + ease by perseverance and skill, and the worst birds of a + show are now often superior to the chief prize fowls of + former days. Indeed, "a modern prize bird," says the + "Henwife," "almost merits the character which a Parisian + waiter gave of a melon, when asked to pronounce whether + it was a fruit or a vegetable, 'Gentlemen,' said he, 'a melon + is neither; it is a work of art.'"</p> +<p>Such shows must have great influence on the improvement + of the breeds and the general management of poultry, + though like all other prize exhibitions they have certain + disadvantages. "We cannot but think," says Mr. Wright, + "that our poultry shows have, to some extent, by the character + of the judging, hindered the improvement of many breeds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> It will be readily admitted in <i>theory</i> that a breed of fowls + becomes more and more valuable as its capacity of producing + eggs is increased, and the quantity and quality of + its flesh are improved, with a small amount of bone and + offal in proportion. But, if we except the Dorking, which + certainly is judged to some extent as a table fowl, all this + is <i>totally</i> lost sight of both by breeders and judges, and + attention is fixed exclusively upon colour, comb, face, and + other equally fancy 'points.' Beauty and utility might + be <i>both</i> secured. The French have taught us a lesson of + some value in this respect. Within a comparatively recent + period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four + new varieties, which, although inferior in some points to + others of older standing, are all eminently valuable as table + fowls; and which in one particular are superior to any + English variety, not even excepting the Dorking—we + mean the very small proportion of bone and offal. This is + really useful and scientific breeding, brought to bear upon <i>one</i> definite object, and we do trust the result will prove + suggestive with regard to others equally valuable. We + should be afraid to say how much might be done if English + breeders would bring <i>their</i> perseverance and experience to + bear in a similar direction. Agricultural Societies in particular + might be expected in <i>their</i> exhibitions to show + some interest in the improvement of poultry regarded + as <i>useful stock</i>, and to them especially we commend the + matter."</p> +<p>The rules and regulations relating to exhibitions vary at + different shows, and may be obtained by applying to the + secretary. Notices of exhibitions are advertised in the + local papers, and in the <i>Field</i> and other London papers of + an agricultural character.</p> +<p>In breeding birds for exhibition the number of hens to one + cock should not exceed four or five, but if only two or three + hens of the breed are possessed, the proper number of his + harem should be made up by the addition of hens of another + breed, those being chosen whose eggs are easily known + from the others.</p> +<p>If it is intended to rear the chickens for exhibition at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> the June, July, or August shows, the earlier they are + hatched the better, and therefore a sitting should be made + in January, if you have a young, healthy hen broody. Set + her on the ground in a warm, sheltered, and quiet place, + perfectly secure from rain, or from any flow of snow water. + Feed her well, and keep water and small quantities of + food constantly within her reach, so that she may not + be tempted to leave the nest in search of food; for the + eggs soon chill in winter. Mix the best oatmeal with hot + water, and give it to her warm twice a day. A few grains + of hempseed as a stimulant may be given in the middle of + the day. The great difficulty to overcome in rearing + early chickens is to sustain their vital powers during the + very long winter nights, when they are for so many hours + without food, the only substitute for which is warmth, and + this can only be well got from the hen. Consequently + a young Cochin-China with plenty of "fluff" will provide + most warmth. The hen should not be set on more than + five, or at most seven eggs; for if she has more, although + she may sufficiently cover the chickens while very small, + she will not be able to do so when they grow larger, and + the outer ones will be chilled unless they manage to push + themselves into the inside places, and then the displaced + chickens being warm are sure to get more chilled than the + others; and so the greater number of the brood, even if they + survive, will probably be weakly, puny things, through the + greedy desire to rear so many, while if she hatch but five + chickens she will probably rear four. The hen should be + cooped until the chickens are at least ten weeks old, and + covered up at night with matting, sacking, or a piece + of carpet.</p> +<p>Give them plenty of curd, chopped egg, and oatmeal, + mixed with new milk. Stiff oatmeal porridge is the best + stock food. Some onion tops minced fine will be an excellent + addition if they can be had. They should have + some milk to drink. Feed the hen well. The best warmth + the chickens can have is that of their mother, and the best + warmth for her is generated by generous, but proper, + food, and a good supply of it. Early chickens rearing for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> show should be fed twice after dark, say at eight and eleven + o'clock, and again at seven in the morning, so that they + will not be without food for more than eight hours. The + hen should be fed at the same times, and she will become + accustomed to it, and call the chickens to feed; it will also + generate more warmth in her for their benefit. Yolk + of egg beaten up and given to drink is most strengthening + for weakly chickens; or it may be mixed with their oatmeal. + The tender breeds should not be hatched till April + or May, unless in a mild climate, or with exceptional + advantages.</p> +<p>For winter exhibition, March and April hatched birds + are preferable to those hatched earlier. Not more than + seven eggs should be set, for a hen cannot scratch up + insects and worms and find peculiar herbage for more than + six chickens. If the chickens have not a good grass run, + they must be supplied with abundance of green food.</p> +<p>They should not be allowed to roost before they are three + months old, and the perches must be sufficiently large. + Mr. Wright recommends a bed of clean, dry ashes, an + inch deep, for those that leave the hen before the proper + age for roosting, and does not allow his chickens, even + while with the hen, to bed upon straw, considering the + ashes to be much cleaner and also warmer.</p> +<p>The chickens intended to be exhibited should be distinguished + from their companions by small stripes of + different coloured silks loosely sewn round their legs, + which distinguishing colours should be entered in the + poultry-book. A few good birds should always be kept in + reserve to fill up the pen in case of accidents.</p> +<p>Weight is more important in the December and later + winter shows than at those held between August and + November, but at all shows feather and other points of + competitors being equal weight must carry the day, Game + and Bantams excepted. It is not safe to trust to the apparent + weight of a bird, for the feathers deceive, and it is therefore + advisable to weigh the birds occasionally. Each + should be weighed in a basket, allowance being made for + the weight of the basket, and they should if possible be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> weighed before a meal. But fowls that are over-fattened, + as some judges very improperly desire, cannot be in good + health anymore than "crammed" fowls, and are useless + for breeding, producing at best a few puny, delicate, or + sickly chickens; thus making the exhibition a mere + "show," barren of all useful results.</p> +<p>Pullets continue to grow until they begin to lay, which + almost or quite stops their growth; and therefore if great + size is desired for exhibition, they should be kept from the + cockerels and partly from stimulating food until a month + before the show, when they will be required to be matched + in pens. During this month they should have extra food + and attention.</p> +<p>If fowls intended for exhibition are allowed to sit, the + chickens are apt to cause injury to their plumage, and loss + of condition, while if prevented from sitting, they are liable + to suffer in moulting. Their chickens may be given to + other hens, but the best and safest plan is to set a broody + exhibition hen on duck's eggs, which will satisfy her + natural desire for sitting, while the young ducklings will + give her much less trouble, and leave her sooner than a + brood of her own kind.</p> +<p>All the birds in a pen should match in comb, colour of + their legs, and indeed in every particular. Mr. Baily + mentions "a common fault in exhibitors who send two + pens composed of three excellent and three inferior birds, + so divided as to form perhaps one third class and one + highly commended pen: whereas a different selection + would make one of unusual merit. If an amateur who + wishes to exhibit has fifteen fowls to choose from, and to + form a pen of a cock and two hens, he should study and + scan them closely while feeding at his feet in the morning. + He should then have a place similar to an exhibition pen, + wherein he can put the selected birds; they should be + raised to the height at which he can best see them, and + before he has looked long at them defects will become + apparent one after the other till, in all probability, neither + of the subjects of his first selection will go to the show. + We also advise him rather to look for defects than to dwell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> on beauties—the latter are always prominent enough. The + pen of which we speak should be a moveable one for convenience' + sake, and it is well to leave the fowls in it for a time + that they may become accustomed to each other, and also + to an exhibition pen." Birds that are strangers should + never be put into the same hamper, for not only the cocks + but even the hens will fight with and disfigure each + other.</p> +<p>Some give linseed for a few days before the exhibition to + impart lustre to the plumage, by increasing the secretion + of oil. A small quantity of the meal should be mixed + with their usual soft food, as fowls generally refuse the + whole grain. But buckwheat and hempseed, mixed in + equal proportions, if given for the evening meal during + the last ten or twelve days, is healthier for the bird, + much liked, and will not only impart equal lustre to the + plumage, but also improve the appearance of the comb and + wattles.</p> +<p>Spanish fowls should be kept in confinement for some + days before the show, with just enough light to enable them + to feed and perch, and the place should be littered with + clean straw. This greatly improves their condition; why + we know not, but it is an established fact. Game fowls + should be kept in for a few days, and fed on meal, barley, + and bread, with a few peas, which tend to make the + plumage hard, but will make them too fat if given freely. + Dark and golden birds should be allowed to run about till + they have to be sent off. Remove all scurf or dead skin + from the comb, dry dirt from the beak, and stains from the + plumage, and wash their legs clean. White and light + fowls that have a good grass run and plenty of clean straw + in their houses and yards to scratch in, will seldom require + washing, but town birds, and country ones if not perfectly + clean, should be washed the day before the show with tepid + water and mild white soap rubbed on flannel, care being + taken to wash the feathers downwards, so as not to break + or ruffle them; afterwards wiped with a piece of flannel + that has been thoroughly soaked in clean water, and gently + dried with soft towels before the fire; or the bird may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> entirely dipped into a pan of warm water, then rinsed + thoroughly in cold water, wiped with a flannel, and placed + in a basket with soft straw before a fire to dry. They + should then be shut up in their houses with plenty of clean + straw. They should have their feet washed if dirty, and + be well fed with soft nourishing food just before being put + into the travelling-basket, for hard food is apt to cause + fever and heat while travelling, and, having to be digested + without gravel or exercise, causes indigestion, which ruffles + the plumage, dulls its colour, darkens the comb, and + altogether spoils the appearance of the bird. Sopped or + steeped bread is excellent.</p> +<p>The hampers should always be round or oval in form, as + fowls invariably creep into corners and destroy their + plumage. They should be high enough for the cocks to + stand upright in, without touching the top with their + combs. Some exhibitors prefer canvas tops to wicker lids, + considering that the former preserve the fowls' combs from + injury if they should strike against the top, while others + prefer the latter as being more secure, and allowing one + hamper to be placed upon another if necessary, and also + preserving the fowls from injury if a heavy hamper or + package should otherwise be placed over it. A good plan + is to have a double canvas top, the space between being + filled with hay. A thick layer of hay or straw should be + placed at the bottom of the basket. Wheaten straw is + the best in summer and early autumn, and oat or barley + straw later in the year and during winter. A good lining + also is essential; coarse calico stitched round the inside of + the basket is the best. Ducks and geese do not require + their hampers to be lined, except in very cold weather; + and the best lining for them is made by stitching layers of + pulled straw round the inside of the basket. Turkeys + should have their hampers lined, for although they are + very hardy, cold and wet damage their appearance more + than other poultry. Take care that the geese cannot get + at the label, for they will eat it, and also devour the + hempen fastenings if within their reach.</p> +<p>Be very careful in entering your birds for exhibition;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> describe their ages, breed, &c., exactly and accurately, and + see yourself to the packing and labelling of their hampers.</p> +<p>Mr. F. Wragg, the superintendent of the poultry-yard + of R. W. Boyle, Esq., whose fowls have a sea voyage from + Ireland besides the railway journey, and yet always appear + in splendid condition and "bloom," ties on one side of the + hamper, "near the top, a fresh-pulled cabbage, and on the + other side a good piece of the bottom side of a loaf, of + which they will eat away all the soft part. Before starting, + I give each bird half a tablespoonful of port wine, which + makes them sleep a good part of the journey. Of course, + if I go with my birds, as I generally do, I see that they, + as well as myself, have 'refreshment' on the road."<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The + cabbage will always be a treat, and the loaf and wine may + be added for long journeys.</p> +<p>Birds are frequently over-fed at the show, particularly + with barley, which cannot be properly digested for want of + gravel and exercise; and therefore, if upon their return + their crops are hard and combs look dark, give a tablespoonful + of castor oil; but if they look well do not interfere + with them. They should not have any grain, but be fed + sparingly on stale bread soaked in warm ale, with two or + three mouthfuls of tepid water, for liquid is most hurtful if + given in quantity. They should not be put into the yard with + the other fowls which may treat them, after their absence, + as intruders, but be joined with them at night when the + others have gone to roost. On the next day give them a + moderate allowance of soft food with a moderate supply of + water, or stale bread sopped in water, and a sod of grass + or half a cabbage leaf each, but no other green food; and + on the following day they may have their usual food.</p> +<p>When the fowls are brought back, take out the linings, + wash them, and put them by to be ready for the next + show; and after the exhibition season, on a fine dry day, + wash the hampers, dry them thoroughly, and put them in + a dry place. Never use them as quiet berths for sick birds, + which are sure to infect them and cause the illness of the + next occupants; or as nesting-places for sitting hens, + which may leave insects in the crevices that will be difficult + to eradicate.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> +<p>In our descriptions of the various Breeds, we have given + sufficient general information upon the Exhibition Points + from the best authorities; but considerable differences of + opinion have been expressed of late years, and eminent + breeders dissent in some cases even from the generally + recognised authority of the popular "Standard of Excellence." + We, therefore, advise intending exhibitors to + ascertain the standards to be followed at the show and the + predilections of the judges, and to breed accordingly, or, if + they object to the views held, not to compete at that + exhibition.</p> +<h3>TECHNICAL TERMS.</h3> +<p><i>Coverts.</i>—The <i>upper</i> and <i>lower wing coverts</i> are those + ranges of feathers which cover the primary quills; and the <i>tail coverts</i> are those feathers growing on each side of + the tail, and are longer than the body feathers, but shorter + than those of the tail.</p> +<p><i>Dubbing.</i>—Cutting off the comb and wattles of a cock; + an operation usually confined to Game cocks.</p> +<p><i>Ear-lobe.</i>—The small feathers covering the organ of + hearing, which is placed a little behind the eye.</p> +<p><i>Flight.</i>—The last five feathers of each wing.</p> +<p><i>Fluff.</i>—The silky feathers growing on the thighs and + hinder parts of Cochin-China fowls.</p> +<p><i>Hackles.</i>—The <i>neck hackles</i> are feathers growing from + the neck, and covering the shoulders and part of the back; + and the <i>saddle hackles</i> those growing from the end of the + back, and falling over the sides.</p> +<p><i>Legs.</i>—The <i>legs</i> are properly the lower and scaly limbs, + the upper part covered with feathers and frequently mis-called + legs, being correctly styled the <i>thighs</i>.</p> +<p><i>Primary Quills.</i>—The long, strong quills, usually ten + in number, forming the chief portion of each wing, and the + means of flight.</p> +<p><i>Vulture-hocked.</i>—Feathers growing from the thigh, and + projecting backwards below the knee.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Buff and White Cochin-China. Malay Cock. Light and Dark Brahmas.</span> </div> +<hr class="chap"/> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2> +<h3>COCHIN-CHINAS, OR SHANGHAES.</h3> +<p>Like many other fowls these possess a name which is + incorrectly applied, for they came from Shanghae, not + Cochin-China, where they were comparatively unknown. + Mr. Fortune, who, from his travels in China, is well + qualified to give an opinion, states that they are a Chinese + breed, kept in great numbers at Shanghae; the real + Cochin-China breed being small and elegantly shaped. + But all attempts to give them the name of the port from + which they were brought have failed, and the majority of + breeders persist in calling them Cochins. In the United + States both names are used, the feather-legged being called + Shanghaes, and the clean-legged Cochins.</p> +<p>The first Shanghae fowls brought to this country were + sent from India to Her Majesty, which gave them great + importance; and the eggs having been freely distributed + by the kindness of the Queen and the Prince Consort, the + breed was soon widely spread. They were first introduced + into this country when the northern ports of China, + including Shanghae, were thrown open to European + vessels on the conclusion of the Chinese war in 1843; but + some assign the date of their introduction from 1844 to + 1847, and say that those called Cochins, exhibited by the + Queen in 1843, were not the true breed, having been not + only entirely without feathers on the shanks, but also altogether + different in form and general characteristics. A pair + which were sent by Her Majesty for exhibition at the + Dublin Cattle Show in April, 1846, created such a sensation + from their great size and immense weight, and the full, + loud, deep-pitched crowing of the cock, that almost every + one seemed desirous to possess some of the breed, and + enormous prices were given for the eggs and chickens.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> With his propensity for exaggeration, Paddy boasted that + they laid five eggs in two days, each weighing three + ounces, that the fowls equalled turkeys in size, and + "Cochin eggs became in as great demand as though they + had been laid by the fabled golden goose. Philosophers, + poets, merchants, and sweeps had alike partook of the + mania; and although the latter could hardly come up to + the price of a real Cochin, there were plenty of vagabond + dealers about, with counterfeit crossed birds of all kinds, + which were advertised to be the genuine article. For to + such a pitch did the excitement rise, that they who never + kept a fowl in their lives, and would hardly know a + Bantam from a Dorking, puzzled their shallow brains as + to the proper place to keep them, and the proper diet to + feed them on." Their justly-deserved popularity speedily + grew into a mania, and the price which had been from + fifteen to thirty shillings each, then considered a high price + for a fowl, rose to ten pounds for a fine specimen, and ultimately + a hundred guineas was repeatedly paid for a + single cock, and was not an uncommon price for a pair of + really fine birds. "They were afterwards bred," says Miss + Watts, "for qualities difficult of attainment, and, as the + result proved, little worth trying for," and "fowls with <i>many</i> excellent qualities were blamed for not being <i>perfect</i>," and + they fell from their high place, and were as unjustly + depreciated as they had been unduly exalted.</p> +<p>"Had these birds," wrote Mr. Baily many years since, + "been shy breeders—if like song birds the produce of a + pair were four, or at most five, birds in the year, prices + might have been maintained; but as they are marvellous + layers they increased. They bred in large numbers, and + consequently became cheaper, and then the mania ended, + because those who dealt most largely in them did so not + from a love of the birds or the pursuit, but as a speculation. + As they had over-praised them before, they now + treated them with contempt. Anything like a moderate + profit was despised, and the birds were left to their own + merits. These were sufficient to ensure their popularity, + and now after fluctuating in value more than anything<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> except shares, after being over-praised and then abused, + they have remained favourites with a large portion of the + public, sell at a remunerating price, and form one of the + largest classes at all the great exhibitions." This has + proved to be a perfectly correct view, and the breed is now + firmly established in public estimation, and unusually fine + birds will still sell for from five to twenty pounds each. The + mania did great service to the breeding and improvement + of poultry by awakening an interest in the subject + throughout the kingdom which has lasted.</p> +<p>They are the best of all fowls for a limited space, and + not inclined to wander even when they have an extensive + run. They cannot fly, and a fence three feet high will + keep them in. But if kept in a confined space they must + have an unlimited supply of green food. They give us + eggs when they are most expensive, and indeed, with regard + to new-laid eggs, when they are almost impossible to be + had at any price. They begin to lay soon after they are + five months old, regardless of the season or weather, and + lay throughout the year, except when requiring to sit, + which they do twice or thrice a year, and some oftener. + Pullets will sometimes lay at fourteen weeks, and want to + sit before they are six months old. Cochins have been + known to lay twice in a day, but not again on the following day, + and the instances are exceptional. Their eggs are of + a pale chocolate colour, of excellent flavour, and usually + weigh 2¼ ounces each. They are excellent sitters and + mothers. Pullets will frequently hatch, lay again, and sit + with the chickens of the first brood around them. Cochins + are most valuable as sitters early in the year, being broody + when other fowls are beginning to lay; but unless cooped + they are apt to leave their chickens too soon, especially for + early broods, and lay again. They are very hardy, and + their chickens easy to rear, doing well even in bleak places + without any unusual care. But they are backward in + fledging, chickens bred from immature fowls being the + most backward. Those which are cockerels show their + flight feathers earliest. They are very early matured.</p> +<p>A writer in the <i>Poultry Chronicle</i> well says: "These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> fowls were sent to provide food for man; by many they are + not thought good table fowls; but when others fail, if you + keep them, you shall never want the luxury of a really + new-laid egg on your breakfast table. The snow may fall, + the frost may be thick on your windows when you first look + out on a December morning, but your Cochins will provide + you eggs. Your children shall learn gentleness and kindness + from them, for they are kind and gentle, and you + shall be at peace with your neighbours, for they will not + wander nor become depredators. They have fallen in price + because they were unnaturally exalted; but their sun + is not eclipsed; they have good qualities, and valuable. + They shall now be within the reach of all; and will make + the delight of many by their domestic habits, which will allow + them to be kept where others would be an annoyance." + They will let you take them off their roost, handle and + examine them, and put them back without struggling.</p> +<p>The fault of the Cochin-Chinas as table birds is, that + they produce most meat on the inferior parts; thus, there + is generally too little on the breast which is the prime part + of a fowl, while the leg which is an inferior part, is unusually + fleshy, but it must be admitted that the leg is more + tender than in other breeds. A greater quantity of flesh + may be raised within a given time, on a certain quantity of + food, from these fowls than from any other breed. The + cross with the Dorking is easily reared, and produces a + very heavy and well-shaped fowl for the table, and a good + layer.</p> +<p>"A great hue and cry," says Miss Watts, "has been + raised against the Cochin-Chinas as fowls for the table, but + we believe none have bestowed attention on breeding them + with a view to this valuable consideration. Square, compact, + short-legged birds have been neglected for a certain + colour of feather, and a broad chest was given up for + the wedge-form at the very time that was pronounced a + fault in the fowl. It is said that yellow-legged fowls are + yellow also in the skin, and that white skin and white legs + accompany each other; but how pertinaciously the yellow + leg of the Cochin is adhered to! Yet all who have bred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> them will attest that a little careful breeding would perpetuate + white-legged Cochins. Exhibitions are generally + excellent; but to this fowl they certainly have only been + injurious, by exaggerating useless and fancy qualities at + the expense of those which are solid and useful. Who + would favour, or even sanction, a Dorking in which size + and shape, and every property we value in them, was + sacrificed to an endeavour to breed to a particular colour? + and this is what we have been doing with the Cochin-China. + Many breeders say, eat Cochins while very young; + but we have found them much better for the table as fowls + than as chickens. A fine Cochin, from five to seven months + old, is like a turkey, and very juicy and fine in flavour."</p> +<p>A peculiar characteristic of these birds, technically called + "fluff," is a quantity of beautifully soft, long feathers, + covering the thighs till they project considerably, and + garnishing all the hinder parts of the bird in the same + manner, so that the broadest part of the bird is behind. + Its quality is a good indication of the breed; if fine and + downy the birds are probably well-bred, but if rank and + coarse they are inferior. The cocks are frequently somewhat + scanty in "fluff," but should be chosen with as much + as possible; but vulture-hocks which often accompany the + heaviest feathered birds should be avoided, as they now + disqualify at the best shows. "The fluff," says a good + authority, "in the hen especially, should so cover the tail + feathers as to give the appearance of a very short back, the + line taking an upward direction from within an inch or so + of the point of junction with the hackle." The last joint + of the wings folds up, so that the ends of the flight feathers + are concealed by the middle feathers, and their extremities + are again covered by the copious saddle, which peculiarity + has caused them to be also called the ostrich-fowl.</p> +<p>A good Cochin cock should be compact, large, and + square built; broad across the loins and hind-quarters; + with a deep keel; broad, short back; short neck; small, + delicately-shaped, well-arched head; short, strong, curved + beak; rather small, finely and evenly serrated, straight, + single, erect comb, wholly free from reduplications and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> sprigs; brilliant red face, and pendant wattles; long hanging + ear-lobe, of pure red, white being inadmissible; bright, + bold eye, approaching the plumage in colour; rich, full, + long hackle; small, closely-folded wings; short tail, + scarcely any in some fine specimens, not very erect, with + slightly twisted glossy feathers falling over it like those + of the ostrich; stout legs set widely apart, yellow and + heavily feathered to the toe; and erect carriage. The + chief defect of the breed is narrowness of breast, which + should therefore be sought for as full as possible.</p> +<p>The hen's body is much deeper in proportion than that + of the cock. She resembles him upon most points, but + differs in some; her comb having many indentations; the + fluff being softer, and of almost silky quality; the tail has + upright instead of falling feathers, and comes to a blunt + point; and her carriage is less upright.</p> +<p>Cochins lose their beauty earlier than any other breed, + and moult with more difficulty each time. They are in + their greatest beauty at from nine to eighteen months old. + The cocks' tails increase with age. In buying Cochins + avoid clean legs, fifth toes, which show that it has been + crossed with the Dorking, double combs that betray + Malay blood, and long tails, particularly taking care that + the cock has not, and ascertaining that he never had, sickle + feathers. The cock ought not to weigh less than ten or + eleven pounds, and a very fine bird will reach thirteen; + the hens from eight to ten pounds.</p> +<p>The principal colours now bred are Buff, Cinnamon, + Partridge, Grouse, Black, and White. The Buff and + White are the most popular.</p> +<p>Buff birds may have black in the tails of both sexes, + but the less there is the better. Black-pencilling in the + hackle is considered objectionable at good shows. The cock's + neck hackles, wing coverts, back, and saddle hackles, + are usually of a rich gold colour, but his breast and the + lower parts of his body should match with those of his + hens. Buff birds generally produce chickens lighter than + themselves. Most birds become rather lighter at each + moult. In making up an exhibition pen, observe that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> Grouse and Partridge hens should have a black-breasted + cock; and that Buff and Cinnamon birds should not be + placed together, but all the birds in the pen should be + either Buff or Cinnamon. The Cinnamon are of two + shades, the Light Cinnamon and the Silver, which is a pale + washy tint, that looks very delicate and pretty when perfectly + clean. Silver Cinnamon hens should not be penned + with a pale Yellow cock, but with one as near to their own + tint as can be found. Mr. Andrews's celebrated strain of + Cochins sometimes produced both cocks and hens which + were Silver Cinnamon, with streaks of gold in the hackle.</p> +<p>In Partridge birds the cock's neck and saddle hackles + should be of a bright red, striped with black, his back and + wings of dark red, the latter crossed with a well-defined + bar of metallic greenish black, and the breast and under + parts of his body should be black, and not mottled. The + hen's neck hackles should be of bright gold, striped with + black, and all the other portions of her body of a light + brown, pencilled with very dark brown. The Grouse are + very dark Partridge, have a very rich appearance, and + are particularly beautiful when laced. They are far from + common, and well worth cultivating. The Partridge are + more mossed in their markings, and not so rich in colour + as the Grouse. Cuckoo Cochins are marked like the + Cuckoo Dorkings, and difficult to breed free of yellow.</p> +<p>The White and Black were introduced later than the + others. Mr. Baily says the White were principally bred + from a pair imported and given to the Dean of Worcester, + and which afterwards became the property of Mrs. + Herbert, of Powick. White Cochins for exhibition must + have yellow legs, and they are prone to green. The origin + of the Black is disputed. It is said to be a sport from the + White, or to have been produced by a cross between the + Buff and the White. By careful breeding it has been fixed + as a decided sub-variety, but it is difficult, if not almost + impossible, to rear a cock to complete maturity entirely + free from coloured feathers. They keep perfectly pure in + colour till six months old, after which age they sometimes + show a golden patch or red feathers upon the wing, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> a few streaks of red upon the hackle, of so dark a shade as + to be imperceptible except in a strong light, and are often + found on close examination to have white under feathers, + and others barred with white.</p> +<p>The legs in all the colours should be yellow. Flesh-coloured + legs are admissible, but green, black, or white are + defects. In the Partridge and Grouse a slight wash, as of + indigo, appears to be thrown over them, which in the + Black assumes a still darker shade; but in all three yellow + should appear partially even here beneath the scales, as + the pink tinge does in the Buff and White birds.</p> +<p>Cochin-Chinas being much inclined to accumulate + internal fat, which frequently results in apoplexy, should + not be fed on food of a very fattening character, such as + Indian corn. They are liable to have inflamed feet if they + are obliged to roost on very high, small, or sharp perches, + or allowed to run over sharp-edged stones.</p> +<p>They are also subject to an affection called White Comb, + which is a white mouldy eruption on the comb and wattles + like powdered chalk; and if not properly treated in time, + will spread over the whole body, causing the feathers to + fall off. It is caused by want of cleanliness, over-stimulating + or bad food, and most frequently by want of green + food, which must be supplied, and the place rubbed with + an ointment composed of two parts of cocoanut oil, and + one of turmeric powder, to which some persons add one + half part of sulphur; and six grains of jalap may be given + to clear the bowels.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2> +<h3>BRAHMA-POOTRAS.</h3> +<p>It is a disputed point among great authorities whether + Brahmas form a distinct variety, or whether they originated + in a cross with the Cochin, and have become established + by careful breeding. When they were first introduced, + Mr. Baily considered them to be a distinct breed, and has + since seen nothing to alter his opinion. Their nature and + habits are quite dissimilar, for they wander from home and + will get their own living where a Cochin would starve, + have more spirit, deeper breasts, are hardier, lay larger + eggs, are less prone to sit, and never produce a clean-legged + chicken. Whatever their origin, by slow and sure + degrees, without any mania, they have become more and + more popular, standing upon their own merits, and are + now one of the most favourite varieties.</p> +<p>"The worst accusation," says Miss Watts, "their enemies + can advance against them is, that no one knows their + origin; but this is applicable to them only as it is when + applied to Dorkings, Spanish, Polands, and all the other + kinds which have been brought to perfection by careful + breeding, working on good originals. All we have in + England are descended from fowls imported from the + United States, and the best account of them is, that a + sailor (rather vague, certainly) appeared in an American + town (Boston or New York, I forget which) with a new + kind of fowl for sale, and that a pair bought from him + were the parents of all the Brahmas. Uncertain as this + appears, the accounts of those who pretend to trace their + origin as cross-bred fowls is, at least, equally so, and I + believe we may just act towards the Brahmas as we do + with regard to Dorkings and other good fowls, and be + satisfied to possess a first-rate, useful kind, although we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> may be unable to trace its genealogical tree back to the + root. Whatever may be their origin, I find them distinct + in their characteristics. I have found them true to their + points, generation after generation, in all the years that I + have kept them. The pea-comb is very peculiar, and I + have never had one chicken untrue in this among all that + I have bred. Their habits are very unlike the Cochins. + Although docile, they are much less inert; they lay a + larger number of eggs, and sit less frequently. Many of + my hens only wish to sit once a year; a few oftener than + that, perhaps twice or even three times in rare instances, + but never at the end of each small batch of eggs, as I find + (my almost equal favourites) the Cochins do. The division + of Light and Dark Brahmas is a fancy of the judges, + which any one who keeps them can humour with a little + care in breeding. My idea of their colour is, that it should + be black and grey (iron grey, with more or less of a blue + tinge, and devoid of any brown) on a clear white ground, + and I do not care whether the white or the marking predominates. + I believe breeders could bear me out, if they + would, when I say many fowls which pass muster as + Brahmas are the result of a cross, employed to increase + size and procure the heavy colour which some of the judges + affect."</p> +<p>For strength of constitution, both as chickens and fowls, + they surpass all other breeds. Brahmas like an extensive + range, but bear confinement as well as any fowls, and keep + cleaner in dirty or smoky places than any that have white + feathers. They are capital foragers where they have their + liberty, are smaller eaters and less expensive to keep than + Cochins, and most prolific in eggs. They lay regularly on + an average five fine large eggs a week all the year round, + even when snow is on the ground, except when moulting + or tending their brood. Mr. Boyle, of Bray, Ireland, the + most eminent breeder of Dark Brahmas in Great Britain, + says he has "repeatedly known pullets begin to lay in + autumn, and <i>never stop</i>—let it be hail, rain, snow, or storm—for + a single day till next spring." They usually lay from + thirty to forty eggs before they seek to sit. The hens do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> not sit so often as Cochins, and a week's change of place + will generally banish the desire. They put on flesh well, + with plenty of breast-meat, and are more juicy and better + shaped for the table than most Cochins; though, after they + are six months old, the flesh is much inferior to that of the + Dorking. A cross with a Dorking or Crêve-Cœur cock + produces the finest possible table fowl, carrying almost + incredible quantities of meat of excellent quality.</p> +<p>The chickens are hardy and easy to rear. They vary in + colour when first hatched, being all shades of brown, + yellow, and grey, and are often streaked on the back and + spotted about the head; but this variety gives place, as + the feathers come, to the mixture of black, white, and + grey, which forms the distinguishing colour of the Brahma. + Mr. Baily has "hatched them in snow, and reared them + all out of doors without any other shelter than a piece of + mat or carpet thrown over the coop at night." They reach + their full size at an early age, and the pullets are in their + prime at eight months. Miss Watts noticed that Brahmas + "are more clever in the treatment of themselves when they + are ill than other fowls; when they get out of order, they + will generally fast until eating is no longer injurious," + which peculiarity is corroborated by the experienced + "Henwife." The feathers of the Brahma-Pootra are said + to be nearly equal to goose feathers.</p> +<p>The head should have a slight fulness over the eye, + giving breadth to the top; a full, pearl eye is much admired, + but far from common; comb either a small single, + or pea-comb—the single resembling that of the Cochin; + the neck short; the breast wide and full; the legs short, + yellow, and well-feathered, but not so fully as in the finest + Cochins; and the tail short but full, and in the cock + opening into a fan. They should be wide and deep made, + large and weighty, and have a free, noble carriage, equally + distinct from the waddle of the Cochin, and the erect + bearing of the Malay. Unlike the Cochins, they keep + constantly to their colour, which is a mixture of black, + white, and grey; the lightest being almost white, and the + darkest consisting of grey markings on a white ground.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> The colour is entirely a matter of taste, but the bottom + colour should always be grey.</p> +<p>"After breeding Brahmas for many years," says Miss + Watts, "through many generations and crosses (always, + however, keeping to families imported direct from America), + we are quite confirmed in the opinion that the pea-comb is <i>the</i> comb for the Brahma; and this seems now a settled + question, for single-combed birds never take prizes when + passable pea-combed birds are present. The leading + characteristic of the peculiar comb, named by the Americans + the pea-comb, is its triple character. It may be developed + and separated almost like three combs, or nearly united + into one; but its triple form is always evident. What we + think most beautiful is, where the centre division is a little + fluted, slightly serrated, and flanked by two little side + combs. The degree of the division into three varies, and + the peculiarities of the comb may be less perceptible in + December than when the hens are laying; but the triple + character of the pea-comb is always evident. It shows + itself in the chick at a few days old, in three tiny paralleled + lines." It is thick at the base, and like three combs joined + into one, the centre comb being higher than the other, but + the comb altogether must be low, rounded at the top, and + the indentations must not be deep. Whether single or + triple, all the combs in a pen should be uniform.</p> +<p>The dark and light varieties should not be crossed, as, + according to Mr. Teebay, who was formerly the most + extensive and successful breeder of Brahmas in England, + the result is never satisfactory.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2> +<h3>MALAYS.</h3> +<p>This was the first of the gigantic Asiatic breeds imported + into this country, and in height and size exceeds + any fowl yet known. The origin of the Malay breed is + supposed to be the <i>Gallus giganteus</i> of Temminck. "This + large and very remarkable species," says Mr. W. C. L. + Martin, "is a native of Java and Sumatra. The comb is + thick and low, and destitute of serrations, appearing as if + it had been partially cut off; the wattles are small, and the + throat is bare. The neck is covered with elongated + feathers, or hackles, of a pale golden-reddish colour, which + advance upon the back, and hackles of the same colour + cover the rump, and drop on each side of the base of the tail. + The middle of the back and the shoulders of the wings are of + a dark chestnut, the feathers being of a loose texture. The + greater wing-coverts are of a glossy green, and form a bar + of that colour across the wing. The primary and secondary + quill feathers are yellowish, with a tinge of rufous. + The tail feathers are of a glossy green. The under surface + uniformly is of a glossy blackish green, but the base of + each feather is a chestnut, and this colour appears on the + least derangement of the plumage. The limbs are remarkably + stout, and the robust tarsi are of a yellow colour. + The voice is a sort of crow—hoarse and short, and very + different from the clear notes of defiance uttered by our + farmyard chanticleer. This species has the habit, when + fatigued, of resting on the tarsi or legs, as we have seen + the emu do under similar circumstances."</p> +<p>In the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1832, + we find the following notice respecting this breed, by + Colonel Sykes, who observed it domesticated in the + Deccan: "Known by the name of the Kulm cock by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> Europeans in India. Met with only as a domestic bird; + and Colonel Sykes has reason to believe that it is not a + native of India, but has been introduced by the Mussulmans + from Sumatra or Java. The iris of the real game + bird should be whitish or straw yellow. Colonel Sykes + landed two cocks and a hen in England in June, 1831. + They bore the winter well; the hen laid freely, and has + reared two broods of chickens. The cock has not the shrill + clear pipe of the domestic bird, and his scale of note + appears more limited. A cock in the possession of Colonel + Sykes stood twenty-six inches high to the crown of the + head; but they attain a greater height. Length from the + tip of the bill to the insertion of the tail, twenty-three + inches. Hen one-third smaller than the male. Shaw very + justly describes the habit of the cock, of resting, when + tired, on the first joint of the leg."</p> +<p>It is a long, large, heavy bird, standing remarkably + upright, having an almost uninterrupted slope from the + head to the insertion of the tail; with very long, though + strong, yellow legs, quite free from feathers; long, stout, + firm thighs, and stands very erect; the cock, when full + grown, being at least two feet six inches, and sometimes + over three feet in height, and weighing from eight to + eleven pounds. The head has great fulness over the eye, + and is flattened above, resembling that of the snake. The + small, thick, hard comb, scarcely rising from the head, and + barely as long, like half a strawberry, resembles that of a + Game fowl dubbed. The wattles are very small; the neck + closely feathered, and like a rope, with a space for an inch + below the beak bare of feathers. It has a hard, cruel + expression of face; a brilliant bold eye, pearled around the + edge of the lids; skinny red face; very strong curved + yellow beak; and small, drooping tail, with very beautiful, + though short, sickle feathers. The hen resembles the cock + upon all these points, but is smaller.</p> +<p>Their colours now comprise different shades of red and + deep chestnut, in combination with rich browns, and there + are also black and white varieties, each of which should be + uniform. The feathers should be hard and close, which + causes it to be heavier than it appears.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> +<p>Malays are inferior to most other breeds as layers, but + the pullets commence laying early, and are often good + winter layers. Their eggs, which weigh about 2½ ounces + each, are of a deep buff or pale chocolate colour, surpass + all others in flavour, and are so rich that two of them are + considered to be equal to three of ordinary fowls. They + are nearly always fertile.</p> +<p>Their chief excellence is as table fowls, carrying, as they + do, a great quantity of meat, which, when under a year old, + is of very good quality and flavour. Crossed with the + Spanish and Dorking, they produce excellent table fowls; + the latter cross being also good layers.</p> +<p>Malays are good sitters and mothers, if they have roomy + nests. Their chickens should not be hatched after June, + as they feather slowly, and are delicate; but the adult + birds are hardy enough, and seem especially adapted to + crowded localities, such as courts and alleys. "Malays," + says Mr. Baily, "will live anywhere; they will inhabit a + back yard of small dimensions; they will scratch in the + dust-hole, and roost under the water-butt; and yet not + only lay well, but show in good condition when requisite." + Like the Game fowl, it is terribly pugnacious, and in its + native country is kept and trained for fighting. This propensity, + which is still greater in confinement, is its greatest + disadvantage. When closely confined they are apt to eat + each other's feathers, the cure for which is turning them + into a grass run, and giving them a good supply of lettuce + leaves, with an occasional purgative of six grains of jalap. + The Chittagong is said to be a variety of the Malay.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> +<h3>GAME.</h3> +<p>This is the kind expressly called the English breed by + Buffon and the French writers, and is the noblest and most + beautiful of all breeds, combining an admirable figure, + brilliant plumage, and stately gait. It is most probably + derived from the larger or continental Indian species of the + Javanese, or Bankiva Jungle Fowl—the <i>Gallus Bankiva</i> of + Temminck—which is a distinct species, distinguished chiefly + from the Javanese fowl by its larger size. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Page_124">page 124</a>.) + Of this continental species, Sir W. Jardine states that he + has seen three or four specimens, all of which came from + India proper. The Game cock is the undisputed king of + all poultry, and is unsurpassed for courage. The Malay is + more cruel and ferocious, but has less real courage. Game + fowls are in every respect fighting birds, and, although + cock-fighting is now very properly prohibited by law, + Game fowls are always judged mainly in reference to + fighting qualities. But their pugnacious disposition renders + them very troublesome, especially if they have not ample + range, although it does not disqualify them for small runs + to the extent generally supposed. A blow with his spur + is dangerous, and instances have been recorded of very + severe injuries inflicted upon children, even causing death. + An old newspaper states that "Mr. Johnson, a farmer in + the West Riding of Yorkshire, who has a famous breed of + the Game fowl, has had the great misfortune to lose his + little son, a boy of three years old, who was attacked by a + Game cock, and so severely injured that he died shortly + afterwards." High-bred hens are quite as pugnacious as + the cocks. The chickens are very quarrelsome, and both + cocks and hens fight so furiously, that frequently one-half + of a brood is destroyed, and the other half have to be killed.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> +<p>Game fowls are hardy when they can have liberty, but + cannot be well kept in a confined space. They eat little, + and are excellent for an unprotected place, because by + their activity they avoid danger themselves, and by their + courage defend their chickens from enemies. The hen is a + prolific layer, and, if she has a good run, equal to any breed. + The eggs, though of moderate size only, are remarkable + for delicacy of flavour. She is an excellent sitter, and still + more excellent mother. The chickens are easily reared, + require little food, and are more robust in constitution than + almost any other variety.</p> +<p>The flesh of the Game fowl is beautifully white, and + superior to that of all other breeds for richness and delicacy + of flavour. They should never be put up to fat, as they + are impatient of confinement. "They are in no way fit for + the fattening-coop," says Mr. Baily. "They cannot bear + the extra food without excitement, and that is not favourable + to obesity. Nevertheless, they have their merits. If + they are reared like pheasants round a keeper's house, and + allowed to run semi-wild in the woods, to frequent sunny + banks and dry ditches, they will grow up like them; they + will have little fat, but they will be full of meat. They + must be eaten young; and a Game pullet four or five + months old, caught up wild in this way, and killed two days + before she is eaten, is, perhaps, the most delicious chicken + there is in point of flavour."</p> +<p>The Game-fowl continues to breed for many years without + showing any signs of decay, and in this respect is + superior to the Cochin, Brahma, and even to the Dorking.</p> +<p>The cock's head should be long, but fine; beak long, + curved, and strong; comb single, small, upright, and + bright red; wattles and face bright red; eyes large and + brilliant; neck long, arched, and strong; breast well + developed; back short and broad between the shoulders, + but tapering to the tail; thighs muscular, but short compared + to the shanks; spur low; foot flat, with powerful + claws, and his carriage erect. The form of the hen should + resemble the above on a smaller scale, with small, fine comb + and face, and wattles of a less intense red. The feathers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> of both should be very hard, firm, and close, very strong + in the quills, and seem so united that it should be almost + impossible to ruffle them, each feather if lifted up falling + readily into its original place. Size is not a point of merit, + from four to six pounds being considered sufficient, and + better than heavier weights. Among the list of imperfections + in Game cocks, Sketchley enumerates "flat sides, + short legs, thin thighs, crooked or indented breast, short + thin neck, imperfect eye, and duck or short feet."</p> +<p>"It is the custom," says Miss Watts, "consequently + imperative, that all birds which are exhibited should have + been dubbed, and this should not be done until the comb + is so much developed that it will not spring again after the + dubbing. This will be safe if the chicken is nearly six + months old, but some are more set than others at a certain + age. A keen pair of scissors is the best instrument with + which to operate. Hold the fowl with a firm hand, cut + away the deaf ears and wattles, then cut the comb, cutting + a certain distance from the back, and then from the front + to join this cut, taking especial care not to go too near the + skull. Some operators put a finger inside the mouth to + get a firm purchase. We should like to see dubbing done + away with, leaving these beautiful fowls as nature makes + them; but since amateurs and shows will not agree to + this, it is best to give directions for dubbing, as an operation + bunglingly performed is sure to give unnecessary + pain." To save the bird from excessive loss of blood his + wattles are usually cut off a week later. Every superfluous + piece of flesh and skin should be removed.</p> +<p>The "Henwife" well says: "Why these poor birds are + condemned to submit to this cruel operation is a mystery, + unfathomable, I suspect, even by the judges themselves. + Cock-fighting being forbidden by law, the cocks should, on + principle, be left undubbed, as a protest against this brutal + amusement. The comb of the Game male bird is as beautifully + formed as that of the Dorking; why then rob it of + this great ornament? It is asserted that it is necessary to + remove the comb to prevent the cocks injuring each other + fatally in fighting; but this is not true; a Dorking will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> fight for the championship as ardently as any Game bird, + and yet his comb is spared. Cockerels will not quarrel if + kept apart from hens until the breeding season, when they + should be separated, and put on their several walks. If + pugnaciously inclined I do not believe that the absence of + the comb will save the weaker opponent from destruction; + therefore I raise my voice for pity, in favour of the + beautiful Game cock."</p> +<p>The colours are various, and they are classed into + numerous varieties and sub-varieties, of which the chief + are—Black-breasted Red; Brown-Red; Silver Duck-wing + Greys, so called from the feathers resembling those of a + duck; Greys; Blues; Duns; Piles, or Pieds; Black; + White; and Brassy-winged, which is Black with yellow + on the lesser wing coverts. Colours and markings must + be allowed a somewhat wide range in this breed; and + figure, with courage, may be held to prove purity of blood + though the colour be doubtful. Mr. Douglas considers + the Black-breasted Red the finest feathered Game, and + states that he never found any come so true to colour as a + brood of that variety. White in the tail feathers is highly + objectionable, though not an absolute disqualification. + White fowls should be entirely white, with white legs. + The rules for the coloured legs are very undecided. Light + legs match light-coloured birds best. No particular colour + is imperative, but it should harmonise with the plumage, + and all in a pen must agree.</p> +<p>The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds with willow + legs, and the worst the Greys.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> +<h3>DORKINGS.