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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/38139-8.txt b/38139-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8a2f645 --- /dev/null +++ b/38139-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14338 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The History of Cuba, vol. 3, by Willis Fletcher Johnson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of Cuba, vol. 3 + +Author: Willis Fletcher Johnson + +Release Date: November 26, 2011 [EBook #38139] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif, Broward County Library and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Etext transcriber's note: + +Obvious typographical errors have been corrected; the original +orthography, including variation in the spelling of names, has been +retained. + +The Index included at the end of this etext (which includes volumes 1 +thru 4) appears at the end of volume four of The History of Cuba. It is +provided here for the convenience of the reader. + +[Illustration: JOSÉ CIPRIANO DE LA LUZ + +"The Socrates of Cuban youth," as he has often been called, José +Cipriano de la Luz y Caballero was born in Havana on July 11, 1799, and +was educated at the Convent of San Francisco, the University of Havana, +and the San Carlos Seminary where he was a pupil of his uncle, José +Agustin Caballero, and of Felix Varela. Later he travelled and studied +in the United States and Europe. In Germany he became intimately +associated with Baron Humboldt. Returning to Cuba in 1831, he gave +himself to the task of improving and promoting the educational interests +of his country. In 1843 he revisited Europe, but was recalled the +following year to answer an absurdly false charge of being implicated in +the Negro Conspiracy. He then founded and until his death conducted his +famous school of El Salvador, in which for a generation many of the +foremost Cubans were educated, and in which manhood and patriotism were +ever the foremost items of the curriculum. He was the author of a number +of standard educational works. He died on June 22, 1862.] + + + + +THE +HISTORY OF CUBA + +BY +WILLIS FLETCHER JOHNSON +A.M., L.H.D. + +Author of "A Century of Expansion," "Four Centuries of +the Panama Canal," "America's Foreign Relations" +Honorary Professor of the History of American Foreign +Relations in New York University + +_WITH ILLUSTRATIONS_ + +VOLUME THREE + +NEW YORK +B. F. BUCK & COMPANY, INC. +156 FIFTH AVENUE +1920 + +Copyright, 1920, +BY CENTURY HISTORY CO. + +_All rights reserved_ + +ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL +London, England. + +PRINTED IN U. S. A. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +PAGE + +CHAPTER I--1 + +Conditions at the Beginning of the Era of Revolution--Cuba's Commercial +Backwardness--Resources Unappreciated--Statistics of Imports and +Exports--The Sugar Trade--Burdensome Taxes and Tariffs--Restrictions on +Personal Liberty--Obstacles to Travel--Titles of Nobility--The Intendent +and His Powers--Authority and Functions of the Captain-General--District +Governments--Municipal Organization--The Courts--Control of the +Navy--Censorship of the Press--Adversion to Foreigners, Particularly to +Americans. + +CHAPTER II--23 + +Narciso Lopez and His Career--His Valor in the Venezuelan Wars--A +Soldier of Spain--Some Daring Exploits--With the Spanish Army in +Cuba--His Distinguished Career in Spain--A Leader Against the +Carlists--General and Senator--Important Office in Cuba--Alienation from +Spain--First Plans for Cuban Revolution. + +CHAPTER III--37 + +Betrayal of Lopez's First Revolutionary Venture--His Flight to New +York--Cuban Juntas in the United States--Lopez's Negotiations with +Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee--Unofficial American Aid--Strained +American Relations with Spain--Official Warnings Against +Filibustering--An Elaborate Expedition Prepared by Lopez in the United +States for the Freeing of Cuba--His Proclamation to His Followers--The +Voyage to Cuba. + +CHAPTER IV--49 + +The Landing of Lopez at Cardenas--The Flag of Cuba Libre for the First +Time Unfurled on Cuban Soil--Parleying and Fighting at Cardenas--Spanish +Treachery--Failure of the Cuban People to Rally to the Support of +Lopez--Retreat and Reembarcation of the Expedition--Mutiny of the +Crew--Landing at Key West--Spanish Wrath Against the United +States--Arrest of Lopez and His Comrades--Their Release. + +CHAPTER V--62 + +Administration of Concha and His Recall--Second Expedition of Lopez +Recruited in the United States--Men and Money Provided in the +South--Betrayal of the Scheme--Proclamation of the +Captain-General--Disturbances in Cuba--Third Expedition of Lopez +Organized--Aguero's Attempt at Revolution at Puerto Principe--His +Proclamation--Initial Victories