</h3> +<p>This is one of the finest breeds, and especially English. + A pure Dorking is distinguished by an additional or fifth + toe. There are several varieties, which are all comprised + in two distinct classes—the White and the Coloured. The + rose-combed white breed is <i>the</i> Dorking of the old fanciers, + and most probably the original breed, from which the + coloured varieties were produced by crossing it with the + old Sussex, or some other large coloured fowl. "That such + was the case," says Mr. Wright, "is almost proved by the + fact that only a few years ago nothing was more uncertain + than the appearance of the fifth toe in coloured chickens, + even of the best strains. Such uncertainty in any important + point is always an indication of mixed blood; and + that it was so in this case is shown by the result of long + and careful breeding, which has now rendered the fifth toe + permanent, and finally established the variety." Mr. Brent + says: "The <i>old</i> Dorking, the <i>pure</i> Dorking, the <i>only</i> Dorking, + is the <i>White</i> Dorking. It is of good size, compact + and plump form, with short neck, short white legs, five + toes, a full rose-comb, a large breast, and a plumage of + spotless white. The practice of crossing with a Game cock + was much in vogue with the old breeders, to improve a + worn-out stock (which, however, would have been better + accomplished by procuring a fresh bird of the same kind, + but not related). This cross shows itself in single combs, + loss of a claw, or an occasional red feather, but what is + still more objectionable, in pale-yellow legs and a yellow + circle about the beak, which also indicates a yellowish + skin. These, then, are faults to be avoided. As regards + size, the White Dorking is generally inferior to the Sussex + fowl (or 'coloured Dorking'), but in this respect it only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> requires attention and careful breeding. The pure White + Dorking may truly be considered as fancy stock, as well as + useful, because they will breed true to their points; but + the grey Sussex, Surrey or Coloured Dorking, often sport. + To the breeders and admirers of the so-called 'Coloured + Dorkings' I would say, continue to improve the fowl of + your choice, but let him be known by his right title; do + not support him on another's fame, nor yet deny that the + rose-comb or fifth toe is essential to a Dorking, because + your favourites are not constant to those points. The + absence of the fifth claw to the Dorking would be a great + defect, but to the Sussex fowl (erroneously called a 'Coloured + Dorking') it is my opinion it would be an improvement, + provided the leg did not get longer with the loss."</p> +<p>The fifth toe should not be excessively large, or too far + above the ordinary toe.</p> +<p>The White Dorking must have the plumage uniformly + white, though in the older birds the hackle and saddle may + attain a light golden tint. The rose-comb is preferable, + and the beak and legs should be light and clear.</p> +<p>The Coloured Dorking is now bred to great size and + beauty. It is a large, plump, compact, square-made bird, + with short white legs, and should have a well-developed + fifth toe. The plumage is very varied, and may have a + wide range, and might almost be termed immaterial, provided + a coarse mealy appearance be avoided, and the pen + is well matched. This latitude in respect of plumage is so + generally admitted that the assertion "you cannot breed + Dorkings true to colour," has almost acquired the authority + of a proverb. They may be shown with either rose or + single combs, but all the birds in a pen must match.</p> +<p>The Dorking is the perfection of a table bird, combining + delicately-flavoured white flesh, which is produced in + greatest quantity in the choicest parts—the breast, merry-thought, + and wings—equal distribution of fat, and symmetrical + shape. Mr. Baily prefers the Speckled or Grey to + the White, as "they are larger, hardier, and fatten more + readily, and although it may appear anomalous, it is not + less true that white-feathered poultry has a tendency to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> yellowness in the flesh and fat." Size is an important + point in Dorkings. Coloured prize birds weigh from seven + to fourteen pounds, and eight months' chickens six or + seven pounds. The White Dorking is smaller.</p> +<p>They are not good layers, except when very young, and + are bad winter layers. The eggs are large, averaging 2¾ + ounces, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal + in size at each end. The hen is an excellent sitter and + mother. The chickens are very delicate, requiring more + care when young than most breeds, and none show a + greater mortality, no more than two-thirds of a brood + usually surviving the fourth week of their life. They + should not be hatched before March, and must be kept on + gravel soil, hard clay, or other equally dry ground, and + never on brick, stone, or wooden flooring.</p> +<p>This breed will only thrive on a dry soil. They are fond + of a wide range, and cannot be kept within a fence of less + than seven feet in height. When allowed unlimited range + they appear to grow hardy, and are as easily reared as any + other breed if not hatched too early. If kept in confinement + they should have fresh turf every day, besides other + vegetable food. Dorkings degenerate more than any breed + by inter-breeding, and rapidly decrease in size.</p> +<p>Dorkings are peculiarly subject to a chronic inflammation + or abscess of the foot, known as "bumble-foot," + which probably originated in heavy fowls descending from + high perches and walking over sharp stones. The additional + toe may have rendered them more liable to this + disease. It may now arise from the same cause, and is + best prevented by using broad, low perches, and keeping + their runs clear of sharp, rough stones, but it also appears + to have become hereditary in some birds. There is no + cure for it when matured except its removal, and this + operation fails oftener than it succeeds; but Mr. Tegetmeier + states, that he has in early cases removed the corn-like or + wart-like tumours on the ball of the foot with which the + disease begins, and cauterised the part with nitrate of + silver successfully.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_128.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs. Black Spanish</span> </div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.</h2> +<h3>SPANISH.</h3> +<p>This splendid breed was originally imported from + Spain, and is characterised by its peculiar white face, + which in the cock should extend from the comb downwards, + including the entire face, and meet beneath in a + white cravat, hidden by the wattles; and in the hen + should be equally striking. The plumage is perfectly + black, with brilliant metallic lustre, reflecting rich green + and purple tints. The tail should resemble a sickle in the + cock, and be square in the hen. The comb should be of a + bright red, large, and high, upright in the cock, but + pendent in the hen; the legs blue, clean, and long, and + the bearing proud and gallant.</p> +<p>With care they will thrive in a very small space, and are + perhaps better adapted for town than any other variety. + They are tolerably hardy when grown, but suffer much + from cold and wet. Their combs and wattles are liable + to be injured by severe cold, from which these fowls should + be carefully protected. If frost-bitten, the parts should be + rubbed with snow or cold water, and the birds must not + be taken into a warm room until recovered.</p> +<p>The Spanish are excellent layers, producing five or six eggs + weekly from February to August, and two or three weekly + from November to February, and also laying earlier than + any other breed except the Brahma, the pullets beginning + to lay before they are six months old. Although the hens + are only of an average size, and but moderate eaters, their + eggs are larger than those of any other breed, averaging + 3½ ounces, and some weighing 4½ ounces, each. The shells + are very thin and white, and the largest eggs are laid in + the spring.</p> +<p>The flesh is excellent, but the body is small compared to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> that of the Dorking. They very seldom show any inclination + to sit, and if they hatch a brood are bad nurses. The + chickens are very delicate, and are best hatched at the end + of April and during May. They do not feather till almost + three-parts grown, and require a steady mother that will + keep with them till they are safely feathered, and therefore + the eggs should be set under a Dorking hen, because that + breed remains longer with the chicks than any other. + They almost always have white feathers in the flight of the + wings, but these become black.</p> +<p>"In purchasing Spanish fowls," says an excellent + authority, "blue legs, the entire absence of white or + coloured feathers in the plumage, and a large white face, + with a very large, high comb, which should be erect in the + cock, though pendent in the hen, should be insisted on." + Legginess is a fault that breeders must be careful to avoid.</p> +<p>The cockerels show the white face earlier than the + pullets, and a blue, shrivelly appearance in the face of the + chickens is a better sign of future whiteness than a red + fleshiness. Pullets are rarely fully white-faced till above a + year old. "The white face," says an excellent authority, + "should always extend well around the eye, and up to the + point of junction with the comb, though a line of short + black feathers is there frequently seen to intrude its undesired + presence. It is certainly objectionable, and the + less of it the better; but any attempt to remove or disguise + this eyesore should be followed by immediate disqualification." + Some exhibitors of Spanish shave the down of the + edges of the white-face, in order to make it smooth and + larger. This disgraceful practice is not allowed at the + Birmingham Show.</p> +<p>"One test of condition," says Mr. Baily, "more particularly + of the pullets, is the state of the comb, which will + be red, soft, and developed, just in proportion to the condition + of the bird. While moulting—and they are almost + naked during this process—the comb entirely shrivels up."</p> +<p>The White-faced <span class="smcap">White Spanish</span> is thought to be merely + a sport of the White-faced Black Spanish. But, whatever + their origin may have been, they possess every indication of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> common blood with their Black relatives, and their claims + to appear by their side in the exhibition room are as good + as those of the White Cochins and the White Polish. The + plumage is uniformly white, but in all other respects they + resemble the Black breed. From the absence of contrast + of colour shown in the face, comb, and plumage of the + Black Spanish, the White variety is far less striking in + appearance.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Andalusian</span> are so called from having been brought + from the Spanish province of Andalusia. This breed is of + a bluish grey, sometimes slightly laced with a darker shade, + but having the neck hackles and tail feathers of a glossy + black, with red face and white ears. The chickens are very + hardy, and feather well, and earlier than the Spanish.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Minorca</span> is so called from having been imported + from that island, and is a larger and more compactly-formed + breed, resembling the Spanish in its general characteristics; + black, with metallic lustre, but with red face, + and having only the ear-lobes white; showing even a + larger comb, and with shorter legs. They are better as + table fowls than the Spanish, but the Andalusian are superior + to either. The Minorca is the best layer of all the + Spanish breeds, its chickens are tolerably hardy, and it is + altogether far superior to the White-faced breed.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ancona</span> is a provincial term applied to black and white + mottled, or "cuckoo," which on all other points resemble + Minorcas, but are smaller.</p> +<p>The "Black Rot," to which Spanish fowls are subject, is + a blackening of the comb, swelling of the legs and feet, + and general wasting of the system; and can only be cured + in the earlier stages by frequent purgings with castor oil, + combined with warm nourishing food, and strong ale, or + other stimulants, given freely. They are also subject to a + peculiar kind of swelled face, which first appears like a + small knob under the skin, and increases till it has covered + one side of the face. It is considered to be incurable.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI.</h2> +<h3>HAMBURGS.</h3> +<p>This breed is medium-sized, and should have a brilliant + red, finely-serrated rose-comb, terminating in a spike at + the back, taper blue legs, ample tail, exact markings, a + well-developed white deaf-ear, and a quick, spirited bearing. + They are classed in three varieties, the Pencilled, + Spangled, and Black varieties, with the sub-varieties of + Gold and Silver in the two former.</p> +<p>The Pencilled Hamburg is of two ground colours, gold + and silver, that is, of a brown yellow or white, and very + minutely marked. The hens of both colours should have + the body clearly pencilled across with several bars of + black. The hackle in both sexes should be free from dark + marks. In the Golden-pencilled variety the cock should + be of one uniform red all over his body without any pencilling + whatever, and his tail copper colour; but many + first-class birds have pure black tails and the sickle feathers + should be shaded with a rich bronze or copper. In the + Silver-pencilled variety the cock is often nearly white, with + yellowish wing-coverts, and a brown or chestnut patch on + the flight feathers of his wing. The tail should be black + and the sickle feathers tinged with a reddish white.</p> +<p>The Speckled or Spangled Hamburg, also called Pheasant + Fowl, from the false idea that the pheasant was one + of its parents, is of two kinds, the Golden-speckled and + Silver-speckled, according to their ground colour, the marking + taking the form of a spot upon each feather. They + have very full double and firmly fixed combs, the point at + the end turning upwards, a dark rim round the eyes, blue + legs, and mixed hackle. They were also called Moss + Fowls, and Mooneys, the latter probably because the end + of every feather should have a black rim on the yellow or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> white ground. In the Golden-spangled some judges prefer + cocks with a pure black breast, but others desire them + spangled.</p> +<p>"One chief cause of discussion," says Miss Watts, + "relating to the Hamburg, regarded the markings on the + cocks. The Yorkshire breed, which had been a favourite + in that county for many years, produced henny cocks—<i>i.e.</i> cocks with plumage resembling that of a hen. The feathers + of the hackle were not narrow and elongated like those of + cocks generally, but were short and rounded like those of + the hen; the saddle-feathers were the same, and the tail, + instead of being graced with fine flowing sickle feathers, + was merely square like that of a hen. The Lancashire + Mooneys, on the contrary, produce cocks with as fine + flowing plumage as need grace any chanticleer in the land, + and tails with sickle-feathers twenty-two inches long, fine + flowing saddle-feathers, and abundant hackle. The hen-tail + cocks had the markings, as well as the form, of the + hen; the long feathers of the others cannot, from their + form, have these markings. On this question party-spirit + ran high: York and Lancaster, Cavalier and Roundhead, + were small discussions compared with it; but the hen-cocks + were beaten, and we now seldom hear of them. A mixture + of the two breeds has been tried; but by it valuable qualities + and purity of race have been sacrificed."</p> +<p>The Black Hamburg is of a beautiful black with a + metallic lustre, and is a noble-looking bird, the cocks often + weighing seven pounds. There is little doubt that it was + produced by crossing with the Spanish, which blood shows + itself in the white face, which is often half apparent, and + in the darker legs. But it is well established as a distinct + variety, and good birds breed true to colour and points. + The cocks' combs are larger, and the hens' legs shorter, + than the other varieties.</p> +<p>Bolton Bays and Greys, Chitteprats, Turkish, and + Creoles or Corals, Pencilled Dutch fowls, and Dutch every-day + layers, are but incorrect names for the Hamburgs, + with which they are identical.</p> +<p>The Hamburgs do not attain to their full beauty until<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> three years old. "As a general rule," says Mr. Baily, + "no true bred Hamburg fowl has top-knot, single comb, + white legs, any approach to feather on the legs, white tail, + or spotted hackle." The white ear-lobe being so characteristic + a feature in all the Hamburgs, becomes most + important in judging their merits. Weight is not considered, + but still the Pencilled cock should not weigh less + than four and a half pounds, nor the hen than three and a + half; and the Spangled cock five pounds and the hen four.</p> +<p>The Hamburgs are most prolific layers naturally, without + over-stimulating feeding, surpassing all others in the + number of their eggs, and deserve their popular name of + "everlasting layers." Their eggs are white, and do not + weigh more than 1½ ounce to 1¾ ounce each; and the + hens are known to average 240 eggs yearly. Not being + large eaters, they are very profitable fowls to keep. The + eggs of the Golden-spangled are the largest, and it is the + hardiest variety, but the Pencilled lay more. The Black + variety produces large eggs, and lays a greater number + than any known breed.</p> +<p>They very seldom show any desire to sit except when + they have a free woodland range, for even if free it must + be wild to induce any desire to perpetuate the species, and + they never sit if confined to a yard. The chickens should + not be hatched earlier than May, but in the South of + England they will do very well if hatched by a Cochin-China + hen at the beginning of March. They are small + birds for table, but of excellent quality.</p> +<p>Hamburgs do not bear confinement well, and will not + thrive without a good run; a grass field is the best. + Being small and light, even a ten-feet fence will not keep + them within a small run. They may indeed be kept in a + shed, but the number must be very few in proportion to + its size, and they must be kept dry and scrupulously clean. + They are excellent guards in the country, for if disturbed + in their roosting-place they will make a great noise. + The breed has improved in this country, and British bred + fowls are much stronger than the imported birds.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_136.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">White-crested Black. Golden and Silver-spangled.<br /> + POLISH. </span> </div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII.</h2> +<h3>POLANDS.</h3> +<p>This breed might with good reason be divided into + more families, but it is usual to rank as Polands all fowls + with their chief distinguishing characteristic, a full, large, + round, compact tuft on the head. The breed "is quite + unknown in Poland, and takes its name," says Mr. Dickson, + "from some resemblance having been fancied between + its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of the + feathered caps worn by the Polish soldiers." It is much + esteemed in Egypt, and equally abundant at the Cape of + Good Hope, where their legs are feathered. Some travellers + assert that the Mexican poultry are crested, and that what + are called Poland fowls are natives of either Mexico or + South America; but others believe that they are natives of + the East, and that they, as well as all the other fowls on + the Continent of America, have been introduced from the + Old World.</p> +<p>The Golden-spangled and Silver-spangled are the most + beautiful varieties, the first being of a gold colour and the + second white, both spangled with black. The more uniform + the colour of the tuft is with that of the bird, the higher it + is valued.</p> +<p>The Black Poland is of a deep velvety black; has a large, + white, round tuft, and should not have a comb, but many + have a little comb in the form of two small points before + the tuft. The tuft to be perfect should be entirely white, + but it is rare to meet with one without a slight bordering + of black, or partly black, feathers round the front.</p> +<p>There are also Yellow, laced with white, Buff or Chamois, + spangled with white, Blue, Grey, Black, and White mottled. + All the sub-varieties should be of medium size, neat compact + form, plump, full-breasted, and have lead-coloured legs and + ample tails.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> +<p>The top-knot of the cock should be composed of straight + feathers, growing from the centre of the crown, and falling + over outside, but not so much as to intercept the sight, + and form a circular crest. That of the hen should be + formed of feathers growing out and turning in at the + extremity, so as to resemble a cauliflower, and it should be + even, firm, and as nearly round as possible. Large, + uneven top-knots composed of loose feathers do not equal + smaller but firm and well-shaped crests. The white ear-lobe + is essential in all the varieties.</p> +<p>"Beards" in Polands were formerly not admired. + Among the early birds brought from the continent, not + one in a hundred was bearded, and those that were so were + often rejected, and it was a question of dispute whether + the pure bird should have them or not. Bearded birds at + shows were the exceptions, but an unbearded pen of Polands + is now seldom or ever seen.</p> +<p>There was formerly a breed of White, with black top-knots, + but that is lost, although it seems to have been not + only the most ornamental, but the largest and most valuable + of all the Polish varieties. The last specimen known + was seen by Mr. Brent at St. Omer in 1854, and it is + possible that the breed may still exist in France or + Ireland.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Serai Ta-ook</span>, or <span class="smcap">Fowl of the Sultan</span>, is the + latest Polish fowl introduced into this country. They were + imported in 1854 by Miss Watts, who says: "With + regard to the name, Serai is the name of the Sultan's + palace; Tä-ook is Turkish for fowl; the simplest translation + of this is, Sultan's fowls, or fowls of the Sultan; a + name which has the double advantage of being the + nearest to be found to that by which they have been + known in their own country, and of designating the + country from which they came. In general habits + they are brisk and happy-tempered, but not kept in + as easily as Cochin-Chinas. They are very good layers; + their eggs are large and white; they are non-sitters, and + small eaters. A grass run with them will remain green + long after the crop would have been cleared by either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> Brahmas or Cochins, and with scattered food they soon + become satisfied and walk away. They are the size of + our English Poland fowls. Their plumage is white and + flowing; they have a full-sized compact Poland tuft on the + head, are muffed, have a good flowing tail, short well-feathered + legs, and five toes upon each foot. The comb is + merely two little points, and the wattles very small. We + have never seen fowls more fully decorated—full tail, + abundant furnishing, in hackle almost touching the ground, + boots, vulture-hocks, beards, whiskers, and full round + Poland crests. Their colour is pure white."</p> +<p>They are prolific layers during spring and summer. + Their eggs are white, and weigh from 2 ounces to 2¼ + ounces each, the Spangled varieties producing the largest. + They rarely sit, and generally leave their eggs after five or + six days, and are not good mothers. The chickens require + great care for six weeks. They should never be hatched + by heavy hens, as the prominence in the skull which supports + the top-knot is never completely covered with bone, + and very sensible to injury. Like the Game breed they + improve in feather for several years. Polands never thrive + on a wet or cold soil, and are more affected by bad weather + than any other breed; the top-knots being very liable to + be saturated with wet. They are easily fattened, and their + flesh is white, juicy, and rich-flavoured, but they are not + sufficiently large for the market.</p> +<p>Mr. Hewitt cautions breeders against attempting to seize + birds suddenly, as the crest obscures their sight, and, being + taken by surprise, they are frequently so frightened as to + die in the hand. They should, therefore, always be + spoken to, or their attention otherwise attracted before + being touched.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2> +<h3>BANTAMS.</h3> +<p>Of this breed one kind is Game, and resembles the Game + fowl, except in size; another is feathered to the very toes, + the feathers on the tarsi, or beam of the leg, being long + and stiff, and often brushing the ground. They are peculiarly + fancy fowls. There are several varieties, the White, + Black, Nankin, Partridge, Booted or Feather-legged, Game, + and the Golden-laced and Silver-laced, or Sebright Bantam. + All should be very small, varying from fourteen to twenty + ounces in the hen, and from sixteen to twenty-four in the + cock. The head should be narrow; beak curved; forehead + rounded; eyes bright; back short; body round and full; + breast very prominent; legs short and clean, except in the + Booted variety; wings depressed; and the carriage unusually + erect, the back of the neck and the tail feathers + almost touching; and the whole bearing graceful, bold, + and proud.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_141.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Black. Sebright's Gold and Silver-laced. White. Game.<br /> + BANTAMS. </span> </div> +<p>"The Javanese jungle-fowl" (<i>Gallus Bankiva</i>), says Mr. + W. C. L. Martin, "the Ayam-utan of the Malays, is a + native of Java; but either a variety or a distinct species of + larger size, yet very similar in colouring, is found in continental + India. The Javanese, or Bankiva jungle-fowl, is + about the size of an ordinary Bantam, and in plumage + resembles the black-breasted red Game-bird of our country, + with, a steel-blue mark across the wings. The comb is + high, its edge is deeply serrated, and the wattles are rather + large. The hackle feathers of the neck and rump are long + and of a glossy golden orange; the shoulders are chestnut + red, the greater wing-coverts deep steel-blue, the quill + feathers brownish black, edged with pale, reddish yellow, + or sandy red. The tail is of a black colour, with metallic + reflections of green and blue. The under parts are black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> the naked space round the eyes, the comb, and wattles are + scarlet. The hen closely resembles a brown hen of the + Game breed, except in being very much smaller. That + this bird, or its continental ally, is one of the sources—perhaps + the main source—of our domestic race, cannot be + doubted. It inter-breeds freely with our common poultry, + and the progeny is fertile. Most beautiful cross-breeds + between the Bankiva jungle-fowl and Bantam may be seen + in the gardens of the Zoological Society."</p> +<p>"That the Bankiva jungle-fowl of Java, or its larger continental + variety, if it be not a distinct species (and of which + Sir W. Jardine states that he has seen several specimens), + is one of the sources of our domestic breeds, cannot, we + think, be for a moment doubted. It would be difficult + to discover any difference between a clean-limbed, black-breasted + red Bantam-cock, and a cock Bankiva jungle-fowl. + Indeed, the very term Bantam goes far to prove their specific + identity. Bantam is a town or city at the bottom of + a bay on the northern coast of Java; it was first visited by + the Portuguese in 1511, at which time a great trade was + carried on by the town with Arabia, Hindostan, and China, + chiefly in pepper. Subsequently it fell into the hands of + the Dutch, and was at one time the great rendezvous for + European shipping. It is now a place of comparative + insignificance. From this it would seem that the jungle-fowls + domesticated and sold to the Europeans at Bantam + continued to be designated by the name of the place where + they were obtained, and in process of time the name was + appropriated to all our dwarfish breeds."</p> +<p>Game Bantams are exact miniatures of real Game fowls, + in Black-breasted red, Duck-wing, and other varieties. The + cocks must not have the strut of the Bantam, but the bold, + martial bearing of the Game cock. Their wings should be + carried closely, and their feathers be hard and close. The + Duck-wing cock's lower wing-coverts should be marked + with blue, forming a bar across each wing.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Sebright</span>, or <span class="smcap">Gold and Silver-laced Bantam</span>, is a + breed with clean legs, and of most elegantly spangled + plumage, which was bred and has been brought to great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> perfection by Sir John Sebright, after whom they are + named. The attitude of the cock is singularly bold and + proud, the head being often thrown so much back as to + meet the tail feathers, which are simple like those of a hen, + the ordinary sickle-like feathers being abbreviated and + broad. The Gold-laced Sebright Bantams should have + golden brownish-yellow plumage, each feather being bordered + with a lacing of black; the tail square like that of + the hen, without sickle feathers, and carried well over the + back, each feather being tipped with black, a rose-comb + pointed at the back, the wings drooping to the ground, + neither saddle nor neck hackles, clean lead-coloured legs + and feet, and white ear-lobes; and the hen should correspond + exactly with him, but be much smaller. The Silver-laced + birds have exactly the same points except in the + ground feathering, which should be silvery, and the nearer + the shade approaches to white the more beautiful will be + the bird. Their carriage should resemble that of a good + Fantail pigeon.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Black Bantams</span> should be uniform in colour, with + well-developed white ear-lobes, rose-combs, full hackles, + sickled and flowing tail, and deep slate-coloured legs. The <span class="smcap">White Bantams</span> should have white legs and beak. Both + should be of tiny size.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Nankin</span>, or <span class="smcap">Common Yellow Bantam</span>, is probably + the nearest approach to the original type of the family—the + "Bankiva fowl." The cock "has a large proportion + of red and dark chestnut on the body, with a full black + tail; while the hen is a pale orange yellow, with a tail + tipped with black, and the hackle lightly pencilled with + the same colour, and clean legs. Combs vary, but the rose + is decidedly preferable. True-bred specimens of these + birds being by no means common, considerable deviations + from the above description may consequently be expected + in birds passing under this appellation."</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Booted Bantams</span> have their legs plumed to the toes, + not on one side only like Cochin-Chinas, but completely on + both, with stiff, long feathers, which brush the ground. + The most beautiful specimens are of a pure white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> "Feathered-legged Bantams," says Mr. Baily, "may be of + any colour; the old-fashioned birds were very small, + falcon-hocked, and feathered, with long quill feathers to + the extremity of the toe. Many of them were bearded. + They are now very scarce; indeed, till exhibitions brought + them again into notice, these beautiful specimens of their + tribe were all neglected and fast passing away. Nothing + but the Sebright was cultivated; but now we bid fair to + revive the pets of our ancestors in all their beauty."</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Pekin</span>, or <span class="smcap">Cochin Bantams</span>, were taken from the + Summer Palace at Pekin during the Chinese war, and + brought to this country. They exactly resemble the Buff + Cochins in all respects except size. They are very tame.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Japanese Bantam</span> is a recent importation, and + differs from most of the other varieties in having a very + large single comb. It has very short well-feathered legs, + and the colour varies. Some are quite white, some have + pure white bodies, with glossy, jet-black tails, others are + mottled and buff. They throw the tail up and the head + back till they nearly meet, as in the Fantailed pigeon. + They are said to be the constant companions of man in + their native country, and have a droll and good-natured + expression.</p> +<p>All the Bantam cocks are very pugnacious, and though + the hens are good mothers to their own chickens, they will + attack any stranger with fury. They are good layers of + small but exquisitely-flavoured eggs. But no breed produces + so great a proportion of unfertile eggs. June is the + best month for hatching, as the chickens are delicate. + They feather more quickly than most breeds, and are apt + to die at that period through the great drain upon the + system in producing feathers. When fully feathered they + are quite hardy. The hens are excellent mothers. The + chickens require a little more animal food than other fowls, + and extra attention for a week or two in keeping them dry. + Bantams are very useful in a garden, eating many slugs + and insects, and doing little damage.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX.</h2> +<h3>FRENCH AND VARIOUS.</h3> +<p>The French breeds are remarkable for great weight and + excellent quality of flesh, with a very small proportion of + bones and offal; their breeders having paid great attention + to those important, substantial, and commercial points + instead of devoting almost exclusive attention to colour and + other fancy points as we have done. As a rule they are + all non-sitters, or sit but rarely.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_147.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Houdans. La Flêche, cock. Crêvecoeur, hen.<br /> + FRENCH. </span></div> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Crêve-Cœur</span> has been known the longest and most + generally. This breed is said to derive its name from a + village so called in Normandy, whence its origin can be + distinctly traced; but others fancifully say, from the resemblance + of its peculiar comb to a broken heart. It is + scarce, and pure-bred birds are difficult to procure. The + Crêve-Cœur is a fine large bird, black in plumage, or nearly + so, with short, clean black legs, square body, deep chest, + and a large and extraordinary crest or comb, which is thus + described by M. Jacque: "Various, but always forming + two horns, sometimes parallel, straight, and fleshy; sometimes + joined at the base, slightly notched, pointed, and + separating at their extremities; sometimes adding to this + latter description interior ramifications like the horns of + a young stag. The comb, shaped like horns, gives the + Crêve-Cœur the appearance of a devil." It is bearded, and + has a top-knot or crest behind the comb. They are very + quiet, walk slowly, scratch but little, do not fly, are very + tame, ramble but little, and prefer seeking their food on + the dunghill in the poultry-yard to wandering afar off. + They are the most contented of all breeds in confinement, + and will thrive in a limited space. They are tame, tractable + fowls, but inclined to roup and similar diseases in our + climate, and therefore prosper most on a dry, light soil,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> and can scarcely have too much sun. They are excellent + layers of very large white eggs.</p> +<p>The chickens grow so fast, and are so inclined to fatten, + that they may be put up at from ten to twelve weeks of + age, and well fattened in fifteen days. The Crêve-Cœur is + a splendid table bird, both for the quantity and quality + of its flesh. The hen is heavy in proportion to the cock, + weighing eight and a half pounds against his nine and a + half, and the pullets always outweigh the cockerels.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">La Flêche</span> is thus described by M. Jacque: "A strong, + firm body, well placed on its legs, and long muscular + feet, appearing less than it really is, because the feathers + are close; every muscular part well developed; black + plumage. The La Flêche is the tallest of all French + cocks; it has many points of resemblance with the + Spanish, from which I believe it to be descended by + crossing with the Crêve-Cœur. Others believe that it is + connected with the Brêda, which it does, in fact, resemble, + in some particulars. It has white, loose, and + transparent skin; short, juicy, and delicate flesh, which + puts on fat easily."</p> +<p>"The comb is transversal, double, forming two horns + bending forward, united at their base, divided at their + summits, sometimes even and pointed, sometimes having + ramifications on the inner sides. A little double 'combling' + protrudes from the upper part of the nostrils, and + although hardly as large as a pea, this combling, which + surmounts the sort of rising formed by the protrusion of + the nostrils, contributes to the singular aspect of the head. + This measured prominence of the comb seems to add to + the characteristic depression of the beak, and gives the bird + a likeness to a rhinoceros." The plumage is jet black, + with a very rich metallic lustre; large ear-lobe of pure + white; bright red face, unusually free from feathers; and + bright lead-coloured legs, with hard, firm scales. They are + very handsome, showy, large, and lively birds, more + inclined to wander than the Crêve-Cœur, and hardier when + full grown; but their chickens are even more delicate in + wet weather, and should not be hatched before May. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> are easily reared, and grow quickly. They are excellent + layers of very large white eggs, but do not lay well in + winter, unless under very favourable circumstances, and + resemble the Spanish in the size and number of their eggs, + and the time and duration of laying. Their flesh is excellent, + juicy, and resembles that of the Game fowl, and the + skin white and transparent, but the legs are dark. This + breed is larger and has more style than the Crêve-Cœur, and + is better adapted to our climate; but the fowls lack constitution, + particularly the cocks, and are very liable to leg + weakness and disease of the knee-joint, and when they get + out of condition seldom recover. They are found in the + north of France, but are not common even there.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Houdan</span> has the size, deep compact body, short legs, + and fifth toe of the Dorking. They are generally white, + some having black spots as large as a shilling, are bearded, + and should have good top-knots of black and white feathers, + falling backwards like a lark's crest; and the + remarkable comb is thus described by M. Jacque: + "Triple, transversal in the direction of the beak, composed + of two flattened spikes, of long and rectangular form, + opening from right to left, like two leaves of a book; + thick, fleshy, and variegated at the edges. A third spike + grows between these two, having somewhat the shape of an + irregular strawberry, and the size of a long nut. Another, + quite detached from the others, about the size of a pea, + should show between the nostrils, above the beak."</p> +<p>Mr. F. H. Schröder, of the National Poultry Company, + considered that this surpassed all the French breeds, combining + the size, shape, and quality of flesh of the Dorking + with earlier maturity; prolific laying of good-sized eggs, + which are nearly always fertile, and on this point the opposite + of the Dorking; and early and rapid feathering in the + chickens, which are, notwithstanding, hardier than any + breeds except the Cochin and Brahma. They are very + hardy, never sick, and will thrive in a small space. They + are smaller than the Crêve-Cœur or La Flêche, but well + shaped and plump; and for combining size and quality of + flesh with quantity and size of eggs nothing can surpass them.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Scotch Dumpies</span>, <span class="smcap">Go Laighs</span>, <span class="smcap">Bakies</span>, or <span class="smcap">Creepers</span>, + are almost extinct; but they are profitable fowls, and + ought to be more common, as they are very hardy, productive + layers of fine large eggs, and their flesh is white + and of excellent quality. They should have large, heavy + bodies; short, white, clean legs, not above an inch and + a half or two inches in length. The plumage is a mixture + of black or brown, and white. They are good layers of fine + large eggs. They cannot be surpassed as sitters and + mothers, and are much valued by gamekeepers for hatching + the eggs of pheasants. The cocks should weigh six or + seven and the hen five or six pounds.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Silky</span> fowl is so called from its plumage, which is + snowy white, being all discomposed and loose, and of a + silky appearance, resembling spun glass. The comb and + wattles are purple; the bones and the periosteum, or membrane + covering the bones, black, and the skin blue or + purple; but the flesh, however, is white and tender, and + superior to that of most breeds. It is a good layer of small, + round, and excellent eggs. The cock generally weighs + less than three, and the hen less than two, pounds. It + comes from Japan and China, and generally thrives in our + climate. The chickens are easily reared if not hatched + before April nor later than June. They are capital foster + mothers for partridges, and other small and tender game.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Rumpkin</span>, or <span class="smcap">Rumpless</span> fowl, a Persian breed, not + only lacks the tail-feathers but the tail itself. It is hardy, + of moderate size, and varies in colour, but is generally + black or brown, and from the absence of tail appears + rounder than other fowls. The hens are good layers, but + the eggs are often unfertile. They are good sitters and + mothers, and the flesh is of fair quality.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Friesland</span>, so named from confounding the term + "frizzled" with Friesland, is remarkable from having all + the feathers, except those of the wings and tail, frizzled, or + curled up the wrong way. It is small, very delicate, and a + shower drenches it to the skin.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Barn-door</span> fowl are a mongrel race, compounded by + chance, usually of the Game, Dorking, and Polish breeds.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX.</h2> +<h3>TURKEYS.</h3> +<p>Turkeys are not considered profitable except on light, + dry soils, which is said to be the cause of their success in + Norfolk. They prosper, however, in Ireland; but although + the air there is moist, the soil is dry, except in the boggy + districts. Miss Watts believes that "any place in which + turkeys are properly reared and fed may compete with + Norfolk. Very fine birds may be seen in Surrey, and other + places near London." The general opinion of the best + judges is, that they can barely be made to repay the cost + of their food, which is doubtless owing to the usual great + mortality among the chicks, which loss outbalances all + profit; but others make them yield a fair profit, simply + because, from good situation and judicious management, + they rear all, or nearly all, the chicks. A single brood may + be reared with ease on a small farm or private establishment + without much extra expense, where sufficient attention + can be devoted to them; but to make them profitable + they should be bred on a large scale, and receive exclusive + attention. They should have a large shed or house, with + a boarded floor, to themselves.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_153.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Turkey and Guinea-fowls.</span> </div> +<p>Turkeys must have space, for they are birds of rambling + habits, and only fitted for the farmyard, or extensive runs, + delighting to wander in the fields in quest of insects, on + which, with green herbage, berries, beech-mast, and various + seeds, they greedily feed. The troop will ramble about all + day, returning to roost in the evening, when they should + have a good supply of grain; and another should be given + in the morning, which will not only induce them to return + home regularly every night, but keep them in good store + condition, so that they can at any time be speedily fattened. + Peas, vetches, tares, and most sorts of pulse, are almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> poisonous to them. Their feeding-place must be separate + from the other poultry, or they will gobble up more than + their share. Turkeys will rarely roost in a fowl-house, + and should have a very high open shed, the perches being + placed as high as possible. They are extremely hardy, + roosting, if allowed, on the highest trees in the severest + weather. But this should be prevented, as their feet are + apt to become frost-bitten in severe weather. The chickens + are as delicate. Wet is fatal to them, and the very + slightest shower even in warm weather will frequently + destroy half a brood.</p> +<p>The breeding birds should be carefully selected, any + malformation almost invariably proving itself hereditary. + The cock is at maturity when a year old, but not in his + prime till he has attained his third year, and is entering + upon his fourth, and he continues in vigour for three or + four years more. He should be vigorous, broad-breasted, + clean-legged, with ample wings, well-developed tail, bright + eyes, and the carunculated skin of the neck full and rapid + in its changes of colour. The largest possible hen should + be chosen, the size of the brood depending far more upon + the female than the male. One visit to the male is sufficient + to render all the eggs fertile, and the number of + hens may be unlimited, but to obtain fine birds, twelve or + fifteen hens to one cock is the best proportion. The hen + breeds in the spring following that in which she was + hatched, but is not in her prime till two or three years old, + and continues for two or three years in full vigour.</p> +<p>The hen generally commences laying about the middle + of March, but sometimes earlier. When from her uttering + a peculiar cry and prying about in quest of a secret spot + for sitting, it is evident that she is ready to lay, she should + be confined in the shed, barn, or other place where the + nest has been prepared for her, and let out when she has + laid an egg. The nest should be made of straw and dried + leaves, in a large wicker basket, in a quiet secluded place, + and an egg or nest-egg of chalk should be placed in it to + induce her to adopt it. Turkeys like to choose their own + laying-places, and keep to them though their eggs are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> removed daily, provided a nest-egg is left there. They + will wander to a distance in search of a secluded spot for + laying, and pay their visits to the nest so cleverly that + sometimes they keep it a secret and hatch a brood there, + which, however, does not generally prove a strong or large + one as in the case of ordinary fowls. When a hen has + chosen a safe, quiet, and sheltered place for her nest, it is + best to give her more eggs when she shows a desire to sit, + and let her stay there. The hen generally lays from fifteen + to twenty eggs, sometimes fewer and often many more. + As soon as seven are produced, they should be placed + under a good common hen, a Cochin is the best, and the + remainder can be put under her when she wants to sit. + The best hatching period is from the end of March to May, + and none should be hatched later than June. The broody + hens may be placed on their eggs in any quiet place, as + they are patient, constant sitters, and will not leave their + eggs wherever they may be put. A hen may be allowed + from nine to fifteen eggs, according to her size. During + the time the hen is sitting she requires constant attention. + She must occasionally be taken off the nest to feed, and + regularly supplied with fresh water; otherwise she will + continue to sit without leaving for food, till completely + exhausted. In general, do not let the cock go near the + sitting hen, or he will destroy the eggs or chicks; but + some behave well, and may be left at large with safety. + She should not be disturbed or visited by any one but the + person she is accustomed to be fed by, and the eggs should + not be touched unnecessarily.</p> +<p>The chickens break the shell from the twenty-sixth to + the twenty-ninth day, but sometimes as late as the thirty-first. + Let them remain in the nest for twenty-four hours, + but remove the shells, and next morning place the hen + under a roomy coop or crate, on boards, in a warm outhouse. + Keep her and her brood cooped up for two months, + moving the coop every fine day into a dry grass field, but + keep them in an outhouse in cold or wet weather. The + chicks having a great tendency to diarrhœa, the very best + food for the first week is hard-boiled eggs, chopped small,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> mixed with minced dandelion, and when that cannot be + had, with boiled nettles. They may then have boiled egg, + bread-crumbs, and barley-meal for a fortnight, when the + egg may be replaced by boiled potato, and small grain may + soon be added. Do not force them to eat, but give them + a little food on the tip of your finger, and they will soon + learn to pick it out of the trough. A little hempseed, suet, + onion-tops, green mustard, and nettle-tops, chopped very + fine, should be mixed with their food. Curds are excellent + food, and easily prepared by mixing powdered alum with + milk slightly warmed, in the proportion of one teaspoonful + of alum to four quarts of milk, and, when curdled, separating + the curds from the whey. They should be squeezed + very dry, and must always be given in a soft state. Water + should be given but sparingly, and never allowed to stand + by them, but when they have had sufficient it should be + taken or thrown away. The water must be put in pans + so contrived or placed that they cannot wet themselves. + (<i>See</i> <a href="#Page_38">page 38</a>.) Fresh milk is apt to disagree with the + young chicks, and is not necessary. If a chick shows + weakness, or has taken cold, give it some carraway seeds.</p> +<p>In their wild state the turkey rears only one brood in a + season, and it is not advisable to induce the domesticated + bird by any expedients to hatch a second, for it would be + not only detrimental to her, but the brood would be + hatched late in the season, and very difficult to rear, while + those reared would not be strong, healthy birds.</p> +<p>The coop should be like that used for common fowls, + but two feet broad, and higher, being about three feet high + in front and one foot at the back; this greater slant of the + roof being made in order to confine her movements, as + otherwise she would move about too much, and trample + upon her brood. When they have grown larger they must + have a larger coop, made of open bars wide enough apart + for them to go in and out, but too close to let in fowls to + eat their delicate food, and the hen must be placed under it + with them. A large empty crate, such as is used to contain + crockery-ware, will make a good coop for large poults; + but if one cannot be had, a coop may be made of laths or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> rails, with the bars four inches apart; it should be about + five feet long, four feet broad, and three feet high.</p> +<p>Keep her cooped for two months, moving the coop every + fine, dry day into a grass field, but on cold or wet days + keep them in the outhouse. If she is allowed her liberty + before they are well grown and strong, she will wander + away with them through the long grass, hedges, and + ditches, over highway, common, and meadow, mile after + mile, losing them on the road, and straying on with the + greatest complacency, and perfectly satisfied so long as she + has one or two following her, and never once turning her + head to see how her panting chicks are getting on, nor + troubled when they squat down tired out, and implore her + plaintively to come back; and all this arises from sheer + heedlessness, and not from want of affection, for she will + fight for her brood as valiantly as any pheasant will for + hers. When full grown they should never be allowed to + roam with her while there is heavy dew or white frost on + the grass, but be kept in till the fields and hedgerows are + dry. They will pick up many seeds and insects while + wandering about in the fields with her, but must be fed by + hand three or four times a day at regular intervals.</p> +<p>They cease to be chicks or chickens, and are called + turkey-poults when the male and female distinctive characteristics + are fairly established, the carunculated skin and + comb of the cock being developed, which is called "shooting + the red," or "putting out the red," and begins when + they are eight or ten weeks old. It is the most critical + period of their lives—much more so than moulting, and + during the process their food must be increased in quantity, + and made more nourishing by the addition of boiled + egg-yolks, bread crumbled in ale, wheaten flour, bruised + hempseed, and the like, and they must be well housed at + night. When this process is completed they will be hardy, + and able to take care of themselves; but till they are fully + fledged it will be advisable to keep them from rain and + cold, and not to try their hardness too suddenly.</p> +<p>Vegetables, as chopped nettles, turnip-tops, cabbage + sprouts, onions, docks, and the like, boiled down and well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> mixed with barley-meal, oatmeal, or wheaten flour, and + curds, if they can be afforded, form excellent food for the + young poults; also steamed potatoes, boiled carrots, turnips, + and the like. With this diet may be given buckwheat, + barley, oats, beans, and sunflower seeds.</p> +<p>When they are old enough to be sent to the stubble and + fields, they are placed in charge of a boy or girl of from + twelve to fifteen years old, who can easily manage one + hundred poults. They are driven with a long bean stick, + and the duties of the turkey-herd is to keep the cocks from + fighting, to lead them to every place where there are + acorns, beech-mast, corn, wild fruit, insects, or other food + to be picked up. He must not allow them to get fatigued + with too long rambles, as they are not fully grown, and + must shelter them from the burning sun, and hasten + them home on the approach of rain. The best times for + these rambles are from eight to ten in the morning, when + the dew is off the grass, and from four till seven in the + evening, before it begins to fall.</p> +<p>Turkeys are crammed for the London markets. The + process of fattening may commence when they are six + months old, as they require a longer time to become fit for + the market than fowls. The large birds which are seen at + Christmas are usually males of the preceding year, and + about twenty months old. All experienced breeders + repudiate "cramming." To obtain fine birds the chickens + must be fed abundantly from their birth until they + are sent to market, and while they are being fattened they + should be sent to the fields and stubble for a shorter time + daily, and their food must be increased in quantity and + improved in quality. Early hatched, well fed young + Norfolk cocks will frequently weigh twenty-three pounds + by Christmas of the same year, and two-year-old birds + will sometimes attain to twenty pounds. When two or + more years old they are called "stags."</p> +<p>The domesticated turkey can scarcely be said to be + divided into distinct breeds like the common fowl, the + several varieties being distinguished by colour only, + but identical in their form and habits. They vary considerably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> in colour—some being of a bronzed black, + others of a coppery tint, of a delicate fawn colour, or buff, + and some of pure white. The dark coloured birds are + generally considered the most hardy, and are usually the + largest. The chief varieties are the Cambridge, Norfolk, + Irish, American, and French.</p> +<p>The Cambridge combines enormous size, a tendency to + fatten speedily, and first-rate flavour. The tortoiseshell + character of its plumage gives the adult birds a very prepossessing + appearance around the homestead, and a striking + character in the exhibition room. The colours may vary + from pale to dark grey, with a deep metallic brown tint, + and light legs. The legs should be stout and long.</p> +<p>The Norfolk breed is more compact and smaller-boned, + and produces a large quantity of meat of delicate whiteness + and excellent quality. The cocks are almost as heavy as + the Cambridge breed, but the hens are smaller and more + compact. The Norfolk should be jet, not blue black, + and free from any other colour, being uniform throughout, + including the legs and feet.</p> +<p>All the birds in a pen must be uniform.</p> +<p>The American wild turkey has become naturalised in + this country, but being of a very wandering disposition is + best adapted to be kept in parks and on large tracts of wild + land. It is slender in shape, but of good size, with uniform + metallic bronze plumage, the flight feathers being barred + with white, and the tail alternately with white, rich dark + brown, and black, and with bright pink legs. The wattles + are smaller than in the other breeds, and of a bluish tinge. + They are very hardy, but more spiteful than others, and + are said to be also more prolific. Crosses often take place + in America between the wild and tame races, and are + highly valued both for their appearance and for the table. + Eggs of the wild turkey have also often been taken from + their nests, and hatched under the domesticated hen. + The flavour of the flesh of the American breed is peculiar + and exceedingly good, but they do not attain a large size.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI.</h2> +<h3>GUINEA-FOWLS.</h3> +<p>The Guinea-fowl, Gallina, or Pintado (<i>Numida meleagris</i>), + is the true meleagris of the ancients, a term + generically applied by Belon, Aldrovandus, and Gesner to + the turkey, and now retained, although the error is + acknowledged, in order to prevent confusion. It is a + native of Africa, where it is extensively distributed. They + associate in large flocks and frequent open glades, the + borders of forests, and banks of rivers, which offer abundant + supplies of grain, berries, and insects, in quest of which + they wander during the day, and collect together at + evening, and roost in clusters on the branches of trees or + shrubs. Several other wild species are known, some of + which are remarkable for their beauty; but the common + Guinea-fowl is the only one domesticated in Europe. The + Guinea-fowl is about twenty-two inches long, and from + standing high on its legs, and having loose, full plumage, + appears to be larger than it really is, for when plucked it + does not weigh more than an ordinary Dorking. It is + very plump and well-proportioned. The Guinea-fowl + is not bred so much as the turkey in England or France, + is very rare in the northern parts of Europe, and in + India is bred almost exclusively by Europeans, although + it thrives as well there as in its native country. It "is + turbulent and restless," says Mr. Dickson, "continually + moving from place to place, and domineering over the + whole poultry-yard, boldly attacking even the fiercest + turkey cock, and keeping all in alarm by its petulant + pugnacity"; and the males, although without spurs, can + inflict serious injury on other poultry with their short, hard + beaks. The Guinea-fowls make very little use of their + wings, and if forced to take to flight, fly but a short<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> distance, then alight, and trust to their rapid mode of + running, and their dexterity in threading the mazes of + brushwood and dense herbage, for security. They are + shy, wary, and alert.</p> +<p>It is not much kept, its habits being wandering, and + requiring an extensive range, but as it picks up nearly all + its food, and is very prolific, it may be made very profitable + in certain localities. The whole management of both the + young and the old may be precisely the same as that of + turkeys, in hatching, feeding, and fattening. This + "species," says Mr. Dickson, "differs from all other + poultry, in its being difficult to distinguish the cock from + the hen, the chief difference being in the colour of the + wattles, which are more of a red hue in the cock, and more + tinged with blue in the hen. The cock has also a more + stately strut."</p> +<p>They mate in pairs, and therefore an equal number + of cocks and hens must be kept, or the eggs will prove + unfertile. To obtain stock, some of their eggs must be + procured, and placed under a common hen; for if old + birds are bought, they will wander away for miles in + search of their old home, and never return. They should + be fed regularly, and must always have one meal at night, + or they will scarcely ever roost at home. They will not + sleep in the fowl-house, but prefer roosting in the lower + branches of a tree, or on a thick bush, and retire early. + They make a peculiar, harsh, querulous noise, which is + oft-repeated, and not agreeable. The hens are prolific + layers, beginning in May, and continuing during the + whole summer. Their eggs are small, but of excellent + flavour, of a pale yellowish red, finely dotted with a darker + tint, and remarkable for the hardness of the shell. The + hen usually lays on a dry bank, in secret places; and + a hedgerow a quarter of a mile off is quite as likely to + contain her nest as any situation nearer her home. She + is very shy, and, if the eggs are taken from her nest, will + desert it, and find another; a few should, therefore, always + be left, and it should never be visited when she is in sight. + But she often contrives to elude all watching, and hatch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> a brood, frequently at a late period, when the weather is + too cold for the chickens. As the Guinea-fowl seldom + shows much disposition to incubate if kept under restraint, + and frequently sits too late in the season to rear a brood in + this country, it is a general practice to place her eggs + under a common fowl—Game and Bantams are the best + for the purpose. About twenty of the earliest eggs + should be set in May. The Guinea-hen will hatch another + brood when she feels inclined. They sit for twenty-six to + twenty-nine or thirty days. When she sits in due season + she generally rears a large brood, twenty not being an + unusual number.</p> +<p>The chickens are very tender, and should not be + hatched too early in spring, as a cold March wind is + generally fatal to them. They must be treated like those + of the turkey, and as carefully. They should be fed + almost immediately, within six hours of being hatched, + abundantly, and often; and they require more animal + food than other chickens. Egg boiled hard, chopped very + fine, and mixed with oatmeal, is the best food. They + will die if kept without food for three or four hours; + and should have a constant supply near them until they + are allowed to have full liberty and forage for themselves. + They will soon pick up insects, &c., and will keep themselves + in good condition with a little extra food. They + are very strong on their legs, and those hatched under + common hens may be allowed to range with her at the + end of six weeks, and be fed on the same food and at the + same times as other chickens.</p> +<p>The Guinea-fowl may be considered as somewhat intermediate + between the pheasant and turkey. After the pheasant + season, young birds that have been hatched the same year + are excellent substitutes for that fine game, and fetch a fair + price. They should never be fattened, but have a good + supply of grain and meal for a week or two before being + killed. The flesh of the young bird is very delicate, juicy, + and well-flavoured, but the old birds, even of the second + year, are dry, tough, and tasteless.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII.</h2> +<h3>DUCKS.</h3> +<p>Ducks will not pay if all their food has to be bought, + except it is purchased wholesale, and they are reared for + town markets, for their appetites are voracious, and they + do not graze like geese. They may be kept in a limited + space, but more profitably and conveniently where they + have the run of a paddock, orchard, kitchen garden, flat + common, green lane, or farmyard, with ditches and water. + They will return at night, and come to the call of the + feeder. Nothing comes amiss to them—green vegetables, + especially when boiled, all kinds of meal made into porridge, + all kinds of grain, bread, oatcake, the refuse and + offal of the kitchen, worms, slugs, snails, insects and their + larvæ, are devoured eagerly. Where many fowls are kept, + a few ducks may be added profitably, for they may be fed + very nearly on what the hens refuse.</p> +<p>Ducks require water to swim in, but "it is a mistake," + says Mr. Baily, "to imagine that ducks require a great + deal of water. They may be kept where there is but very + little, and only want a pond or tank just deep enough to + swim in. The early Aylesbury ducklings that realise such + large prices in the London market have hardly ever had a + swim; and in rearing ducks, where size is a desideratum, + they will grow faster and become larger when kept in pens, + farmyards, or in pastures, than where they are at and in + the water all day." Where a large number of geese and + ducks are kept, water on a sufficient scale, and easily + accessible, should be in the neighbourhood.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_165.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Toulouse Goose.<br /> + Rouen and Aylesbury Ducks. </span> </div> +<p>Ducks, being aquatic birds, do not require heated apartments, + nor roosts on which to perch during the night. + They squat on the floors, which must be dry and warm. + They should, if possible, be kept in a house separate from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> the other poultry, and it should have a brick floor, so that + it can be easily washed. In winter the floor should be + littered with a thin layer of straw, rushes, or fern leaves, + fresh every day. The hatching-houses should be separated + from the lodging apartments, and provided with boxes for + the purpose of incubation and hatching.</p> +<p>In its wild state the duck pairs with a single mate: the + domestic duck has become polygamous, and five ducks may + be allowed to one drake, but not more than two or three + ducks should be given to one drake if eggs are required + for setting.</p> +<p>Ducks begin laying in January, and usually from that + time only during the spring; but those hatched in March + will often lay in the autumn, and continue for two or three + months. They usually lay fifty or sixty eggs, and have + been known to produce 250. The faculty of laying might + be greatly developed, as it has been in some breeds of + fowls; but they have been hitherto chiefly bred for their + flesh. They require constant watching when beginning to lay, + for they drop their eggs everywhere but in the nest made for + them, but as they generally lay in the night, or early in the + morning, when in perfect health, they should therefore + be kept in every morning till they have laid. One of + the surest signs of indisposition among them is irregularity + in laying. "The eggs of the duck," says Mr. + Dickson, "are readily known from those of the common + fowl by their bluish colour and larger size, the shell being + smoother, not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When + boiled, the white is never curdy like that of a new-laid + hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, while the yolk is + much darker in colour. The flavour is by no means so + delicate. For omelets, however, as well as for puddings + and pastry, duck eggs are much better than hen's eggs, + giving a finer colour and flavour, and requiring less butter; + qualities so highly esteemed in Picardy, that the women + will sometimes go ten or twelve miles for duck eggs to + make their holiday cakes."</p> +<p>A hen is often made to hatch ducklings, being considered + a better nurse than a duck, which is apt to take them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> while too young to the pond, dragging them under beetling + banks in search of food, and generally leaving half of them + in the water unable to get out; and if the fly or the gnat + is on the water, she will stay there till after dark, and lose + part of her brood. Ducks' eggs may be advantageously + placed under a broody exhibition hen. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Page_88">page 88</a>.) A + turkey is much better than either, from the large expanse + of the wings in covering the broods, and the greater heat + of body; but if the duck is a good sitter, it is best to let + her hatch her own eggs, taking care to keep her and them + from the water till they are strong. The nest should be + on the ground, and in a damp place. Choose the freshest + eggs, and place from nine to eleven under her. Feed her + morning and evening while sitting, and place food and + water within her reach. The duck always covers her eggs + upon leaving them, and loose straw should be placed near + the house for that purpose.</p> +<p>They are hatched in thirty days. They may generally + be left with their mother upon the nest for her own time. + When she moves coop her on the short grass if fine + weather, or under shelter if otherwise, for a week or ten + days, when they may be allowed to swim for half an hour + at a time. When hatched they require constant feeding. + A little curd, bread-crumbs, and meal, mixed with chopped + green food, is the best food when first hatched. Boiled + cold oatmeal porridge is the best food for ducklings for the + first ten days; afterwards barley-meal, pollard, and oats, + with plenty of green food. Never give them hard spring + water to drink, but that from a pond. Ducklings are + easily reared, soon able to shift for themselves, and to pick + up worms, slugs, and insects, and can be cooped together + in numbers at night if protected from rats. An old pigsty + is an excellent place for a brood of young ducks.</p> +<p>Ducklings should not be allowed to go on the water till + feathers have supplied the place of their early down, for + the latter will get saturated with the water while the former + throws off the wet. "Though the young ducklings," says + Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "take early to the water, it is + better that they should gain a little strength before they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> be allowed to venture into ponds or rivers; a shallow + vessel of water filled to the brim and sunk in the ground + will suffice for the first week or ten days, and this rule is + more especially to be adhered to when they are under the + care of a common hen, which cannot follow them into the + pond, and the calls of which when there they pay little or + no regard to. Rats, weasels, pike, and eels are formidable + foes to ducklings: we have known entire broods destroyed + by the former, which, having their burrows in a steep bank + around a sequestered pond, it was found impossible to + extirpate." If the ducklings stay too long in the water + they will have diarrhœa, in which case coop them close for + a few days, and mix bean-meal or oatmeal with their + ordinary food.</p> +<p>A troop of ducks will do good service to a kitchen + garden in the summer or autumn, when they can do no + mischief by devouring delicate salads and young sprouting + vegetables. They will search industriously for snails, + slugs, woodlice, and millipedes, and gobble them up + eagerly, getting positively fat on slugs and snails. Strawberries, + of which they are very fond, must be protected + from them. Where steamed food is daily prepared for + pigs and cattle, a portion of this mixed with bran and + barley-meal is the cheapest mode of satisfying their + voracious appetites. They should never be stinted in + food.</p> +<p>To fatten ducks let them have as much substantial food + as they will eat, bruised oats and pea-meal being the + standard, plenty of exercise, and clean water. Boiled + roots mixed with a little barley-meal is excellent food, + with a little milk added during fattening. They require + neither penning up nor cramming to acquire plumpness, + and if well fed should be fit for market in eight or ten + weeks. Celery imparts a delicious flavour.</p> +<p>The Aylesbury is the finest breed, and should be of a + spotless white, with long, flat, broad beak of a pale flesh + colour, grey eyes, long head and neck, broad and flat body + and breast, and orange legs, placed wide apart. As it + lays early, its ducklings are the earliest ready for market.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> They have produced 150 large eggs in a year, and are + better sitters than the Rouen.</p> +<p>The Rouen is hardy and easily reared, but rarely lay till + February or March. They thrive better in most parts of + England than the Aylesburys, and care less for the water + than the other varieties. They are very handsome, and + weigh eight or nine pounds each, and their flesh is + excellent.</p> +<p>The Muscovy duck is so called, says Ray, "not because + it comes from Muscovy, but because it exhales a somewhat + powerful odour of musk." Little is known of its origin, + which is generally thought to be South America; nor has + the date of its introduction into Europe been ascertained. + "This species," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "will inter-breed + with the common duck, but we believe the progeny + are not fertile. The Musk duck greatly exceeds the + ordinary kind in size, and moreover, differs in the colours + and character of the plumage, in general contour, and the + form of the head. The general colour is glossy blue-black, + varied more or less with white; the head is crested, + and a space of naked scarlet skin, more or less clouded + with violet, surrounds the eye, continued from scarlet caruncles + on the base of the beak; the top of the head is + crested, the feathers of the body are larger, more lax, + softer, and less closely compacted together than in the + common duck, and seem to indicate less aquatic habits. + The male far surpasses the female in size; there are no + curled feathers in his tail." The male is fierce and quarrelsome, + and when enraged has a savage appearance, and + utters deep, hoarse sounds. The flesh is very good, but + the breed is inferior as a layer to the Aylesbury or Rouen.</p> +<p>The Buenos Ayres, Labrador, or East Indian, brought + most probably from the first-named country, is a small + and very beautiful variety, with the plumage of a uniform + rich, lustrous, greenish-black, and dark legs and bills; the + drake rarely weighing five pounds, and the duck four + pounds. Their eggs are often smeared over with a slatey-coloured + matter, but the shell is really of a dull white.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII.</h2> +<h3>GEESE.</h3> +<p>Geese require much the same management as ducks. + They may be kept profitably where there is a rough + pasture or common into which they may be turned, and + the pasturage is not rendered bare by sheep, as is generally + the case; but even when the pasturage is good, a supply + of oats, barley, or other grain should be allowed every + morning and evening. Where the pasturage is poor or + bad, the old geese become thin and weak, and the young + broods never thrive and often die unless fully fed at home. A + goose-house for four should not be less than eight feet long + by six feet wide and six or seven feet high, with a smooth + floor of brick. A little clean straw should be spread over + it every other day, after removing that previously used, + and washing the floor. Each goose should have a compartment + two feet and a half square for laying and sitting, + as she will always lay where she deposited her first egg. + The house must be well ventilated. All damp must be + avoided. A pigsty makes a capital pen. Although a + pond is an advantage, they do not require more than a + large trough or tank to bathe in.</p> +<p>For breeding not more than four geese should be kept to + one gander. Their breeding powers continue to more than + twenty years old. It is often difficult to distinguish the + sexes, no one sign being infallible except close examination. + The goose lays early in a mild spring, or in an ordinary + season, if fed high throughout the winter with corn, and on + the commencement of the breeding season on boiled barley, + malt, fresh grains, and fine pollard mixed up with ale, or + other stimulants; by which two broods may be obtained in + a year. The common goose lays from nine to seventeen + eggs, usually about thirteen, and generally carries straws<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> about previously to laying. Thirteen eggs are quite enough + for the largest goose to sit on. They sit from thirty to + thirty-five days. March or early April is the best period + for hatching, and the geese should therefore begin to sit in + February or early March; for goslings hatched at any + time after April are difficult to rear. Food and water + should be placed near to her, for she sits closely. She + ought to leave her nest daily and take a bath in a neighbouring + pond. The gander is very attentive, and sits by + her, and is vigilant and daring in her defence. When her + eggs are placed under a common hen they should be + sprinkled with water daily or every other day, for the + moisture of the goose's breast is beneficial to them. (See <a href="#Page_50">page 50</a>.) A turkey is an excellent mother for goslings.</p> +<p>She should be cooped for a few days on a dry grass-plot + or meadow, with grain and water by her, of which the + goslings will eat; and they should also be supplied with + chopped cabbage or beet leaves, or other green food. They + must have a dry bed under cover and be protected from + rats. Their only dangers are heavy rains, damp floors, + and vermin; and they require but little care for the first + fortnight; while the old birds are singularly free from + maladies of all kinds common to poultry. When a fortnight + old they may be allowed to go abroad with their + mother and frequent the pond. "It has been formerly + recommended," says Mowbray, "to keep the newly-hatched + gulls in house during a week, lest they get cramp from + the damp earth; but we did not find this indoor confinement + necessary; penning the goose and her brood between + four hurdles upon a piece of dry grass well sheltered, + putting them out late in the morning, or not at all in + severe weather, and ever taking them in early in the evening. + Sometimes we have pitched double the number of + hurdles, for the convenience of two broods, there being no + quarrels among this sociable and harmless part of the + feathered race. We did not even find it necessary to interpose + a parting hurdle, which, on occasion, may be always + conveniently done. For the first range a convenient field + containing water is to be preferred to an extensive common,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> over which the gulls or goslings are dragged by the goose, + until they become cramped or tired, some of them squatting + down and remaining behind at evening." All the hemlock + or deadly nightshade within range should be destroyed. + When the corn is garnered the young geese may be turned + into the stubble which they will thoroughly glean, and + many of them will be in fine condition by Michaelmas. + Green geese are young geese fattened at about the age of + four months, usually on oatmeal and peas, mixed with + skim-milk or butter-milk, or upon oats or other grain, and + are very delicate. In fattening geese for Christmas give + oats mixed with water for the first fortnight, and afterwards + barley-meal made into a crumbling porridge. They + should be allowed to bathe for a few hours before being + killed, for they are then plucked more easily and the + feathers are in better condition. Their feathers, down, + and quills are very valuable.</p> +<p>Geese are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, + as well as young trees, and must therefore be carefully + kept out of orchards and plantations. Their dung, though + acrid and apt to injure at first, will, when it is mellowed, + much enrich the ground.</p> +<p>The Toulouse or Grey Goose is very large, of uniform + grey plumage, with long neck, having a kind of dewlap + under the throat; the abdominal pouch very much developed, + almost touching the ground; short legs; flat feet; + short, broad tail; and very upright carriage, almost like a + penguin. The Toulouse lays a large number of eggs, sometimes + as many as thirty, and even more, but rarely wishes + to sit, and is a very bad mother.</p> +<p>The Emden or pure White is very scarce. The bill is + flesh-colour, and the legs and feet orange. They require a + pond. The Toulouse, crossed with the large white or dark-coloured + common breed, produces greater weight than + either, and the objection to the former as indifferent sitters + and mothers is avoided; but is not desirable for breeding + stock, and must have a pond like the White.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV.</h2> +<h3>DISEASES.</h3> +<p>It is more economical to kill at once rather than attempt to cure common + fowls showing symptoms of any troublesome disease, and so save trouble, + loss of their carcases, and the risk of infection. But if the fowls are + favourites, or valuable, it may be desirable to use every means of cure.</p> +<p>See to a sick fowl at once; prompt attention may prevent serious illness, + and loss of the bird. When a fowl's plumage is seen to be bristled up and + disordered, and its wings hanging or dragging, it should be at once removed + from the others, and looked to. Pale and livid combs are as certain a sign + of bad health in fowls, as the paleness or lividness of the lips is in human + beings. Every large establishment should have a warm, properly ventilated, + and well-lighted house, comfortably littered down with clean straw, + to be used as a hospital, and every fowl should be removed to it upon + showing any symptoms of illness, even if the disease is not infectious, for + sick fowls are often pecked at, ill treated, and disliked by their healthy + companions. Bear in mind that prevention is better than cure, and that + proper management and housing, good feeding, pure water and greens, + cleanliness and exercise, will prevent all, or nearly all, these diseases.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Apoplexy</span> arises from over-feeding, and can seldom be treated in time to + be of service. The only remedy is bleeding, by opening the large vein + under the wing, and pouring cold water on the head for a few minutes. + Open the vein with a lancet, or if that is not at hand, with a sharp-pointed + penknife; make the incision lengthways, not across, and press the + vein with your thumb between the opening and the body, when the blood + will flow. If the fowl should recover, feed it on soft, low food for a few + days, and keep it quiet. It occurs most often in laying hens, which frequently + die on the nest while ejecting the egg; and is frequently caused by + too much of very stimulating food, such as hempseed, or improper diet of + greaves, and also by giving too much pea or bean meal.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Hard Crop</span>, or being <span class="smcap">Crop-Bound</span>, is caused by too much food, especially + of hard grain, being taken into the crop, so that it cannot be softened + by maceration, and is therefore unable to be passed into the stomach. + Although the bird has thus too large a supply of food in its crop, the + stomach becomes empty, and the fowl eats still more food. Sometimes a + fowl swallows a bone that is too large to pass into the stomach, and being + kept in the crop forms a kernel, around which fibrous and other hard material + collects. Mr. Baily says: "Pour plenty of warm water down the throat, + and loosen the food till it is soft. Then give a tablespoonful of castor-oil, + or about as much jalap as will lie on a shilling, mixed in butter; make a + pill of it, and slide it into the crop. The fowl will be well in the morning. + If the crop still remain hard after this, an operation is the only remedy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> The feathers should be picked off the crop in a straight line down the + middle. Generally speaking, the crop will be found full of grass or hay, + that has formed a ball or some inconveniently-shaped substance. (I once + took a piece of carrot three inches long out of a crop.) When the offence + has been removed, the crop should be washed out with warm water. It + should then be sewn up with coarse thread, and the suture rubbed with + grease. Afterwards the outer skin should be served the same. The crop + and skin must not be sewed together. For three or four days the patient + should have only gruel; no hard food for a fortnight." The slit should be + made in the upper part of the crop, and just large enough to admit a blunt + instrument, with which you must gently remove the hardened mass.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Diarrhœa</span> is caused by exposure to much cold and wet, reaction after + constipation from having had too little green food, unwholesome food, and + dirt. Feed on warm barley-meal, or oatmeal mashed with a little warm + ale, and some but not very much green food, and give five grains of powdered + chalk, one grain of opium, and one grain of powdered ipecacuanha + twice a day till the looseness is checked. Boiled rice, with a little chalk + and cayenne pepper mixed, will also check the complaint. When the evacuations + are coloured with blood, the diarrhœa has become dysentery, and + cure is very doubtful.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Gapes</span>, a frequent yawning or gaping, is caused by worms in the windpipe, + which may be removed by introducing a feather, stripped to within an + inch of the point, into the windpipe, turning it round quickly, and then + drawing it out, when the parasites will be found adhering with slime upon + it; but if this be not quickly and skilfully done, and with some knowledge + of the anatomy of the parts touched, the bird may be killed instead of + cured. Another remedy is to put the fowl into a box, placing in it at the + same time a sponge dipped in spirits of turpentine on a hot water plate filled + with boiling water, and repeating this for three or four days. Some persons + recommend, as a certain cure in a few days, half a teaspoonful of spirits of + turpentine mixed with a handful of grain, giving that quantity to two dozen + of chickens each day. A pinch of salt put as far back into the mouth as possible + is also said to be effectual.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Leg_Weakness">Leg Weakness</a></span>, shown by the bird resting on the first joint, is generally + caused by the size and weight of the body being too great for the strength + of the legs; and this being entirely the result of weakness, the remedy is to + give strength by tonics and more nourishing food. The quality should be + improved, but the quantity must not be increased, as the disease has been + caused by over-feeding having produced too much weight for the strength + of the legs. Frequent bathing in cold water is very beneficial. This is + best effected by tying a towel round the fowl, and suspending it over a pail + of water, with the legs only immersed.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Loss of Feathers</span> is almost always caused by want of green food, or dust-heap + for cleansing. Let the fowls have both, and remove them to a grass + run if possible. But nothing will restore the feathers till the next moult. + Fowls, when too closely housed or not well supplied with green food and + lime, sometimes eat each other's feathers, destroying the plumage till the + next moult. In such cases green food and mortar rubbish should be supplied, + exercise allowed, the injured fowl should be removed to a separate + place, and the pecked parts rubbed over with sulphur ointment. Cut or + broken feathers should be pulled out at once.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Pip</span>, a dry scale on the tongue, is not a disease, but the symptom of some + disease, being only analogous to "a foul tongue" in human beings. Do not + scrape the tongue, nor cut off the tip, but cure the roup, diarrhœa, bad + digestion, gapes, or whatever the disease may be, and the pip will disappear.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Roup</span> is caused by exposure to excessive wet or very cold winds. It + begins with a slight hoarseness and catching of the breath as if from cold, + and terminates in an offensive discharge from the nostrils, froth in the + corners of the eyes, and swollen lids. It is very contagious. Separate the + fowl from the others, keep it warm, add some "Douglass Mixture" (see + "<a href="#Moulting.">Moulting</a>") to its water daily, wash its head once or twice daily with tepid + water, feed it with meal, only mixed with hot ale instead of water, and + plenty of green food. Mr. Wright advises half a grain of cayenne pepper + with half a grain of powdered allspice in a bolus of the meal, or one of Baily's roup pills to be given daily. Mr. Tegetmeier recommends one grain + of sulphate of copper daily. Another advises a spoonful of castor-oil at + once, and a few hours afterwards one of Baily's roup pills, and to take the + scale off the tongue, which can easily be done by holding the beak open with + your left hand, and removing the scale with the thumbnail of your right + hand; with a pill every morning for a week. If not almost well in a week + it will be better to kill it.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">The Thrush</span> may be cured by washing the tongue and mouth with borax + dissolved in tincture of myrrh and water.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Paralysis</span> generally affects the legs and renders the fowl unable to move. + It is chiefly caused by over-stimulating food. There is no known remedy + for this disease, and the fowl seldom if ever recovers. Although chiefly + affecting the legs of fowls, it is quite a different disease from <span class="smcap"> <a href="#Leg_Weakness">Leg + Weakness</a></span>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Vertigo</span> results from too great a flow of blood to the head, and is generally + caused by over-feeding. Pouring cold water upon the fowl's head, or + holding it under a tap for a few minutes, will check this complaint, and the + bird should then be purged by a dose of castor-oil or six grains of jalap.</p> +<h3><a name="Moulting." id="Moulting."><span class="smcap">Moulting</span>.</a></h3> +<p>All birds, but especially old fowls, require more warmth and more + nourishing diet during this drain upon their system, and should roost in a + warm, sheltered, and properly-ventilated house, free from all draught. Do + not let them out early in the morning, if the weather is chilly, but feed them + under cover, and give them every morning warm, soft food, such as bread + and ale, oatmeal and milk, potatoes mashed up in pot-liquor, with a little + pepper and a little boiled meat, as liver, &c., cut small, and a little hempseed + with their grain at night. Give them in their water some iron or + "Douglass Mixture," which consists of one ounce of sulphate of iron and + one drachm of sulphuric acid dissolved in one quart of water; a teaspoonful + of the mixture is to be added to each pint of drinking water. This + chalybeate is an excellent tonic for weakly young chickens, and young birds + that are disposed to outgrow their strength. It increases their appetite, + improves the health, imparts strength, brightens the colour of the comb, + and increases the stamina of the birds. When chickens droop and seem to + suffer as the feathers on the head grow, give them once a day meat minced + fine and a little canary-seed.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h2> +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Piper on Poultry: their Varieties, Management, Breeding, and + Diseases; Price 1s. Groombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row, + London.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The Practical Poultry Keeper. By Mr. L. Wright. Cassell, Petter & Galpin.</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<div class="transnote"> + <h2>Transcriber's Note. </h2> + <div class="c7">Hyphenation has been standardised.</div> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Poultry, by Hugh Piper + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POULTRY *** + +***** This file should be named 38606-h.htm or 38606-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/6/0/38606/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Poultry + A Practical Guide to the Choice, Breeding, Rearing, and + Management of all Descriptions of Fowls, Turkeys, + Guinea-fowls, Ducks, and Geese, for Profit and Exhibition. + +Author: Hugh Piper + +Release Date: January 18, 2012 [EBook #38606] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POULTRY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + Transcriber's Note. + + Hyphenation has been standardised. + + ================================== + +[Illustration: White Dorking Cock. Coloured Dorkings. Duck-winged and +Black-breasted Red Game.] + + + + + POULTRY + + A + + Practical Guide + + TO THE + + CHOICE, BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT + + OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF + + FOWLS, TURKEYS, GUINEA-FOWLS, + DUCKS, AND GEESE, + + FOR + + PROFIT AND EXHIBITION. + + BY + + HUGH PIPER, + + AUTHOR OF "PIGEONS: THEIR VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, BREEDING, + AND DISEASES." + + ILLUSTRATED WITH EIGHT COLOURED PLATES. + + Fourth Edition. + + LONDON: + GROOMBRIDGE & SONS. + + MDCCCLXXVII. + + + LONDON: + BARRETT, SONS AND CO., PRINTERS, + SEETHING LANE. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +This work is intended as a practical guide to those about to commence +Poultry keeping, and to provide those who already have experience on the +subject with the most trustworthy information compiled from the best +authorities of all ages, and the most recent improvements in Poultry +Breeding and Management. The Author believes that he has presented his +readers with a greater amount of valuable information and practical +directions on the various points treated than will be found in most +similar works. The book is not the result of the Author's own experience +solely, and he acknowledges the assistance he has received from other +authorities. Among those whom he has consulted he desires specially to +acknowledge his obligations to Mr. Tegetmeier, whose "Poultry Book" +(published by Messrs. Routledge & Sons, London) contains his especial +knowledge of the Diseases of Poultry; and to Mr. L. Wright, whose +excellent and practical Treatise, entitled "The Practical Poultry +Keeper" (published by Messrs. Cassell, Petter & Galpin, London), cannot +be too highly commended. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +GENERAL MANAGEMENT. + + PAGE + CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTION 1 + + Neglect of Poultry-breeding--Profit of Poultry-keeping--Value to the + Farmer--Poultry Shows--Cottage Poultry. + + CHAPTER II.--THE FOWL-HOUSE 6 + + Size of the House--Brick and Wood--Cheap Houses--The + Roof--Ventilation--Light--Warmth--The Flooring--Perches--Movable + Frame--Roosts for Cochin-Chinas and Brahma-Pootras--Nests for + laying--Cleanliness--Fowls' Dung--Doors and + Entrance-holes--Lime-washing--Fumigating--Raising Chickens under + Glass. + + CHAPTER III.--THE FOWL-YARD 18 + + Soil--Situation--Covered Run--Pulverised Earth for deodorising--Diet + for confined Fowls--Height of Wall, &c.--Preventing Fowls from + flying--The Dust-heap--Material for Shells--Gravel--The Gizzard--The + Grass Run. + + CHAPTER IV.--FOOD 27 + + Table of relative constituents and qualities of + Food--Barley--Wheat--Oats--Meal--Refuse Corn--Boiling Grain--Indian + Corn, or Maize--Buckwheat--Peas, Beans and + Tares--Rice--Hempseed--Linseed--Potatoes--Roots--Soft Food--Variety + of Food--Quantity--Mode of Feeding--Number of Meals--Grass and + Vegetables--Insects--Worms--Snails and Slugs--Animal + Food--Water--Fountains. + + CHAPTER V.--EGGS 40 + + Eggs all the Year round--Warmth essential to laying--Forcing + Eggs--Soft Shells--Shape and Colour of Eggs--The Air-bag--Preserving + Eggs--Keeping and Choosing Eggs for setting--Sex of Eggs--Packing + Setting-eggs for travelling. + + CHAPTER VI.--THE SITTING HEN 48 + + Evil of restraining a Hen from sitting--Checking the Desire--A + separate House and Run--Nests for sitting in--Damping Eggs--Filling + for Nests--Choosing their own Nests--Choosing a Hen for + sitting--Number and Age of Eggs--Food and Exercise--Absence from the + Nest--Examining the Eggs--Setting two Hens on the same day--Time of + Incubation--The "tapping" sound--Breaking the Shell--Emerging from + the Shell--Assisting the Chicken--Artificial Mothers--Artificial + Incubation. + + CHAPTER VII.--REARING AND FATTENING FOWLS 63 + + The Chicken's first Food--Cooping the Brood--Basket and + Wooden Coops--Feeding Chickens--Age for Fattening--Barn-door + Fattening--Fattening-Houses--Fattening-Coops--Food--"Cramming"-- + Capons and Poulardes--Killing Poultry--Plucking and packing + Fowls--Preserving Feathers. + + CHAPTER VIII.--STOCK, BREEDING, AND CROSSING 75 + + Well-bred Fowls--Choice of Breed--Signs of Age--Breeding + in-and-in--Number of Hens to one Cock--Choice of a Cock--To prevent + Cocks from fighting--Choice of a Hen--Improved Breeds--Origin of + Breeds--Crossing--Choice of Breeding Stock--Keeping a Breed pure. + + CHAPTER IX.--POULTRY SHOWS 83 + + The first Show--The first Birmingham Show--Influence of + Shows--Exhibition Rules--Hatching for Summer and Winter + Shows--Weight--Exhibition Fowls sitting--Matching Fowls--Imparting + lustre to the Plumage--Washing Fowls--Hampers--Travelling--Treatment + on Return--Washing the Hampers and Linings--Exhibition + Points--Technical Terms. + + +BREEDS. + + CHAPTER X.--COCHIN-CHINAS, OR SHANGHAES 93 + + CHAPTER XI.--BRAHMA-POOTRAS 101 + + CHAPTER XII.--MALAYS 105 + + CHAPTER XIII.--GAME 108 + + CHAPTER XIV.--DORKINGS 112 + + CHAPTER XV.--SPANISH 115 + + CHAPTER XVI.--HAMBURGS 118 + + CHAPTER XVII.--POLANDS 121 + + CHAPTER XVIII.--BANTAMS 124 + + CHAPTER XIX.--FRENCH AND VARIOUS 128 + + CHAPTER XX.--TURKEYS 132 + + CHAPTER XXI.--GUINEA-FOWLS 139 + + CHAPTER XXII.--DUCKS 142 + + CHAPTER XXIII.--GEESE 147 + + CHAPTER XXIV.--DISEASES 150 + + + + +LIST OF PLATES. + + + PAGE + PLATE I.--Facing the Title-page. + + White Dorking Cock--Coloured Dorkings--Duck-winged and + Black-breasted Red Game. + + PLATE II. 93 + + White and Buff Cochin-China--Malay Cock--Light and Dark + Brahma-Pootras. + + PLATE III. 115 + + Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs--Black + Spanish. + + PLATE IV. 121 + + White-crested Black Polish--Golden and Silver-spangled + Polish. + + PLATE V. 124 + + White and Black Bantams--Gold and Silver-laced or Sebright + Bantams--Game Bantams. + + PLATE VI. 128 + + French: Houdans--La Fleche Cock--Creve-Coeur Hen. + + PLATE VII. 132 + + Turkey--Guinea-Fowls. + + PLATE VIII. 142 + + Toulouse Goose--Rouen Ducks--Aylesbury Ducks. + + + + +PROFITABLE AND ORNAMENTAL POULTRY. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Until of late years the breeding of poultry has been almost generally +neglected in Great Britain. Any kind of mongrel fowl would do for a +farmer's stock, although he fully appreciated the importance of breeding +in respect of his cattle and pigs, and the value of improved seeds. Had +he thought at all upon the subject, it must have occurred to him that +poultry might be improved by breeding from select specimens as much as +any other kind of live stock. The French produce a very much greater +number of fowls and far finer ones for market than we do. In France, +Bonington Mowbray observes, "poultry forms an important part of the live +stock of the farmer, and the poultry-yards supply more animal food to +the great mass of the community than the butchers' shops"; while in +Egypt, and some other countries of the East, from time immemorial, vast +numbers of chickens have been hatched in ovens by artificial heat to +supply the demand for poultry; but in Great Britain poultry-keeping has +been generally neglected, eggs are dear, and all kinds of poultry so +great a luxury that the lower classes and a large number of the middle +seldom, if ever, taste it, except perhaps once a year in the form of a +Christmas goose, while hundreds of thousands cannot afford even this. It +is computed that a million of eggs are eaten daily in London and its +suburbs alone; yet this vast number only gives one egg to every three +mouths. "It is a national waste," says Mr. Edwards, "importing eggs by +the hundreds of millions, and poultry by tens of thousands, when we are +feeding our cattle upon corn, and grudging it to our poultry; although +the return made from the former, it is generally admitted, is not five +per cent. beyond the value of the corn consumed, whereas an immense +percentage can be realised by feeding poultry." A writer in the _Times_, +of February 1, 1853, states that, while it will take five years to +fatten an ox to the weight of sixty stone, which will produce a profit +of L30, the same sum may be realised in five months by feeding an equal +weight of poultry for the table. + +Although fowls are so commonly kept, the proportion to the population is +still very small, and the number of those who rear and manage them +profitably still smaller, chiefly because most people keep them without +system or order, and have not given the slightest attention to the +subject. Nevertheless, it costs no more trouble and much less expense to +keep fowls successfully and profitably, for neglected fowls are always +falling sick, or getting into mischief and causing annoyance, and often +expense and loss. "A man," says Mr. Edwards, "who expects a good return +of flesh and eggs from fowls insufficiently fed and cared for, is like a +miller expecting to get meal from a neglected mill, to which he does not +supply grain." + +The antiquated idea that fowls on a farm did mischief to the crops has +been proved to be false; for if the grain is sown as deeply as it should +be, they cannot reach it by scratching; and, besides, they greatly +prefer worms and insects. Mr. Mechi says, "commend me to poultry as the +farmer's best friend," and considers the value of fowls, in destroying +the vast number of worms, grubs, flies, beetles, insects, larvae, &c., +which they devour, as incalculable; and the same may be said as to their +destruction of the seeds of weeds. They also consume large quantities of +kitchen and table refuse, which is generally otherwise wasted, and often +allowed to decay and become a source of disease, or at least of +impurity. + +The enormous prices paid at the poultry shows of 1852 and 1853 for fancy +fowls gave a new impulse to poultry-keeping; and many persons who +formerly thought the management of poultry beneath their attention, now +superintend their yards. Mrs. Ferguson Blair, now the Hon. Mrs. +Arbuthnot, the authoress of the "Henwife," whose experience may be +judged by the fact that she gained in four years upwards of 460 prizes +in England and Scotland, and personally superintended the management of +forty separate yards, in which above 1,000 chickens were hatched +annually, says:-- + +"I began to breed poultry for amusement only, then for exhibition, and +lastly, was glad to take the trouble to make it pay, and do not like my +poultry-yard less because it is not a loss. It is impossible to imagine +any occupation more suited to a lady, living in the country, than that +of poultry rearing. If she has any superfluous affection to bestow, let +it be on her chicken-kind and it will be returned cent. per cent. Are +you a lover of nature? come with me and view, with delighted gaze, her +chosen dyes. Are you a utilitarian? rejoice in such an increase of the +people's food. Are you a philanthropist? be grateful that yours has been +the privilege to afford a _possible_ pleasure to the poor man, to whom +so many are _impossible_. Such we often find fond of poultry--no mean +judges of it, and frequently successful in exhibition. A poor man's +pleasure in victory is, at least, as great as that of his richer +brother. Let him, then, have the field whereon to fight for it. +Encourage village poultry-shows, not only by your patronage, but also by +your presence. A taste for such may save many from dissipation and much +evil; no man can win poultry honours and haunt the taproom too." + +For those who desire to encourage a taste for poultry keeping in young +people, and their humbler neighbours, we would recommend our smaller +work on the subject as a suitable present.[1] + +"It becomes," says Miss Harriet Martineau, "an interesting wonder every +year why the rural cottagers of the United Kingdom do not rear fowls +almost universally, seeing how little the cost would be and how great +the demand. We import many millions of eggs annually. Why should we +import any? Wherever there is a cottage family living on potatoes or +better fare, and grass growing anywhere near them, it would be worth +while to nail up a little penthouse, and make nests of clean straw, and +go in for a speculation in eggs and chickens. Seeds, worms, and insects +go a great way in feeding poultry in such places; and then there are the +small and refuse potatoes from the heap, and the outside cabbage leaves, +and the scraps of all sorts. Very small purchases of broken rice (which +is extremely cheap), inferior grain, and mixed meal, would do all else +that is necessary. There would be probably larger losses from vermin +than in better guarded places; but these could be well afforded as a +mere deduction from considerable gains. It is understood that the +keeping of poultry is largely on the increase in the country generally, +and even among cottagers; but the prevailing idea is of competition as +to races and specimens for the poultry-yard, rather than of meeting the +demand for eggs and fowls for the table." + +With the exception of prizes for Dorkings, which are chiefly bred for +market, our poultry-shows have always looked upon fowls as if they were +merely ornamental birds, and have framed their standards of excellence +accordingly, and not with any regard to the production of profitable +poultry, which is much to be regretted. + +Martin Doyle, the cottage economist of Ireland, in his "Hints to Small +Holders," observes that "a few cocks and hens, if they be prevented from +scratching in the garden, are a useful and appropriate stock about a +cottage, the warmth of which causes them to lay eggs in winter--no +trifling advantage to the children when milk is scarce. The French, who +are extremely fond of eggs, and contrive to have them in great +abundance, feed the fowls so well on curds and buckwheat, and keep them +so warm, that they have plenty of eggs even in winter. Now, in our +country (Ireland), especially in a gentleman's fowl yard, there is not +an egg to be had in cold weather; but the warmth of the poor man's cabin +insures him an egg even in the most ungenial season." + +Such fowls obtain fresh air, fresh grass, and fresh ground to scratch +in, and prosper in spite of the most miserable, puny, mongrel stock, +deteriorating year after year from breeding in and in, without the +introduction of fresh blood even of the same indifferent description. +Many an honest cottager might keep himself and family from the parish by +the aid of a small stock of poultry, if some kind poultry-keeper would +present him with two or three good fowls to begin with, for the cottager +has seldom capital even for so small a purchase. + +Considerable profit may be made by the sale of eggs for hatching and +surplus stock, if the breeds kept are good, and the stock known to be +pure and vigorous. The "Henwife" says: "You may reduce your expenses by +selling eggs for setting, at a remunerative price. No one should be +ashamed to own what he is not ashamed to do; therefore, boldly announce +your superfluous eggs for sale, at such a price as you think the public +will pay for them." This is now done extensively by breeders of rank and +eminence, especially through the London _Field_ and agricultural papers. +But, "beware of sending such eggs to market. Every one would be set, and +you might find yourself beaten by your own stock, very likely in your +own local show, and at small cost to the exhibitor." + +The great secret of success in keeping fowls profitably is to hatch +chiefly in March and April; encourage the pullets by proper feeding to +lay at the age of six months; and fatten and dispose of them when about +nineteen months old, just before their first adult moult; and never to +allow a cockerel to exceed the age of fourteen weeks before it is +fattened and disposed of. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE FOWL-HOUSE. + + +In this work we shall consider the accommodation and requisites for +keeping fowls successfully on a moderate scale, and the reader must +adapt them to his own premises, circumstances, and requirements. +Everywhere there must be some alterations, omissions, or compromises. We +shall state the essentials for their proper accommodation, and describe +the mode of constructing houses, sheds, and arranging runs, and the +reader must then form his plan according to his own wishes, resources, +and the capabilities of the place. The climate of Great Britain being so +very variable in itself, and differing in its temperature so much in +different parts, no one manner or material for building the fowl-house +can be recommended for all cases. + +Plans for poultry establishments on large scales for the hatching, +rearing, and fattening of fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese, are given in +our smaller work on Poultry, referred to on page 3. + +The best aspects for the fowl-house are south and south-east, and +sloping ground is preferable to flat. + +"It is only of late years," says Mr. Baily, "poultry-houses have been +much thought of. In large farmyards, where there are cart-houses, +calf-pens, pig-styes, cattle-sheds, shelter under the eaves of barns, +and numerous other roosting-places, not omitting the trees in the +immediate vicinity, they are little required--fowls will generally do +better by choosing for themselves; and it is beyond a doubt healthier +for them to be spread about in this manner, than to be confined to one +place. But a love of order, on the one hand, and a dread of thieves or +foxes on the other, will sometimes make it desirable to have a proper +poultry-house." + +Each family of fowls should, if possible, have a house and run; and if +they are kept as breeding stock, and the breeds are to be preserved +pure, this is essential. And where many kinds are kept, the various +houses must be adapted to the peculiarities of the different breeds, in +order to do justice to them all, and to attain success in each. + +The size of the house and the extent of the yard or run should be +proportioned to the number of fowls kept; but it is better for the house +to be too small than too large, particularly in winter, for the mutual +imparting of animal heat. It is found by experience that when fowls are +crowded into a small space, their desire for laying continues even in +winter; and there is no fear of engendering disease by crowding if the +house is properly ventilated, and thoroughly cleansed every day. Mr. +Baily kept for years a cock and four hens in a portable wooden house six +feet square, and six feet high in the centre, the sides being somewhat +shorter, and says such a house would hold six hens as well as four. +Ventilating holes were made near the top. It had no floor, being placed +upon the ground, and could be moved at pleasure by means of two poles +placed through two staples fixed at the end of each side. A few +Cochin-Chinas may be kept where there is no other convenience than an +outhouse six feet square to serve for their roosting, laying, and +sitting, with a yard of twice that size attached. Mr. Wright "once knew +a young man who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his own +construction, not more than three feet square, and a run of the same +width, under twelve feet long." The French breeders keep their fowls in +as small a space as possible, in order to generate and preserve the +warmth that will induce them to lay; while the English breeders allow +more space for exercise, larger houses, and free circulation of air. The +French mode, is very likely the best for the winter and the English for +the summer, but the two opposite methods may be made available by having +one or more extra houses and runs into which the fowls can be +distributed in the summer. A close, warm roosting-place will cause the +production of more eggs in winter, when they are scarcest and most +valuable, while air and exercise are necessary to rear superior fowls +for the table; and if they can have the run of a farmyard or good fields +in which to pick up grain or insects, their flesh will be far superior +in flavour to that of fowls kept in confinement, or crammed in coops. + +Almost any outbuilding, shed, or lean-to, may be easily and cheaply +converted into a good fowl-house by the exercise of a little thought and +ingenuity. + +The best material to build a house with is brick, but the cheapest to be +durable is board, with the roof also of wood, covered with patent felt. +One objection to timber houses is their being combustible, and easily +ignited, and houses had better be built of a single brick in thickness, +unless cheapness is a great object. + +A lean-to fowl-house may be constructed for a very small sum, with +boards an inch thick, against the west or south side of any wall. +Whenever wood is employed it should be tongued, which is a very cheap +method of providing against warping by heat, or admitting wind or rain; +lying flat against the uprights, it saves material and has an external +appearance far superior to any other method of boarding. If the second +coat of paint is rough cast over with sand, it will greatly improve the +appearance, and the house will not be unsightly even in the ornamental +part of a gentleman's grounds. + +A house may be built very cheaply by driving poles into the ground at +equal distances, and nailing weather-boarding upon their outside. If it +is to be square, one pole should be placed at each corner, and two more +will be required for the door-posts. The house may be made with five, +six, or more sides, as many poles being used as there are sides, and the +door may occupy one side if the house be small and the side narrow, +otherwise two door-posts will be required. If the boards are not tongued +together, the chinks between them must be well caulked by driving in +string or tow with a blunt chisel, for it is not only necessary to keep +out the rain but also to keep out the wind, which has great influence on +the health and laying of the fowls. + +Where double boarding is employed for the sides, the house may be made +much warmer by filling up the space with straw, or still better with +marsh reeds, so durable for thatching. This plan, unfortunately, affords +a shelter for rats, mice, and insects, and therefore, if adopted, it +will be highly advantageous to form the inside boarding in panels, so as +to be removable at pleasure for examination and cleansing. + +For the roof, tiles or slates alone are not sufficient, but, if used, +must have a boarding or ceiling under them; otherwise all the heat +generated by the fowls will escape through the numerous interstices, and +it will be next to impossible to keep the house warm in winter. A +corrugated roof of galvanised iron may be used instead, but a ceiling +also will be absolutely necessary for the sake of warmth. A rough +ceiling of lath and plaster not only preserves the warmth generated by +the fowls and keeps out the cold, but has the great advantage of being +easily lime-washed, an operation that should be performed at least four +or five times a year. Boards alone make a very good and cheap roof. They +may be laid either horizontally, one plank overlapping the other, and +the whole well tarred two or three times, and once every autumn +afterwards; or they may be laid perpendicularly side by side, fitting +closely, in which case they should be well tarred, then covered with old +sheeting, waste calico, or thick brown paper tightly stretched over it, +and afterwards brushed over with hot tar, or a mixture of tar boiled +with a little lime, and applied while hot; this, soaking through the +calico, cements it to the roof, and makes it waterproof. But board +covered with patent felt, and tarred once a year, is the best. The roof +ought to project considerably beyond the walls, in order to prevent the +rain from dripping down them. + +Ventilation is most important, and the house should be high, especially +if there are many fowls, for by having it lofty a current of air can +pass through it far above the level of the fowls, and purify the +atmosphere without causing a draught near them. They very much dislike a +draught, and will alter their positions to avoid it, and if unable to +do so, will seek another roosting-place. Ventilation may be obtained by +leaving out some bricks in the wall or making holes in the boarding; and +when there is a shed at the side of the fowl-house, by boring a few +holes near the top of the wall next to the shed; all ventilators should +be considerably above the perches, in order to avoid a draught near to +the fowls; and should be entirely closed at night in severe weather. The +best method of ventilation for a fowl-house of sufficient size and +height, is by means of an opening in the highest part of the roof, +covered with a lantern of laths or narrow boards, placed one over the +other in a slanting position, with a small space between them like +Venetian blinds. + +Light is essential, not only for the health of the fowls, but in order +that the state of the house may be seen, and the floor and perches may +be well cleansed. It may be admitted either through a common window, a +pane or two of thick glass placed in the sides, or glass tiles in the +roof. It also induces them to take shelter there in rough weather. + +Warmth is the most important point of all. Fowls that roost in cold +houses and exposed places require more food and produce fewer eggs; and +pullets which are usually forward in laying will not easily be induced +to do so in severe weather if their house is not kept warm. It is a +great advantage when the house backs a fire-place or stable. A gentleman +told Mr. Baily that he "had been very successful in raising early +chickens in the north of Scotland, and he attributed much of it to the +following arrangements. He had always from twenty to thirty oxen or +other cattle fattening in a long building; he made his poultry-house to +join this, and had ventilators and openings made in the partition, so +that the heat of the cattle-shed passed into the fowl-house. Little good +has resulted from the use of stoves, or hot-water pipes, for poultry; +but by skilfully taking advantage of every circumstance like that above +mentioned, and by consulting aspect and position, many valuable helps +are obtained." + +A house built of wood in the north of England and Scotland must be +lined, unless artificially warmed. Felt is the best material, as its +strong smell of tar will keep away most insects. Matting is frequently +used, and will make the house sufficiently warm, but it harbours vermin, +and therefore, if used, should be only slightly fastened to the walls, +so that it can be often taken down and well beaten, and, if necessary, +fumigated. + +Various materials are recommended for the flooring. Boards are warm, but +they soon become foul. Beaten earth, with loose dust scattered over it +some inches deep, is excellent for the feet of the birds, but is a +harbour for the minute vermin which are often so troublesome, and even +destructive, to domestic fowls. Mowbray recommends a floor of +"well-rammed chalk or earth, that its surface, being smooth, may present +no impediment to being swept perfectly clean." Chalk laid on dry +coal-ashes to absorb the moisture is excellent. A mixture of cow-dung +and water, about the consistency of paint, put on the surface of the +floor, no thicker than paint, gives it a hard surface which will bear +sweeping down. It is used by the natives of India, not only for the +floors, but often for the walls of their houses, and is supposed to be +healthy in its application, and to keep away vermin. Miss Watts says: +"Dig out the floor to about a foot deep, and fill in with burnt clay, +like that used extensively on railways, the strong gravel which is +called 'metal' in road-making, or any loose dry material of the kind. +Let this be well rammed down, and then lay over it, with a bricklayer's +trowel, a flooring of a compost of cinder-ashes, gravel, quick-lime, and +water. This flooring is without the objections due to those which are +cold and damp, and those which imbibe foul moisture. Stone is too cold +for a flooring; beaten earth or wood becomes foul when the place is +inhabited by living animals; and a flooring of bricks possesses both +these bad qualities united." Bricks are the worst of all materials; they +retain moisture, whether atmospheric or arising from insufficient +drainage; and thus the temperature is kept low, and disease too often +follows, especially rheumatic attacks of the feet and legs. However, +trodden earth makes a very good flooring, and it or other materials may +easily be kept clean by placing moveable boards beneath the perches to +receive the fowl-droppings. The floor should slope from every direction +towards the door, to facilitate its cleansing, and to keep it dry. + +Perches are generally placed too high, probably because it was noticed +that fowls in their natural state, or when at large, usually roost upon +high branches; but it should be observed that, in descending from lofty +branches, they have a considerable distance to fly, and therefore alight +on the ground gently, while in a confined fowl-house the bird flutters +down almost perpendicularly, coming into contact with the floor +forcibly, by which the keel of the breast-bone is often broken, and +bumble-foot in Dorkings and corns are caused. + +Some writers do not object to lofty perches, provided the fowls have a +board with cross-pieces of wood fastened on to it reaching from the +ground to the perch; but this does not obviate the evil, for they will +only use it for ascent, and not for descent. The air, too, at the upper +part of any dwelling-room, or house for animals, is much more impure +than nearer the floor, because the air that has been breathed, and +vapours from the body, are lighter than pure air, and consequently +ascend to the top. The perches should therefore not be more than +eighteen inches from the ground, unless the breed is very small and +light. Perches are also generally made too small and round. When they +are too small in proportion to the size of the birds, they are apt to +cause the breast-bone of heavy fowls to grow crooked, which is a great +defect, and very unsightly in a table-fowl. Those for heavy fowls should +not be less than three inches in diameter. Capital perches may be formed +of fir or larch poles, about three inches in diameter, split into two, +the round side being placed uppermost; the birds' claws cling to it +easily, and the bark is not so hard as planed wood. The perches, if made +of timber, should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off, +as the feet of fowls are not formed for clasping smooth round poles. +Those for chickens should not be thicker than their claws can easily +grasp, and neither too sharp nor too round. + +When more than one row of perches is required they should be ranged +obliquely--that is, one above and behind the other; by which arrangement +each perch forms a step to the next higher one, and an equal convenience +in descending, and the birds do not void their dung over each other. +They should be placed two feet apart, and supported on bars of wood +fixed to the walls at each end; and in order that they may be taken out +to be cleaned, they should not be nailed to the supporter, but securely +placed in niches cut in the bar, or by pieces of wood nailed to it like +the rowlocks of a boat. If the wall space at the sides is required for +laying-boxes, the perches must be shorter than the house, and the +oblique bars which support them must be securely fastened to the back of +the house, and, if necessary, have an upright placed beneath the upper +end of each. + +Some breeders prefer a moveable frame for roosting, formed of two poles +of the required length, joined at each end by two narrow pieces; the +frame being supported upon four or more legs, according to its length +and the weight of the fowls. If necessary it should be strengthened by +rails--connecting the bottoms of the legs, and by pieces crossing from +each angle of the sides and ends. These frames can conveniently be moved +out of the house when they require cleansing. Or it may be made of one +pole supported at each end by two legs spread out widely apart, like two +sides of an equilateral or equal-sided triangle. The perch may be made +more secure for heavy fowls by a rail at each side fastened to each leg, +about three inches from the foot. + +Mr. Baily says: "I had some fowls in a large outhouse, where they were +well provided with perches; as there was plenty of room, I put some +small faggots, cut for firing, at one extremity, and I found many of the +fowls deserted their perches to roost on the faggots, which they +evidently preferred." + +Cochin-Chinas and Brahma Pootras do not require perches, but roost +comfortably on a floor littered down warmly with straw. It should be +gathered up every morning, and the floor cleaned and kept uncovered till +night, when the straw, if clean, should be again laid down. It must be +often changed. A bed of sand is also used, and a latticed floor even +without straw, and some use latticed benches raised about six inches +from the floor. But we should think that latticed roosting-places must +be uncomfortable to fowls, and the dung which falls through is often +unseen, and, consequently, liable to remain for too long a time, while a +portion will stick to the sides of the lattice-work, and be not only +difficult to see, but also to remove when seen. The "Henwife" finds, +however, "that if there are nests, there the Cochins will roost, in +spite of all attempts to make them do otherwise." It is a good plan, in +warm weather, occasionally to sprinkle water over and about the perches, +and scatter a little powdered sulphur over the wetted parts, which will +greatly tend to keep the fowls free from insect parasites. + +The nests for laying in are usually made on the ground, or in a kind of +trough, a little raised; but some use boxes or wicker-baskets, which are +preferable, as they can be removed separately from time to time, and +thoroughly cleansed from dust and vermin, and can also be kept a little +apart from each other. These boxes or troughs should be placed against +the sides of the house, and a board sloping forwards should be fixed +above, to prevent the fowls from roosting upon the edges. If required, a +row of laying-boxes or troughs may be placed on the ground, and another +about a foot or eighteen inches above the floor. The nest should be made +of wheaten, rye, or oaten straw, but never of hay, which is too hot, and +favourable besides to the increase of vermin. Heath cut into short +pieces forms excellent material for nests, but it cannot always be had. +The material must be changed whenever it smells foul or musty, for if it +is allowed to become offensive, the hens will often drop their eggs upon +the ground sooner than go to the nest. When the fowl-house adjoins a +passage, or it can be otherwise so contrived, it is an excellent plan +to have a wooden flap made to open just above the back of the nests, so +that the eggs can be removed without your going into the roosting-house, +treading the dung about, and disturbing any birds that may be there, or +about to enter to lay. Where possible the nests in the roosting-houses +should be used for laying in only; and a separate house should be set +apart for sitting hens. Where there are but a few fowls and only one +house, if a hen is allowed to sit, a separate nest must be made as quiet +as possible for her.--_See_ Chapter VI. + +Cleanliness must be maintained. The _Canada Farmer_ suggested an +admirable plan for keeping the roosting-house clean. A broad shelf, +securely fastened, but moveable, is fixed at the back of the house, +eighteen inches from the ground, and the perch placed four or five +inches above it, a foot from the wall. The nests are placed on the +ground beneath the board, which preserves them from the roosting fowl's +droppings, and keeps them well shaded for the laying or sitting hen, if +the latter is obliged to incubate in the same house, and the nests do +not need a top. The shelf can be easily scraped clean every morning, and +should be lightly sanded afterwards. Thus the floor of the house is +never soiled by the roosting birds, and the broad board at the same time +protects them from upward draughts of air. Where the nests and perches +are not so arranged, the idea may be followed by placing a loose board +below each perch, upon which the dung will fall, and the board can be +taken up every morning and the dung removed. With proper tools, a +properly constructed fowl-house can be kept perfectly clean, and all the +details of management well carried out without scarcely soiling your +hands. A birch broom is the best implement with which to clean the house +if the floor is as hard as it ought to be. A handful of ashes or sand, +sprinkled over the places from which dung has been removed, will absorb +any remaining impurity. + +Fowls' dung is a very valuable manure, being strong, stimulating, and +nitrogenous, possessing great power in forcing the growth of vegetables, +particularly those of the cabbage tribe, and is excellent for growing +strawberries, or indeed almost any plants, if sufficiently diluted; for, +being very strong, it should always be mixed with earth. A fowl, +according to Stevens, will void at least one ounce of dry dung in +twenty-four hours, which is worth at least seven shillings a cwt. + +The door should fit closely, a slight space only being left at the +bottom to admit air. It should have a square hole, which is usually +placed either at the top or bottom, for the poultry to enter to roost. A +hole at the top is generally preferred, as it is inaccessible to vermin. +The fowls ascend by means of a ladder formed of a slanting board, with +strips of wood nailed across to assist their feet; a similar ladder +should be placed inside to enable them to descend, if they are heavy +fowls; but the evil is that, even with this precaution, they are +inclined to fly down, as they do from high perches, without using the +ladder, and thus injure their feet. A hole in the middle of the door +would be preferable to either, and obviate the defects of both. These +holes should be fitted with sliding panels on the inside, so that they +can be closed in order to keep the fowls out while cleaning the house, +or to keep them in until they have laid their eggs, or it may be safe to +let them out in the morning in any neighbourhood or place where they +would else be liable to be stolen. Every day, after the fowls have left +their roosts, the doors and windows should be opened, and a thorough +draught created to purify the house. During the winter months all the +entrance holes should be closed from sunset to sunrise, unless in mild +localities. Where there are many houses, they should, if possible, +communicate with each other by doors, so that they may be cleaned from +end to end, or inspected without the necessity of passing through the +yards, which is especially unpleasant in wet weather. The doors should +be capable of being fastened on either side, to avoid the chance of the +different breeds intermingling while your attention is occupied in +arranging the nests, collecting eggs, &c. See that your fowls are +securely locked in at night, for they are more easily stolen than any +other kind of domestic animals. A good dog in the yard or adjoining +house or stable is an excellent protection. + +Every poultry-house should be lime-washed at least four or five times a +year, and oftener if convenient. Vermin of any kind can be effectually +destroyed by fumigating the place with sulphur. In this operation a +little care is requisite; it should be commenced early in the morning, +by first closing the lattices, and stopping up every crevice through +which air can enter; then place on the ground a pan of lighted charcoal, +and throw on it some brimstone broken into small pieces. Directly this +is done the room should be left, the door kept shut and airtight for +some hours; care too should be taken that the lattices are first opened, +and time given for the vapour to thoroughly disperse before any one +again enters, when every creature within the building will be found +destroyed. + +It is said that a pair of caged guinea-pigs in the fowl-house will keep +away rats. + +In a large establishment, and in a moderate one, if the outlay is not an +object, the pens for the chickens and the passages between the various +houses may be profitably covered with glass, and grapes grown on the +rafters. Raising chickens under glass has been tried with great +success. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE FOWL-YARD. + + +The scarcity of poultry in this country partly arises from all +gallinaceous birds requiring warmth and dryness to keep them in perfect +health, while the climate of Great Britain is naturally moist and cold. + +"The warmest and driest soils," says Mowbray, "are the best adapted to +the breeding and rearing of gallinaceous fowls, more particularly +chickens. A wet soil is the worst, since, however ill affected fowls are +by cold, they endure it better than moisture. Land proper for sheep is +generally also adapted to the successful keeping of poultry and +rabbits." + +But poultry may be reared and kept successfully even on bad soils with +good drainage and attention. The "Henwife" says: "I do not consider any +one soil necessary for success in rearing poultry. Some think a chalk +soil essential for Dorkings, but I have proved the fallacy of this +opinion by bringing up, during three years, many hundreds of these _soi +disant_ delicate birds on the strong blue clay of the Carse of Gowrie, +doubtless thoroughly drained, that system being well understood and +universally practised by the farmers of the district. A coating of +gravel and sand once a year is all that is requisite to secure the +necessary dryness in the runs." The best soil for a poultry-yard is +gravel, or sand resting on chalk or gravel. When the soil is clayey, or +damp from any other cause, it should be thoroughly drained, and the +whole or a good portion of the ground should be raised by the addition +of twelve inches of chalk, or bricklayer's rubbish, over which should be +spread a few inches of sand. Cramp, roup, and some other diseases, more +frequently arise from stagnant wet in the soil than from any other +cause. + +The yard should be sheltered from the north and east winds, and where +this is effected by the position of a shrubbery or plantation in which +the fowls may be allowed to run, it will afford the advantage of +protection, not only from wind and cold, but also shelter from the rain +and the burning sun. It also furnishes harbourage for insects, which +will find them both food and exercise in picking up. Indeed, for all +these purposes a few bushes may be advantageously planted in or +adjoining any poultry-yard. When a tree can be enclosed in a run, it +forms an agreeable object for the eye, and affords shelter to the fowls. + +A covered run or shed for shelter in wet or hot weather is a great +advantage, especially if chickens are reared. It may be constructed with +a few rough poles supporting a roof of patent felt, thatch, or rough +board, plain or painted for preservation, and may be made of any length +and width, from four feet upwards, and of any height from four feet at +the back and three feet in the front, to eight feet at the back and six +feet in the front. The shed should, if possible, adjoin the fowl-house. +It should be wholly or partly enclosed with wire-work, which should be +boarded for a foot from the ground to keep out the wet and snow, and to +keep in small chickens. The roof should project a foot beyond the +uprights which support it, in order to throw the rain well off, and have +a gutter-shoot to carry it away and prevent it from being blown in upon +the enclosed space. The floor should be a little higher than the level +of the yard, both in order to keep it dry and the easier to keep it +clean; and it should be higher at the back than in the front, which will +keep it drained if any wet should be blown in or water upset. If +preferred, moveable netting may be used, so that the fowls can be +allowed their liberty in fine weather, and be confined in wet weather. +But the boarding must be retained to keep out the wet. The ground may be +left in its natural state for the fowls to scratch in, in which case the +surface should be dug up from time to time and replaced with fresh earth +pressed down moderately hard. If the house is large and has a good +window, a shed is not absolutely necessary, especially for a few fowls +only, but it is a valuable addition, and is also very useful to shelter +the coops of the mother hens and their young birds in wet, windy, or hot +weather. + +By daily attention to cleanliness, a few fowls may be kept in such a +covered shed, without having any open run, by employing a thick layer of +dry pulverised earth as a deodoriser, which is to be turned over with a +rake every day, and replaced with fresh dry pulverised earth once a +week. The dry earth entirely absorbs all odour. In a run of this kind, +six square feet should be allowed to each fowl kept, for a smaller +surface of the dry earth becomes moist and will then no longer deodorise +the dung. Sifted ashes spread an inch deep over the floor of the whole +shed will be a good substitute if the dry earth cannot be had. They +should be raked over every other morning, and renewed at least every +fortnight, or oftener if possible. The ground should be dug and turned +over whenever it looks sodden, or gives out any offensive smell; and +three or four times a year the polluted soil below the layer, that is, +the earth to the depth of three or four inches, should be removed and +replaced with fresh earth, gravel, chalk, or ashes.[2] The shed must be +so contrived that the sun can shine upon the fowls during some part of +the day, or they will not continue in health for any length of time, and +it is almost impossible to rear healthy chickens without its light and +warmth; and it will be a great improvement if part of the run is open. +Another shed will be required if chickens are to be reared. + +Fowls that are kept in small spaces or under covered runs will require a +different diet to those that are allowed to roam in fields and pick up +insects, grass, &c., and must be provided with green food, animal food +in place of insects, and be well supplied with mortar rubbish and +gravel. + +The height of the wall, paling, or fencing that surrounds the yard, and +of the partitions, if the yard is divided into compartments for the +purpose of keeping two or more breeds separate and pure, must be +according to the nature of the breed. Three feet in height will be +sufficient to retain Cochins and Brahmas; six feet will be required for +moderate-sized fowls; and eight or nine feet will be necessary to +confine the Game, Hamburg, and Bantam breeds. Galvanised iron +wire-netting is the best material, as it does not rust, and will not +need painting for a long time. It is made of various degrees of +strength, and in different forms, and may be had with meshes varying +from three-fourths of an inch to two inches or more; with very small +meshes at the lower part only, to keep out rats and to keep in chickens; +with spikes upon the top, or with scolloped wire-work, which gives it a +neat and finished appearance; with doors, and with iron standards +terminating in double spikes to fix in the ground, by which wooden posts +are divided, while it can be easily fixed and removed. The meshes should +not be more than two inches wide, and if the meshes of the lower part +are not very small, it should be boarded to about two feet six inches +from the ground, in order to keep out rats, keep in chickens, and to +prevent the cocks fighting through the wire, which fighting is more +dangerous than in the open, for the birds are very liable to injure +themselves in the meshes, and, Dorkings especially, to tear their combs +and toes in them. If iron standards are not attached to the netting, it +should be stretched to stout posts, well fixed in the ground, eight feet +apart, and fastened by galvanised iron staples. A rail at the top gives +a neater appearance, but induces the fowls to perch upon it, which may +tempt them to fly over. + +Where it is not convenient to fix a fence sufficiently high, or when a +hen just out with her brood has to be kept in, a fowl may be prevented +from flying over fences by stripping off the vanes or side shoots from +the first-flight feathers of one wing, usually ten in number, which will +effectually prevent the bird from flying, and will not be unsightly, as +the primary quills are always tucked under the others when not used for +flying. This method answers much better than clipping the quills of each +wing, as the cut points are liable to inflict injuries and cause +irritation in moulting. + +The openness of the feathers of fowls which do not throw off the water +well, like those of most birds, enables them to cleanse themselves +easier from insects and dirt, by dusting their feathers, and then +shaking off the dirt and these minute pests with the dust. For this +purpose one or more ample heaps of sifted ashes, or very dry sand or +earth, for them to roll in, must be placed in the sun, and, if possible, +under shelter, so as to be warm and perfectly dry. Wood ashes are the +best. This dust-heap is as necessary to fowls as water for washing is to +human beings. It cleanses their feathers and skin from vermin and +impurities, promotes the cuticular or skin excretion, and is materially +instrumental in preserving their health. If they should be much troubled +with insects, mix in the heap plenty of wood ashes and a little flour of +sulphur. + +A good supply of old mortar-rubbish, or similar substance, must be kept +under the shed, or in a dry place, to provide material for the +eggshells, or the hens will be liable to lay soft-shelled eggs. Burnt +oyster-shells are an excellent substitute for common lime, and should be +prepared for use by being heated red-hot, and when cold broken into +small pieces with the fingers, but not powdered. Some give chopped or +ground bones, or a lump of chalky marl. Eggshells roughly crushed are +also good, and are greedily devoured by the hens. + +A good supply of gravel is also essential, the small stones which the +fowls swallow being necessary to enable them to digest their hard food. +Fowls swallow all grain whole, their bills not being adapted for +crushing it like the teeth of the rabbit or the horse, and it is +prepared for digestion by the action of a strong and muscular gizzard, +lined with a tough leathery membrane, which forms a remarkable +peculiarity in the internal structure of fowls and turkeys. "By the +action," says Mr. W. H. L. Martin, "of the two thick muscular sides of +this gizzard on each other, the seeds and grains swallowed (and +previously macerated in the crop, and there softened by a peculiar +secretion oozing from glandular pores) are ground up, or triturated in +order that their due digestion may take place. It is a remarkable fact +that these birds are in the habit of swallowing small pebbles, bits of +gravel, and similar substances, which it would seem are essential to +their health. The definite use of these substances, which are certainly +ground down by the mill-like action of the gizzard, has been a matter +of difference among various physiologists, and many experiments, with a +view to elucidate the subject, have been undertaken. It was sufficiently +proved by Spallanzani that the digestive fluid was incapable of +dissolving grains of barley, &c., in their unbruised state; and this he +ascertained by filling small hollow and perforated balls and tubes of +metal or glass with grain, and causing them to be swallowed by turkeys +and other fowls; when examined, after twenty-four and forty-eight hours, +the grains were found to be unaffected by the gastric fluid; but when he +filled similar balls and tubes with bruised grains, and caused them to +be swallowed, he found, after a lapse of the same number of hours, that +they were more or less dissolved by the action of the gastric juice. In +other experiments, he found that metallic tubes introduced into the +gizzard of common fowls and turkeys, were bruised, crushed, and +distorted, and even that sharp-cutting instruments were broken up into +blunt fragments without having produced the slightest injury to the +gizzard. But these experiments go rather to prove the extraordinary +force and grinding powers of the gizzard, than to throw light upon the +positive use of the pebbles swallowed; which, after all, Spallanzani +thought were swallowed without any definite object, but from mere +stupidity. Blumenbach and Dr. Bostock aver that fowls, however well +supplied with food, grow lean without them, and to this we can bear our +own testimony. Yet the question, what is their precise effect? remains +to be answered. Boerhave thought it probable that they might act as +absorbents to superabundant acid; others have regarded them as irritants +or stimulants to digestion; and Borelli supposed that they might really +contribute some degree of nutriment." + +Sir Everard Home, in his "Comparative Anatomy," says: "When the external +form of this organ is first attentively examined, viewing that side +which is anterior in the living bird, and on which the two bellies of +the muscle and middle are more distinct, there being no other part to +obstruct the view, the belly of the muscle on the left side is seen to +be larger than on the right. This appears, on reflection, to be of great +advantage in producing the necessary motion; for if the two muscles were +of equal strength, they must keep a greater degree of exertion than is +necessary; while, in the present case, the principal effect is produced +by that of the left side, and a smaller force is used by that on the +right to bring the parts back again. The two bellies of the muscle, by +their alternate action, produce two effects--the one a constant friction +on the contents of the cavity; the other, a pressure on them. This last +arises from a swelling of the muscle inwards, which readily explains all +the instances which have been given by Spallanzani and others, of the +force of the gizzard upon substances introduced into it--a force which +is found by their experiments always to act in an oblique direction. The +internal cavity, when opened in this distended state, is found to be of +an oval form, the long diameter being in the line of the body; its +capacity nearly equal to the size of a pullet's egg; and on the sides +there are ridges in their horny coat (lining membrane) in the long +direction of the oval. When the horny coat is examined in its internal +structure, the fibres of which it is formed are not found in a direction +perpendicular to the ligamentous substance behind it; but in the upper +portion of the cavity it is obliquely upwards. From this form of cavity +it is evident that no part of the sides is ever intended to be brought +in contact, and that the food is triturated by being mixed with hard +bodies, and acted on by the powerful muscles which form the gizzard." + +The experiments of Spallanzani show that the muscular action of the +gizzard is equally powerful whether the small stones are present or not; +and that they are not at all necessary to the trituration of the firmest +food, or the hardest foreign substances; but it is also quite clear that +when these small stones are put in motion by the muscles of the gizzard +they assist in crushing the grain, and at the same time prevent it from +consolidating into a thick, heavy, compacted mass, which would take a +far longer time in undergoing the digestive process than when separated +and intermingled with the pebbles. + +This was the opinion of the great physiologist, John Hunter, who, in his +treatise "On the Animal Economy," after noticing the grinding powers of +the gizzard, says, in reference to the pebbles swallowed, "We are not, +however, to conclude that stones are entirely useless; for if we compare +the strength of the muscles of the jaws of animals which masticate their +food with those of birds who do not, we shall say that the parts are +well calculated for the purpose of mastication; yet we are not thence to +infer that the teeth in such jaws are useless, even although we have +proof that the gums do the business when the teeth are gone. If pebbles +are of use, which we may reasonably conclude they are, birds have an +advantage over animals having teeth, so far as pebbles are always to be +found, while the teeth are not renewed. If we constantly find in an +organ substances which can only be subservient to the functions of that +organ, should we deny their use, although the part can do its office +without them? The stones assist in grinding down the grain, and, by +separating its parts, allow the gastric juice to come more readily in +contact with it." + +When a paddock is used as a run for a large number of poultry, it should +be enclosed either by a wall or paling, but not by a hedge, as the fowls +can get through it, and will also lay their eggs under the hedge. The +paddock should be well drained, and it will be a great advantage if it +contains a pond, or has a stream of water running through or by it. +Mowbray advises that the grass run should be sown "with common trefoil +or wild clover, with a mixture of burnet, spurry, or storgrass," which +last two kinds "are particularly salubrious to poultry." If the grass is +well rooted before the fowls are allowed to run on it, they may range +there for several hours daily, according to its extent and their number, +but it should be renewed in the spring by sowing where it has become +bare or thin. A dry common, or pasture fields, in which they may freely +wander and pick up grubs, insects, ants' eggs, worms, and leaves of +plants, is a great advantage, and they may be accustomed to return from +it at a call. Where there is a cropped field, orchard, or garden, in +which fowls may roam at certain seasons, when the crops are safe from +injury, each brood should be allowed to wander in it separately for a +few hours daily, or on different days, as may be most convenient. "A +garden dung-heap," says Mr. Baily, "overgrown with artichokes, mallows, +&c., is an excellent covert for chickens, especially in hot weather. +They find shelter and meet with many insects there." When horse-dung is +procured for the garden, or supplied from your stables, some should be +placed in a small trench, and frequently renewed, in which the fowls +will amuse themselves, particularly in winter, by scraping for corn and +worms. When fowls have not the advantage of a grass run they should be +indulged with a square or two of fresh turf, as often as it can be +obtained, on which they will feed and amuse themselves. It should be +heavy enough to enable them to tear off the grass, without being obliged +to drag the turf about with them. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +FOOD. + + +The following table, which first appeared in the "Poultry Diary," will +show at a glance the relative constituents and qualities of the +different kinds of food, and may be consulted with great advantage by +the poultry-keeper, as it will enable him to proportion mixed food +correctly, and to change it according to the production of growth, +flesh, or fat that may be desired, and according to the temperature of +the season. These proportions, of course, are not absolutely invariable, +for the relative proportions of the constituents of the grain will vary +with the soil, manure used, and the growing and ripening characteristics +of the season. + + ------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------+------- + |Flesh- |Warmth-| Bone- | Husk |Water.| + |forming|giving |making | or | | + There is in every | Food. | Food. | Food. | Fibre. | | + 100 lbs. of +-------+-------+-------+---------+ | + |Gluten,|Fat or |Starch,| Mineral | | + | &c. | Oil. | &c. |Substance| | + ------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------+------- + Oats | 15 | 6 | 47 | 2 | 20 | 10 + Oatmeal | 18 | 6 | 63 | 2 | 2 | 9 + Middlings or fine | | | | | | + Sharps | 18 | 6 | 53 | 5 | 4 | 14 + Wheat | 12 | 3 | 70 | 2 | 1 | 12 + Barley | 11 | 2 | 60 | 2 | 14 | 1 + Indian Corn | 11 | 8 | 65 | 1 | 5 | 10 + Rice | 7 |a trace| 80 | a trace | -- | 13 + Beans and Peas | 25 | 2 | 48 | 2 | 8 | 15 + Milk | 41/2 | 3 | 5 | 3/4 | -- | 863/4 + ------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Barley is more generally used than any other grain, and, reckoned by +weight, is cheaper than wheat or oats; but, unless in the form of meal, +should not be the only grain given, for fowls do not fatten upon it, as, +though possessing a very fair proportion of flesh-forming substances, it +contains a lesser amount of fatty matters than other varieties of corn. +In Surrey barley is the usual grain given, excepting during the time of +incubation, when the sitting hens have oats, as being less heating to +the system than the former. Barley-meal contains the same component +parts as the whole grain, being ground with the husk, but only inferior +barley is made into meal. + +Wheat of the best description is dearer than barley, both by weight and +measure, and possesses but about one-twelfth part more flesh-forming +material, but it is fortunate that the small cheap wheat is the best for +poultry, for Professor Johnston says, "the small or tail corn which the +farmer separates before bringing his grain to market is richer in gluten +(flesh-forming food) than the full-grown grain, and is therefore more +nutritious." The "Henwife" finds "light wheats or tailings the best +grain for daily use, and next to that barley." + +Oats are dearer than barley by weight. The heaviest should be bought, as +they contain very little more husk than the lightest, and are therefore +cheaper in proportion. Oats and oatmeal contain much more flesh-forming +material than any other kind of grain, and double the amount of fatty +material than wheat, and three times as much as barley. Mowbray says +oats are apt to cause scouring, and chickens become tired of them; but +they are recommended by many for promoting laying, and in Kent, Sussex, +and Surrey for fattening. Fowls frequently refuse the lighter samples of +oats, but if soaked in water for a few hours so as to swell the kernel, +they will not refuse them. The meal contains more flesh-forming material +than the whole grain. + +The meal of wheat and barley are much the same as the whole grain, but +oatmeal is drier and separated from a large portion of the husk, which +makes it too dear except for fattening fowls and feeding the youngest +chickens, for which it is the very best food. Fine "middlings," also +termed "sharps" and "thirds," and in London coarse country flour, are +much like oatmeal, but cheaper than the best, and may be cheaply and +advantageously employed instead of oatmeal, or mixed with boiled or +steamed small potatoes or roots. + +Many writers recommend refuse corn for fowls, and the greater number of +poultry-keepers on a small scale perhaps think such light common grain +the cheapest food; but this is a great mistake, as, though young fowls +may be fed on offal and refuse, it is the best economy to give the older +birds the finest kind of grain, both for fattening and laying, and even +the young fowls should be fed upon the best if fine birds for breeding +or exhibition are desired. "Instead of giving ordinary or tail corn to +my fattening or breeding poultry," says Mowbray, "I have always found it +most advantageous to allow the heaviest and the best; thus putting the +confined fowls on a level with those at the barn-door, where they are +sure to get their share of the weightiest and finest corn. This high +feeding shows itself not only in the size and flesh of the fowls, but in +the size, weight, and substantial goodness of their eggs, which, in +these valuable particulars, will prove far superior to the eggs of fowls +fed upon ordinary corn or washy potatoes; two eggs of the former going +further in domestic use than three of the latter." "Sweepings" sometimes +contain poisonous or hurtful substances, and are always dearer, weight +for weight, than sound grain. + +Some poultry-keepers recommend that the grain should be boiled, which +makes it swell greatly, and consequently fills the fowl's crop with a +smaller quantity, and the bird is satisfied with less than if dry grain +be given; but others say that the fowls derive more nutriment from the +same quantity of grain unboiled. Indeed, it seems evident that a portion +of the nutriment must pass into the water, and also evaporate in steam. +The fowl's gizzard being a powerful grinding mill, evidently designed by +Providence for the purpose of crushing the grain into meal, it is clear +that whole grain is the natural diet of fowls, and that softer kinds of +food are chiefly to be used for the first or morning meal for fowls +confined in houses (see p. 34), and for those being fattened +artificially in coops, where it is desired to help the fowl's digestive +powers, and to convert the food into flesh as quickly as possible. + +Indian corn or maize, either whole or in meal, must not be given in too +great a proportion, as it is very fattening from the large quantity of +oil it contains; but mixed with barley or barley-meal, it is a most +economical and useful food. It is useful for a change, but is not a good +food by itself. It may be given once or twice a week, especially in the +winter, with advantage. From its size small birds cannot eat it and rob +the fowls. Whether whole or in meal, the maize should be scalded, that +the swelling may be done before it is eaten. The yellow-coloured maize +is not so good as that which is reddish or rather reddish-brown. + +Buckwheat is about equal to barley in flesh-forming food, and is very +much used on the Continent. Mr. Wright has "a strong opinion that the +enormous production of eggs and fowls in France is to some extent +connected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by French +poultry-keepers." It is not often to be had cheap in this country, but +is hardy and may be grown anywhere at little cost. Mr. Edwards says, he +"obtained (without manure) forty bushels to the acre, on very poor sandy +soil, that would not have produced eighteen bushels of oats. The seed is +angular in form, not unlike hempseed; and is stimulating, from the +quantity of spirit it contains." + +Peas, beans, and tares contain an extraordinary quantity of +flesh-forming material, and very little of fat-forming, but are too +stimulating for general use, and would harden the muscular fibres and +give too great firmness of flesh to fowls that are being fattened, but +where tares are at a low price, or peas or beans plentiful, stock fowls +may be advantageously fed upon any of these, and they may be given +occasionally to fowls that are being fattened. It is better to give them +boiled than in a raw state, especially if they are hard and dry, and the +beans in particular may be too large for the fowls to swallow +comfortably. Near Geneva fowls are fed chiefly upon tares. Poultry +reject the wild tares of which pigeons are so fond. + +Rice is not a cheap food. When boiled it absorbs a great quantity of +water and forms a large substance, but, of course, only contains the +original quantity of grain which is of inferior value, especially for +growing chickens, as it consists almost entirely of starch, and does not +contain quite half the amount of flesh-forming materials as oats. When +broken or slightly damaged it may be had much cheaper, and will do as +well as the finest. Boil it for half an hour in skim-milk or water, and +then let it stand in the water till cold, when it will have swollen +greatly, and be so firm that it can be taken out in lumps, and easily +broken into pieces. In addition to its strengthening and fattening +qualities rice is considered to improve the delicacy of the flesh. Fowls +are especially fond of it at first, but soon grow tired of this food. If +mixed with less cloying food, such as bran, they would probably continue +to relish it. + +Hempseed is most strengthening during moulting time, and should then be +given freely, especially in cold localities. + +Linseed steeped is occasionally given, chiefly to birds intended for +exhibition, to increase the secretion of oil, and give lustre to their +plumage. + +Potatoes, from the large quantity of starch they contain, are not good +unmixed, as regular food, but mixed with bran or meal are most conducive +to good condition and laying. They contain a great proportion of +nutriment, comparatively to their bulk and price; and may be +advantageously and profitably given where the number of eggs produced is +of more consequence than their flavour or goodness. A good morning meal +of soft food for a few fowls may be provided daily almost for nothing by +boiling the potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with enough +bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff dry paste. The +peelings will supply as many fowls as there are persons at the dinner +table. A little salt should always be added, and in winter a slight +sprinkling of pepper is good. + +"It is indispensable," says Mr. Dickson, "to give the potatoes to fowls +not only in a boiled state, but hot; not so hot, however, as to burn +their mouths, as they are stupid enough to do if permitted. They dislike +cold potatoes, and will not eat them willingly. It is likewise requisite +to break all the potatoes a little, for they will not unfrequently leave +a potato when thrown down unbroken, taking it, probably, for a stone, +since the moment the skin is broken and the white of the interior is +brought into view, they fall upon it greedily. When pieces of raw +potatoes are accidentally in their way, fowls will sometimes eat them, +though they are not fond of these, and it is doubtful whether they are +not injurious." + +Mangold-wurtzel, swedes, or other turnips, boiled with a very small +quantity of water, until quite soft, and then thickened with the very +best middlings or meal, is the very best soft food, especially for +Dorkings. + +Soft food should always be mixed rather dry and _friable_, and not +_porridgy_, for they do not like sticky food, which clings round their +beaks and annoys them, besides often causing diarrhoea. There should +never be enough water in food to cause it to glisten in the light. If +the soft food is mixed boiling hot at night and put in the oven, or +covered with a cloth, it will be warm in the morning, in which state it +should always be given in cold weather. + +Fowls have their likes and dislikes as well as human beings, some +preferring one kind of grain to all others, which grain is again +disliked by other fowls. They also grow tired of the same food, and will +thrive all the better for having as much variety of diet as possible, +some little change in the food being made every few days. Fowls should +not be forced or pressed to take food to which they show a dislike. It +is most important to give them chiefly that which they like best, as it +is a rule, with but few exceptions, that what is eaten with most relish +agrees best and is most easily digested; but care must be taken not to +give too much, for one sort of grain being more pleasing to their palate +than another, induces them to eat gluttonously more than is necessary or +healthy. M. Reaumur made many careful experiments upon the feeding of +fowls, and among them found that they were much more easily satisfied +than might be supposed from the greedy voracity which they exhibit when +they are fed, and that the sorts of food most easily digested by them +are those of which they eat the greatest quantity. + +No definite scale can be given for the quantity of food which fowls +require, as it must necessarily vary with the different breeds, sizes, +ages, condition, and health of the fowls; and with the seasons of the +year, and the temperature of the season, much more food being necessary +to keep up the proper degree of animal heat in winter than in summer; +and the amount of seeds, insects, vegetables, and other food that they +may pick up in a run of more or less extent. Over-feeding, whether by +excess of quantity or excess of stimulating constituents, is the cause +of the most general diseases, the greater proportion of these diseases, +and of most of the deaths from natural causes among fowls. When fowls +are neither laying well nor moulting, they should not be fed very +abundantly; for in such a state over-feeding, especially with rich food, +may cause them to accumulate too much fat. A fat hen ceases to lay, or +nearly, while an over-fed cock becomes lazy and useless, and may die of +apoplexy. + +But half-fed fowls never pay whether kept for the table or to produce +eggs. A fowl cannot get fat or make an egg a day upon little or poor +food. A hen producing eggs will eat nearly twice as much food as at +another time. In cold weather give plenty of dry bread soaked in ale. + +Poultry prefer to pick their food off the ground. "No plan," says Mr. +Baily, "is so extravagant or so injurious as to throw down heaps once or +twice per day. They should have it scattered as far and wide as +possible, that the birds may be long and healthily employed in finding +it, and may not accomplish in a few minutes that which should occupy +them for hours. For this reason every sort of feeder or hopper is bad. +It is the nature of fowls to take a grain at a time, and to pick grass +and dirt with it, which assist digestion. They should feed as pheasants, +partridges, grouse, and other game do in a state of nature; if, +contrary to this, they are enabled to eat corn by mouthfuls, their crops +are soon overfilled, and they seek relief in excessive draughts of +water. Nothing is more injurious than this, and the inactivity that +attends the discomfort caused by it lays the foundation of many +disorders. The advantage of scattering the food is, that all then get +their share; while if it is thrown only on a small space the master +birds get the greater part, while the others wait around. In most +poultry-yards more than half the food is wasted; the same quantity is +thrown down day after day, without reference to time of year, alteration +of numbers, or variation of appetite, and that which is not eaten is +trodden about, or taken by small birds. Many a poultry-yard is coated +with corn and meal." + +If two fowls will not run after one piece, they do not want it. If a +trough is used, the best kind is the simplest, being merely a long, open +one, shaped like that used for pigs, but on a smaller scale. It should +be placed about a foot from one of the sides of the yard, behind some +round rails driven into the ground three inches apart, so that the fowls +cannot get into the troughs, so as to upset them, or tread in or +otherwise dirty the food. The rails should be all of the same height, +and a slanting board be fixed over the trough. + +Some persons give but one meal a day, and that generally in the morning; +this is false economy, for the whole of the nutriment contained in the +one meal is absorbed in keeping up the animal heat, and there is no +material for producing eggs. "The number of meals per day," says Mr. +Wright, "best consistent with real economy will vary from two to three, +according to the size of the run. If it be of moderate extent, so that +they can in any degree forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, +at least in summer, and should be given early in the morning and the +last thing before the birds go to roost. In any case, these will be the +principal meals; but when the fowls are kept in confinement they will +require, in addition, a scanty feed at mid-day. The first feeding should +consist of soft food of some kind. The birds have passed a whole night +since they were last fed; and it is important, especially in cold +weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as possible be got into the +system, and not merely into the crop. But if grain be given, it has to +be ground in the poor bird's gizzard before it can be digested, and on a +cold winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial. But, for the +very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the best food which +can be supplied; it is digested slowly, and during the long cold nights +affords support and warmth to the fowls." + +They should be fed at regular hours, and will then soon become +accustomed to them, and not loiter about the house or kitchen door all +day long, expecting food, which they will do if fed irregularly or too +often, and neglect to forage about for themselves, and thus cost more +for food. + +Grass is of the greatest value for all kinds of poultry, and where they +have no paddock, or grass-plot, fresh vegetables must be given them +daily, as green food is essential to the health of all poultry, even of +the very youngest chickens. Cabbage and lettuce leaves, spinach, endive, +turnip-tops, turnips cut into small pieces and scattered like grain, or +cut in two, radish-leaves, or any refuse, but not stale vegetables will +do; but the best thing is a large sod of fresh-cut turf. They are +partial to all the mild succulent weeds, such as chickweed and +_Chenopodium_, or fat-hen, and eat the leaves of most trees and shrubs, +even those of evergreens; but they reject the leaves of strawberries, +celery, parsnips, carrots, potatoes, onions, and leeks. The supply of +green food may be unlimited, but poultry should never be entirely fed on +raw greens. Cabbage and spinach are still more relaxing when boiled than +raw. They are very fond of the fruit of the mulberry and cherry trees, +and will enjoy any that falls, and prevent it from being wasted. + +Insect food is important to fowls, and essential for chickens and laying +hens. "There is no sort of insect, perhaps," says Mr. Dickson, "which +fowls will not eat. They are exceedingly fond of flies, beetles, +grasshoppers, and crickets, but more particularly of every sort of +grub, caterpillar, and maggot, with the remarkable exception of the +caterpillar moth of the magpie (_Abraxas Grossularia_), which no bird +will touch." M. Reaumur mentions the circumstance of a quantity of wheat +stored in a corn-loft being much infected with the caterpillars of the +small corn-moth, which spins a web and unites several grains together. A +young lady devised the plan of taking some chickens to the loft to feed +on the caterpillars, of which they were so fond that in a few days they +devoured them all, without touching a single grain of the corn. Mr. +Dickson observes, that "biscuit-dust from ships' stores, which consists +of biscuit mouldered into meal, mixed with fragments still unbroken, +would be an excellent food for poultry, if soaked in boiling water and +given them hot. It is thus used for feeding pigs near the larger +seaports, where it can sometimes be had in considerable quantity, and at +a very reasonable price. It will be no detriment to this material if it +be full of weevils and their grubs, of which fowls are fonder than of +the biscuit itself." + +There is not any food of which poultry generally are so fond as of +earthworms; but all fowls are not equally fond of them, and some will +not touch them. They will not eat dead worms. Too many ought not to be +given, or they will become too fat and cease laying. When fowls are +intended for the table worms should not be given, as they are said +always more or less to deteriorate the flavour of the flesh. A good +supply may easily be obtained. By stamping hard upon the ground, as +anglers do, worms will rise to the surface; but a better method is to +thrust a strong stake or a three-pronged potato-fork into the ground, to +the depth of a foot or so, and jerk it backwards and forwards, so as to +shake the soil all around. By going out with a light at night in calm, +mild weather, particularly when there is dew, or after rain, a cautious +observer will see large numbers of worms lying on the ground, +gravel-walks, grass-plots or pastures; but they are easily frightened +into their holes, though with caution and dexterity a great number, and +those chiefly of the largest size, may be captured. Mr. Dickson advises +that cottagers' children should be employed to imitate the example of +the rooks, by following the plough or the digger, and collecting the +worms which are disclosed to view; and also to collect cock-chafers, +"and, what would be more advantageous, they might be set to collect the +grubs of this destructive insect after the plough, and thus, while +providing a rich banquet for the poultry, they would be clearing the +fields of a most destructive insect." + +Fowls are very fond of shell snails. They are still more fattening than +worms, and therefore too many must not be given when laying, but they do +not injure the flavour of the flesh. Some will eat slugs, but they are +not generally fond of these, and many fowls will not touch them. + +One great secret of profitable poultry-keeping is, that hens cannot +thrive and lay without a considerable quantity of animal food, and +therefore if they cannot obtain a sufficient quantity in the form of +insects, it must be supplied in meat, which, minced small, should be +given daily and also to all fowls in winter, as insects are then not to +be had. Mr. Baily says: "Do not give fowls meat, but always have the +bones thrown out to them after dinner; they enjoy picking them, and +perform the operation perfectly. Do not feed on raw meat; it makes fowls +quarrelsome, and gives them a propensity to peck each other, especially +in moulting time if the accustomed meat be withheld." They will peck at +the wound of another fowl to procure blood, and even at their own wounds +when within reach. Take care that long pieces of membrane, or thick +skin, tough gristle or sinew, or pieces of bone, are not left sticking +to the meat, or it may choke them, or form a lodgment in the crop. +"Pieces of suet or fat," says Mr. Dickson, "are liked by fowls better +than any other sort of animal food; but, if supplied in any quantity, +will soon render them too fat for continuing to lay. Should there be any +quantity of fat to dispose of, it ought, therefore, to be given at +intervals, and mixed or accompanied with bran, which will serve to fill +their crops without producing too much nutriment." It is a good plan +when there are plenty of bones and scraps of meat to boil them well, and +mix bran or pollard with the liquor before giving them to the fowls, as +it makes the meat easier to mince, and extracts nourishment from the +bones. When minced-meat is required for a large number of fowls, a +mincing or sausage machine will save much time and prepare the meat +better than chopping. They are as fond of fish, whether salted or fresh, +as of flesh. Crumbs, fragments of pastry, and all the refuse and slops +of the kitchen may be given them. Greaves, so much advertised for fowls, +are very bad, rapidly throwing them out of condition, causing their +feathers to fall off, spoiling the flavour of the flesh; they cause +premature decrepitude, and engender many diseases, the most common being +dropsy of an incurable character. + +Where there is no danger from thieves, foxes, or other vermin, and the +run is extensive, it is the best plan to leave the small door of the +fowl-house open, and the fowls will go out at daybreak and pick up many +an "early worm" and insect. The morning meal may be given when the +household has risen. + +A constant supply of fresh clean water is indispensable. Fountains are +preferable to open vessels, in which the fowls are apt to void their +dung, and the chickens to dabble and catch cold, often causing roup, +cramp, &c. The simplest kind of water vessel is a saucer made of red +pottery, containing several circular, concentric troughs, each about an +inch wide, and of the same depth. Chickens cannot get drowned in these +shallow vessels, but unless placed behind rails the water will be +dirtied by the fowls. They are sold at all earthenware shops, and are +used for forcing early mustard in. A capital fountain may be made with +an earthenware jar or flower-pot and a flower-pot saucer. Bore a small +hole in the jar or flower-pot an inch and a half from the edge of the +rim, or detach a piece about three-quarters of an inch deep and one inch +wide, from the rim, and if a flower-pot is used plug the hole in the +bottom airtight with a piece of cork; fill the vessel with water, place +the saucer bottom upwards on the top, press it closely, and quickly turn +both upside down, when the water will flow into the saucer, filling up +the space between it and the vessel up to the same height as the hole +in the side of the jar or flower-pot, therefore the hole in the side of +the rim of the vessel must not be quite so deep as the height of the +side of the saucer; and above all the plug in the flower-pot must be +airtight. This fountain is cheap, simple, and easily cleaned. Water may +also be kept in troughs, or earthenware pans, placed in the same way. +The fountains and pans should be washed and filled with fresh water once +every day, and oftener in warm weather; and they should occasionally be +scoured with sand to remove the green slime which collects on the +surface, and produces roup, gapes, and other diseases. In winter the +vessels should always be emptied at night, in order to avoid ice from +forming in them, which is troublesome to remove, and snow must never be +allowed to fall into them, snow-water being most injurious to poultry. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +EGGS. + + +During the natural process of moulting, hens cease laying because all +the superabundant nutriment is required for the production of the new +feathers. Fowls moult later each time; the moulting occupies a longer +period, and is more severe as it becomes later, and if the weather +should be cold at its termination they seldom recommence laying for some +time. But young fowls moult in spring. Therefore, by having pullets and +hens of different ages, and moulting at different times, a healthy +laying stock may be kept up. Pullets hatched in March, and constantly +fed highly, not only lay eggs abundantly in the autumn, but when killed +in the following February or March, are as fat as any one could or need +desire them to be, and open more like Michaelmas geese than chickens. +When eggs alone are wanted, you can commence by buying in the spring as +many hens as you require, and your run will accommodate, not more than a +year or eighteen months old. If in good health and condition, they will +be already laying, or will begin almost immediately; and, if well housed +and fed, will give a constant supply of eggs until they moult in the +autumn. When these hens have ceased laying, and before they lose their +good condition by moulting, they should be either killed or sold, unless +they are Hamburgs, Brahmas, or Cochins, and replaced by pullets hatched +in March or April, which will have moulted early, and, if properly +housed and fed, will begin to lay by November at the latest, and +continue laying until February or March, when they may be sold or +killed, being then in prime condition, and replaced as before; or, as +they will not stop laying for any length of time, the best may be kept +until the autumn, when, if profit is the chief consideration, they must +be disposed of.[3] But Brahmas, Cochins, and Hamburgs will lay through +the winter up to their second, or even third year. If you commence +poultry-keeping in the autumn you should buy pullets hatched in the +preceding spring. The best and cheapest plan of keeping up a good stock +is to keep a full-feathered Cochin or two for March or April sitting; +and, if necessary, procure eggs of the breed you desire. The Cochin +will sit again, being only too often ready for the task; and the +later-hatched chickens can be fattened profitably for the table. But if +you wish to obtain eggs all the year round, and to avoid replacing of +stock, or object to the trouble of rearing chickens, keep only those +breeds that are non-sitters, as the Hamburgs, Polands, and Spanish; but +you must purchase younger birds from time to time to keep a supply of +laying hens while others are moulting. + +Warmth is most essential for promoting laying. A severe frost will +suddenly stop the laying of even the most prolific hens. "When," says M. +Bosc, "it is wished to have eggs during the cold season, even in the +dead of winter, it is necessary to make the fowls roost over an oven, in +a stable, in a shed where many cattle are kept, or to erect a stove in +the fowl-house on purpose. By such methods, the farmers of Ange have +chickens fit for the table in the month of April, a period when they are +only beginning to be hatched in the farms around Paris, although farther +to the south." It is the winter management of fowls that decides the +question of profit or loss, for hens will be sure to pay in the summer, +even if only tolerably attended to. It is thought by many that each hen +can produce only a certain number of eggs; and if such be the case, it +is very advantageous to obtain a portion of them in winter when they are +generally scarce and can be eaten while fresh, instead of having the +whole number produced in the summer, when so many are spoiled from too +long keeping in consequence of more being produced than are required for +use at the time. + +When the time for her laying approaches, her comb and wattles change +from their previous dull hue to a bright red, the eye brightens, the +gait becomes more spirited, and sometimes she cackles for three or four +days. After laying her egg on leaving the nest the hen utters a loud +cackling cry, to which the cock often responds in a high-pitched kind of +scream; but some hens after laying leave the nest in silence. Some hens +will lay an egg in three days, some every other day, and others every +day. Hens should not be forced. By unnaturally forcing a fowl with +stimulating food, and more particularly with hempseed and tallow +greaves, to lay in two years or so the eggs that should have been the +produce of several, the hen becomes prematurely old and diseased; and it +is reasonable to suppose that the eggs are not so good as they would +have been if nature had been left to run its own course. The eggs ought +to be taken from the nest every afternoon when no more may be expected +to be laid; for if left in the nest, the heat of the hens when laying +next day will tend to corrupt them. + +When the shells of the eggs are somewhat soft, it is because the hens +are rather inclined to grow too fat. It is then proper to mix up a +little chalk in their water, and to put a little mortar rubbish in their +food, the quantity of which should be diminished. We give the following +remarks by an experienced poultry-keeper of the old school, as valuable +from being the result of practice: "The hen sometimes experiences a +difficulty in laying. In this case a few grains of salt or garlic put +into the vent have been successfully tried. The keeper should indeed +make use of the latter mode to find out the place where a hen has laid +without his knowledge; for, as the hen will be in haste to deposit her +egg, her pace towards the nest will be quickened; she may then be +followed and her secret found out." + +"Though one particular form," says Mr. Dickson, "is so common to eggs, +that it is known by the familiar name of egg-shaped, yet all keepers of +poultry must be aware that eggs are sometimes nearly round, and +sometimes almost cylindrical, besides innumerable minor shades of +difference. In fact, eggs differ so much in shape, that it is said +experienced poultry-keepers can tell by the shape of the eggs alone the +hen that laid them; for, strange to say, however different in size the +eggs of any particular hen may be occasionally, they are very rarely +different in form. Among the most remarkable eggs may be mentioned those +of the Shanghae, or Cochin-China fowl, which are of a pale chocolate +colour; and those of the Dorking fowl, which are of a pure white, and +nearly as round as balls. The eggs of the Malay fowls are brown; those +of the Polish fowl, which are very much pointed at one end, are of a +delicate pinkish white; and those of the Bantam are of a long oval." + +A very important part of the egg is the air-bag, or _folliculus aeris_, +which is placed at the larger end, between the shell and its lining +membranes. It is, according to Dr. Paris, about the size of the eye of a +small bird in new laid eggs, but enlarges to ten times that size during +the process of incubation. "This air-bag," says Mr. Dickson, "is of such +great importance to the development of the chick, probably by supplying +it with a limited atmosphere of oxygen, that if the blunt end of the egg +be pierced with the point of the smallest needle (a stratagem which +malice not unfrequently suggests), the egg cannot be hatched, but +perishes." + +An egg exposed to the air is continually losing a portion of its +moisture, the place of which is filled by the entrance of air, and the +egg consequently becomes stale, and after a time putrid. M. Reaumur made +many experiments in preserving eggs, and found that, by coating them +with varnish, it was impossible to distinguish those which had been kept +for a year from those newly laid; but varnish, though not expensive, is +not always to be had in country places, and it also remained on the eggs +placed under a hen and impeded the hatching, while in boiling them, the +varnish, not being soluble in hot water, prevented them from being +properly cooked. He tried other substances, and found that fat or +grease, such as suet, lard, dripping, butter, and oil, were well adapted +for the purpose, the best of these being a mixture of mutton and beef +suet thoroughly melted together over a slow fire, and strained through +a linen cloth into an earthen pan. It is only requisite, he says, to +take a piece of the fat or butter about the size of a pea on the end of +the finger, and rub it all over the shell, by passing and repassing the +finger so that no part be left untouched; the transpiration of matter +from the egg being as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat +or grease as by a thick coating, so that no part of the shell be left +ungreased, or the tip of the finger may be dipped into oil and passed +over the shell in the same manner. If it is desired that the eggs should +look clean, they may be afterwards wiped with a towel, for sufficient +grease or oil enters the pores of the shell to prevent all transpiration +without its being necessary that any should be left to fill up the +spaces between the pores. They can be boiled as usual without rubbing +off the fat, as it will melt in the hot water, and when taken out of the +water the little grease that is left upon the egg is easily wiped off +with a napkin. + +Eggs preserved in this manner can also be used for hatching, as the fat +easily melts away by the heat of the hen; and by this means the eggs of +foreign fowls might be carried to a distance, hatched, and naturalised +in this and other countries. The French also find that a mixture of +melted beeswax and olive oil is an excellent preservative. + +Eggs may also be preserved for cooking by packing them in sawdust, in an +earthen vessel, and covering the top with melted mutton suet or fat; as +fruit is sometimes preserved. They are also said to keep well in salt, +in a barrel arranged in layers of salt and eggs alternately. If the salt +should become damp, it would penetrate through the pores of the shell +and pickle them to a certain extent. M. Gagne says that eggs may be +preserved in a mixture made of one bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of +salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, with sufficient water to make +it into a paste of a consistency to receive the eggs, which, it is said, +may be kept in it fresh for two years; but eggs become tasteless when +preserved with lime. It may be as well to mention here that eggs are +comparatively wasted when used in making a rice pudding, as they render +it too hard and dry, and the pudding without them, if properly made, +will be just of the right consistency. + +"Another way to preserve eggs," says Mr. Dickson, "is to have them +cooked in boiling water the same day they are laid. On taking them out +of the water they are marked with red ink, to record their date, and put +away in a cool place, where they will keep, it is said, for several +months. When they are wanted for use, they are again put into hot water +to warm them. The curdy part which is usually seen in new-laid eggs is +so abundant, and the taste is said to be so well preserved, that the +nicest people may be made to believe that they are new laid. At the end +of three or four months, however, the membrane lining the shell becomes +much thickened, and the eggs lose their flavour. Eggs so preserved have +the advantage of not suffering from being carried about." + +"It ought not to be overlooked," says Mr. Dickson, "with respect to the +preservation of eggs, that they not only spoil by the transpiration of +their moisture and the putrid fermentation of their contents, in +consequence of air penetrating through the pores of the shell; but also +by being moved about, and jostled when carried to a distance by sea or +land. Any sort of rough motion indeed ruptures the membranes which keep +the white, the yolk, and the germ of the chick in their proper places, +and upon these becoming mixed, putrefaction soon follows." + +If the eggs are to be kept for setting, place a box, divided by +partitions into divisions for the eggs of the different breeds, in a dry +corner of your kitchen, but not too near to the fire; fill the divisions +with bran previously well dried in an oven; place the eggs in it +upright, with the larger ends uppermost, as soon as they are laid, and +cover them with the bran. Mark each egg in pencil with the date when +laid, and description of breed or cross. They should be kept in a cool +place or a warm place according to the season. Airtight jars, closed +with airtight stoppers, may be used if the eggs are intended to be kept +for a very long time. + +In selecting eggs for setting, choose the freshest, those of moderate +size, well-shaped, and having the air-vessel distinctly visible, either +in the centre of the top of the egg, or slightly to the side, when the +egg is held between the eye and a lighted candle, in a darkened room. +Reject very small eggs, which generally have no yolk, those that are +ill-shaped, and those of equal thickness at both ends, which latter is +the usual shape of eggs with double yolks. These should be avoided, as +they are apt generally to prove unfertile, or produce monstrosities. + +It has been stated that the sex of the embryo chicken can be ascertained +by the position of the air-vessel; that if it be on the top the egg will +produce a cockerel, and if on the side a pullet; but there is no proof +of the truth of this, and, notwithstanding such assertions, it appears +to be impossible to foretell the sex of the chick, from the shape of the +egg or in any other way. + +In selecting eggs for the purpose of producing fowls that are to be kept +for laying only, being non-sitters, choose eggs only from those hens +that are prolific layers, for prolific laying is often as characteristic +of some fowls of a breed as it is of the particular breeds, and by +careful selection this faculty, like others, may be further developed, +or continued if already fully developed. + +If carefully packed, eggs for setting may be carried great +distances--hundreds and even thousands of miles--without injury; +vibration and even moderate shaking, and very considerable changes of +temperature, producing no ill effect upon the germ. The chief point is +to prevent the escape of moisture by evaporation, and consequent +admission of air. A hamper travels with less vibration than a box, and +is therefore preferable, especially for a long journey. They should be +packed in hay, by which they will be preserved from breakage much better +than by being packed in short, close material like bran, chaff, oats, or +sawdust; these being shaken into smaller space by the vibration of +travelling, the eggs often strike and crack each other. The hamper or +box should be large enough to admit of some soft, yielding packing +material being placed all round the eggs. The bottom should be first +covered with a good layer of hay, straw, or moss. It is a good plan to +roll each egg separately in hay or moss, fastened with a little wool or +worsted. They should be covered with well-rubbed straw, pressed down +carefully and gently. The lid of the hamper should be sewed on tightly +all round, or in three or four places at least. If a box is used, the +lid should be fastened by cords or screws, but not with nails, as the +hammering would probably destroy the germ of the egg. + +In procuring eggs for hatching, be sure that the parent birds are of +mature age, but not too old, well-shaped, vigorous, and in perfect +health; that one cock is kept to every six or seven hens; and that they +are well fed and attended to. Have a steady broody hen ready to take the +eggs. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE SITTING HEN. + + +All hens that are inclined to sit should be allowed to hatch and bring +up one brood of chickens a year; for, if altogether restrained from +sitting, a hen suffers much in moulting, and is restless and excited for +the remainder of the season. It is unnatural, and therefore must be +injurious. The period of incubation gives her rest from producing eggs. +The hen that is always stimulated to produce eggs, and not allowed to +vary that process by hatching and bringing up a young brood, must +ultimately suffer from this constant drain upon her system, and the eggs +are said to be unwholesome. + +But hens frequently wish to sit when it is not convenient, or in autumn +or winter, when it is not advisable, unless very late or early chickens +are desired, and every attention can be given to them. To check this +desire, the old-fashioned plan with farmers' wives, of plunging the +broody hen into cold water, and keeping her there for some minutes, was +not only a cruel practice, but often failed to effect its object, and +must naturally always have caused ultimate disease in the poor bird. +When it is absolutely necessary to check the desire of a hen to sit, the +best plan is to let her sit on some nest-eggs for a week, then remove +and coop her for a few days, away from the place where she made her +nest, low diet, as boiled potatoes and boiled rice, and water being +placed near; meanwhile taking away the eggs and destroying the nest, +and, not finding it on her return, she will generally not seek for +another, unless she is a Cochin, or the desire exceedingly strong. + +When a hen wishes to sit, she utters a peculiar cluck, ruffles her +feathers, wanders about, searches obscure corners and recesses, is very +fidgety, feverishly hot, impatient, anxiously restless, and seeks for a +nest. Highly-fed hens feel this desire sooner than those that are not so +highly fed. A hen may be induced to sit at any season, by confining her +in a dark room in a covered basket, only large enough to contain her +nest, keeping her warm, and feeding her on stimulating food, such as +bread steeped in ale, a little raw liver or fresh meat chopped small, +and potatoes mashed warm with milk and oatmeal. + +Every large poultry establishment should have a separate house for the +sitting hens, and the run that should be provided for their relaxation +must be divided from that of the other fowls by wire or lattice work, to +prevent any intrusion. Where there is a large number of sitting hens, +each nest should be numbered, and the date of setting, number and +description of eggs, entered in a diary or memorandum book opposite to +the number; and the number of chickens hatched, and any particulars +likely to be useful on a future occasion, should afterwards be entered. + +A separate house and run for each sitting hen is a great advantage, as +it prevents other hens from going to the nest during her absence, or +herself from returning to the wrong nest, as will often happen in a +common house. The run should not be large, or the hen may be inclined to +wander and stay away too long from her nest. A separate division for the +sitting hen is often otherwise useful, for the purpose of keeping the +cock apart from the hens, or for keeping a few additional birds for +which accommodation has not been prepared, or for the use of a pen of +birds about to be sent for exhibition. + +"Boxes, of which every carpenter knows the form," says Mowbray, "are to +be arranged round the walls, and it is proper to have a sufficient +number, the hens being apt to dispute possession, and sit upon one +another. The board or step at the entrance should be of sufficient +height to prevent the eggs from rolling out. Provision of a few railed +doors may be made for occasional use, to be hung before the entrance, in +order to prevent other hens from intruding to lay their eggs upon those +which sit, a habit to which some are much addicted, and by which a brood +is often injured. The common deep square boxes, uncovered at top, are +extremely improper, because that form obliges the hen to jump down upon +her eggs, whereas for safety she should descend upon them from a very +small height, or in a manner walk in upon them. The same objection lies +against hampers, with the additional one of the wicker-work admitting +the cold in variable weather, during winter or early spring sittings. +Many breeders prefer to have all the nests upon the ground, on account +of the danger of chickens falling from the nests which are placed +above." The ground is preferable for other reasons. The damp arising +from the ground assists very materially in incubation. When fowls sit +upon wooden floors, or in boxes, the eggs become so dry and parched as +to prevent the chicken from disencumbering itself of the shell, and it +is liable to perish in its attempts. Hens in a state of nature make +their nests upon the ground; and fowls, when left to choose a nest for +themselves, generally fix upon a hedge, where the hen conceals herself +under the branches of the hedge, and among the grass. In general, the +sitting places are too close and confined, and very different in this +respect to those that hens select for themselves. + +But nests cannot always be allowed to be made on the ground, unless +properly secured from vermin, particularly from rats, which will +frequently convey away the whole of the eggs from under a hen. And other +considerations may render it necessary to have them on a floor, in boxes +on the ground, or placed above; in which cases the eggs must be kept +properly moistened, for, unless the egg is kept sufficiently damp, its +inner membrane becomes so hard and dry that the chicken cannot break +through, and perishes. When a hen steals her nest in a hedge or clump of +evergreens or bushes, she makes it on the damp ground. She goes in +search of food early in the morning, before the dew is off the grass, +and returns to her nest with her feathers saturated with moisture. This +is the cause of the comparatively successful hatching of the eggs of +wild birds. The old farmers' wives did not understand the necessity of +damping eggs, but frequently complained of their not hatching, although +chickens were found in them, which was, in most cases, entirely caused +by want of damping. If, therefore, the weather is warm and wet, all will +probably go well; but if the air should be very dry, moisture must be +imparted by sprinkling the nest and eggs slightly, when the hen is off +feeding, by means of a small brush dipped in tepid water. A small flat +brush such as is used by painters is excellent for this purpose, as it +does not distribute the water too freely. The ground round about, also, +should be watered with hot water, to cause a steam. But the natural +moisture of a damp soil is preferable, and never fails. + +The nest may be of any shape. A long box divided by partitions into +several compartments is much used, but separate boxes or baskets are +preferable as being more easily cleaned and freed from vermin. Wooden +nest-boxes are preferable to wicker baskets in winter, as the latter let +in the cold air, but many prefer wicker baskets in summer for their +airiness. A round glazed earthen pan, with shelving sides, like those +used in the midland counties for milk, and partially filled with moss, +forms a good nest, the moss being easier kept moist in such a pan than +in a box. The nest should be made so large that the hen can just fill +it, not very deep, and as nearly flat inside at the bottom as possible, +so that the eggs may not lean against each other, or they may get +broken, especially by the hen turning them. + +The best filling for hatching nests is fine dry sand, mould, coal or +wood ashes placed on a cut turf, covering it and lining the sides with a +little well-broken dry grass, moss, bruised straw, lichen, or liverwort +collected from trees, or dry heather, which is the best of all, but +cannot always be had. Hay, though soft at first, soon becomes hard and +matted, and is also said to breed vermin. Straw is good material, but +must be cut into short pieces, for if long straw is used and the hen +should catch her foot in it, and drag it after her when she leaves the +nest, it will disturb, if not break, the eggs. The nests of the sitting +hens in Her Majesty's poultry-yard at Windsor are made of heather, +which offers an excellent medium between the natural damp hedge-nest of +the hen and the dryness of a box filled with straw, and also enables her +to free herself from those insects which are so troublesome to sitting +hens. A thick layer of ashes placed under the straw in cold weather will +keep in the heat of the hen. A little Scotch snuff is a good thing to +keep the nests free from vermin. + +Where only a few fowls are kept, and a separate place cannot be found +for the sitting hen, she can be placed on a nest which should be covered +over with a coop, closed in with a little boarding or some other +contrivance for a day or two, to prevent her being disturbed by any +other fowls that have been accustomed to lay there. They will then soon +use another nest. She should be carefully lifted off her nest, by taking +hold of her under the wings, regularly every morning, exercised and fed, +and then shut in, so that she cannot be annoyed. + +It is best to allow a hen to keep the nest she has chosen when she shows +an inclination to sit; and if she continues to sit steadily, and has not +a sufficient number of eggs under her, or the eggs you desire her to +hatch, remove her gently at night, replace the eggs with the proper +batch, and place her quietly upon the nest again. Hens are very fond of +choosing their own nests in out of the way places; and where the spot is +not unsafe, or too much exposed to the weather, it is best to let her +keep possession, for it has been noticed that, when she selects her own +nest and manages for herself, she generally brings forth a good and +numerous brood. Mr. Tegetmeier observes that he has "reason to believe, +indeed, that whatever care may be taken in keeping eggs, their vitality +is better preserved when they are allowed to remain in the nest. Perhaps +the periodical visits of the hen, while adding to her store of eggs, has +a stimulating influence. The warmth communicated in the half-hour during +which she occupies the nest may have a tendency to preserve the embryo +in a vigorous state." + +It is a good plan, before giving an untried hen choice eggs, to let her +sit upon a few chalk or stale eggs for a few days, and if she continue +to sit with constancy, then to give her the batch for hatching. When +choice can be made out of several broody hens for a valuable batch of +eggs, one should be selected with rather short legs, a broad body, large +wings well furnished with feathers, and having the nails and spurs not +too long or sharp. As a rule, hens which are the best layers are the +worst sitters, and those with short legs are good sitters, while +long-legged hens are not. Dorkings are the best sitters of all breeds, +and by high feeding may be induced to sit in October, especially if they +have moulted early, and with great care and attention chickens may be +reared and made fit for table by Christmas. Early in the spring Dorkings +only should be employed as mothers, for they remain much longer with +their chickens than the Cochin-Chinas, but the latter may safely be +entrusted with a brood after April. Cochins are excellent sitters, and, +from the quantity of "fluff" which is peculiar to them, keep the eggs at +a high and regular degree of heat. Their short legs also are +advantageous for sitting. A Cochin hen can always be easily induced to +sit, and eggs of theirs or of Brahma Pootras for sitting, are not wanted +in the coldest weather. + +Old hens are more steady sitters than pullets, more fond of their brood, +and not so apt as pullets to leave them too soon. Indeed, pullets were +formerly never allowed to sit before the second year of their laying, +but now many eminent authorities think it best to let them sit when they +show a strong desire to do so, considering that the prejudice against +them upon this point is unfounded, and that young hens sit as well as +older fowls. Pullets hatched early will generally begin to lay in +November or December, if kept warm and well fed, and will sit in January +or February. + +Broody hens brought from a distance should be carried in a basket, +covered over with a cloth. + +The number of eggs to be set under a hen must be according to the extent +of her wings and the temperature of the weather. Some say that the +number may vary from nine to fourteen, but others would never give more +than nine in winter and early spring, and eleven in summer, to the +largest hen, and two fewer to the smaller fowls. A Cochin-China may have +fifteen of her own in summer. A hen should not be allowed more eggs than +she can completely cover; for eggs that are not thoroughly covered +become chilled, and fewer and weaker chickens will be hatched from too +large a number than from a more moderate allowance. It is not only +necessary to consider how many eggs a hen can hatch, but also how many +chickens she can cover when they are partly grown. In January and +February, not more than seven or eight eggs should be placed under the +hen, as she cannot cover more than that number of chickens when they +grow large, and exposure to the cold during the long winter nights would +destroy many. "The common order to set egges," says Mascall, "is in +odde numbers, as seven, nyne, eleven, thirteen, &c., whiche is to make +them lye round the neste, and to have the odde egge in the middest." + +Eggs for sitting should be under a fortnight old, if possible, and never +more than a month. Fresh eggs hatch in proper time, and, if good, +produce strong, lively chicks; while stale eggs are hatched sometimes as +much as two days later than new laid, and the chickens are often too +weak to break the shell, while of those well out fewer will probably be +reared. It is certain, as a general rule, that the older the egg the +weaker will be its progeny. Every egg should be marked by a pencil or +ink line drawn quite round it, so that it can be known without touching, +and if another be laid afterwards it may be at once detected and +removed, for hens will sometimes lay several after they have commenced +sitting. Place the eggs under the hen with their larger ends uppermost. + +Let the hen be well fed and supplied with water before putting her on +the nest. Whole barley and soft food, chiefly barley-meal and mashed +potatoes, should be given to her when she comes off the nest, and she +must have as much as she will eat, for she leaves the nest but once +daily, and the full heat of the body cannot be kept up without plenty of +food; or she may have the same food as the general stock. A good supply +of water must be always within her reach. A good-sized shallow box or +pan, containing fine coal-ashes, sand, or dry earth, to cleanse herself +in, should always be ready near to the nest. She should be left +undisturbed, and, as far as possible, allowed to manage her own +business. When a hen shows impatience of her confinement, and frequently +leaves the nest, M. Parmentier advises that half only of her usual meal +should be given, after which she should be replaced on the nest and fed +from the hand with hemp or millet seed, which will induce her to stay +constantly on her eggs. Others will sit so long and closely that they +become faint for want of food. Such hens should not be fed on the nest, +but gently induced with some tempting dainty to take a little exercise, +for they will not leave their eggs of their own accord, and feeding on +the nest has crippled many a good sitter. It is not healthy for the hen +to feed while sitting on or close by the nest, for she requires a little +exercise and rolling in the dust-heap, as well as that the eggs should +be exposed for the air to carry off any of that stagnant vapour which M. +Reaumur proved to be so destructive to the embryo chickens; and it has +also been shown by physiologists that the cooling of the eggs caused by +this absence of the hen is essential to allow a supply of air to +penetrate through the pores of the shell, for the respiration of the +chick. When there are many hens sitting at the same time, it is a good +plan to take them off their nests regularly at the same time every +morning to feed, and afterwards give them an opportunity to cleanse +themselves in a convenient dusting-place, and, if possible, allow them +exercise in a good grass run. A hen should never be caught, but driven +back gently to her nest. + +A good hen will not stay away more than half an hour, unless infested +with vermin, from want of having a proper dust-heap. But hens have often +been absent for more than an hour, and yet have hatched seven or eight +chickens; and instances have been known of their being absent for five +and even for nine hours, and yet hatching a few. The following +remarkable instance is recorded by an excellent authority: "Eggs had +been supplied and a sitting hen lent to a neighbour, and, when she had +set in a granary ten days, she was shut out through the carelessness of +a servant. Being a stranger in the farmyard, the hen was not recognised, +but supposed to have strayed in from an adjoining walk, and thirty hours +elapsed before it was discovered that the hen had left her nest. The +farmer's wife despaired of her brood; but, to her surprise and pleasure, +eight chickens were hatched. The tiled roof of the granary was fully +exposed to the rays of the sun, and the temperature very high, probably +above 80 deg. during the day, and not much lower at night." Valuable +eggs, therefore, should not be abandoned on account of a rather +lengthened absence; and ordinary eggs should not be discarded as +worthless if the hen has already sat upon them for a fortnight or so; +but if she has been sitting for only a few days, it is safer to throw +them away, and have a fresh batch. + +During the hen's absence, always look at the eggs, remove any that may +have been broken, and very gently wash any sticky or dirty eggs with a +flannel dipped in milk-warm water. See that they are dry before putting +them back. If the nest is also dirty, replace it with fresh material of +the same kind. Gently drive the hen back to her nest as quickly as +possible, to prevent any damage from the eggs becoming chilled. If a hen +should break an egg with her feet or otherwise, it should be removed as +soon as it is seen, or she may eat it, and, liking the taste, break and +eat the others. Some hens have a bad habit of breaking and eating the +eggs on which they are sitting, to cure which some recommend to boil an +egg hard, bore a few holes in it, so that the inside can be seen, and +give it while hot to the culprit, who will peck at the holes and burn +herself; but hens with such propensities should be fattened for the +table, for they are generally useless either for sitting or laying. + +Some persons examine the eggs after the hen has sat upon them for six or +seven days, and remove all that are sterile, by which plan more warmth +and space are gained for those that are fertile, and the warmth is not +wasted upon barren eggs. They may be easily proved by holding them near +to the flame of a candle, the eye being kept shaded by one hand, when +the fertile eggs will appear dark and the sterile transparent. Another +plan is to place the eggs on a drum, or between the hands, in the +sunshine, and observe the shadow. If this wavers, by the motion of the +chick, the eggs are good; but if the shadow shows no motion, they are +unfertile. If two hens have been sitting during the same time, and many +unfertile eggs are found in the two nests, all the fertile eggs should +be placed under one hen, and a fresh batch given to the other. The eggs +should not be moved after this time, except by the hen, more especially +when incubation has proceeded for some time, lest the position of the +chick be interfered with, for if taken up a little time before its exit, +and incautiously replaced with the large end lowermost, the chicken, +from its position, will not be able to chip the shell, and must +therefore perish. The forepart of the chicken is towards the biggest end +of the egg, and it is so placed in the shell that the beak is always +uppermost. When the egg of a choice breed has been cracked towards the +end of the period of incubation, the crack may be covered with a slip of +gummed paper, or the unprinted border that is round a sheet of postage +stamps, and the damaged egg will probably yet produce a fine chick. + +It is a good plan to set two hens on the same day, for the two broods +may be united under one if desirable, and on the hatching day, to +prevent the newly-born chickens being crushed by the unhatched eggs, all +that are hatched can be given to one hen, and the other take charge of +the eggs, which are then more likely to be hatched, as, while the +chickens are under the hen, she will sit higher from the eggs, and +afford them less warmth when they require it most. + +The hen of all kinds of gallinaceous fowls, from the Bantam to the +Cochin-China, sits for twenty-one days, at which time, on an average, +the chickens break the shell; but if the eggs are new laid it will often +lessen the time by five or six hours, while stale eggs will always be +behind time. For the purpose of breaking the shell, the yet soft beak of +the chicken is furnished, just above the point of the upper mandible, +with a small, hard, horny scale, which, from the position of the head, +as Mr. Yarrell observes, is brought in contact with the inner surface of +the shell. This scale may be always seen on the beaks of newly-hatched +chickens, but in the course of a short time peels off. It should not be +removed. The peculiar sound, incorrectly called "tapping," so +perceptible within the egg about the nineteenth day of incubation, which +was universally believed to be produced by the bill of the chick +striking against the shell in order to break it and effect its release, +has been incontestably proved, by the late Dr. F. R. Horner, of Hull, in +a paper read by him before the British Association for the Advancement +of Science, to be a totally distinct sound, being nothing more than the +natural respiratory sound in the lungs of the young chick, which first +begins to breathe at that period. Of course there is also an occasional +sound made by the tapping of the beak in endeavouring to break the +shell. + +The time occupied in breaking the shell varies, according to the +strength of the chick, from one to three hours usually, but extends +sometimes to twenty-four, and even more. "I have seen," says Reaumur, +"chicks continue at work for two days together; some work incessantly, +while others take rest at intervals, according to their physical +strength. Some, I have observed, begin to break the shell a great deal +too soon; for, be it observed, they ought, before they make their exit, +to have within them provision enough to serve for twenty-four hours +without taking food, and for this purpose the unconsumed portion of the +yolk enters through the navel. The chick, indeed, which comes out of the +shell without taking up all the yolk is certain to droop and die in a +few days after it is hatched. The assistance which I have occasionally +tried to give to several of them, by way of completing their +deliverance, has afforded me an opportunity of observing those which had +begun to break their shells before this was accomplished; and I have +opened many eggs much fractured, in each of which the chick had as yet +much of the yolk not absorbed. Some chicks have greater obstacles to +overcome than others, since all shells are not of an equal thickness nor +of an equal consistence; and the same inequality takes place in the +lining membrane, and offers still greater difficulty to the emergent +chick. The shells of the eggs of birds of various species are of a +thickness proportionate to the strength of the chick that is obliged to +break through them. The canary-bird would never be able to break the +shell it is enclosed in if that were as thick as the egg of a barn-door +fowl. The chick of a barn-door fowl, again, would in vain try to break +its shell if it were as thick and hard as that of an ostrich; indeed, +though an ostrich ready to be hatched is perhaps thrice as large as the +common chick, it is not easy to conceive how the force of its bill can +be strong enough to break a shell thicker than a china cup, and the +smoothness and gloss of which indicate that it is nearly as +hard--sufficiently so to form, as may be often seen, a firm +drinking-cup. It is the practice in some countries to dip the eggs into +warm water at the time they are expected to chip, on the supposition +that the shell is thereby rendered more fragile, and the labour of the +chick lightened. But, though the water should soften it, upon drying in +the air it would become as hard as at first. When the chick is entirely +or almost out of the shell, it draws its head from under its wing, where +it had hitherto been placed, stretches out its neck, directing it +forwards, but for several minutes is unable to raise it. On seeing for +the first time a chick in this condition, we are led to infer that its +strength is exhausted, and that it is ready to expire; but in most cases +it recruits rapidly, its organs acquire strength, and in a very short +time it appears quite another creature. After having dragged itself on +its legs a little while, it becomes capable of standing on them, and of +lifting up its neck and bending it in various directions, and at length +of holding up its head. At this period the feathers are merely fine +down, but, as they are wet with the fluid of the egg, the chick appears +almost naked. From the multitude of their branchlets these down +feathers resemble minute shrubs; when, however, these branchlets are wet +and sticking to each other, they take up but very little room; as they +dry they become disentangled and separated. The branchlets, plumules, or +beards of each feather are at first enclosed in a membranous tube, by +which they are pressed and kept close together; but as soon as this +dries it splits asunder, an effect assisted also by the elasticity of +the plumules themselves, which causes them to recede and spread +themselves out. This being accomplished, each down feather extends over +a considerable space, and when they all become dry and straight, the +chick appears completely clothed in a warm vestment of soft down." + +If they are not out in a few hours after the shell has been broken, and +the hole is not enlarged, they are probably glued to the shell. Look +through the egg then, and, if all the yolk has passed into the body of +the chicken, you may assist it by enlarging the fracture with a pair of +fine scissors, cutting up towards the large end of the egg, never +downwards. "If," says Miss Watts, "the time has arrived when the chicken +may with safety be liberated, there will be no appearance of blood in +the minute blood-vessels spread over the interior of the shell; they +have done their work, and are no longer needed by the now fully +developed and breathing chick. If there should be the slightest +appearance of blood, resist at once, for its escape would generally be +fatal. Do not attempt to let the chicken out at once, but help it a +little every two or three hours. The object is not to hurry the chicken +out of its shell, but to prevent its being suffocated by being close +shut up within it. If the chick is tolerably strong, and the assistance +needful, it will aid its deliverance with its own exertions." When the +chicken at last makes its way out, do not interfere with it in any way, +or attempt to feed it. Animal heat alone can restore it. Weakness has +caused the delay, and this has probably arisen from insufficient warmth, +perhaps from the hen having had too many eggs to cover thoroughly, or +they may have been stale when set. Should you have to assist it out of +the shell, take it out gently with your fingers, taking great care not +to tear any of its tender skin, when freeing the feathers from the +shell. + +Mr. Wright says: "We never ourselves now attempt to assist a chick from +the shell. If the eggs were fresh, and proper care has been taken to +preserve moisture during incubation, no assistance is ever needed. To +fuss about the nest frets the hen exceedingly; and we have always found +that, even where the poor little creature survived at the time, it never +lived to maturity. Should the reader attempt such assistance, in cases +where an egg has been long chipped, and no further progress made, let +the shell be cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside +membrane; if that be perforated, the viscid fluid inside dries and glues +the chick to the shell. Should this happen, or should both shell and +membrane be perforated at first, introduce the point of a pair of +scissors and cut up the egg towards the large end, where there will be +an empty space, remembering that, if blood flows, all hope is at end. +Then put the chick back under the hen; she will probably squeeze it to +death, it is true--it is so very weak; but it will never live if put by +the fire, at least we always found it so. Indeed, as we have said, we +consider it quite useless to make the attempt at all." + +The fact is, it is scarcely worth while to attempt to assist in the case +of ordinary eggs, but if the breed is valuable the labour may be well +bestowed. + +Some hens are reluctant to give up sitting, and will hatch a second +brood with evident pleasure; but it is cruel to overtask their strength +and patience, and they are sure to suffer, more or less, from the +unnatural exertion. + +Some breeders use a contrivance called an "artificial mother" for broods +hatched under the hen, and it may be employed very advantageously when +any accident has happened to her. It is made in various forms, such as a +wooden frame, or shallow box, open at both ends, and sloping like a +writing-desk, with a perforated lid lined with sheep or lamb's skin, +goose-down, or some similar warm fleecy material hanging down, under and +between which the chickens nestle, heat being applied to the lid either +by hot water or hot air, so as to imitate the warmth of the hen's +breast. When chickens are hatched by artificial means, such as by the +Hydro-Incubator, or the Eccaleobion, or in an oven according to the +method practised by the Egyptians, these protectors are essential; for +without a good substitute for the hen's natural warmth the chickens +would perish. Artificial incubators are now extensively used, and where +gas is laid on they are easily managed, but the chief difficulty is in +rearing the chickens. For information on the subject see the works of +Tegetmeier, Dickson, and Wright, on Poultry. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +REARING AND FATTENING FOWLS. + + +The first want which the chick will feel will be that of warmth, and +there is no warmth so suited for them as that of the hen's body. Some +persons remove the chicks from under the mother as soon as they are +hatched, one by one, placing them in a basket covered up with flannel, +and keep them there in a warm place, until the last chick is out, when +they are put back under the hen. But this is very seldom necessary +unless the weather is very cold and the hen restless, and is generally +more likely to annoy than benefit her. Nor should the hen be induced to +leave the nest, but be left undisturbed until she leaves of her own +accord, when the last hatched chickens will be in a better condition to +follow her than if she had been tempted to leave earlier. In a few hours +they are able to run about and follow their parent; they do not require +to be fed in the nest like most birds, but pick up the food which their +mother shows them; and repose at night huddled up beneath her wings. The +chicken during its development in the egg is nourished by the yolk, and +the remaining portion of the yolk passes into its body previous to its +leaving the shell, being designed for its first nourishment; and the +chicken, therefore, does not require any food whatever during the first +day. The old-fashioned plan, so popular with "practical" farmers' wives, +of cramming a peppercorn down the throat of the newly-hatched chick is +absurd and injurious. + +The first food must be very light and delicate, such as crumbs of bread +soaked in milk, the yolk of an egg boiled hard, and curds; but very +little of anything at first except water, for thirst will come before +hunger. The thirsty hen will herself soon teach the little ones how to +drink. If your chicks be very weakly, you may cram them with crumbs of +good white bread, steeped in milk or wine, but at the same time +recollect that their little craws are not capable of holding more than +the bulk of a pea; so rather under than over feed them. + +As soon as the hen leaves the nest, she should have as much grain as she +can eat, and a good supply of pure, clean water. In winter, or settled +wet weather, she should, if possible, be kept on her nest for a day, +and, when removed, be cooped in a warm, dry shed or outhouse; but in +summer, if the weather be fine, and the chickens well upon their legs, +they may be at once cooped out in the sun, on dry gravel, or if possible +on a nice grass-plot, with food and water within her reach. The hen is +cooped to prevent her from wearying the brood by leading them about +until they are over-tired, besides being exposed to danger from cats, +hawks, and vermin, tumbling into ditches, or getting wet in the high +grass. They can pass in and out between the bars of the coop, and will +come when she calls, or they wish to shelter under her wings. It is a +good plan to place the coop for the first day out upon some dry sand, so +that the hen can cleanse herself comfortably. The common basket coop +should only be used in fine weather, and some straw, kept down by a +stone, matting, or other covering, should be placed on the top, to +shelter them from the mid-day sun; otherwise a wooden coop should be +used, open in front only, about two and a half or three feet square; +well-made of stout, sound boards, with a gabled roof covered with felt; +and at night a thick canvas or matting should be hung over the front, +sufficient space being left for proper ventilation, but not to admit +cold draught, or to allow the chicks to get out. Mr. Wright describes an +excellent coop which is "very common in some parts of France, and +consists of two compartments, separated by a partition of bars, one +compartment being closed in front, the other fronted with bars like the +partition. Each set of bars should have a sliding one to serve as a +door, and the whole coop should be tight and sound. It is best to have +no bottom, but to put it on loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or two +deep. Each half of the coop is about two feet six inches square, and may +or may not be lighted from the top by a small pane of glass. The +advantage of such a coop is that, except in very severe weather, no +further shelter is required, even at night [if placed under a shed]. +During the day the hen is kept in the outer compartment, the chickens +having liberty, and the food and water being placed outside; whilst at +night she is put in the inner portion of the coop, and a piece of canvas +or sacking hung over the bars of the outer half. If the top be glazed, a +little food and the water-vessel may be placed in the outer compartment +at night, and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early in the +morning, being prevented by the canvas from going out into the cold air. +It will be only needful to remove the coop every two days for a few +minutes, to take away the tainted earth and replace it with fresh. There +should, if possible, be a grass-plot in front of the shed, the floor of +which should be covered with dry, loose dust or earth." The hen should +be kept under a coop until the brood has grown strong. Some breeders +object to cooping, on account of its preventing the hen from scratching +for worms and insects for her brood, and which are far superior to the +substitutes with which they must be supplied, unless, indeed, a good +supply of worms, ants' eggs, insects, or gentles can be had. The hen too +has not sufficient exercise after her long sitting. Cooping thus has its +advantages and disadvantages, and its adoption or not should depend upon +circumstances. If it is preferred not to coop the hen, and she should be +inclined to roam too far, a small run may be made with network, or with +the moveable wire-work described on page 21. + +Winter-hatched chickens must be reared and fed in a warm place, which +must be kept at an equal temperature. They return a large profit for the +great care they require in hatching and rearing. + +Chickens should be fed very often; every two hours is not too +frequently. The number of these meals must be reduced by degrees to +four or five, which may be continued until they are full grown. Grain +should not be given to newly-hatched chickens. The very best food for +them, after their first meal of bread-crumbs and egg, is made of two +parts of coarse oatmeal and one part of barley-meal, mixed into a thick +crumbly paste with milk or water. If milk is used, it must be fresh +mixed for each meal, or it will become sour. Cold oatmeal porridge is an +excellent food, and much liked by them. After the first week they may +have cheaper food, such as bran, oatmeal, and Indian meal mixed, or +potatoes mashed with bran. In a few days they may also have some whole +grain, which their little gizzards will then be fully able to grind. +Grits, crushed wheat, or bruised oats, should form the last meal at +night. Bread sopped in water is the worst food they can have, and even +with milk is still inferior to meal. For the first three or four days +they may also have daily the yolk of an egg boiled hard and chopped up +small, which will be sufficient for a dozen chicks; and afterwards, a +piece of cooked meat, rather underdone, the size of a good walnut, +minced fine, should be daily given to the brood until they are three +weeks old. In winter and very early spring this stimulating diet may be +given regularly, and once a day they should also have some stale bread +soaked in ale; and whenever chickens suffer from bad feathering, caused +either by the coldness of the season or delicacy of constitution, they +must be fed highly, and have a daily supply of bread soaked in ale. +Ants' eggs, which are well known as the very best animal diet for young +pheasants, are also excellent for young chickens; and when a nest can be +obtained it should be thrown with its surrounding mould into the run for +them to peck at. Where there is no grass-plot they should have some +grass cut into small pieces, or other vegetable food minced small, until +they are able to peck pieces from the large leaves. Onion tops and leeks +chopped small, cress, lettuce, and cabbage, are much relished by all +young poultry. The French breeders give a few dried nettle seeds +occasionally. Young growing fowls can scarcely have too much food, so +long as they eat it with a good appetite, and do not tread any about, or +otherwise leave it to waste. + +Young poultry cannot thrive if overcrowded. They should not be allowed +to roost on the branches of trees or shrubs, or otherwise out of doors, +even in the warmest weather, or they will acquire the habit of sleeping +out, which cannot be easily overcome; not that they would suffer much +from even severe weather, when once accustomed to roosting out of doors, +but from want of warmth the supply of eggs would decrease, and it would, +in many places, be unsafe and, in most, inconvenient. + +The sooner chickens can be fattened, of course the greater must be the +profit. They should be put up for fattening as soon as they have quitted +the hen, for they are then generally in good condition, but begin to +lose flesh as their bones develop and become stronger, particularly +those fowls which stand high on the leg. + +Fowls are in perfection for eating just before they are fully developed. +By keeping young fowls, especially the cockerels, too long before +fattening them for market or home consumption, they eat up all the +profit that would be made by disposing of them when the pullets have +ceased laying just before their first adult moult, and the cockerels +before their appetites have become large. Fowls intended to be fattened +should be well and abundantly fed from their birth; for if they are +badly fed during their growth they become stunted, the bones do not +attain their full size, and no amount of feeding will afterwards supply +these defects and transform them into fine, large birds. Poultry that +have been constantly fed well from their birth will not only be always +ready for the table, with very little extra attention and feeding, but +their flesh will be superior in juiciness and rich flavour to those +which are fattened up from a poor state. In choosing full-grown fowls +for fattening, the short-legged and early-hatched should be preferred. + +In fattening poultry, "the well-known common methods," Mowbray observes, +"are, first, to give fowls the run of the farmyard, where they thrive +upon the offals of the stables and other refuse, with perhaps some +small regular feeds; but at threshing time they become fat, and are +thence styled barn-door fowls, probably the most delicate and +high-flavoured of all others, both from their full allowance of the +finest corn and from the constant health in which they are kept, by +living in the natural state, and having the full enjoyment of air and +exercise; or secondly, they are confined during a certain number of +weeks in coops; those fowls which are soonest ready being drawn as +wanted." "The former method," says Mr. Dickson, "is immeasurably the +best as regards the flavour and even wholesomeness of the fowls as food, +and though the latter mode may, in some cases, make the fowls fatter, it +is only when they have been always accustomed to confinement; for when +barn-door fowls are cooped up for a week or two under the notion of +improving them for the table, and increasing their fat, it rarely +succeeds, since the fowls generally pine for their liberty, and, +slighting their food, lose instead of gaining additional flesh." + +To fatten fowls that have not the advantage of a barn-door, Mowbray +recommends fattening-houses large enough to contain twenty or thirty +fowls, warm and airy, with well-raised earth floors, slightly littered +down with straw, which should be often changed, and the whole place kept +perfectly clean. "Sandy gravel," he says, "should be placed in several +different layers, and often changed. A sufficient number of troughs for +both water and food should be placed around, that the stock may feed +with as little interruption as possible from each other, and perches in +the same proportion should be furnished for those birds which are +inclined to perch, which few of them will desire after they have begun +to fatten, but it helps to keep them easy and contented until that +period. In this manner fowls may be fattened to the highest pitch, and +yet preserved in a healthy state, their flesh being nearly equal in +quality to the barn-door fowl. To suffer fattening fowls to perch is +contrary to the general practice, since it is supposed to bend and +deform the backbone; but as soon as they become heavy and indolent from +feeding, they will rather incline to roost in the straw, and the +liberty of perching has a tendency to accelerate the period when they +wish for rest." + +The practice of fattening fowls in coops, if carried to a moderate +extent, is not objectionable, and may be necessary in many cases. The +coop may be three feet high, two feet wide, and four feet long, which +will accommodate six or eight birds, according to their size; or it may +be constructed in compartments, each being about nine inches by +eighteen, and about eighteen inches high. The floor should not consist +of board, but be formed of bars two inches wide, and placed two inches +apart. The bars should be laid from side to side, and not from the back +to the front of the coop. They should be two inches wide at the upper +part, with slanting or rounded sides, so as to prevent the dung from +sticking to them instead of falling straight between. The front should +be made of rails three inches apart. The house in which the coops are +placed should be properly ventilated, but free from cold draughts, and +kept of an even temperature, which should be moderately warm. The fronts +of the coops should be covered with matting or other kind of protection +in cold weather. The coop should be placed about two inches from the +ground, and a shallow tray filled with fresh dry earth should be placed +underneath to catch the droppings, and renewed every day. + +When fowls are put up to fat they should not have any food given to them +for some hours, and they will take it then more eagerly than if pressed +upon them when first put into the coop. But little grain should be given +to fowls during the time they are fattening in coops; indeed the chief +secret of success consists in supplying them with the most fattening +food without stint, in such a form that their digestive mills shall find +no difficulty in grinding it. Buckwheat-meal is the best food for +fattening; and to its use the French, in a great measure, owe the +splendid condition of the fowls they send to market. If it cannot be +had, the best substitute is an equal mixture of maize-meal and +barley-meal. The meal may be mixed with skim milk if available. Oatmeal +and barley-meal alternately, mixed with milk, and occasionally with a +little dripping, is good fattening food. Milk is most excellent for all +young poultry. A little chopped green food should be given daily, to +keep their bowels in a proper state. + +The feeding-troughs, which must be kept clean by frequent scouring, +should be placed before the fowls at regular times, and when they have +eaten sufficient it is best to remove them, and place a little gravel +within reach to assist digestion. Each fowl should have as much food as +it will eat at one time, but none should be left to become sour. A +little barley may, however, be scattered within their reach. A good +supply of clean water must be always within their reach. If a bird +appears to be troubled with vermin, some powdered sulphur, well rubbed +into the roots of the feathers, will give immediate relief. The coops +should be thoroughly lime-washed after the fowls are removed, and well +dried before fresh birds are put up in them. + +It is a common practice to fatten poultry in coops by a process called +"cramming," by which they are loaded with greasy fat in a very short +time. But it is evident that such overtaxing of the fowls' digestive +powers, want of exercise and fresh air, confinement in a small space, +and partial deprivation of light, without which nothing living, either +animal or vegetable, can flourish, cannot produce healthy or wholesome +flesh. "Indeed," as Mowbray observes, "it seems contrary to reason, that +fowls fed upon such greasy, impure mixtures can possibly produce flesh +or fat so firm, delicate, high-flavoured, or nourishing, as those +fattened upon more simple and substantial food; as for example, meal and +milk, and perhaps either treacle or sugar. With respect to grease of any +kind, its chief effect must be to render the flesh loose and of a coarse +flavour. Neither can any advantage be gained, except perhaps a +commercial one, by very quick feeding; for real excellence cannot be +obtained but by waiting nature's time, and using the best food. Besides +all this, I have been very unsuccessful in my few attempts to fatten +fowls by cramming; they seem to loathe the crams, to pine, and to lose +the flesh they were put up with, instead of acquiring flesh; and when +crammed fowls do succeed, they must necessarily, in the height of their +fat, be in a state of disease." Mr. Muirhead, poulterer to Her Majesty +in Scotland, says: "With regard to _cramming_, I may say that it is +_wholly_ unnecessary, provided the fowls have abundance of the best food +at regular intervals, fresh air, and a free run; in confinement fowls +may gain fat, but they lose flesh. None but those who have had +experience can form any idea how both qualities can be obtained in a +natural way. I have seen fowls reared at Inchmartine (which had never +been shut up, or had food forced upon them), equal, if not superior, to +the finest Surrey fowl, or those fattened by myself for the Royal +table." + +If "cramming" is practised it should be done in the following manner: +The feeder, usually a female, should take the fowl carefully out of the +fatting-coop by placing both her hands gently under its breast, then sit +down with the bird upon her lap, its rump under her left arm, open its +mouth with the finger and thumb of the left hand, take the pellet with +the right, dip it well into water, milk, or pot liquor, shake the +superfluous moisture from it, put it into the mouth, "cram" it gently +into the gullet with her forefinger, then close the beak and gently +assist it down into the crop with the forefinger and thumb, without +breaking the pellet, and taking great care not to pinch the throat. When +the fowl has been "crammed" it should be carefully carried back to its +coop, both hands being placed under its breast as before. Chickens +should be "crammed" regularly every twelve hours. The "cramming" should +commence with a few pellets, and the number be gradually increased at +each meal until it amounts to about fifteen. But always before you begin +to feed gently feel the fowl's crop to ascertain that the preceding meal +has been digested, and if you find it to contain food, let the bird wait +until it is all digested, and give it fewer pellets at the next meal. If +the "crams" should become hardened in the crop, some lukewarm water must +be given to the bird, or poured down its throat if disinclined to +drink, and the crop be gently pressed with the fingers until the +hardened mass has become loosened so that the gizzard can grind it. + +The food chiefly used in France for "cramming" fowls is buckwheat-meal +bolted very fine and mixed with milk. It should be prepared in the +following manner: Pour the milk, which should be lukewarm in winter, +into a hole made in the heap of meal, mixing it up with a wooden spoon a +little at a time as long as the meal will take up the milk, and make it +into the consistency of dough, keep kneading it until it will not stick +to the hands, then divide it into pieces twice as large as an egg, which +form into rolls generally about as thick as a small finger, but more or +less thick according to the size of the fowls to be fed, and divide the +rolls into pellets about two and a half inches in length by a slanting +cut, which leaves pointed ends, that are easier to "cram" the fowls with +than if they were square. The pellets should be rolled up as dry as +possible. + +The operation of caponising as performed in England is barbarous, +extremely painful, and dangerous. In France it is performed in a much +more scientific and skilful manner. But the small advantage gained by +this unnatural operation is more than counterbalanced by the unnecessary +pain inflicted on the bird, and the great risk of losing it. Capons +never moult, and lose their previously strong, shrill voice. In warm, +dry countries they grow to a large size, and soon fatten, but do not +succeed well in our moist, cold climate. They are not common in this +country, and most of the fowls sold in the London markets as capons are +merely young cockerels well crammed. If capons are kept they should have +a separate house, for the other fowls will not allow those even of their +own family to occupy the same roosting-perch with them. The hens not +only show them indifference, but decided aversion. Hen chickens, +deprived of their reproductive organs in order to fatten them sooner, +are common in France, where they are styled poulardes. + +Fattening ought to be completed in from ten to twenty days. When fowls +are once fattened up they should be killed, for they cannot be kept fat, +but begin to lose flesh and become feverish, which renders their flesh +red and unsaleable, and frequently causes their death. + +Great cruelty is often ignorantly inflicted by poulterers, higglers, and +others, in "twisting the necks" of poultry. An easy mode of killing a +fowl is to give the bird a very sharp blow with a small but heavy blunt +stick, such as a child's bat or wooden sword, at the back of the neck, +about the second or third joint from the head, which will, if properly +done, sever the spine and cause death very speedily. But the knife is +the most merciful means; the bird being first hung up by the legs, the +mouth must be opened wide, and a long, narrow, sharp-pointed knife, like +a long penknife, which instrument is made for the purpose, should be +thrust firmly through the back part of the roof of the mouth up into the +brain, which will cause almost instant death. Another mode of killing is +to pluck a few feathers from the side of the head, just below the ear, +and make a deep incision there. Some say that fowls should not be bled +to death like turkeys and geese, as, from the loss of blood, the flesh +becomes dry and insipid. But when great whiteness of flesh is desired, +the fowl should be hung up by its legs immediately after being killed, +and if it has been killed without the flow of blood, an incision should +be made in the neck so that it may bleed freely. + +Fowls that have been kept without food and water for twelve hours before +being killed will keep much better than if they had been recently fed, +as the food is apt to ferment in the crop and bowels, which often causes +the fowl to turn green in a few hours in warm weather. If empty they +should not be drawn, and they will keep much better. Fowls are easiest +plucked at once, while warm; they should afterwards be scalded by +dipping them for a moment in boiling water, which will give a plump +appearance to any good fowl. Fowls should not be packed for market +before they are quite cold. Old fowls should not be roasted, but boiled, +and they will then prove tolerably good eating. + +The feathers are valuable and should be preserved, which is very easily +managed. "Strip the plumage," says Mr. Wright, "from the quills of the +larger feathers, and mix with the small ones, putting the whole loosely +in paper bags, which should be hung up in the kitchen, or some other +warm place, for a few days to dry. Then let the bags be baked three or +four times for half an hour each time, in a cool oven, drying for two +days between each baking, and the process will be completed. Less +trouble than this will do, and is often made to suffice; but the +feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and may +occasionally become offensive." + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +STOCK, BREEDING, AND CROSSING. + + +Keep only good, healthy, vigorous, well-bred fowls, whether you keep +them to produce eggs or chickens, or both. The ill-bred mongrel fowls +which are so commonly kept, are the most voracious, and consume larger +quantities of food, without turning it to any account; while well-bred +fowls eat less, and quickly convert that into fat, flesh, and eggs. +"Large, well-bred fowls," says Mr. Edwards, "do not consume more food +than ravenous, mongrel breeds. It is the same with fowls as with other +stock. I have at this moment two store pigs, one highly bred, the other +a rough, ill-bred animal. They have, since they left their mothers, been +fed together and upon the same food. The former, I am confident (from +observation), ate considerably less than the latter, which was +particularly ravenous. The former pig, however, is in excellent +condition, kind, and in a measure fat; whereas the latter looks hard, +starved, and thin, and I am sure she will require one-third more food to +make bacon of." + +For the amateur who is content with eggs and chickens, and does not long +for prize cups, excellent birds possessing nearly all the best +characteristics of their breeds, but rendered imperfect by a few +blemishes, may be purchased at a small cost, and will be as good layers +or chicken-producers, and answer his purpose as well as the most +expensive that can be bought. + +The choice of breed must depend upon the object for which the fowls are +kept, whether chiefly for eggs or to produce chickens, or for both; the +climate, soil, and situation; the space that can be allotted to them; +and the amount of attention that can be devoted to their care. If fowls +are to be bred for exhibition, you must be guided by your own taste, +pocket, and resources, as well as by the suitability of the situation +for the particular breed desired. The advantages, disadvantages, and +peculiarities of the various breeds will be described under their +respective heads. + +In commencing poultry-keeping buy only young and healthy birds. No one +sign is infallible to the inexperienced. In general, however, the legs +of a young hen look delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles are soft +and fresh, and her general outline, even in good condition (unless when +fattened for the table), rather light and graceful; whilst an old one +will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks; her comb and wattles look +somewhat harder, drier, and more "scurfy," and her figure is well filled +out. But any of these signs may be deceptive, and the beginner should +use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the "old look," +which he will soon learn to know. + +All authorities agree that a cock is in his prime at two years of age, +though some birds show every sign of full vigour when only four months +old. It is agreed by nearly all the greatest authorities that the ages +of the cocks and hens should be different; however, good birds may be +bred from parents of the same age, but they should not be less than a +year old. The strongest chickens are obtained from two-year old hens by +a cockerel of about a year old; but such broods contain a disproportion +of cocks, and, therefore, most poultry-keepers prefer to breed from +well-grown pullets of not less than nine months with a cock of two years +of age. The cock should not be related to the hens. It is, therefore, +not advisable to purchase him from the same breeder of whom you procure +the hens. Do not let him be the parent of chickens from pullets that are +his own offspring. Breeding in-and-in causes degeneracy in fowls as in +all other animals. Some birds retain all their fire and energy until +five or even six years of age, but they are beyond their prime after the +third, or at the latest their fourth year; and should be replaced by +younger birds of the same breed, but from a different stock. + +Poultry-breeders differ with respect to the proper number of hens that +should be allowed to one cock. Columella, who wrote upon poultry about +two thousand years ago, advised twelve hens to one cock, but stated that +"our ancestors did use to give but five hens." Stephanus gave the same +number as Columella. Bradley, and the authors of the "Complete Farmer," +and the article upon the subject in "Rees's Cyclopaedia," give seven or +eight; and those who breed game-cocks are particular in limiting the +number of hens to four or five for one cock, in order to obtain strong +chickens. If fine, strong chickens be desired for fattening or breeding, +there should not be more than five or six hens to one cock; but if the +supply of eggs is the chief consideration, ten or twelve may be allowed; +indeed, if eggs are the sole object, he can be dispensed with +altogether, and his food saved, as hens lay, if there be any difference, +rather better without one. + +The russet red is the most hardy colour, white the most delicate, and +black the most prolific. General directions for the choice of fowls, as +to size, shape, and colour, cannot be applicable to all breeds, which +must necessarily vary upon these points. But in all breeds the cock +should, as M. Parmentier says, "carry his head high, have a quick, +animated look, a strong, shrill voice (except in the Cochins, which have +a fuller tone), a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles +of the same colour, strong wings, muscular thighs, thick legs furnished +with strong spurs, the claws rather bent and sharply pointed. He ought +also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the +ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself, as to treat +his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in +caressing the hens, quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting +them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night." + +To prevent cocks from fighting, old Mascall, following Columella, says: +"Now, to slacke that heate of jealousie, ye shall slitte two pieces of +thicke leather, and put them on his legges, and those will hang over his +feete, which will correct the vehement heate of jealousie within him"; +and M. Parmentier observes that "such a bit of leather will cause the +most turbulent cock to become as quiet as a man who is fettered at the +feet, hands, and neck." + +The hen should be of good constitution and temper, and, if required to +sit, large in the body and wide in the wings, so as to cover many eggs +and shelter many chickens, but short in the legs, or she could not sit +well. M. Parmentier advises the rejection of savage, quarrelsome, or +peevish hens, as such are seldom favourites with the cocks, scarcely +ever lay, and do not hatch well; also all above four or five years of +age, those that are too fat to lay, and those whose combs and claws are +rough, which are signs that they have ceased to lay. Hens should not be +kept over their third year unless very good or choice. Hens are not +uncommon with the plumage and spurs of the cock, and which imitate, +though badly, his full-toned crow. In such fowls the power of producing +eggs is invariably lost from internal disease, as has been fully +demonstrated by Mr. Yarrell in the "Philosophical Transactions" for +1827, and in the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1831. Such +birds should be fattened and killed as soon as observed. + +By careful study of the characteristics of the various breeds, breeding +from select specimens, and judicious crossing, great size may be +attained, maturity early developed, facility in putting on flesh +encouraged, hardiness of constitution and strength gained, and the +inclination to sit or the faculty of laying increased. + +Sir John Sebright, speaking of breeding cattle, says: "Animals may be +said to be improved when any desired quality has been increased by art +beyond what that quality was in the same breed in a state of nature. The +swiftness of the racehorse, the propensity to fatten in cattle, and to +produce fine wool in sheep, are improvements which have been made in +particular varieties in the species to which these animals belong. What +has been produced by art must be continued by the same means, for the +most improved breeds will soon return to a state of nature, or perhaps +defects will arise which did not exist when the breed was in its natural +state, unless the greatest attention is paid to the selection of the +individuals who are to breed together." + +The exact origin of the common domestic fowl and its numerous varieties +is unknown. It is doubtless derived from one or more of the wild or +jungle fowls of India. Some naturalists are of opinion that it is +derived from the common jungle fowl known as the _Gallus Bankiva_ of +Temminck, or _Gallus Ferrugineus_ of Gmelin, which very closely +resembles the variety known as Black-breasted Red Game, except that the +tail of the cock is more depressed; while others consider it to have +been produced by the crossing of that species with one or more others, +as the Malay gigantic fowl, known as the _Gallus giganteus_ of Temminck, +Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl, _Gallus sonneratii_, and probably some other +species. At what period or by what people it was reclaimed is not known, +but it was probably first domesticated in India. The writers of +antiquity speak of it as a bird long domesticated and widely spread in +their days. Very likely there are many species unknown to us in Sumatra, +Java, and the rich woods of Borneo. + +The process by which the various breeds have been produced "is simple +and easily understood," says Mr. Wright. "Even in the wild state the +original breed will show some amount of variation in colour, form, and +size; whilst in domestication the tendency to change, as every one +knows, is very much increased. By breeding from birds which show any +marked feature, stock is obtained of which a portion will possess that +feature in an _increased degree_; and by again selecting the best +specimens, the special points sought may be developed to almost any +degree required. A good example of such a process of development may be +seen in the 'white face' so conspicuous in the Spanish breed. White ears +will be observed occasionally in all fowls; even in such breeds as +Cochins or Brahmas, where white ear-lobes are considered almost fatal +blemishes; they continually occur, and by selecting only white-eared +specimens to breed from, they might be speedily fixed in any variety as +one of the characteristics. A large pendent white ear-lobe once firmly +established, traces of the white _face_ will now and then be found, and +by a similar method is capable of development and fixture; whilst any +colour of plumage or of leg may be obtained and established in the same +way. The original amount of character required is _very_ slight; a +single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give that characteristic to a +whole breed. Any peculiarity of _constitution_, such as constant laying, +or frequent incubation, may be developed and perpetuated in a similar +manner, all that is necessary being care and time. That such has been +the method employed in the formation of the more distinct races of our +poultry, is proved by the fact that a continuance of the same careful +selection is needful to perpetuate them in perfection. If the very best +examples of a breed are selected as the starting-point, and the produce +is bred from indiscriminately for many generations, the distinctive +points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and there is also a more or +less gradual but sure return to the primitive wild type, in size and +even colour of the plumage. The purest black or white originally, +rapidly becomes first marked with, and ultimately changed into, the +original red or brown, whilst the other features simultaneously +disappear. If, however, the process of artificial selection be carried +too far, and with reference _only to one_ prominent point, any breed is +almost sure to suffer in the other qualities which have been neglected, +and this has been the case with the very breed already mentioned--the +white-faced Spanish. We know from old fanciers that this breed was +formerly considered hardy, and even in winter rarely failed to afford a +constant supply of its unequalled large white eggs. But of late years +attention has been so _exclusively_ directed to the 'white-face,' that +whilst this feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never +before known, the breed has become one of the most delicate of all, and +the laying qualities of at least many strains have greatly fallen off. +It would be difficult to avoid such evil results if it were not for a +valuable compensating principle, which admits of _crossing_. That +principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection by a +foreign breed, may be introduced by crossing into a strain it is desired +to improve, and every other characteristic of the cross be, by +selection, afterwards bred out again. Or one or more of these additional +characteristics may be also retained, and thus a _new variety_ be +established, as many have been within the last few years." + +Size may be imparted to the Dorking by crossing it with the Cochin, and +the disposition to feather on the legs bred out again by judicious +selection; and the constitution may be strengthened by crossing with the +Game breed. Game fowls that have deteriorated in size, strength, and +fierceness, by a long course of breeding in-and-in, may have all these +qualities restored by crossing with the fierce, powerful, and gigantic +Malay, and his peculiarities may be afterwards bred out. The size of the +eggs of the Hamburg might very probably be increased without decreasing, +or with very slightly decreasing, the number of eggs, by crossing with a +Houdan cock; and the size would also be increased for the table. The +French breeds, Creve-Coeur, Houdan, and La Fleche, gain in size and +hardiness by being crossed with the Brahma cock. The cross between a +Houdan cock and a Brahma hen "produces," says the "Henwife," "the finest +possible chickens for market, but not to breed from. Pure Brahmas and +Houdans alone must be kept for that purpose; I have always found the +second cross worthless." + +In crossing, the cockerels will more or less resemble the male, and the +pullets the hen. "Long experience," says Mr. Wright, "has ascertained +that the male bird has most influence upon the colour of the progeny, +and also upon the comb, and what may be called the 'fancy points,' of +any breed generally; whilst the form, size, and useful qualities are +principally derived from the hen." + +Breed only from the strongest and healthiest fowls. In the breeding of +poultry it is a rule, as in all other cases of organised life, that the +best-shaped be used for the purpose of propagation. If a cock and hen +have both the same defect, however trifling it may be, they should never +be allowed to breed together, for the object is to improve the breed, +not to deteriorate it, even in the slightest degree. Hens should never +be allowed to associate with a cock of a different breed if you wish to +keep the breed pure, and if you desire superior birds, not even with an +inferior male of their own variety. "No time," says Mr. Baily, "has ever +been fixed as necessary to elapse before hens that have been running +with cocks of divers breeds, and afterwards been placed with their +legitimate partners, can be depended upon to produce purely-bred +chickens; I am disposed to think at least two months. Time of year may +have much to do with it. In the winter the escape of a hen from one run +to the other, or the intrusion of a cock, is of little moment; but it +may be serious in the spring, and destroy the hopes of a season." Many +poultry-keepers separate the cocks and hens after the breeding season, +considering that stronger chickens will be thereby obtained the next +season. Where there is a separate house and run for the sitting hen this +can be conveniently done when that compartment is vacant. In order to +preserve a breed perfectly pure, it will be necessary, where there is +not a large stock of the race, to breed from birds sprung from the same +parents, but the blood should be crossed every year by procuring one or +more fowls of the same breed from a distance, or by the exchange of eggs +with some neighbouring stock, of colour and qualities as nearly allied +as possible with the original breed. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +POULTRY SHOWS. + + +A few years ago poultry shows were unknown. In 1846, the first was held +in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, in the Regent's Park; Mr. +Baily being the sole judge. It was a very fair beginning, but did not +succeed, and it was not till the Cochin-China breed was introduced into +this country, and the first Birmingham show was held, that these +exhibitions became successful. + +In 1849, "the first poultry show that was ever held in 'the good old +town of Birmingham,' was beset with all the untried difficulties of such +a scheme, when without the experiences of the present day, then +altogether unavailable, a few spirited individuals carried to a +successful issue an event that has now proved the foster-parent of the +many others of similar character that abound in almost every principal +town of the United Kingdom. It is quite essential, that I may be clearly +understood, to preface my narrative by assuring fanciers that in those +former days poultry amateurs were by no means as general as at the +present time; few and far between were their locations; and though even +then, among the few who felt interest in fowls, emulation existed, +generally speaking, the keeping of poultry was regarded as 'a useless +hobby,' 'a mere individual caprice,' 'an idle whim from which no good +result could by possibility accrue'; nay, sometimes it was hinted, 'What +a pity they have not something better to employ them during leisure +hours!' and they were styled 'enthusiasts.' But have not the records of +every age proved that enthusiasts are invariably the pioneers of +improvement? And time, too, substantiated the verity of this rule in +reference to our subject; for, among other proofs, it brought +incontestable evidence that the raising of poultry was by no means the +unremunerative folly idlers supposed it to be, and hesitated not rashly +to declaim it; likewise, that it simply required to be fairly brought +under public notice, to prove its general utility, and to induce the +acknowledgment of how strangely so important a source of emolument had +been hitherto neglected and overlooked." + +At the Birmingham Show of 1852, about five thousand fowls were +exhibited, and the specimens sold during the four days of the show +amounted to nearly two thousand pounds, notwithstanding the high prices +affixed to the pens, and that many were placed at enormous prices +amounting to a prohibition, the owners not wishing to sell them. The +Birmingham shows now generally comprise from one to two thousand pens of +fowls and water-fowls, arranged in nearly one hundred classes; besides +an equal proportion of pigeons. This show is the finest and most +important, but there are many others of very high character and great +extent. Poultry is also now exhibited to a considerable extent at +agricultural meetings. + +Any one may see the wonderful improvement that has been made in +poultry-breeding by visiting the next Birmingham or other first-class +show, and comparing the fowls there exhibited with those of his earliest +recollections, and with those mongrels and impure breeds which may still +be seen in too many farmyards. Points that were said to be impossible of +attainment have been obtained with comparative ease by perserverance and +skill, and the worst birds of a show are now often superior to the chief +prize fowls of former days. Indeed, "a modern prize bird," says the +"Henwife," "almost merits the character which a Parisian waiter gave of +a melon, when asked to pronounce whether it was a fruit or a vegetable, +'Gentlemen,' said he, 'a melon is neither; it is a work of art.'" + +Such shows must have great influence on the improvement of the breeds +and the general management of poultry, though like all other prize +exhibitions they have certain disadvantages. "We cannot but think," says +Mr. Wright, "that our poultry shows have, to some extent, by the +character of the judging, hindered the improvement of many breeds. It +will be readily admitted in _theory_ that a breed of fowls becomes more +and more valuable as its capacity of producing eggs is increased, and +the quantity and quality of its flesh are improved, with a small amount +of bone and offal in proportion. But, if we except the Dorking, which +certainly is judged to some extent as a table fowl, all this is +_totally_ lost sight of both by breeders and judges, and attention is +fixed exclusively upon colour, comb, face, and other equally fancy +'points.' Beauty and utility might be _both_ secured. The French have +taught us a lesson of some value in this respect. Within a comparatively +recent period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four new +varieties, which, although inferior in some points to others of older +standing, are all eminently valuable as table fowls; and which in one +particular are superior to any English variety, not even excepting the +Dorking--we mean the very small proportion of bone and offal. This is +really useful and scientific breeding, brought to bear upon _one_ +definite object, and we do trust the result will prove suggestive with +regard to others equally valuable. We should be afraid to say how much +might be done if English breeders would bring _their_ perseverance and +experience to bear in a similar direction. Agricultural Societies in +particular might be expected in _their_ exhibitions to show some +interest in the improvement of poultry regarded as _useful stock_, and +to them especially we commend the matter." + +The rules and regulations relating to exhibitions vary at different +shows, and may be obtained by applying to the secretary. Notices of +exhibitions are advertised in the local papers, and in the _Field_ and +other London papers of an agricultural character. + +In breeding birds for exhibition the number of hens to one cock should +not exceed four or five, but if only two or three hens of the breed are +possessed, the proper number of his harem should be made up by the +addition of hens of another breed, those being chosen whose eggs are +easily known from the others. + +If it is intended to rear the chickens for exhibition at the June, +July, or August shows, the earlier they are hatched the better, and +therefore a sitting should be made in January, if you have a young, +healthy hen broody. Set her on the ground in a warm, sheltered, and +quiet place, perfectly secure from rain, or from any flow of snow water. +Feed her well, and keep water and small quantities of food constantly +within her reach, so that she may not be tempted to leave the nest in +search of food; for the eggs soon chill in winter. Mix the best oatmeal +with hot water, and give it to her warm twice a day. A few grains of +hempseed as a stimulant may be given in the middle of the day. The great +difficulty to overcome in rearing early chickens is to sustain their +vital powers during the very long winter nights, when they are for so +many hours without food, the only substitute for which is warmth, and +this can only be well got from the hen. Consequently a young +Cochin-China with plenty of "fluff" will provide most warmth. The hen +should not be set on more than five, or at most seven eggs; for if she +has more, although she may sufficiently cover the chickens while very +small, she will not be able to do so when they grow larger, and the +outer ones will be chilled unless they manage to push themselves into +the inside places, and then the displaced chickens being warm are sure +to get more chilled than the others; and so the greater number of the +brood, even if they survive, will probably be weakly, puny things, +through the greedy desire to rear so many, while if she hatch but five +chickens she will probably rear four. The hen should be cooped until the +chickens are at least ten weeks old, and covered up at night with +matting, sacking, or a piece of carpet. + +Give them plenty of curd, chopped egg, and oatmeal, mixed with new milk. +Stiff oatmeal porridge is the best stock food. Some onion tops minced +fine will be an excellent addition if they can be had. They should have +some milk to drink. Feed the hen well. The best warmth the chickens can +have is that of their mother, and the best warmth for her is generated +by generous, but proper, food, and a good supply of it. Early chickens +rearing for show should be fed twice after dark, say at eight and +eleven o'clock, and again at seven in the morning, so that they will not +be without food for more than eight hours. The hen should be fed at the +same times, and she will become accustomed to it, and call the chickens +to feed; it will also generate more warmth in her for their benefit. +Yolk of egg beaten up and given to drink is most strengthening for +weakly chickens; or it may be mixed with their oatmeal. The tender +breeds should not be hatched till April or May, unless in a mild +climate, or with exceptional advantages. + +For winter exhibition, March and April hatched birds are preferable to +those hatched earlier. Not more than seven eggs should be set, for a hen +cannot scratch up insects and worms and find peculiar herbage for more +than six chickens. If the chickens have not a good grass run, they must +be supplied with abundance of green food. + +They should not be allowed to roost before they are three months old, +and the perches must be sufficiently large. Mr. Wright recommends a bed +of clean, dry ashes, an inch deep, for those that leave the hen before +the proper age for roosting, and does not allow his chickens, even while +with the hen, to bed upon straw, considering the ashes to be much +cleaner and also warmer. + +The chickens intended to be exhibited should be distinguished from their +companions by small stripes of different coloured silks loosely sewn +round their legs, which distinguishing colours should be entered in the +poultry-book. A few good birds should always be kept in reserve to fill +up the pen in case of accidents. + +Weight is more important in the December and later winter shows than at +those held between August and November, but at all shows feather and +other points of competitors being equal weight must carry the day, Game +and Bantams excepted. It is not safe to trust to the apparent weight of +a bird, for the feathers deceive, and it is therefore advisable to weigh +the birds occasionally. Each should be weighed in a basket, allowance +being made for the weight of the basket, and they should if possible be +weighed before a meal. But fowls that are over-fattened, as some judges +very improperly desire, cannot be in good health anymore than "crammed" +fowls, and are useless for breeding, producing at best a few puny, +delicate, or sickly chickens; thus making the exhibition a mere "show," +barren of all useful results. + +Pullets continue to grow until they begin to lay, which almost or quite +stops their growth; and therefore if great size is desired for +exhibition, they should be kept from the cockerels and partly from +stimulating food until a month before the show, when they will be +required to be matched in pens. During this month they should have extra +food and attention. + +If fowls intended for exhibition are allowed to sit, the chickens are +apt to cause injury to their plumage, and loss of condition, while if +prevented from sitting, they are liable to suffer in moulting. Their +chickens may be given to other hens, but the best and safest plan is to +set a broody exhibition hen on duck's eggs, which will satisfy her +natural desire for sitting, while the young ducklings will give her much +less trouble, and leave her sooner than a brood of her own kind. + +All the birds in a pen should match in comb, colour of their legs, and +indeed in every particular. Mr. Baily mentions "a common fault in +exhibitors who send two pens composed of three excellent and three +inferior birds, so divided as to form perhaps one third class and one +highly commended pen: whereas a different selection would make one of +unusual merit. If an amateur who wishes to exhibit has fifteen fowls to +choose from, and to form a pen of a cock and two hens, he should study +and scan them closely while feeding at his feet in the morning. He +should then have a place similar to an exhibition pen, wherein he can +put the selected birds; they should be raised to the height at which he +can best see them, and before he has looked long at them defects will +become apparent one after the other till, in all probability, neither of +the subjects of his first selection will go to the show. We also advise +him rather to look for defects than to dwell on beauties--the latter +are always prominent enough. The pen of which we speak should be a +moveable one for convenience' sake, and it is well to leave the fowls in +it for a time that they may become accustomed to each other, and also to +an exhibition pen." Birds that are strangers should never be put into +the same hamper, for not only the cocks but even the hens will fight +with and disfigure each other. + +Some give linseed for a few days before the exhibition to impart lustre +to the plumage, by increasing the secretion of oil. A small quantity of +the meal should be mixed with their usual soft food, as fowls generally +refuse the whole grain. But buckwheat and hempseed, mixed in equal +proportions, if given for the evening meal during the last ten or twelve +days, is healthier for the bird, much liked, and will not only impart +equal lustre to the plumage, but also improve the appearance of the comb +and wattles. + +Spanish fowls should be kept in confinement for some days before the +show, with just enough light to enable them to feed and perch, and the +place should be littered with clean straw. This greatly improves their +condition; why we know not, but it is an established fact. Game fowls +should be kept in for a few days, and fed on meal, barley, and bread, +with a few peas, which tend to make the plumage hard, but will make them +too fat if given freely. Dark and golden birds should be allowed to run +about till they have to be sent off. Remove all scurf or dead skin from +the comb, dry dirt from the beak, and stains from the plumage, and wash +their legs clean. White and light fowls that have a good grass run and +plenty of clean straw in their houses and yards to scratch in, will +seldom require washing, but town birds, and country ones if not +perfectly clean, should be washed the day before the show with tepid +water and mild white soap rubbed on flannel, care being taken to wash +the feathers downwards, so as not to break or ruffle them; afterwards +wiped with a piece of flannel that has been thoroughly soaked in clean +water, and gently dried with soft towels before the fire; or the bird +may be entirely dipped into a pan of warm water, then rinsed thoroughly +in cold water, wiped with a flannel, and placed in a basket with soft +straw before a fire to dry. They should then be shut up in their houses +with plenty of clean straw. They should have their feet washed if dirty, +and be well fed with soft nourishing food just before being put into the +travelling-basket, for hard food is apt to cause fever and heat while +travelling, and, having to be digested without gravel or exercise, +causes indigestion, which ruffles the plumage, dulls its colour, darkens +the comb, and altogether spoils the appearance of the bird. Sopped or +steeped bread is excellent. + +The hampers should always be round or oval in form, as fowls invariably +creep into corners and destroy their plumage. They should be high enough +for the cocks to stand upright in, without touching the top with their +combs. Some exhibitors prefer canvas tops to wicker lids, considering +that the former preserve the fowls' combs from injury if they should +strike against the top, while others prefer the latter as being more +secure, and allowing one hamper to be placed upon another if necessary, +and also preserving the fowls from injury if a heavy hamper or package +should otherwise be placed over it. A good plan is to have a double +canvas top, the space between being filled with hay. A thick layer of +hay or straw should be placed at the bottom of the basket. Wheaten straw +is the best in summer and early autumn, and oat or barley straw later in +the year and during winter. A good lining also is essential; coarse +calico stitched round the inside of the basket is the best. Ducks and +geese do not require their hampers to be lined, except in very cold +weather; and the best lining for them is made by stitching layers of +pulled straw round the inside of the basket. Turkeys should have their +hampers lined, for although they are very hardy, cold and wet damage +their appearance more than other poultry. Take care that the geese +cannot get at the label, for they will eat it, and also devour the +hempen fastenings if within their reach. + +Be very careful in entering your birds for exhibition; describe their +ages, breed, &c., exactly and accurately, and see yourself to the +packing and labelling of their hampers. + +Mr. F. Wragg, the superintendent of the poultry-yard of R. W. Boyle, +Esq., whose fowls have a sea voyage from Ireland besides the railway +journey, and yet always appear in splendid condition and "bloom," ties +on one side of the hamper, "near the top, a fresh-pulled cabbage, and on +the other side a good piece of the bottom side of a loaf, of which they +will eat away all the soft part. Before starting, I give each bird half +a tablespoonful of port wine, which makes them sleep a good part of the +journey. Of course, if I go with my birds, as I generally do, I see that +they, as well as myself, have 'refreshment' on the road."[A] The cabbage +will always be a treat, and the loaf and wine may be added for long +journeys. + +Birds are frequently over-fed at the show, particularly with barley, +which cannot be properly digested for want of gravel and exercise; and +therefore, if upon their return their crops are hard and combs look +dark, give a tablespoonful of castor oil; but if they look well do not +interfere with them. They should not have any grain, but be fed +sparingly on stale bread soaked in warm ale, with two or three mouthfuls +of tepid water, for liquid is most hurtful if given in quantity. They +should not be put into the yard with the other fowls which may treat +them, after their absence, as intruders, but be joined with them at +night when the others have gone to roost. On the next day give them a +moderate allowance of soft food with a moderate supply of water, or +stale bread sopped in water, and a sod of grass or half a cabbage leaf +each, but no other green food; and on the following day they may have +their usual food. + +When the fowls are brought back, take out the linings, wash them, and +put them by to be ready for the next show; and after the exhibition +season, on a fine dry day, wash the hampers, dry them thoroughly, and +put them in a dry place. Never use them as quiet berths for sick birds, +which are sure to infect them and cause the illness of the next +occupants; or as nesting-places for sitting hens, which may leave +insects in the crevices that will be difficult to eradicate. + +In our descriptions of the various Breeds, we have given sufficient +general information upon the Exhibition Points from the best +authorities; but considerable differences of opinion have been expressed +of late years, and eminent breeders dissent in some cases even from the +generally recognised authority of the popular "Standard of Excellence." +We, therefore, advise intending exhibitors to ascertain the standards to +be followed at the show and the predilections of the judges, and to +breed accordingly, or, if they object to the views held, not to compete +at that exhibition. + + +TECHNICAL TERMS. + +_Coverts._--The _upper_ and _lower wing coverts_ are those ranges of +feathers which cover the primary quills; and the _tail coverts_ are +those feathers growing on each side of the tail, and are longer than the +body feathers, but shorter than those of the tail. + +_Dubbing._--Cutting off the comb and wattles of a cock; an operation +usually confined to Game cocks. + +_Ear-lobe._--The small feathers covering the organ of hearing, which is +placed a little behind the eye. + +_Flight._--The last five feathers of each wing. + +_Fluff._--The silky feathers growing on the thighs and hinder parts of +Cochin-China fowls. + +_Hackles._--The _neck hackles_ are feathers growing from the neck, and +covering the shoulders and part of the back; and the _saddle hackles_ +those growing from the end of the back, and falling over the sides. + +_Legs._--The _legs_ are properly the lower and scaly limbs, the upper +part covered with feathers and frequently mis-called legs, being +correctly styled the _thighs_. + +_Primary Quills._--The long, strong quills, usually ten in number, +forming the chief portion of each wing, and the means of flight. + +_Vulture-hocked._--Feathers growing from the thigh, and projecting +backwards below the knee. + +[Illustration: Buff and White Cochin-China. Malay Cock. Light and Dark +Brahmas.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +COCHIN-CHINAS, OR SHANGHAES. + + +Like many other fowls these possess a name which is incorrectly applied, +for they came from Shanghae, not Cochin-China, where they were +comparatively unknown. Mr. Fortune, who, from his travels in China, is +well qualified to give an opinion, states that they are a Chinese breed, +kept in great numbers at Shanghae; the real Cochin-China breed being +small and elegantly shaped. But all attempts to give them the name of +the port from which they were brought have failed, and the majority of +breeders persist in calling them Cochins. In the United States both +names are used, the feather-legged being called Shanghaes, and the +clean-legged Cochins. + +The first Shanghae fowls brought to this country were sent from India to +Her Majesty, which gave them great importance; and the eggs having been +freely distributed by the kindness of the Queen and the Prince Consort, +the breed was soon widely spread. They were first introduced into this +country when the northern ports of China, including Shanghae, were +thrown open to European vessels on the conclusion of the Chinese war in +1843; but some assign the date of their introduction from 1844 to 1847, +and say that those called Cochins, exhibited by the Queen in 1843, were +not the true breed, having been not only entirely without feathers on +the shanks, but also altogether different in form and general +characteristics. A pair which were sent by Her Majesty for exhibition at +the Dublin Cattle Show in April, 1846, created such a sensation from +their great size and immense weight, and the full, loud, deep-pitched +crowing of the cock, that almost every one seemed desirous to possess +some of the breed, and enormous prices were given for the eggs and +chickens. With his propensity for exaggeration, Paddy boasted that they +laid five eggs in two days, each weighing three ounces, that the fowls +equalled turkeys in size, and "Cochin eggs became in as great demand as +though they had been laid by the fabled golden goose. Philosophers, +poets, merchants, and sweeps had alike partook of the mania; and +although the latter could hardly come up to the price of a real Cochin, +there were plenty of vagabond dealers about, with counterfeit crossed +birds of all kinds, which were advertised to be the genuine article. For +to such a pitch did the excitement rise, that they who never kept a fowl +in their lives, and would hardly know a Bantam from a Dorking, puzzled +their shallow brains as to the proper place to keep them, and the proper +diet to feed them on." Their justly-deserved popularity speedily grew +into a mania, and the price which had been from fifteen to thirty +shillings each, then considered a high price for a fowl, rose to ten +pounds for a fine specimen, and ultimately a hundred guineas was +repeatedly paid for a single cock, and was not an uncommon price for a +pair of really fine birds. "They were afterwards bred," says Miss Watts, +"for qualities difficult of attainment, and, as the result proved, +little worth trying for," and "fowls with _many_ excellent qualities +were blamed for not being _perfect_," and they fell from their high +place, and were as unjustly depreciated as they had been unduly exalted. + +"Had these birds," wrote Mr. Baily many years since, "been shy +breeders--if like song birds the produce of a pair were four, or at most +five, birds in the year, prices might have been maintained; but as they +are marvellous layers they increased. They bred in large numbers, and +consequently became cheaper, and then the mania ended, because those who +dealt most largely in them did so not from a love of the birds or the +pursuit, but as a speculation. As they had over-praised them before, +they now treated them with contempt. Anything like a moderate profit was +despised, and the birds were left to their own merits. These were +sufficient to ensure their popularity, and now after fluctuating in +value more than anything except shares, after being over-praised and +then abused, they have remained favourites with a large portion of the +public, sell at a remunerating price, and form one of the largest +classes at all the great exhibitions." This has proved to be a perfectly +correct view, and the breed is now firmly established in public +estimation, and unusually fine birds will still sell for from five to +twenty pounds each. The mania did great service to the breeding and +improvement of poultry by awakening an interest in the subject +throughout the kingdom which has lasted. + +They are the best of all fowls for a limited space, and not inclined to +wander even when they have an extensive run. They cannot fly, and a +fence three feet high will keep them in. But if kept in a confined space +they must have an unlimited supply of green food. They give us eggs when +they are most expensive, and indeed, with regard to new-laid eggs, when +they are almost impossible to be had at any price. They begin to lay +soon after they are five months old, regardless of the season or +weather, and lay throughout the year, except when requiring to sit, +which they do twice or thrice a year, and some oftener. Pullets will +sometimes lay at fourteen weeks, and want to sit before they are six +months old. Cochins have been known to lay twice in a day, but not again +on the following day, and the instances are exceptional. Their eggs are +of a pale chocolate colour, of excellent flavour, and usually weigh +2-1/4 ounces each. They are excellent sitters and mothers. Pullets will +frequently hatch, lay again, and sit with the chickens of the first +brood around them. Cochins are most valuable as sitters early in the +year, being broody when other fowls are beginning to lay; but unless +cooped they are apt to leave their chickens too soon, especially for +early broods, and lay again. They are very hardy, and their chickens +easy to rear, doing well even in bleak places without any unusual care. +But they are backward in fledging, chickens bred from immature fowls +being the most backward. Those which are cockerels show their flight +feathers earliest. They are very early matured. + +A writer in the _Poultry Chronicle_ well says: "These fowls were sent +to provide food for man; by many they are not thought good table fowls; +but when others fail, if you keep them, you shall never want the luxury +of a really new-laid egg on your breakfast table. The snow may fall, the +frost may be thick on your windows when you first look out on a December +morning, but your Cochins will provide you eggs. Your children shall +learn gentleness and kindness from them, for they are kind and gentle, +and you shall be at peace with your neighbours, for they will not wander +nor become depredators. They have fallen in price because they were +unnaturally exalted; but their sun is not eclipsed; they have good +qualities, and valuable. They shall now be within the reach of all; and +will make the delight of many by their domestic habits, which will allow +them to be kept where others would be an annoyance." They will let you +take them off their roost, handle and examine them, and put them back +without struggling. + +The fault of the Cochin-Chinas as table birds is, that they produce most +meat on the inferior parts; thus, there is generally too little on the +breast which is the prime part of a fowl, while the leg which is an +inferior part, is unusually fleshy, but it must be admitted that the leg +is more tender than in other breeds. A greater quantity of flesh may be +raised within a given time, on a certain quantity of food, from these +fowls than from any other breed. The cross with the Dorking is easily +reared, and produces a very heavy and well-shaped fowl for the table, +and a good layer. + +"A great hue and cry," says Miss Watts, "has been raised against the +Cochin-Chinas as fowls for the table, but we believe none have bestowed +attention on breeding them with a view to this valuable consideration. +Square, compact, short-legged birds have been neglected for a certain +colour of feather, and a broad chest was given up for the wedge-form at +the very time that was pronounced a fault in the fowl. It is said that +yellow-legged fowls are yellow also in the skin, and that white skin and +white legs accompany each other; but how pertinaciously the yellow leg +of the Cochin is adhered to! Yet all who have bred them will attest +that a little careful breeding would perpetuate white-legged Cochins. +Exhibitions are generally excellent; but to this fowl they certainly +have only been injurious, by exaggerating useless and fancy qualities at +the expense of those which are solid and useful. Who would favour, or +even sanction, a Dorking in which size and shape, and every property we +value in them, was sacrificed to an endeavour to breed to a particular +colour? and this is what we have been doing with the Cochin-China. Many +breeders say, eat Cochins while very young; but we have found them much +better for the table as fowls than as chickens. A fine Cochin, from five +to seven months old, is like a turkey, and very juicy and fine in +flavour." + +A peculiar characteristic of these birds, technically called "fluff," is +a quantity of beautifully soft, long feathers, covering the thighs till +they project considerably, and garnishing all the hinder parts of the +bird in the same manner, so that the broadest part of the bird is +behind. Its quality is a good indication of the breed; if fine and downy +the birds are probably well-bred, but if rank and coarse they are +inferior. The cocks are frequently somewhat scanty in "fluff," but +should be chosen with as much as possible; but vulture-hocks which often +accompany the heaviest feathered birds should be avoided, as they now +disqualify at the best shows. "The fluff," says a good authority, "in +the hen especially, should so cover the tail feathers as to give the +appearance of a very short back, the line taking an upward direction +from within an inch or so of the point of junction with the hackle." The +last joint of the wings folds up, so that the ends of the flight +feathers are concealed by the middle feathers, and their extremities are +again covered by the copious saddle, which peculiarity has caused them +to be also called the ostrich-fowl. + +A good Cochin cock should be compact, large, and square built; broad +across the loins and hind-quarters; with a deep keel; broad, short back; +short neck; small, delicately-shaped, well-arched head; short, strong, +curved beak; rather small, finely and evenly serrated, straight, single, +erect comb, wholly free from reduplications and sprigs; brilliant red +face, and pendant wattles; long hanging ear-lobe, of pure red, white +being inadmissible; bright, bold eye, approaching the plumage in colour; +rich, full, long hackle; small, closely-folded wings; short tail, +scarcely any in some fine specimens, not very erect, with slightly +twisted glossy feathers falling over it like those of the ostrich; stout +legs set widely apart, yellow and heavily feathered to the toe; and +erect carriage. The chief defect of the breed is narrowness of breast, +which should therefore be sought for as full as possible. + +The hen's body is much deeper in proportion than that of the cock. She +resembles him upon most points, but differs in some; her comb having +many indentations; the fluff being softer, and of almost silky quality; +the tail has upright instead of falling feathers, and comes to a blunt +point; and her carriage is less upright. + +Cochins lose their beauty earlier than any other breed, and moult with +more difficulty each time. They are in their greatest beauty at from +nine to eighteen months old. The cocks' tails increase with age. In +buying Cochins avoid clean legs, fifth toes, which show that it has been +crossed with the Dorking, double combs that betray Malay blood, and long +tails, particularly taking care that the cock has not, and ascertaining +that he never had, sickle feathers. The cock ought not to weigh less +than ten or eleven pounds, and a very fine bird will reach thirteen; the +hens from eight to ten pounds. + +The principal colours now bred are Buff, Cinnamon, Partridge, Grouse, +Black, and White. The Buff and White are the most popular. + +Buff birds may have black in the tails of both sexes, but the less there +is the better. Black-pencilling in the hackle is considered +objectionable at good shows. The cock's neck hackles, wing coverts, +back, and saddle hackles, are usually of a rich gold colour, but his +breast and the lower parts of his body should match with those of his +hens. Buff birds generally produce chickens lighter than themselves. +Most birds become rather lighter at each moult. In making up an +exhibition pen, observe that Grouse and Partridge hens should have a +black-breasted cock; and that Buff and Cinnamon birds should not be +placed together, but all the birds in the pen should be either Buff or +Cinnamon. The Cinnamon are of two shades, the Light Cinnamon and the +Silver, which is a pale washy tint, that looks very delicate and pretty +when perfectly clean. Silver Cinnamon hens should not be penned with a +pale Yellow cock, but with one as near to their own tint as can be +found. Mr. Andrews's celebrated strain of Cochins sometimes produced +both cocks and hens which were Silver Cinnamon, with streaks of gold in +the hackle. + +In Partridge birds the cock's neck and saddle hackles should be of a +bright red, striped with black, his back and wings of dark red, the +latter crossed with a well-defined bar of metallic greenish black, and +the breast and under parts of his body should be black, and not mottled. +The hen's neck hackles should be of bright gold, striped with black, and +all the other portions of her body of a light brown, pencilled with very +dark brown. The Grouse are very dark Partridge, have a very rich +appearance, and are particularly beautiful when laced. They are far from +common, and well worth cultivating. The Partridge are more mossed in +their markings, and not so rich in colour as the Grouse. Cuckoo Cochins +are marked like the Cuckoo Dorkings, and difficult to breed free of +yellow. + +The White and Black were introduced later than the others. Mr. Baily +says the White were principally bred from a pair imported and given to +the Dean of Worcester, and which afterwards became the property of Mrs. +Herbert, of Powick. White Cochins for exhibition must have yellow legs, +and they are prone to green. The origin of the Black is disputed. It is +said to be a sport from the White, or to have been produced by a cross +between the Buff and the White. By careful breeding it has been fixed as +a decided sub-variety, but it is difficult, if not almost impossible, to +rear a cock to complete maturity entirely free from coloured feathers. +They keep perfectly pure in colour till six months old, after which age +they sometimes show a golden patch or red feathers upon the wing, or a +few streaks of red upon the hackle, of so dark a shade as to be +imperceptible except in a strong light, and are often found on close +examination to have white under feathers, and others barred with white. + +The legs in all the colours should be yellow. Flesh-coloured legs are +admissible, but green, black, or white are defects. In the Partridge and +Grouse a slight wash, as of indigo, appears to be thrown over them, +which in the Black assumes a still darker shade; but in all three yellow +should appear partially even here beneath the scales, as the pink tinge +does in the Buff and White birds. + +Cochin-Chinas being much inclined to accumulate internal fat, which +frequently results in apoplexy, should not be fed on food of a very +fattening character, such as Indian corn. They are liable to have +inflamed feet if they are obliged to roost on very high, small, or sharp +perches, or allowed to run over sharp-edged stones. + +They are also subject to an affection called White Comb, which is a +white mouldy eruption on the comb and wattles like powdered chalk; and +if not properly treated in time, will spread over the whole body, +causing the feathers to fall off. It is caused by want of cleanliness, +over-stimulating or bad food, and most frequently by want of green food, +which must be supplied, and the place rubbed with an ointment composed +of two parts of cocoanut oil, and one of turmeric powder, to which some +persons add one half part of sulphur; and six grains of jalap may be +given to clear the bowels. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +BRAHMA-POOTRAS. + + +It is a disputed point among great authorities whether Brahmas form a +distinct variety, or whether they originated in a cross with the Cochin, +and have become established by careful breeding. When they were first +introduced, Mr. Baily considered them to be a distinct breed, and has +since seen nothing to alter his opinion. Their nature and habits are +quite dissimilar, for they wander from home and will get their own +living where a Cochin would starve, have more spirit, deeper breasts, +are hardier, lay larger eggs, are less prone to sit, and never produce a +clean-legged chicken. Whatever their origin, by slow and sure degrees, +without any mania, they have become more and more popular, standing upon +their own merits, and are now one of the most favourite varieties. + +"The worst accusation," says Miss Watts, "their enemies can advance +against them is, that no one knows their origin; but this is applicable +to them only as it is when applied to Dorkings, Spanish, Polands, and +all the other kinds which have been brought to perfection by careful +breeding, working on good originals. All we have in England are +descended from fowls imported from the United States, and the best +account of them is, that a sailor (rather vague, certainly) appeared in +an American town (Boston or New York, I forget which) with a new kind of +fowl for sale, and that a pair bought from him were the parents of all +the Brahmas. Uncertain as this appears, the accounts of those who +pretend to trace their origin as cross-bred fowls is, at least, equally +so, and I believe we may just act towards the Brahmas as we do with +regard to Dorkings and other good fowls, and be satisfied to possess a +first-rate, useful kind, although we may be unable to trace its +genealogical tree back to the root. Whatever may be their origin, I find +them distinct in their characteristics. I have found them true to their +points, generation after generation, in all the years that I have kept +them. The pea-comb is very peculiar, and I have never had one chicken +untrue in this among all that I have bred. Their habits are very unlike +the Cochins. Although docile, they are much less inert; they lay a +larger number of eggs, and sit less frequently. Many of my hens only +wish to sit once a year; a few oftener than that, perhaps twice or even +three times in rare instances, but never at the end of each small batch +of eggs, as I find (my almost equal favourites) the Cochins do. The +division of Light and Dark Brahmas is a fancy of the judges, which any +one who keeps them can humour with a little care in breeding. My idea of +their colour is, that it should be black and grey (iron grey, with more +or less of a blue tinge, and devoid of any brown) on a clear white +ground, and I do not care whether the white or the marking predominates. +I believe breeders could bear me out, if they would, when I say many +fowls which pass muster as Brahmas are the result of a cross, employed +to increase size and procure the heavy colour which some of the judges +affect." + +For strength of constitution, both as chickens and fowls, they surpass +all other breeds. Brahmas like an extensive range, but bear confinement +as well as any fowls, and keep cleaner in dirty or smoky places than any +that have white feathers. They are capital foragers where they have +their liberty, are smaller eaters and less expensive to keep than +Cochins, and most prolific in eggs. They lay regularly on an average +five fine large eggs a week all the year round, even when snow is on the +ground, except when moulting or tending their brood. Mr. Boyle, of Bray, +Ireland, the most eminent breeder of Dark Brahmas in Great Britain, says +he has "repeatedly known pullets begin to lay in autumn, and _never +stop_--let it be hail, rain, snow, or storm--for a single day till next +spring." They usually lay from thirty to forty eggs before they seek to +sit. The hens do not sit so often as Cochins, and a week's change of +place will generally banish the desire. They put on flesh well, with +plenty of breast-meat, and are more juicy and better shaped for the +table than most Cochins; though, after they are six months old, the +flesh is much inferior to that of the Dorking. A cross with a Dorking or +Creve-Coeur cock produces the finest possible table fowl, carrying +almost incredible quantities of meat of excellent quality. + +The chickens are hardy and easy to rear. They vary in colour when first +hatched, being all shades of brown, yellow, and grey, and are often +streaked on the back and spotted about the head; but this variety gives +place, as the feathers come, to the mixture of black, white, and grey, +which forms the distinguishing colour of the Brahma. Mr. Baily has +"hatched them in snow, and reared them all out of doors without any +other shelter than a piece of mat or carpet thrown over the coop at +night." They reach their full size at an early age, and the pullets are +in their prime at eight months. Miss Watts noticed that Brahmas "are +more clever in the treatment of themselves when they are ill than other +fowls; when they get out of order, they will generally fast until eating +is no longer injurious," which peculiarity is corroborated by the +experienced "Henwife." The feathers of the Brahma-Pootra are said to be +nearly equal to goose feathers. + +The head should have a slight fulness over the eye, giving breadth to +the top; a full, pearl eye is much admired, but far from common; comb +either a small single, or pea-comb--the single resembling that of the +Cochin; the neck short; the breast wide and full; the legs short, +yellow, and well-feathered, but not so fully as in the finest Cochins; +and the tail short but full, and in the cock opening into a fan. They +should be wide and deep made, large and weighty, and have a free, noble +carriage, equally distinct from the waddle of the Cochin, and the erect +bearing of the Malay. Unlike the Cochins, they keep constantly to their +colour, which is a mixture of black, white, and grey; the lightest being +almost white, and the darkest consisting of grey markings on a white +ground. The colour is entirely a matter of taste, but the bottom colour +should always be grey. + +"After breeding Brahmas for many years," says Miss Watts, "through many +generations and crosses (always, however, keeping to families imported +direct from America), we are quite confirmed in the opinion that the +pea-comb is _the_ comb for the Brahma; and this seems now a settled +question, for single-combed birds never take prizes when passable +pea-combed birds are present. The leading characteristic of the peculiar +comb, named by the Americans the pea-comb, is its triple character. It +may be developed and separated almost like three combs, or nearly united +into one; but its triple form is always evident. What we think most +beautiful is, where the centre division is a little fluted, slightly +serrated, and flanked by two little side combs. The degree of the +division into three varies, and the peculiarities of the comb may be +less perceptible in December than when the hens are laying; but the +triple character of the pea-comb is always evident. It shows itself in +the chick at a few days old, in three tiny paralleled lines." It is +thick at the base, and like three combs joined into one, the centre comb +being higher than the other, but the comb altogether must be low, +rounded at the top, and the indentations must not be deep. Whether +single or triple, all the combs in a pen should be uniform. + +The dark and light varieties should not be crossed, as, according to Mr. +Teebay, who was formerly the most extensive and successful breeder of +Brahmas in England, the result is never satisfactory. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +MALAYS. + + +This was the first of the gigantic Asiatic breeds imported into this +country, and in height and size exceeds any fowl yet known. The origin +of the Malay breed is supposed to be the _Gallus giganteus_ of Temminck. +"This large and very remarkable species," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "is +a native of Java and Sumatra. The comb is thick and low, and destitute +of serrations, appearing as if it had been partially cut off; the +wattles are small, and the throat is bare. The neck is covered with +elongated feathers, or hackles, of a pale golden-reddish colour, which +advance upon the back, and hackles of the same colour cover the rump, +and drop on each side of the base of the tail. The middle of the back +and the shoulders of the wings are of a dark chestnut, the feathers +being of a loose texture. The greater wing-coverts are of a glossy +green, and form a bar of that colour across the wing. The primary and +secondary quill feathers are yellowish, with a tinge of rufous. The tail +feathers are of a glossy green. The under surface uniformly is of a +glossy blackish green, but the base of each feather is a chestnut, and +this colour appears on the least derangement of the plumage. The limbs +are remarkably stout, and the robust tarsi are of a yellow colour. The +voice is a sort of crow--hoarse and short, and very different from the +clear notes of defiance uttered by our farmyard chanticleer. This +species has the habit, when fatigued, of resting on the tarsi or legs, +as we have seen the emu do under similar circumstances." + +In the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1832, we find the +following notice respecting this breed, by Colonel Sykes, who observed +it domesticated in the Deccan: "Known by the name of the Kulm cock by +Europeans in India. Met with only as a domestic bird; and Colonel Sykes +has reason to believe that it is not a native of India, but has been +introduced by the Mussulmans from Sumatra or Java. The iris of the real +game bird should be whitish or straw yellow. Colonel Sykes landed two +cocks and a hen in England in June, 1831. They bore the winter well; the +hen laid freely, and has reared two broods of chickens. The cock has not +the shrill clear pipe of the domestic bird, and his scale of note +appears more limited. A cock in the possession of Colonel Sykes stood +twenty-six inches high to the crown of the head; but they attain a +greater height. Length from the tip of the bill to the insertion of the +tail, twenty-three inches. Hen one-third smaller than the male. Shaw +very justly describes the habit of the cock, of resting, when tired, on +the first joint of the leg." + +It is a long, large, heavy bird, standing remarkably upright, having an +almost uninterrupted slope from the head to the insertion of the tail; +with very long, though strong, yellow legs, quite free from feathers; +long, stout, firm thighs, and stands very erect; the cock, when full +grown, being at least two feet six inches, and sometimes over three feet +in height, and weighing from eight to eleven pounds. The head has great +fulness over the eye, and is flattened above, resembling that of the +snake. The small, thick, hard comb, scarcely rising from the head, and +barely as long, like half a strawberry, resembles that of a Game fowl +dubbed. The wattles are very small; the neck closely feathered, and like +a rope, with a space for an inch below the beak bare of feathers. It has +a hard, cruel expression of face; a brilliant bold eye, pearled around +the edge of the lids; skinny red face; very strong curved yellow beak; +and small, drooping tail, with very beautiful, though short, sickle +feathers. The hen resembles the cock upon all these points, but is +smaller. + +Their colours now comprise different shades of red and deep chestnut, in +combination with rich browns, and there are also black and white +varieties, each of which should be uniform. The feathers should be hard +and close, which causes it to be heavier than it appears. + +Malays are inferior to most other breeds as layers, but the pullets +commence laying early, and are often good winter layers. Their eggs, +which weigh about 2-1/2 ounces each, are of a deep buff or pale +chocolate colour, surpass all others in flavour, and are so rich that +two of them are considered to be equal to three of ordinary fowls. They +are nearly always fertile. + +Their chief excellence is as table fowls, carrying, as they do, a great +quantity of meat, which, when under a year old, is of very good quality +and flavour. Crossed with the Spanish and Dorking, they produce +excellent table fowls; the latter cross being also good layers. + +Malays are good sitters and mothers, if they have roomy nests. Their +chickens should not be hatched after June, as they feather slowly, and +are delicate; but the adult birds are hardy enough, and seem especially +adapted to crowded localities, such as courts and alleys. "Malays," says +Mr. Baily, "will live anywhere; they will inhabit a back yard of small +dimensions; they will scratch in the dust-hole, and roost under the +water-butt; and yet not only lay well, but show in good condition when +requisite." Like the Game fowl, it is terribly pugnacious, and in its +native country is kept and trained for fighting. This propensity, which +is still greater in confinement, is its greatest disadvantage. When +closely confined they are apt to eat each other's feathers, the cure for +which is turning them into a grass run, and giving them a good supply of +lettuce leaves, with an occasional purgative of six grains of jalap. The +Chittagong is said to be a variety of the Malay. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +GAME. + + +This is the kind expressly called the English breed by Buffon and the +French writers, and is the noblest and most beautiful of all breeds, +combining an admirable figure, brilliant plumage, and stately gait. It +is most probably derived from the larger or continental Indian species +of the Javanese, or Bankiva Jungle Fowl--the _Gallus Bankiva_ of +Temminck--which is a distinct species, distinguished chiefly from the +Javanese fowl by its larger size. (_See_ page 124.) Of this continental +species, Sir W. Jardine states that he has seen three or four specimens, +all of which came from India proper. The Game cock is the undisputed +king of all poultry, and is unsurpassed for courage. The Malay is more +cruel and ferocious, but has less real courage. Game fowls are in every +respect fighting birds, and, although cock-fighting is now very properly +prohibited by law, Game fowls are always judged mainly in reference to +fighting qualities. But their pugnacious disposition renders them very +troublesome, especially if they have not ample range, although it does +not disqualify them for small runs to the extent generally supposed. A +blow with his spur is dangerous, and instances have been recorded of +very severe injuries inflicted upon children, even causing death. An old +newspaper states that "Mr. Johnson, a farmer in the West Riding of +Yorkshire, who has a famous breed of the Game fowl, has had the great +misfortune to lose his little son, a boy of three years old, who was +attacked by a Game cock, and so severely injured that he died shortly +afterwards." High-bred hens are quite as pugnacious as the cocks. The +chickens are very quarrelsome, and both cocks and hens fight so +furiously, that frequently one-half of a brood is destroyed, and the +other half have to be killed. + +Game fowls are hardy when they can have liberty, but cannot be well kept +in a confined space. They eat little, and are excellent for an +unprotected place, because by their activity they avoid danger +themselves, and by their courage defend their chickens from enemies. The +hen is a prolific layer, and, if she has a good run, equal to any breed. +The eggs, though of moderate size only, are remarkable for delicacy of +flavour. She is an excellent sitter, and still more excellent mother. +The chickens are easily reared, require little food, and are more robust +in constitution than almost any other variety. + +The flesh of the Game fowl is beautifully white, and superior to that of +all other breeds for richness and delicacy of flavour. They should never +be put up to fat, as they are impatient of confinement. "They are in no +way fit for the fattening-coop," says Mr. Baily. "They cannot bear the +extra food without excitement, and that is not favourable to obesity. +Nevertheless, they have their merits. If they are reared like pheasants +round a keeper's house, and allowed to run semi-wild in the woods, to +frequent sunny banks and dry ditches, they will grow up like them; they +will have little fat, but they will be full of meat. They must be eaten +young; and a Game pullet four or five months old, caught up wild in this +way, and killed two days before she is eaten, is, perhaps, the most +delicious chicken there is in point of flavour." + +The Game-fowl continues to breed for many years without showing any +signs of decay, and in this respect is superior to the Cochin, Brahma, +and even to the Dorking. + +The cock's head should be long, but fine; beak long, curved, and strong; +comb single, small, upright, and bright red; wattles and face bright +red; eyes large and brilliant; neck long, arched, and strong; breast +well developed; back short and broad between the shoulders, but tapering +to the tail; thighs muscular, but short compared to the shanks; spur +low; foot flat, with powerful claws, and his carriage erect. The form of +the hen should resemble the above on a smaller scale, with small, fine +comb and face, and wattles of a less intense red. The feathers of both +should be very hard, firm, and close, very strong in the quills, and +seem so united that it should be almost impossible to ruffle them, each +feather if lifted up falling readily into its original place. Size is +not a point of merit, from four to six pounds being considered +sufficient, and better than heavier weights. Among the list of +imperfections in Game cocks, Sketchley enumerates "flat sides, short +legs, thin thighs, crooked or indented breast, short thin neck, +imperfect eye, and duck or short feet." + +"It is the custom," says Miss Watts, "consequently imperative, that all +birds which are exhibited should have been dubbed, and this should not +be done until the comb is so much developed that it will not spring +again after the dubbing. This will be safe if the chicken is nearly six +months old, but some are more set than others at a certain age. A keen +pair of scissors is the best instrument with which to operate. Hold the +fowl with a firm hand, cut away the deaf ears and wattles, then cut the +comb, cutting a certain distance from the back, and then from the front +to join this cut, taking especial care not to go too near the skull. +Some operators put a finger inside the mouth to get a firm purchase. We +should like to see dubbing done away with, leaving these beautiful fowls +as nature makes them; but since amateurs and shows will not agree to +this, it is best to give directions for dubbing, as an operation +bunglingly performed is sure to give unnecessary pain." To save the bird +from excessive loss of blood his wattles are usually cut off a week +later. Every superfluous piece of flesh and skin should be removed. + +The "Henwife" well says: "Why these poor birds are condemned to submit +to this cruel operation is a mystery, unfathomable, I suspect, even by +the judges themselves. Cock-fighting being forbidden by law, the cocks +should, on principle, be left undubbed, as a protest against this brutal +amusement. The comb of the Game male bird is as beautifully formed as +that of the Dorking; why then rob it of this great ornament? It is +asserted that it is necessary to remove the comb to prevent the cocks +injuring each other fatally in fighting; but this is not true; a Dorking +will fight for the championship as ardently as any Game bird, and yet +his comb is spared. Cockerels will not quarrel if kept apart from hens +until the breeding season, when they should be separated, and put on +their several walks. If pugnaciously inclined I do not believe that the +absence of the comb will save the weaker opponent from destruction; +therefore I raise my voice for pity, in favour of the beautiful Game +cock." + +The colours are various, and they are classed into numerous varieties +and sub-varieties, of which the chief are--Black-breasted Red; +Brown-Red; Silver Duck-wing Greys, so called from the feathers +resembling those of a duck; Greys; Blues; Duns; Piles, or Pieds; Black; +White; and Brassy-winged, which is Black with yellow on the lesser wing +coverts. Colours and markings must be allowed a somewhat wide range in +this breed; and figure, with courage, may be held to prove purity of +blood though the colour be doubtful. Mr. Douglas considers the +Black-breasted Red the finest feathered Game, and states that he never +found any come so true to colour as a brood of that variety. White in +the tail feathers is highly objectionable, though not an absolute +disqualification. White fowls should be entirely white, with white legs. +The rules for the coloured legs are very undecided. Light legs match +light-coloured birds best. No particular colour is imperative, but it +should harmonise with the plumage, and all in a pen must agree. + +The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds with willow legs, and the +worst the Greys. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +DORKINGS. + + +This is one of the finest breeds, and especially English. A pure Dorking +is distinguished by an additional or fifth toe. There are several +varieties, which are all comprised in two distinct classes--the White +and the Coloured. The rose-combed white breed is _the_ Dorking of the +old fanciers, and most probably the original breed, from which the +coloured varieties were produced by crossing it with the old Sussex, or +some other large coloured fowl. "That such was the case," says Mr. +Wright, "is almost proved by the fact that only a few years ago nothing +was more uncertain than the appearance of the fifth toe in coloured +chickens, even of the best strains. Such uncertainty in any important +point is always an indication of mixed blood; and that it was so in this +case is shown by the result of long and careful breeding, which has now +rendered the fifth toe permanent, and finally established the variety." +Mr. Brent says: "The _old_ Dorking, the _pure_ Dorking, the _only_ +Dorking, is the _White_ Dorking. It is of good size, compact and plump +form, with short neck, short white legs, five toes, a full rose-comb, a +large breast, and a plumage of spotless white. The practice of crossing +with a Game cock was much in vogue with the old breeders, to improve a +worn-out stock (which, however, would have been better accomplished by +procuring a fresh bird of the same kind, but not related). This cross +shows itself in single combs, loss of a claw, or an occasional red +feather, but what is still more objectionable, in pale-yellow legs and a +yellow circle about the beak, which also indicates a yellowish skin. +These, then, are faults to be avoided. As regards size, the White +Dorking is generally inferior to the Sussex fowl (or 'coloured +Dorking'), but in this respect it only requires attention and careful +breeding. The pure White Dorking may truly be considered as fancy stock, +as well as useful, because they will breed true to their points; but the +grey Sussex, Surrey or Coloured Dorking, often sport. To the breeders +and admirers of the so-called 'Coloured Dorkings' I would say, continue +to improve the fowl of your choice, but let him be known by his right +title; do not support him on another's fame, nor yet deny that the +rose-comb or fifth toe is essential to a Dorking, because your +favourites are not constant to those points. The absence of the fifth +claw to the Dorking would be a great defect, but to the Sussex fowl +(erroneously called a 'Coloured Dorking') it is my opinion it would be +an improvement, provided the leg did not get longer with the loss." + +The fifth toe should not be excessively large, or too far above the +ordinary toe. + +The White Dorking must have the plumage uniformly white, though in the +older birds the hackle and saddle may attain a light golden tint. The +rose-comb is preferable, and the beak and legs should be light and +clear. + +The Coloured Dorking is now bred to great size and beauty. It is a +large, plump, compact, square-made bird, with short white legs, and +should have a well-developed fifth toe. The plumage is very varied, and +may have a wide range, and might almost be termed immaterial, provided a +coarse mealy appearance be avoided, and the pen is well matched. This +latitude in respect of plumage is so generally admitted that the +assertion "you cannot breed Dorkings true to colour," has almost +acquired the authority of a proverb. They may be shown with either rose +or single combs, but all the birds in a pen must match. + +The Dorking is the perfection of a table bird, combining +delicately-flavoured white flesh, which is produced in greatest quantity +in the choicest parts--the breast, merry-thought, and wings--equal +distribution of fat, and symmetrical shape. Mr. Baily prefers the +Speckled or Grey to the White, as "they are larger, hardier, and fatten +more readily, and although it may appear anomalous, it is not less true +that white-feathered poultry has a tendency to yellowness in the flesh +and fat." Size is an important point in Dorkings. Coloured prize birds +weigh from seven to fourteen pounds, and eight months' chickens six or +seven pounds. The White Dorking is smaller. + +They are not good layers, except when very young, and are bad winter +layers. The eggs are large, averaging 2-3/4 ounces, pure white, very +much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each end. The hen is an +excellent sitter and mother. The chickens are very delicate, requiring +more care when young than most breeds, and none show a greater +mortality, no more than two-thirds of a brood usually surviving the +fourth week of their life. They should not be hatched before March, and +must be kept on gravel soil, hard clay, or other equally dry ground, and +never on brick, stone, or wooden flooring. + +This breed will only thrive on a dry soil. They are fond of a wide +range, and cannot be kept within a fence of less than seven feet in +height. When allowed unlimited range they appear to grow hardy, and are +as easily reared as any other breed if not hatched too early. If kept in +confinement they should have fresh turf every day, besides other +vegetable food. Dorkings degenerate more than any breed by +inter-breeding, and rapidly decrease in size. + +Dorkings are peculiarly subject to a chronic inflammation or abscess of +the foot, known as "bumble-foot," which probably originated in heavy +fowls descending from high perches and walking over sharp stones. The +additional toe may have rendered them more liable to this disease. It +may now arise from the same cause, and is best prevented by using broad, +low perches, and keeping their runs clear of sharp, rough stones, but it +also appears to have become hereditary in some birds. There is no cure +for it when matured except its removal, and this operation fails oftener +than it succeeds; but Mr. Tegetmeier states, that he has in early cases +removed the corn-like or wart-like tumours on the ball of the foot with +which the disease begins, and cauterised the part with nitrate of silver +successfully. + +[Illustration: Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs. Black +Spanish] + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +SPANISH. + + +This splendid breed was originally imported from Spain, and is +characterised by its peculiar white face, which in the cock should +extend from the comb downwards, including the entire face, and meet +beneath in a white cravat, hidden by the wattles; and in the hen should +be equally striking. The plumage is perfectly black, with brilliant +metallic lustre, reflecting rich green and purple tints. The tail should +resemble a sickle in the cock, and be square in the hen. The comb should +be of a bright red, large, and high, upright in the cock, but pendent in +the hen; the legs blue, clean, and long, and the bearing proud and +gallant. + +With care they will thrive in a very small space, and are perhaps better +adapted for town than any other variety. They are tolerably hardy when +grown, but suffer much from cold and wet. Their combs and wattles are +liable to be injured by severe cold, from which these fowls should be +carefully protected. If frost-bitten, the parts should be rubbed with +snow or cold water, and the birds must not be taken into a warm room +until recovered. + +The Spanish are excellent layers, producing five or six eggs weekly from +February to August, and two or three weekly from November to February, +and also laying earlier than any other breed except the Brahma, the +pullets beginning to lay before they are six months old. Although the +hens are only of an average size, and but moderate eaters, their eggs +are larger than those of any other breed, averaging 3-1/2 ounces, and +some weighing 4-1/2 ounces, each. The shells are very thin and white, +and the largest eggs are laid in the spring. + +The flesh is excellent, but the body is small compared to that of the +Dorking. They very seldom show any inclination to sit, and if they hatch +a brood are bad nurses. The chickens are very delicate, and are best +hatched at the end of April and during May. They do not feather till +almost three-parts grown, and require a steady mother that will keep +with them till they are safely feathered, and therefore the eggs should +be set under a Dorking hen, because that breed remains longer with the +chicks than any other. They almost always have white feathers in the +flight of the wings, but these become black. + +"In purchasing Spanish fowls," says an excellent authority, "blue legs, +the entire absence of white or coloured feathers in the plumage, and a +large white face, with a very large, high comb, which should be erect in +the cock, though pendent in the hen, should be insisted on." Legginess +is a fault that breeders must be careful to avoid. + +The cockerels show the white face earlier than the pullets, and a blue, +shrivelly appearance in the face of the chickens is a better sign of +future whiteness than a red fleshiness. Pullets are rarely fully +white-faced till above a year old. "The white face," says an excellent +authority, "should always extend well around the eye, and up to the +point of junction with the comb, though a line of short black feathers +is there frequently seen to intrude its undesired presence. It is +certainly objectionable, and the less of it the better; but any attempt +to remove or disguise this eyesore should be followed by immediate +disqualification." Some exhibitors of Spanish shave the down of the +edges of the white-face, in order to make it smooth and larger. This +disgraceful practice is not allowed at the Birmingham Show. + +"One test of condition," says Mr. Baily, "more particularly of the +pullets, is the state of the comb, which will be red, soft, and +developed, just in proportion to the condition of the bird. While +moulting--and they are almost naked during this process--the comb +entirely shrivels up." + +The White-faced WHITE SPANISH is thought to be merely a sport of the +White-faced Black Spanish. But, whatever their origin may have been, +they possess every indication of common blood with their Black +relatives, and their claims to appear by their side in the exhibition +room are as good as those of the White Cochins and the White Polish. The +plumage is uniformly white, but in all other respects they resemble the +Black breed. From the absence of contrast of colour shown in the face, +comb, and plumage of the Black Spanish, the White variety is far less +striking in appearance. + +The ANDALUSIAN are so called from having been brought from the Spanish +province of Andalusia. This breed is of a bluish grey, sometimes +slightly laced with a darker shade, but having the neck hackles and tail +feathers of a glossy black, with red face and white ears. The chickens +are very hardy, and feather well, and earlier than the Spanish. + +The MINORCA is so called from having been imported from that island, and +is a larger and more compactly-formed breed, resembling the Spanish in +its general characteristics; black, with metallic lustre, but with red +face, and having only the ear-lobes white; showing even a larger comb, +and with shorter legs. They are better as table fowls than the Spanish, +but the Andalusian are superior to either. The Minorca is the best layer +of all the Spanish breeds, its chickens are tolerably hardy, and it is +altogether far superior to the White-faced breed. + +ANCONA is a provincial term applied to black and white mottled, or +"cuckoo," which on all other points resemble Minorcas, but are smaller. + +The "Black Rot," to which Spanish fowls are subject, is a blackening of +the comb, swelling of the legs and feet, and general wasting of the +system; and can only be cured in the earlier stages by frequent purgings +with castor oil, combined with warm nourishing food, and strong ale, or +other stimulants, given freely. They are also subject to a peculiar kind +of swelled face, which first appears like a small knob under the skin, +and increases till it has covered one side of the face. It is considered +to be incurable. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +HAMBURGS. + + +This breed is medium-sized, and should have a brilliant red, +finely-serrated rose-comb, terminating in a spike at the back, taper +blue legs, ample tail, exact markings, a well-developed white deaf-ear, +and a quick, spirited bearing. They are classed in three varieties, the +Pencilled, Spangled, and Black varieties, with the sub-varieties of Gold +and Silver in the two former. + +The Pencilled Hamburg is of two ground colours, gold and silver, that +is, of a brown yellow or white, and very minutely marked. The hens of +both colours should have the body clearly pencilled across with several +bars of black. The hackle in both sexes should be free from dark marks. +In the Golden-pencilled variety the cock should be of one uniform red +all over his body without any pencilling whatever, and his tail copper +colour; but many first-class birds have pure black tails and the sickle +feathers should be shaded with a rich bronze or copper. In the +Silver-pencilled variety the cock is often nearly white, with yellowish +wing-coverts, and a brown or chestnut patch on the flight feathers of +his wing. The tail should be black and the sickle feathers tinged with a +reddish white. + +The Speckled or Spangled Hamburg, also called Pheasant Fowl, from the +false idea that the pheasant was one of its parents, is of two kinds, +the Golden-speckled and Silver-speckled, according to their ground +colour, the marking taking the form of a spot upon each feather. They +have very full double and firmly fixed combs, the point at the end +turning upwards, a dark rim round the eyes, blue legs, and mixed hackle. +They were also called Moss Fowls, and Mooneys, the latter probably +because the end of every feather should have a black rim on the yellow +or white ground. In the Golden-spangled some judges prefer cocks with a +pure black breast, but others desire them spangled. + +"One chief cause of discussion," says Miss Watts, "relating to the +Hamburg, regarded the markings on the cocks. The Yorkshire breed, which +had been a favourite in that county for many years, produced henny +cocks--_i.e._ cocks with plumage resembling that of a hen. The feathers +of the hackle were not narrow and elongated like those of cocks +generally, but were short and rounded like those of the hen; the +saddle-feathers were the same, and the tail, instead of being graced +with fine flowing sickle feathers, was merely square like that of a hen. +The Lancashire Mooneys, on the contrary, produce cocks with as fine +flowing plumage as need grace any chanticleer in the land, and +tails with sickle-feathers twenty-two inches long, fine flowing +saddle-feathers, and abundant hackle. The hen-tail cocks had the +markings, as well as the form, of the hen; the long feathers of the +others cannot, from their form, have these markings. On this question +party-spirit ran high: York and Lancaster, Cavalier and Roundhead, were +small discussions compared with it; but the hen-cocks were beaten, and +we now seldom hear of them. A mixture of the two breeds has been tried; +but by it valuable qualities and purity of race have been sacrificed." + +The Black Hamburg is of a beautiful black with a metallic lustre, and is +a noble-looking bird, the cocks often weighing seven pounds. There is +little doubt that it was produced by crossing with the Spanish, which +blood shows itself in the white face, which is often half apparent, and +in the darker legs. But it is well established as a distinct variety, +and good birds breed true to colour and points. The cocks' combs are +larger, and the hens' legs shorter, than the other varieties. + +Bolton Bays and Greys, Chitteprats, Turkish, and Creoles or Corals, +Pencilled Dutch fowls, and Dutch every-day layers, are but incorrect +names for the Hamburgs, with which they are identical. + +The Hamburgs do not attain to their full beauty until three years old. +"As a general rule," says Mr. Baily, "no true bred Hamburg fowl has +top-knot, single comb, white legs, any approach to feather on the legs, +white tail, or spotted hackle." The white ear-lobe being so +characteristic a feature in all the Hamburgs, becomes most important in +judging their merits. Weight is not considered, but still the Pencilled +cock should not weigh less than four and a half pounds, nor the hen than +three and a half; and the Spangled cock five pounds and the hen four. + +The Hamburgs are most prolific layers naturally, without +over-stimulating feeding, surpassing all others in the number of their +eggs, and deserve their popular name of "everlasting layers." Their eggs +are white, and do not weigh more than 1-1/2 ounce to 1-3/4 ounce each; +and the hens are known to average 240 eggs yearly. Not being large +eaters, they are very profitable fowls to keep. The eggs of the +Golden-spangled are the largest, and it is the hardiest variety, but the +Pencilled lay more. The Black variety produces large eggs, and lays a +greater number than any known breed. + +They very seldom show any desire to sit except when they have a free +woodland range, for even if free it must be wild to induce any desire to +perpetuate the species, and they never sit if confined to a yard. The +chickens should not be hatched earlier than May, but in the South of +England they will do very well if hatched by a Cochin-China hen at the +beginning of March. They are small birds for table, but of excellent +quality. + +Hamburgs do not bear confinement well, and will not thrive without a +good run; a grass field is the best. Being small and light, even a +ten-feet fence will not keep them within a small run. They may indeed be +kept in a shed, but the number must be very few in proportion to its +size, and they must be kept dry and scrupulously clean. They +are excellent guards in the country, for if disturbed in their +roosting-place they will make a great noise. The breed has improved in +this country, and British bred fowls are much stronger than the imported +birds. + +[Illustration: White-crested Black. Golden and Silver-spangled. + +POLISH.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +POLANDS. + + +This breed might with good reason be divided into more families, but it +is usual to rank as Polands all fowls with their chief distinguishing +characteristic, a full, large, round, compact tuft on the head. The +breed "is quite unknown in Poland, and takes its name," says Mr. +Dickson, "from some resemblance having been fancied between its tufted +crest and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by the +Polish soldiers." It is much esteemed in Egypt, and equally abundant at +the Cape of Good Hope, where their legs are feathered. Some travellers +assert that the Mexican poultry are crested, and that what are called +Poland fowls are natives of either Mexico or South America; but others +believe that they are natives of the East, and that they, as well as all +the other fowls on the Continent of America, have been introduced from +the Old World. + +The Golden-spangled and Silver-spangled are the most beautiful +varieties, the first being of a gold colour and the second white, both +spangled with black. The more uniform the colour of the tuft is with +that of the bird, the higher it is valued. + +The Black Poland is of a deep velvety black; has a large, white, round +tuft, and should not have a comb, but many have a little comb in the +form of two small points before the tuft. The tuft to be perfect should +be entirely white, but it is rare to meet with one without a slight +bordering of black, or partly black, feathers round the front. + +There are also Yellow, laced with white, Buff or Chamois, spangled with +white, Blue, Grey, Black, and White mottled. All the sub-varieties +should be of medium size, neat compact form, plump, full-breasted, and +have lead-coloured legs and ample tails. + +The top-knot of the cock should be composed of straight feathers, +growing from the centre of the crown, and falling over outside, but not +so much as to intercept the sight, and form a circular crest. That of +the hen should be formed of feathers growing out and turning in at the +extremity, so as to resemble a cauliflower, and it should be even, firm, +and as nearly round as possible. Large, uneven top-knots composed of +loose feathers do not equal smaller but firm and well-shaped crests. The +white ear-lobe is essential in all the varieties. + +"Beards" in Polands were formerly not admired. Among the early birds +brought from the continent, not one in a hundred was bearded, and those +that were so were often rejected, and it was a question of dispute +whether the pure bird should have them or not. Bearded birds at shows +were the exceptions, but an unbearded pen of Polands is now seldom or +ever seen. + +There was formerly a breed of White, with black top-knots, but that is +lost, although it seems to have been not only the most ornamental, but +the largest and most valuable of all the Polish varieties. The last +specimen known was seen by Mr. Brent at St. Omer in 1854, and it is +possible that the breed may still exist in France or Ireland. + +The SERAI TA-OOK, or FOWL OF THE SULTAN, is the latest Polish fowl +introduced into this country. They were imported in 1854 by Miss Watts, +who says: "With regard to the name, Serai is the name of the Sultan's +palace; Tae-ook is Turkish for fowl; the simplest translation of this is, +Sultan's fowls, or fowls of the Sultan; a name which has the double +advantage of being the nearest to be found to that by which they have +been known in their own country, and of designating the country from +which they came. In general habits they are brisk and happy-tempered, +but not kept in as easily as Cochin-Chinas. They are very good layers; +their eggs are large and white; they are non-sitters, and small eaters. +A grass run with them will remain green long after the crop would have +been cleared by either Brahmas or Cochins, and with scattered food they +soon become satisfied and walk away. They are the size of our English +Poland fowls. Their plumage is white and flowing; they have a full-sized +compact Poland tuft on the head, are muffed, have a good flowing tail, +short well-feathered legs, and five toes upon each foot. The comb is +merely two little points, and the wattles very small. We have never seen +fowls more fully decorated--full tail, abundant furnishing, in hackle +almost touching the ground, boots, vulture-hocks, beards, whiskers, and +full round Poland crests. Their colour is pure white." + +They are prolific layers during spring and summer. Their eggs are white, +and weigh from 2 ounces to 2-1/4 ounces each, the Spangled varieties +producing the largest. They rarely sit, and generally leave their eggs +after five or six days, and are not good mothers. The chickens require +great care for six weeks. They should never be hatched by heavy hens, as +the prominence in the skull which supports the top-knot is never +completely covered with bone, and very sensible to injury. Like the Game +breed they improve in feather for several years. Polands never thrive on +a wet or cold soil, and are more affected by bad weather than any other +breed; the top-knots being very liable to be saturated with wet. +They are easily fattened, and their flesh is white, juicy, and +rich-flavoured, but they are not sufficiently large for the market. + +Mr. Hewitt cautions breeders against attempting to seize birds suddenly, +as the crest obscures their sight, and, being taken by surprise, they +are frequently so frightened as to die in the hand. They should, +therefore, always be spoken to, or their attention otherwise attracted +before being touched. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +Bantams. + + +Of this breed one kind is Game, and resembles the Game fowl, except in +size; another is feathered to the very toes, the feathers on the tarsi, +or beam of the leg, being long and stiff, and often brushing the ground. +They are peculiarly fancy fowls. There are several varieties, the White, +Black, Nankin, Partridge, Booted or Feather-legged, Game, and the +Golden-laced and Silver-laced, or Sebright Bantam. All should be very +small, varying from fourteen to twenty ounces in the hen, and from +sixteen to twenty-four in the cock. The head should be narrow; beak +curved; forehead rounded; eyes bright; back short; body round and full; +breast very prominent; legs short and clean, except in the Booted +variety; wings depressed; and the carriage unusually erect, the back of +the neck and the tail feathers almost touching; and the whole bearing +graceful, bold, and proud. + +[Illustration: Black. Sebright's Gold and Silver-laced. White. Game. + +BANTAMS.] + +"The Javanese jungle-fowl" (_Gallus Bankiva_), says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, +"the Ayam-utan of the Malays, is a native of Java; but either a variety +or a distinct species of larger size, yet very similar in colouring, is +found in continental India. The Javanese, or Bankiva jungle-fowl, is +about the size of an ordinary Bantam, and in plumage resembles the +black-breasted red Game-bird of our country, with, a steel-blue mark +across the wings. The comb is high, its edge is deeply serrated, and the +wattles are rather large. The hackle feathers of the neck and rump are +long and of a glossy golden orange; the shoulders are chestnut red, the +greater wing-coverts deep steel-blue, the quill feathers brownish black, +edged with pale, reddish yellow, or sandy red. The tail is of a black +colour, with metallic reflections of green and blue. The under parts are +black the naked space round the eyes, the comb, and wattles are +scarlet. The hen closely resembles a brown hen of the Game breed, except +in being very much smaller. That this bird, or its continental ally, is +one of the sources--perhaps the main source--of our domestic race, +cannot be doubted. It inter-breeds freely with our common poultry, and +the progeny is fertile. Most beautiful cross-breeds between the Bankiva +jungle-fowl and Bantam may be seen in the gardens of the Zoological +Society." + +"That the Bankiva jungle-fowl of Java, or its larger continental +variety, if it be not a distinct species (and of which Sir W. Jardine +states that he has seen several specimens), is one of the sources of our +domestic breeds, cannot, we think, be for a moment doubted. It would be +difficult to discover any difference between a clean-limbed, +black-breasted red Bantam-cock, and a cock Bankiva jungle-fowl. Indeed, +the very term Bantam goes far to prove their specific identity. Bantam +is a town or city at the bottom of a bay on the northern coast of Java; +it was first visited by the Portuguese in 1511, at which time a great +trade was carried on by the town with Arabia, Hindostan, and China, +chiefly in pepper. Subsequently it fell into the hands of the Dutch, and +was at one time the great rendezvous for European shipping. It is now a +place of comparative insignificance. From this it would seem that the +jungle-fowls domesticated and sold to the Europeans at Bantam continued +to be designated by the name of the place where they were obtained, and +in process of time the name was appropriated to all our dwarfish +breeds." + +Game Bantams are exact miniatures of real Game fowls, in Black-breasted +red, Duck-wing, and other varieties. The cocks must not have the strut +of the Bantam, but the bold, martial bearing of the Game cock. Their +wings should be carried closely, and their feathers be hard and close. +The Duck-wing cock's lower wing-coverts should be marked with blue, +forming a bar across each wing. + +The SEBRIGHT, or GOLD AND SILVER-LACED BANTAM, is a breed with clean +legs, and of most elegantly spangled plumage, which was bred and has +been brought to great perfection by Sir John Sebright, after whom they +are named. The attitude of the cock is singularly bold and proud, the +head being often thrown so much back as to meet the tail feathers, which +are simple like those of a hen, the ordinary sickle-like feathers being +abbreviated and broad. The Gold-laced Sebright Bantams should have +golden brownish-yellow plumage, each feather being bordered with a +lacing of black; the tail square like that of the hen, without sickle +feathers, and carried well over the back, each feather being tipped with +black, a rose-comb pointed at the back, the wings drooping to the +ground, neither saddle nor neck hackles, clean lead-coloured legs and +feet, and white ear-lobes; and the hen should correspond exactly with +him, but be much smaller. The Silver-laced birds have exactly the same +points except in the ground feathering, which should be silvery, and the +nearer the shade approaches to white the more beautiful will be the +bird. Their carriage should resemble that of a good Fantail pigeon. + +The BLACK BANTAMS should be uniform in colour, with well-developed white +ear-lobes, rose-combs, full hackles, sickled and flowing tail, and deep +slate-coloured legs. The WHITE BANTAMS should have white legs and beak. +Both should be of tiny size. + +The NANKIN, or COMMON YELLOW BANTAM, is probably the nearest approach to +the original type of the family--the "Bankiva fowl." The cock "has a +large proportion of red and dark chestnut on the body, with a full black +tail; while the hen is a pale orange yellow, with a tail tipped with +black, and the hackle lightly pencilled with the same colour, and clean +legs. Combs vary, but the rose is decidedly preferable. True-bred +specimens of these birds being by no means common, considerable +deviations from the above description may consequently be expected in +birds passing under this appellation." + +The BOOTED BANTAMS have their legs plumed to the toes, not on one side +only like Cochin-Chinas, but completely on both, with stiff, long +feathers, which brush the ground. The most beautiful specimens are of a +pure white. "Feathered-legged Bantams," says Mr. Baily, "may be of any +colour; the old-fashioned birds were very small, falcon-hocked, and +feathered, with long quill feathers to the extremity of the toe. Many of +them were bearded. They are now very scarce; indeed, till exhibitions +brought them again into notice, these beautiful specimens of their tribe +were all neglected and fast passing away. Nothing but the Sebright was +cultivated; but now we bid fair to revive the pets of our ancestors in +all their beauty." + +The PEKIN, or COCHIN BANTAMS, were taken from the Summer Palace at Pekin +during the Chinese war, and brought to this country. They exactly +resemble the Buff Cochins in all respects except size. They are very +tame. + +The JAPANESE BANTAM is a recent importation, and differs from most of +the other varieties in having a very large single comb. It has very +short well-feathered legs, and the colour varies. Some are quite white, +some have pure white bodies, with glossy, jet-black tails, others are +mottled and buff. They throw the tail up and the head back till they +nearly meet, as in the Fantailed pigeon. They are said to be the +constant companions of man in their native country, and have a droll and +good-natured expression. + +All the Bantam cocks are very pugnacious, and though the hens are good +mothers to their own chickens, they will attack any stranger with fury. +They are good layers of small but exquisitely-flavoured eggs. But no +breed produces so great a proportion of unfertile eggs. June is the best +month for hatching, as the chickens are delicate. They feather more +quickly than most breeds, and are apt to die at that period through the +great drain upon the system in producing feathers. When fully feathered +they are quite hardy. The hens are excellent mothers. The chickens +require a little more animal food than other fowls, and extra attention +for a week or two in keeping them dry. Bantams are very useful in a +garden, eating many slugs and insects, and doing little damage. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +FRENCH AND VARIOUS. + + +The French breeds are remarkable for great weight and excellent quality +of flesh, with a very small proportion of bones and offal; their +breeders having paid great attention to those important, substantial, +and commercial points instead of devoting almost exclusive attention to +colour and other fancy points as we have done. As a rule they are all +non-sitters, or sit but rarely. + +[Illustration: Houdans. La Fleche, cock. Creve-Coeur, hen. + +FRENCH.] + +The CREVE-COEUR has been known the longest and most generally. This +breed is said to derive its name from a village so called in Normandy, +whence its origin can be distinctly traced; but others fancifully say, +from the resemblance of its peculiar comb to a broken heart. It is +scarce, and pure-bred birds are difficult to procure. The Creve-Coeur +is a fine large bird, black in plumage, or nearly so, with short, clean +black legs, square body, deep chest, and a large and extraordinary crest +or comb, which is thus described by M. Jacque: "Various, but always +forming two horns, sometimes parallel, straight, and fleshy; sometimes +joined at the base, slightly notched, pointed, and separating at their +extremities; sometimes adding to this latter description interior +ramifications like the horns of a young stag. The comb, shaped like +horns, gives the Creve-Coeur the appearance of a devil." It is +bearded, and has a top-knot or crest behind the comb. They are very +quiet, walk slowly, scratch but little, do not fly, are very tame, +ramble but little, and prefer seeking their food on the dunghill in the +poultry-yard to wandering afar off. They are the most contented of all +breeds in confinement, and will thrive in a limited space. They are +tame, tractable fowls, but inclined to roup and similar diseases in our +climate, and therefore prosper most on a dry, light soil, and can +scarcely have too much sun. They are excellent layers of very large +white eggs. + +The chickens grow so fast, and are so inclined to fatten, that they may +be put up at from ten to twelve weeks of age, and well fattened in +fifteen days. The Creve-Coeur is a splendid table bird, both for the +quantity and quality of its flesh. The hen is heavy in proportion to the +cock, weighing eight and a half pounds against his nine and a half, and +the pullets always outweigh the cockerels. + +LA FLECHE is thus described by M. Jacque: "A strong, firm body, well +placed on its legs, and long muscular feet, appearing less than it +really is, because the feathers are close; every muscular part well +developed; black plumage. The La Fleche is the tallest of all French +cocks; it has many points of resemblance with the Spanish, from which I +believe it to be descended by crossing with the Creve-Coeur. Others +believe that it is connected with the Breda, which it does, in fact, +resemble, in some particulars. It has white, loose, and transparent +skin; short, juicy, and delicate flesh, which puts on fat easily." + +"The comb is transversal, double, forming two horns bending forward, +united at their base, divided at their summits, sometimes even and +pointed, sometimes having ramifications on the inner sides. A little +double 'combling' protrudes from the upper part of the nostrils, and +although hardly as large as a pea, this combling, which surmounts the +sort of rising formed by the protrusion of the nostrils, contributes to +the singular aspect of the head. This measured prominence of the comb +seems to add to the characteristic depression of the beak, and gives the +bird a likeness to a rhinoceros." The plumage is jet black, with a very +rich metallic lustre; large ear-lobe of pure white; bright red face, +unusually free from feathers; and bright lead-coloured legs, with hard, +firm scales. They are very handsome, showy, large, and lively birds, +more inclined to wander than the Creve-Coeur, and hardier when full +grown; but their chickens are even more delicate in wet weather, and +should not be hatched before May. They are easily reared, and grow +quickly. They are excellent layers of very large white eggs, but do not +lay well in winter, unless under very favourable circumstances, and +resemble the Spanish in the size and number of their eggs, and the time +and duration of laying. Their flesh is excellent, juicy, and resembles +that of the Game fowl, and the skin white and transparent, but the legs +are dark. This breed is larger and has more style than the Creve-Coeur, +and is better adapted to our climate; but the fowls lack constitution, +particularly the cocks, and are very liable to leg weakness and disease +of the knee-joint, and when they get out of condition seldom recover. +They are found in the north of France, but are not common even there. + +The HOUDAN has the size, deep compact body, short legs, and fifth toe of +the Dorking. They are generally white, some having black spots as large +as a shilling, are bearded, and should have good top-knots of black and +white feathers, falling backwards like a lark's crest; and the +remarkable comb is thus described by M. Jacque: "Triple, transversal in +the direction of the beak, composed of two flattened spikes, of long and +rectangular form, opening from right to left, like two leaves of a book; +thick, fleshy, and variegated at the edges. A third spike grows between +these two, having somewhat the shape of an irregular strawberry, and the +size of a long nut. Another, quite detached from the others, about the +size of a pea, should show between the nostrils, above the beak." + +Mr. F. H. Schroeder, of the National Poultry Company, considered that +this surpassed all the French breeds, combining the size, shape, and +quality of flesh of the Dorking with earlier maturity; prolific laying +of good-sized eggs, which are nearly always fertile, and on this point +the opposite of the Dorking; and early and rapid feathering in the +chickens, which are, notwithstanding, hardier than any breeds except the +Cochin and Brahma. They are very hardy, never sick, and will thrive in a +small space. They are smaller than the Creve-Coeur or La Fleche, but +well shaped and plump; and for combining size and quality of flesh with +quantity and size of eggs nothing can surpass them. + +SCOTCH DUMPIES, GO LAIGHS, BAKIES, or CREEPERS, are almost extinct; but +they are profitable fowls, and ought to be more common, as they are very +hardy, productive layers of fine large eggs, and their flesh is white +and of excellent quality. They should have large, heavy bodies; short, +white, clean legs, not above an inch and a half or two inches in length. +The plumage is a mixture of black or brown, and white. They are good +layers of fine large eggs. They cannot be surpassed as sitters and +mothers, and are much valued by gamekeepers for hatching the eggs of +pheasants. The cocks should weigh six or seven and the hen five or six +pounds. + +The SILKY fowl is so called from its plumage, which is snowy white, +being all discomposed and loose, and of a silky appearance, resembling +spun glass. The comb and wattles are purple; the bones and the +periosteum, or membrane covering the bones, black, and the skin blue or +purple; but the flesh, however, is white and tender, and superior to +that of most breeds. It is a good layer of small, round, and excellent +eggs. The cock generally weighs less than three, and the hen less than +two, pounds. It comes from Japan and China, and generally thrives in our +climate. The chickens are easily reared if not hatched before April nor +later than June. They are capital foster mothers for partridges, and +other small and tender game. + +The RUMPKIN, or RUMPLESS fowl, a Persian breed, not only lacks the +tail-feathers but the tail itself. It is hardy, of moderate size, and +varies in colour, but is generally black or brown, and from the absence +of tail appears rounder than other fowls. The hens are good layers, but +the eggs are often unfertile. They are good sitters and mothers, and the +flesh is of fair quality. + +The FRIESLAND, so named from confounding the term "frizzled" with +Friesland, is remarkable from having all the feathers, except those of +the wings and tail, frizzled, or curled up the wrong way. It is small, +very delicate, and a shower drenches it to the skin. + +BARN-DOOR fowl are a mongrel race, compounded by chance, usually of the +Game, Dorking, and Polish breeds. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +TURKEYS. + + +Turkeys are not considered profitable except on light, dry soils, which +is said to be the cause of their success in Norfolk. They prosper, +however, in Ireland; but although the air there is moist, the soil is +dry, except in the boggy districts. Miss Watts believes that "any place +in which turkeys are properly reared and fed may compete with Norfolk. +Very fine birds may be seen in Surrey, and other places near London." +The general opinion of the best judges is, that they can barely be made +to repay the cost of their food, which is doubtless owing to the usual +great mortality among the chicks, which loss outbalances all profit; but +others make them yield a fair profit, simply because, from good +situation and judicious management, they rear all, or nearly all, the +chicks. A single brood may be reared with ease on a small farm or +private establishment without much extra expense, where sufficient +attention can be devoted to them; but to make them profitable they +should be bred on a large scale, and receive exclusive attention. They +should have a large shed or house, with a boarded floor, to themselves. + +[Illustration: Turkey and Guinea-fowls.] + +Turkeys must have space, for they are birds of rambling habits, and only +fitted for the farmyard, or extensive runs, delighting to wander in the +fields in quest of insects, on which, with green herbage, berries, +beech-mast, and various seeds, they greedily feed. The troop will ramble +about all day, returning to roost in the evening, when they should have +a good supply of grain; and another should be given in the morning, +which will not only induce them to return home regularly every night, +but keep them in good store condition, so that they can at any time be +speedily fattened. Peas, vetches, tares, and most sorts of pulse, are +almost poisonous to them. Their feeding-place must be separate from +the other poultry, or they will gobble up more than their share. Turkeys +will rarely roost in a fowl-house, and should have a very high open +shed, the perches being placed as high as possible. They are extremely +hardy, roosting, if allowed, on the highest trees in the severest +weather. But this should be prevented, as their feet are apt to become +frost-bitten in severe weather. The chickens are as delicate. Wet is +fatal to them, and the very slightest shower even in warm weather will +frequently destroy half a brood. + +The breeding birds should be carefully selected, any malformation almost +invariably proving itself hereditary. The cock is at maturity when a +year old, but not in his prime till he has attained his third year, and +is entering upon his fourth, and he continues in vigour for three or +four years more. He should be vigorous, broad-breasted, clean-legged, +with ample wings, well-developed tail, bright eyes, and the carunculated +skin of the neck full and rapid in its changes of colour. The largest +possible hen should be chosen, the size of the brood depending far more +upon the female than the male. One visit to the male is sufficient to +render all the eggs fertile, and the number of hens may be unlimited, +but to obtain fine birds, twelve or fifteen hens to one cock is the best +proportion. The hen breeds in the spring following that in which she was +hatched, but is not in her prime till two or three years old, and +continues for two or three years in full vigour. + +The hen generally commences laying about the middle of March, but +sometimes earlier. When from her uttering a peculiar cry and prying +about in quest of a secret spot for sitting, it is evident that she is +ready to lay, she should be confined in the shed, barn, or other place +where the nest has been prepared for her, and let out when she has laid +an egg. The nest should be made of straw and dried leaves, in a large +wicker basket, in a quiet secluded place, and an egg or nest-egg of +chalk should be placed in it to induce her to adopt it. Turkeys like to +choose their own laying-places, and keep to them though their eggs are +removed daily, provided a nest-egg is left there. They will wander to a +distance in search of a secluded spot for laying, and pay their visits +to the nest so cleverly that sometimes they keep it a secret and hatch a +brood there, which, however, does not generally prove a strong or large +one as in the case of ordinary fowls. When a hen has chosen a safe, +quiet, and sheltered place for her nest, it is best to give her more +eggs when she shows a desire to sit, and let her stay there. The hen +generally lays from fifteen to twenty eggs, sometimes fewer and often +many more. As soon as seven are produced, they should be placed under a +good common hen, a Cochin is the best, and the remainder can be put +under her when she wants to sit. The best hatching period is from the +end of March to May, and none should be hatched later than June. The +broody hens may be placed on their eggs in any quiet place, as they are +patient, constant sitters, and will not leave their eggs wherever they +may be put. A hen may be allowed from nine to fifteen eggs, according to +her size. During the time the hen is sitting she requires constant +attention. She must occasionally be taken off the nest to feed, and +regularly supplied with fresh water; otherwise she will continue to sit +without leaving for food, till completely exhausted. In general, do not +let the cock go near the sitting hen, or he will destroy the eggs or +chicks; but some behave well, and may be left at large with safety. She +should not be disturbed or visited by any one but the person she is +accustomed to be fed by, and the eggs should not be touched +unnecessarily. + +The chickens break the shell from the twenty-sixth to the twenty-ninth +day, but sometimes as late as the thirty-first. Let them remain in the +nest for twenty-four hours, but remove the shells, and next morning +place the hen under a roomy coop or crate, on boards, in a warm +outhouse. Keep her and her brood cooped up for two months, moving the +coop every fine day into a dry grass field, but keep them in an outhouse +in cold or wet weather. The chicks having a great tendency to diarrhoea, +the very best food for the first week is hard-boiled eggs, chopped +small, mixed with minced dandelion, and when that cannot be had, with +boiled nettles. They may then have boiled egg, bread-crumbs, and +barley-meal for a fortnight, when the egg may be replaced by boiled +potato, and small grain may soon be added. Do not force them to eat, but +give them a little food on the tip of your finger, and they will soon +learn to pick it out of the trough. A little hempseed, suet, onion-tops, +green mustard, and nettle-tops, chopped very fine, should be mixed with +their food. Curds are excellent food, and easily prepared by mixing +powdered alum with milk slightly warmed, in the proportion of one +teaspoonful of alum to four quarts of milk, and, when curdled, +separating the curds from the whey. They should be squeezed very dry, +and must always be given in a soft state. Water should be given but +sparingly, and never allowed to stand by them, but when they have had +sufficient it should be taken or thrown away. The water must be put in +pans so contrived or placed that they cannot wet themselves. (_See_ page +38.) Fresh milk is apt to disagree with the young chicks, and is not +necessary. If a chick shows weakness, or has taken cold, give it some +carraway seeds. + +In their wild state the turkey rears only one brood in a season, and it +is not advisable to induce the domesticated bird by any expedients to +hatch a second, for it would be not only detrimental to her, but the +brood would be hatched late in the season, and very difficult to rear, +while those reared would not be strong, healthy birds. + +The coop should be like that used for common fowls, but two feet broad, +and higher, being about three feet high in front and one foot at the +back; this greater slant of the roof being made in order to confine her +movements, as otherwise she would move about too much, and trample upon +her brood. When they have grown larger they must have a larger coop, +made of open bars wide enough apart for them to go in and out, but too +close to let in fowls to eat their delicate food, and the hen must be +placed under it with them. A large empty crate, such as is used to +contain crockery-ware, will make a good coop for large poults; but if +one cannot be had, a coop may be made of laths or rails, with the bars +four inches apart; it should be about five feet long, four feet broad, +and three feet high. + +Keep her cooped for two months, moving the coop every fine, dry day into +a grass field, but on cold or wet days keep them in the outhouse. If she +is allowed her liberty before they are well grown and strong, she will +wander away with them through the long grass, hedges, and ditches, over +highway, common, and meadow, mile after mile, losing them on the road, +and straying on with the greatest complacency, and perfectly satisfied +so long as she has one or two following her, and never once turning her +head to see how her panting chicks are getting on, nor troubled when +they squat down tired out, and implore her plaintively to come back; and +all this arises from sheer heedlessness, and not from want of affection, +for she will fight for her brood as valiantly as any pheasant will for +hers. When full grown they should never be allowed to roam with her +while there is heavy dew or white frost on the grass, but be kept in +till the fields and hedgerows are dry. They will pick up many seeds and +insects while wandering about in the fields with her, but must be fed by +hand three or four times a day at regular intervals. + +They cease to be chicks or chickens, and are called turkey-poults when +the male and female distinctive characteristics are fairly established, +the carunculated skin and comb of the cock being developed, which is +called "shooting the red," or "putting out the red," and begins when +they are eight or ten weeks old. It is the most critical period of their +lives--much more so than moulting, and during the process their food +must be increased in quantity, and made more nourishing by the addition +of boiled egg-yolks, bread crumbled in ale, wheaten flour, bruised +hempseed, and the like, and they must be well housed at night. When this +process is completed they will be hardy, and able to take care of +themselves; but till they are fully fledged it will be advisable to keep +them from rain and cold, and not to try their hardness too suddenly. + +Vegetables, as chopped nettles, turnip-tops, cabbage sprouts, onions, +docks, and the like, boiled down and well mixed with barley-meal, +oatmeal, or wheaten flour, and curds, if they can be afforded, form +excellent food for the young poults; also steamed potatoes, boiled +carrots, turnips, and the like. With this diet may be given buckwheat, +barley, oats, beans, and sunflower seeds. + +When they are old enough to be sent to the stubble and fields, they are +placed in charge of a boy or girl of from twelve to fifteen years old, +who can easily manage one hundred poults. They are driven with a long +bean stick, and the duties of the turkey-herd is to keep the cocks from +fighting, to lead them to every place where there are acorns, +beech-mast, corn, wild fruit, insects, or other food to be picked up. He +must not allow them to get fatigued with too long rambles, as they are +not fully grown, and must shelter them from the burning sun, and hasten +them home on the approach of rain. The best times for these rambles are +from eight to ten in the morning, when the dew is off the grass, and +from four till seven in the evening, before it begins to fall. + +Turkeys are crammed for the London markets. The process of fattening may +commence when they are six months old, as they require a longer time to +become fit for the market than fowls. The large birds which are seen at +Christmas are usually males of the preceding year, and about twenty +months old. All experienced breeders repudiate "cramming." To obtain +fine birds the chickens must be fed abundantly from their birth until +they are sent to market, and while they are being fattened they should +be sent to the fields and stubble for a shorter time daily, and their +food must be increased in quantity and improved in quality. Early +hatched, well fed young Norfolk cocks will frequently weigh twenty-three +pounds by Christmas of the same year, and two-year-old birds will +sometimes attain to twenty pounds. When two or more years old they are +called "stags." + +The domesticated turkey can scarcely be said to be divided into distinct +breeds like the common fowl, the several varieties being distinguished +by colour only, but identical in their form and habits. They vary +considerably in colour--some being of a bronzed black, others of a +coppery tint, of a delicate fawn colour, or buff, and some of pure +white. The dark coloured birds are generally considered the most hardy, +and are usually the largest. The chief varieties are the Cambridge, +Norfolk, Irish, American, and French. + +The Cambridge combines enormous size, a tendency to fatten speedily, and +first-rate flavour. The tortoiseshell character of its plumage gives the +adult birds a very prepossessing appearance around the homestead, and a +striking character in the exhibition room. The colours may vary from +pale to dark grey, with a deep metallic brown tint, and light legs. The +legs should be stout and long. + +The Norfolk breed is more compact and smaller-boned, and produces a +large quantity of meat of delicate whiteness and excellent quality. The +cocks are almost as heavy as the Cambridge breed, but the hens are +smaller and more compact. The Norfolk should be jet, not blue black, and +free from any other colour, being uniform throughout, including the legs +and feet. + +All the birds in a pen must be uniform. + +The American wild turkey has become naturalised in this country, but +being of a very wandering disposition is best adapted to be kept in +parks and on large tracts of wild land. It is slender in shape, but of +good size, with uniform metallic bronze plumage, the flight feathers +being barred with white, and the tail alternately with white, rich dark +brown, and black, and with bright pink legs. The wattles are smaller +than in the other breeds, and of a bluish tinge. They are very hardy, +but more spiteful than others, and are said to be also more prolific. +Crosses often take place in America between the wild and tame races, and +are highly valued both for their appearance and for the table. Eggs of +the wild turkey have also often been taken from their nests, and hatched +under the domesticated hen. The flavour of the flesh of the American +breed is peculiar and exceedingly good, but they do not attain a large +size. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +GUINEA-FOWLS. + + +The Guinea-fowl, Gallina, or Pintado (_Numida Meleagris_), is the true +meleagris of the ancients, a term generically applied by Belon, +Aldrovandus, and Gesner to the turkey, and now retained, although the +error is acknowledged, in order to prevent confusion. It is a native of +Africa, where it is extensively distributed. They associate in large +flocks and frequent open glades, the borders of forests, and banks of +rivers, which offer abundant supplies of grain, berries, and insects, in +quest of which they wander during the day, and collect together at +evening, and roost in clusters on the branches of trees or shrubs. +Several other wild species are known, some of which are remarkable for +their beauty; but the common Guinea-fowl is the only one domesticated in +Europe. The Guinea-fowl is about twenty-two inches long, and from +standing high on its legs, and having loose, full plumage, appears to be +larger than it really is, for when plucked it does not weigh more than +an ordinary Dorking. It is very plump and well-proportioned. The +Guinea-fowl is not bred so much as the turkey in England or France, is +very rare in the northern parts of Europe, and in India is bred almost +exclusively by Europeans, although it thrives as well there as in its +native country. It "is turbulent and restless," says Mr. Dickson, +"continually moving from place to place, and domineering over the whole +poultry-yard, boldly attacking even the fiercest turkey cock, and +keeping all in alarm by its petulant pugnacity"; and the males, although +without spurs, can inflict serious injury on other poultry with their +short, hard beaks. The Guinea-fowls make very little use of their wings, +and if forced to take to flight, fly but a short distance, then alight, +and trust to their rapid mode of running, and their dexterity in +threading the mazes of brushwood and dense herbage, for security. They +are shy, wary, and alert. + +It is not much kept, its habits being wandering, and requiring an +extensive range, but as it picks up nearly all its food, and is very +prolific, it may be made very profitable in certain localities. The +whole management of both the young and the old may be precisely the same +as that of turkeys, in hatching, feeding, and fattening. This "species," +says Mr. Dickson, "differs from all other poultry, in its being +difficult to distinguish the cock from the hen, the chief difference +being in the colour of the wattles, which are more of a red hue in the +cock, and more tinged with blue in the hen. The cock has also a more +stately strut." + +They mate in pairs, and therefore an equal number of cocks and hens must +be kept, or the eggs will prove unfertile. To obtain stock, some of +their eggs must be procured, and placed under a common hen; for if old +birds are bought, they will wander away for miles in search of their old +home, and never return. They should be fed regularly, and must always +have one meal at night, or they will scarcely ever roost at home. They +will not sleep in the fowl-house, but prefer roosting in the lower +branches of a tree, or on a thick bush, and retire early. They make a +peculiar, harsh, querulous noise, which is oft-repeated, and not +agreeable. The hens are prolific layers, beginning in May, and +continuing during the whole summer. Their eggs are small, but of +excellent flavour, of a pale yellowish red, finely dotted with a darker +tint, and remarkable for the hardness of the shell. The hen usually lays +on a dry bank, in secret places; and a hedgerow a quarter of a mile off +is quite as likely to contain her nest as any situation nearer her home. +She is very shy, and, if the eggs are taken from her nest, will desert +it, and find another; a few should, therefore, always be left, and it +should never be visited when she is in sight. But she often contrives to +elude all watching, and hatch a brood, frequently at a late period, +when the weather is too cold for the chickens. As the Guinea-fowl seldom +shows much disposition to incubate if kept under restraint, and +frequently sits too late in the season to rear a brood in this country, +it is a general practice to place her eggs under a common fowl--Game and +Bantams are the best for the purpose. About twenty of the earliest eggs +should be set in May. The Guinea-hen will hatch another brood when she +feels inclined. They sit for twenty-six to twenty-nine or thirty days. +When she sits in due season she generally rears a large brood, twenty +not being an unusual number. + +The chickens are very tender, and should not be hatched too early in +spring, as a cold March wind is generally fatal to them. They must be +treated like those of the turkey, and as carefully. They should be fed +almost immediately, within six hours of being hatched, abundantly, and +often; and they require more animal food than other chickens. Egg boiled +hard, chopped very fine, and mixed with oatmeal, is the best food. They +will die if kept without food for three or four hours; and should have a +constant supply near them until they are allowed to have full liberty +and forage for themselves. They will soon pick up insects, &c., and will +keep themselves in good condition with a little extra food. They are +very strong on their legs, and those hatched under common hens may be +allowed to range with her at the end of six weeks, and be fed on the +same food and at the same times as other chickens. + +The Guinea-fowl may be considered as somewhat intermediate between the +pheasant and turkey. After the pheasant season, young birds that have +been hatched the same year are excellent substitutes for that fine game, +and fetch a fair price. They should never be fattened, but have a good +supply of grain and meal for a week or two before being killed. The +flesh of the young bird is very delicate, juicy, and well-flavoured, but +the old birds, even of the second year, are dry, tough, and tasteless. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +DUCKS. + + +Ducks will not pay if all their food has to be bought, except it is +purchased wholesale, and they are reared for town markets, for their +appetites are voracious, and they do not graze like geese. They may be +kept in a limited space, but more profitably and conveniently where they +have the run of a paddock, orchard, kitchen garden, flat common, green +lane, or farmyard, with ditches and water. They will return at night, +and come to the call of the feeder. Nothing comes amiss to them--green +vegetables, especially when boiled, all kinds of meal made into +porridge, all kinds of grain, bread, oatcake, the refuse and offal of +the kitchen, worms, slugs, snails, insects and their larvae, are devoured +eagerly. Where many fowls are kept, a few ducks may be added profitably, +for they may be fed very nearly on what the hens refuse. + +Ducks require water to swim in, but "it is a mistake," says Mr. Baily, +"to imagine that ducks require a great deal of water. They may be kept +where there is but very little, and only want a pond or tank just deep +enough to swim in. The early Aylesbury ducklings that realise such large +prices in the London market have hardly ever had a swim; and in rearing +ducks, where size is a desideratum, they will grow faster and become +larger when kept in pens, farmyards, or in pastures, than where they are +at and in the water all day." Where a large number of geese and ducks +are kept, water on a sufficient scale, and easily accessible, should be +in the neighbourhood. + +[Illustration: Toulouse Goose. + +Rouen and Aylesbury Ducks.] + +Ducks, being aquatic birds, do not require heated apartments, nor roosts +on which to perch during the night. They squat on the floors, which must +be dry and warm. They should, if possible, be kept in a house separate +from the other poultry, and it should have a brick floor, so that it +can be easily washed. In winter the floor should be littered with a thin +layer of straw, rushes, or fern leaves, fresh every day. The +hatching-houses should be separated from the lodging apartments, and +provided with boxes for the purpose of incubation and hatching. + +In its wild state the duck pairs with a single mate: the domestic duck +has become polygamous, and five ducks may be allowed to one drake, but +not more than two or three ducks should be given to one drake if eggs +are required for setting. + +Ducks begin laying in January, and usually from that time only during +the spring; but those hatched in March will often lay in the autumn, and +continue for two or three months. They usually lay fifty or sixty eggs, +and have been known to produce 250. The faculty of laying might be +greatly developed, as it has been in some breeds of fowls; but they have +been hitherto chiefly bred for their flesh. They require constant +watching when beginning to lay, for they drop their eggs everywhere but +in the nest made for them, but as they generally lay in the night, or +early in the morning, when in perfect health, they should therefore be +kept in every morning till they have laid. One of the surest signs of +indisposition among them is irregularity in laying. "The eggs of the +duck," says Mr. Dickson, "are readily known from those of the common +fowl by their bluish colour and larger size, the shell being smoother, +not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When boiled, the white is never +curdy like that of a new-laid hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, +while the yolk is much darker in colour. The flavour is by no means so +delicate. For omelets, however, as well as for puddings and pastry, duck +eggs are much better than hen's eggs, giving a finer colour and flavour, +and requiring less butter; qualities so highly esteemed in Picardy, that +the women will sometimes go ten or twelve miles for duck eggs to make +their holiday cakes." + +A hen is often made to hatch ducklings, being considered a better nurse +than a duck, which is apt to take them while too young to the pond, +dragging them under beetling banks in search of food, and generally +leaving half of them in the water unable to get out; and if the fly or +the gnat is on the water, she will stay there till after dark, and lose +part of her brood. Ducks' eggs may be advantageously placed under a +broody exhibition hen. (_See_ page 88.) A turkey is much better than +either, from the large expanse of the wings in covering the broods, and +the greater heat of body; but if the duck is a good sitter, it is best +to let her hatch her own eggs, taking care to keep her and them from the +water till they are strong. The nest should be on the ground, and in a +damp place. Choose the freshest eggs, and place from nine to eleven +under her. Feed her morning and evening while sitting, and place food +and water within her reach. The duck always covers her eggs upon leaving +them, and loose straw should be placed near the house for that purpose. + +They are hatched in thirty days. They may generally be left with their +mother upon the nest for her own time. When she moves coop her on the +short grass if fine weather, or under shelter if otherwise, for a week +or ten days, when they may be allowed to swim for half an hour at a +time. When hatched they require constant feeding. A little curd, +bread-crumbs, and meal, mixed with chopped green food, is the best food +when first hatched. Boiled cold oatmeal porridge is the best food for +ducklings for the first ten days; afterwards barley-meal, pollard, and +oats, with plenty of green food. Never give them hard spring water to +drink, but that from a pond. Ducklings are easily reared, soon able to +shift for themselves, and to pick up worms, slugs, and insects, and can +be cooped together in numbers at night if protected from rats. An old +pigsty is an excellent place for a brood of young ducks. + +Ducklings should not be allowed to go on the water till feathers have +supplied the place of their early down, for the latter will get +saturated with the water while the former throws off the wet. "Though +the young ducklings," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "take early to the +water, it is better that they should gain a little strength before they +be allowed to venture into ponds or rivers; a shallow vessel of water +filled to the brim and sunk in the ground will suffice for the first +week or ten days, and this rule is more especially to be adhered to when +they are under the care of a common hen, which cannot follow them into +the pond, and the calls of which when there they pay little or no regard +to. Rats, weasels, pike, and eels are formidable foes to ducklings: we +have known entire broods destroyed by the former, which, having their +burrows in a steep bank around a sequestered pond, it was found +impossible to extirpate." If the ducklings stay too long in the water +they will have diarrhoea, in which case coop them close for a few +days, and mix bean-meal or oatmeal with their ordinary food. + +A troop of ducks will do good service to a kitchen garden in the summer +or autumn, when they can do no mischief by devouring delicate salads and +young sprouting vegetables. They will search industriously for snails, +slugs, woodlice, and millipedes, and gobble them up eagerly, getting +positively fat on slugs and snails. Strawberries, of which they are very +fond, must be protected from them. Where steamed food is daily prepared +for pigs and cattle, a portion of this mixed with bran and barley-meal +is the cheapest mode of satisfying their voracious appetites. They +should never be stinted in food. + +To fatten ducks let them have as much substantial food as they will eat, +bruised oats and peameal being the standard, plenty of exercise, and +clean water. Boiled roots mixed with a little barley-meal is excellent +food, with a little milk added during fattening. They require neither +penning up nor cramming to acquire plumpness, and if well fed should be +fit for market in eight or ten weeks. Celery imparts a delicious +flavour. + +The Aylesbury is the finest breed, and should be of a spotless white, +with long, flat, broad beak of a pale flesh colour, grey eyes, long head +and neck, broad and flat body and breast, and orange legs, placed wide +apart. As it lays early, its ducklings are the earliest ready for +market. They have produced 150 large eggs in a year, and are better +sitters than the Rouen. + +The Rouen is hardy and easily reared, but rarely lay till February or +March. They thrive better in most parts of England than the Aylesburys, +and care less for the water than the other varieties. They are very +handsome, and weigh eight or nine pounds each, and their flesh is +excellent. + +The Muscovy duck is so called, says Ray, "not because it comes from +Muscovy, but because it exhales a somewhat powerful odour of musk." +Little is known of its origin, which is generally thought to be South +America; nor has the date of its introduction into Europe been +ascertained. "This species," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "will inter-breed +with the common duck, but we believe the progeny are not fertile. The +Musk duck greatly exceeds the ordinary kind in size, and moreover, +differs in the colours and character of the plumage, in general contour, +and the form of the head. The general colour is glossy blue-black, +varied more or less with white; the head is crested, and a space of +naked scarlet skin, more or less clouded with violet, surrounds the eye, +continued from scarlet caruncles on the base of the beak; the top of the +head is crested, the feathers of the body are larger, more lax, softer, +and less closely compacted together than in the common duck, and seem to +indicate less aquatic habits. The male far surpasses the female in size; +there are no curled feathers in his tail." The male is fierce and +quarrelsome, and when enraged has a savage appearance, and utters deep, +hoarse sounds. The flesh is very good, but the breed is inferior as a +layer to the Aylesbury or Rouen. + +The Buenos Ayres, Labrador, or East Indian, brought most probably from +the first-named country, is a small and very beautiful variety, with the +plumage of a uniform rich, lustrous, greenish-black, and dark legs and +bills; the drake rarely weighing five pounds, and the duck four pounds. +Their eggs are often smeared over with a slatey-coloured matter, but the +shell is really of a dull white. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +GEESE. + + +Geese require much the same management as ducks. They may be kept +profitably where there is a rough pasture or common into which they may +be turned, and the pasturage is not rendered bare by sheep, as is +generally the case; but even when the pasturage is good, a supply of +oats, barley, or other grain should be allowed every morning and +evening. Where the pasturage is poor or bad, the old geese become thin +and weak, and the young broods never thrive and often die unless fully +fed at home. A goose-house for four should not be less than eight feet +long by six feet wide and six or seven feet high, with a smooth floor of +brick. A little clean straw should be spread over it every other day, +after removing that previously used, and washing the floor. Each goose +should have a compartment two feet and a half square for laying and +sitting, as she will always lay where she deposited her first egg. The +house must be well ventilated. All damp must be avoided. A pigsty makes +a capital pen. Although a pond is an advantage, they do not require more +than a large trough or tank to bathe in. + +For breeding not more than four geese should be kept to one gander. +Their breeding powers continue to more than twenty years old. It is +often difficult to distinguish the sexes, no one sign being infallible +except close examination. The goose lays early in a mild spring, or in +an ordinary season, if fed high throughout the winter with corn, and on +the commencement of the breeding season on boiled barley, malt, fresh +grains, and fine pollard mixed up with ale, or other stimulants; by +which two broods may be obtained in a year. The common goose lays from +nine to seventeen eggs, usually about thirteen, and generally carries +straws about previously to laying. Thirteen eggs are quite enough for +the largest goose to sit on. They sit from thirty to thirty-five days. +March or early April is the best period for hatching, and the geese +should therefore begin to sit in February or early March; for goslings +hatched at any time after April are difficult to rear. Food and water +should be placed near to her, for she sits closely. She ought to leave +her nest daily and take a bath in a neighbouring pond. The gander is +very attentive, and sits by her, and is vigilant and daring in her +defence. When her eggs are placed under a common hen they should be +sprinkled with water daily or every other day, for the moisture of the +goose's breast is beneficial to them. (See page 50.) A turkey is an +excellent mother for goslings. + +She should be cooped for a few days on a dry grass-plot or meadow, with +grain and water by her, of which the goslings will eat; and they should +also be supplied with chopped cabbage or beet leaves, or other green +food. They must have a dry bed under cover and be protected from rats. +Their only dangers are heavy rains, damp floors, and vermin; and they +require but little care for the first fortnight; while the old birds are +singularly free from maladies of all kinds common to poultry. When a +fortnight old they may be allowed to go abroad with their mother and +frequent the pond. "It has been formerly recommended," says Mowbray, "to +keep the newly-hatched gulls in house during a week, lest they get cramp +from the damp earth; but we did not find this indoor confinement +necessary; penning the goose and her brood between four hurdles upon a +piece of dry grass well sheltered, putting them out late in the morning, +or not at all in severe weather, and ever taking them in early in the +evening. Sometimes we have pitched double the number of hurdles, for the +convenience of two broods, there being no quarrels among this sociable +and harmless part of the feathered race. We did not even find it +necessary to interpose a parting hurdle, which, on occasion, may be +always conveniently done. For the first range a convenient field +containing water is to be preferred to an extensive common, over which +the gulls or goslings are dragged by the goose, until they become +cramped or tired, some of them squatting down and remaining behind at +evening." All the hemlock or deadly nightshade within range should be +destroyed. When the corn is garnered the young geese may be turned into +the stubble which they will thoroughly glean, and many of them will be +in fine condition by Michaelmas. Green geese are young geese fattened at +about the age of four months, usually on oatmeal and peas, mixed with +skim-milk or butter-milk, or upon oats or other grain, and are very +delicate. In fattening geese for Christmas give oats mixed with water +for the first fortnight, and afterwards barley-meal made into a +crumbling porridge. They should be allowed to bathe for a few hours +before being killed, for they are then plucked more easily and the +feathers are in better condition. Their feathers, down, and quills are +very valuable. + +Geese are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, as well as +young trees, and must therefore be carefully kept out of orchards and +plantations. Their dung, though acrid and apt to injure at first, will, +when it is mellowed, much enrich the ground. + +The Toulouse or Grey Goose is very large, of uniform grey plumage, with +long neck, having a kind of dewlap under the throat; the abdominal pouch +very much developed, almost touching the ground; short legs; flat feet; +short, broad tail; and very upright carriage, almost like a penguin. The +Toulouse lays a large number of eggs, sometimes as many as thirty, and +even more, but rarely wishes to sit, and is a very bad mother. + +The Emden or pure White is very scarce. The bill is flesh-colour, and +the legs and feet orange. They require a pond. The Toulouse, crossed +with the large white or dark-coloured common breed, produces greater +weight than either, and the objection to the former as indifferent +sitters and mothers is avoided; but is not desirable for breeding stock, +and must have a pond like the White. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +DISEASES. + + +It is more economical to kill at once rather than attempt to cure common +fowls showing symptoms of any troublesome disease, and so save trouble, +loss of their carcases, and the risk of infection. But if the fowls are +favourites, or valuable, it may be desirable to use every means of cure. + +See to a sick fowl at once; prompt attention may prevent serious +illness, and loss of the bird. When a fowl's plumage is seen to be +bristled up and disordered, and its wings hanging or dragging, it should +be at once removed from the others, and looked to. Pale and livid combs +are as certain a sign of bad health in fowls, as the paleness or +lividness of the lips is in human beings. Every large establishment +should have a warm, properly ventilated, and well-lighted house, +comfortably littered down with clean straw, to be used as a hospital, +and every fowl should be removed to it upon showing any symptoms of +illness, even if the disease is not infectious, for sick fowls are often +pecked at, ill treated, and disliked by their healthy companions. Bear in +mind that prevention is better than cure, and that proper management and +housing, good feeding, pure water and greens, cleanliness and exercise, +will prevent all, or nearly all, these diseases. + +APOPLEXY arises from over-feeding, and can seldom be treated in time to +be of service. The only remedy is bleeding, by opening the large vein +under the wing, and pouring cold water on the head for a few minutes. +Open the vein with a lancet, or if that is not at hand, with a +sharp-pointed penknife; make the incision lengthways, not across, and +press the vein with your thumb between the opening and the body, when +the blood will flow. If the fowl should recover, feed it on soft, low +food for a few days, and keep it quiet. It occurs most often in laying +hens, which frequently die on the nest while ejecting the egg; and is +frequently caused by too much of very stimulating food, such as +hempseed, or improper diet of greaves, and also by giving too much pea +or bean meal. + +HARD CROP, or being CROP-BOUND, is caused by too much food, especially +of hard grain, being taken into the crop, so that it cannot be softened +by maceration, and is therefore unable to be passed into the stomach. +Although the bird has thus too large a supply of food in its crop, the +stomach becomes empty, and the fowl eats still more food. Sometimes a +fowl swallows a bone that is too large to pass into the stomach, and +being kept in the crop forms a kernel, around which fibrous and other +hard material collects. Mr. Baily says: "Pour plenty of warm water down +the throat, and loosen the food till it is soft. Then give a +tablespoonful of castor-oil, or about as much jalap as will lie on a +shilling, mixed in butter; make a pill of it, and slide it into the +crop. The fowl will be well in the morning. If the crop still remain +hard after this, an operation is the only remedy. The feathers should +be picked off the crop in a straight line down the middle. Generally +speaking, the crop will be found full of grass or hay, that has formed a +ball or some inconveniently-shaped substance. (I once took a piece of +carrot three inches long out of a crop.) When the offence has been +removed, the crop should be washed out with warm water. It should then +be sewn up with coarse thread, and the suture rubbed with grease. +Afterwards the outer skin should be served the same. The crop and skin +must not be sewed together. For three or four days the patient should +have only gruel; no hard food for a fortnight." The slit should be made +in the upper part of the crop, and just large enough to admit a blunt +instrument, with which you must gently remove the hardened mass. + +DIARRHOEA is caused by exposure to much cold and wet, reaction after +constipation from having had too little green food, unwholesome food, +and dirt. Feed on warm barley-meal, or oatmeal mashed with a little warm +ale, and some but not very much green food, and give five grains of +powdered chalk, one grain of opium, and one grain of powdered +ipecacuanha twice a day till the looseness is checked. Boiled rice, with +a little chalk and cayenne pepper mixed, will also check the complaint. +When the evacuations are coloured with blood, the diarrhoea has become +dysentery, and cure is very doubtful. + +GAPES, a frequent yawning or gaping, is caused by worms in the windpipe, +which may be removed by introducing a feather, stripped to within an +inch of the point, into the windpipe, turning it round quickly, and then +drawing it out, when the parasites will be found adhering with slime +upon it; but if this be not quickly and skilfully done, and with some +knowledge of the anatomy of the parts touched, the bird may be killed +instead of cured. Another remedy is to put the fowl into a box, placing +in it at the same time a sponge dipped in spirits of turpentine on a hot +water plate filled with boiling water, and repeating this for three or +four days. Some persons recommend, as a certain cure in a few days, half +a teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine mixed with a handful of grain, +giving that quantity to two dozen of chickens each day. A pinch of salt +put as far back into the mouth as possible is also said to be effectual. + +LEG WEAKNESS, shown by the bird resting on the first joint, is generally +caused by the size and weight of the body being too great for the +strength of the legs; and this being entirely the result of weakness, +the remedy is to give strength by tonics and more nourishing food. The +quality should be improved, but the quantity must not be increased, as +the disease has been caused by over-feeding having produced too much +weight for the strength of the legs. Frequent bathing in cold water is +very beneficial. This is best effected by tying a towel round the fowl, +and suspending it over a pail of water, with the legs only immersed. + +LOSS OF FEATHERS is almost always caused by want of green food, or +dust-heap for cleansing. Let the fowls have both, and remove them to a +grass run if possible. But nothing will restore the feathers till the +next moult. Fowls, when too closely housed or not well supplied with +green food and lime, sometimes eat each other's feathers, destroying the +plumage till the next moult. In such cases green food and mortar rubbish +should be supplied, exercise allowed, the injured fowl should be removed +to a separate place, and the pecked parts rubbed over with sulphur +ointment. Cut or broken feathers should be pulled out at once. + +PIP, a dry scale on the tongue, is not a disease, but the symptom of +some disease, being only analogous to "a foul tongue" in human beings. +Do not scrape the tongue, nor cut off the tip, but cure the roup, +diarrhoea, bad digestion, gapes, or whatever the disease may be, and +the pip will disappear. + +ROUP is caused by exposure to excessive wet or very cold winds. It +begins with a slight hoarseness and catching of the breath as if from +cold, and terminates in an offensive discharge from the nostrils, froth +in the corners of the eyes, and swollen lids. It is very contagious. +Separate the fowl from the others, keep it warm, add some "Douglass +Mixture" (see "Moulting") to its water daily, wash its head once or +twice daily with tepid water, feed it with meal, only mixed with hot ale +instead of water, and plenty of green food. Mr. Wright advises half a +grain of cayenne pepper with half a grain of powdered allspice in a +bolus of the meal, or one of Baily's roup pills to be given daily. Mr. +Tegetmeier recommends one grain of sulphate of copper daily. Another +advises a spoonful of castor-oil at once, and a few hours afterwards one +of Baily's roup pills, and to take the scale off the tongue, which can +easily be done by holding the beak open with your left hand, and +removing the scale with the thumbnail of your right hand; with a pill +every morning for a week. If not almost well in a week it will be better +to kill it. + +THE THRUSH may be cured by washing the tongue and mouth with borax +dissolved in tincture of myrrh and water. + +PARALYSIS generally affects the legs and renders the fowl unable to +move. It is chiefly caused by over-stimulating food. There is no known +remedy for this disease, and the fowl seldom if ever recovers. Although +chiefly affecting the legs of fowls, it is quite a different disease +from LEG WEAKNESS. + +VERTIGO results from too great a flow of blood to the head, and is +generally caused by over-feeding. Pouring cold water upon the fowl's +head, or holding it under a tap for a few minutes, will check this +complaint, and the bird should then be purged by a dose of castor-oil or +six grains of jalap. + + +MOULTING. + +All birds, but especially old fowls, require more warmth and more +nourishing diet during this drain upon their system, and should roost in +a warm, sheltered, and properly-ventilated house, free from all draught. +Do not let them out early in the morning, if the weather is chilly, but +feed them under cover, and give them every morning warm, soft food, such +as bread and ale, oatmeal and milk, potatoes mashed up in pot-liquor, +with a little pepper and a little boiled meat, as liver, &c., cut small, +and a little hempseed with their grain at night. Give them in their +water some iron or "Douglass Mixture," which consists of one ounce of +sulphate of iron and one drachm of sulphuric acid dissolved in one quart +of water; a teaspoonful of the mixture is to be added to each pint of +drinking water. This chalybeate is an excellent tonic for weakly young +chickens, and young birds that are disposed to outgrow their strength. +It increases their appetite, improves the health, imparts strength, +brightens the colour of the comb, and increases the stamina of the +birds. When chickens droop and seem to suffer as the feathers on the +head grow, give them once a day meat minced fine and a little +canary-seed. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + + +[Footnote 1: Piper on Poultry: their Varieties, Management, Breeding, +and Diseases; Price 1s. Groombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row, London.] + +[Footnote 2: The Practical Poultry Keeper. By Mr. L. Wright. Cassell, +Petter & Galpin.] + +[Footnote 3: The Practical Poultry Keeper. By Mr. L. Wright. Cassell, +Petter & Galpin.] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Poultry, by Hugh Piper + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POULTRY *** + +***** This file should be named 38606.txt or 38606.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/6/0/38606/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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