Over the Spaniards--A Fatal +Mistake--Suppression of the Revolution by Overwhelming +Numbers--Execution of the Leaders--Suppression of Other Uprisings. + +CHAPTER VI--91 + +Another Expedition Organized by Lopez--Its Roster--Departure from New +Orleans--Colonel Crittenden--Arrival at Key West--The Landing in +Cuba--Lack of Cuban Support--Fatal Division of Forces--Desperate +Fighting with Spaniards--Crittenden's Mistake--Capture of the +Revolutionists by the Spaniards--Indignities and Tortures--Fifty-Two Put +to Death--Heroism of Crittenden--Ill Fortune of Lopez--Betrayal and +Capture of Lopez and His Comrades--His Death on the Scaffold. + +CHAPTER VII--116 + +Failure and Success of Lopez--Irrepressible Determination of Cuba to Be +Free--Crisis in the Affairs of Spain--Animosity Between Creoles and +Spaniards--Expressions of Cuban Sentiment and Determination--Profound +Impression Produced in the United States--Opposing Views of Pro-Slavery +and Anti-Slavery Men--Attitude of Great Britain and France--Anti-Spanish +Outbreak in New Orleans--Webster's Diplomacy--England and France Warned +Not to Meddle in Cuba--Spain's Appeal to England Against +America--Tripartite Pact Refused. + +CHAPTER VIII--132 + +American Overtures for the Purchase of Cuba--Some Early +Diplomacy--Change of Policy Under President Polk--Spain's Refusal to +Consider Sale--Pierre Soule's Extraordinary Negotiations--The Black +Warrior Controversy--Soule's Humiliation--The Ostend Manifesto--Marcy's +Shrewd Disposition of It--Buchanan's Futile Persistence. + +CHAPTER IX--145 + +Revolution in Peninsular Spain--General Prim's Proclamations--General +Response Throughout the Kingdom--Serrano's Entry Into Madrid--Flight of +the Queen--Republican Government Established--Downfall of Maximilian in +Mexico--Change in American Attitude Toward Cuba Because of the Civil War +and Abolition of Slavery--Organization of the Spanish "Volunteers" in +Cuba--The Moret Anti-Slavery Law--Cuban Interest in the Spanish +Revolution. + +CHAPTER X--155 + +Cuban Independence Proclaimed at the Outbreak of the Ten Years' +War--Provisional Government Organized--Carlos Manuel +Cespedes--Proclamation of Emancipation--Representative Government +Formed--Cespedes's Address--The First Cuban Constitution--The House of +Representatives--Presidential Proclamation--Proclamation of General +Quesada--Proclamation of Count Valmaseda--Request for Recognition--The +"Juntas of the Laborers"--Cuban Government and Laws--Organization of the +Cuban Army. + +CHAPTER XI--180 + +Beginning of Hostilities--Comparative Strengths of the Cuban and Spanish +Armies--The Spanish Navy--Pacific Measures First Tried by +Captain-General Dulce--Their Rejection by the Cubans--The First +Engagements--Cuban Victories--Destruction of Bayamo--Revolts in Many +Places--Murder of Cespedes's Messenger by Volunteers--Guerilla +Warfare--Havana in a State of Siege--Progress of the Insurrection +Throughout the Island--Dulce's Change of Policy--Sympathy and Aid for +the Revolution from the United States. + +CHAPTER XII--200 + +An Appeal to the United States for Recognition--President Grant +Overruled by His Secretary of State--Americans Stirred by News of +Spanish Cruelties--Cuban Disappointment at Non-Recognition--Progress of +the War--Spanish Reenforcements--Liberation of Slaves--Spanish +Successes--Controversies with the United States--Destruction of +Property--Arrival of General Jordan with Supplies--Dulce Forced Out of +Office by the Volunteers--Accession of Rodas and His Decrees--The +"Butcher of Cadiz"--American Protests Against Interference with +Commerce--Proposals of Mediation--More Aid from the United States. + +CHAPTER XIII--225 + +Great Increase of Revolutionary Strength--Spain's Enormous Force--The +Case of Napoleon Arango--His Extraordinary Manifesto--An Elaborate +Appeal for Betrayal of the Revolution--Designing Decrees of +Rodas--Emancipation Decree of the Spanish Government--Its Practical +Effects--Atrocities Practised by the Spanish--Downfall of Rodas and +Appointment of Valmaseda as Captain-General--Spanish Overtures to the +United States--Murder of Zenea by the Volunteers--Address by +Cespedes--Treachery in the Ranks. + +CHAPTER XIV--259 + +Counter-Revolution in Spain--Amadeus Made King--Increased Malignity of +the Volunteers--The Massacre of the Cuban Students--Death of General +Quesada--Reorganization of the Cuban Army--Campaign of Maximo +Gomez--Progress of the War with Varying Fortunes--Calixto Garcia at +Jiguani--Gradual Reduction of Cuban Strength--Valmaseda's Savage +Threats. + +CHAPTER XV--271 + +Spain's Desperate Efforts to Suppress the Revolution--Stubborn +Resistance of the Cubans--Valmaseda Opposed and Overthrown by the +Volunteers--Accession of Jovellar--Increasing Interest in Cuban Affairs +in the United States--Spain a Republic Again--Retirement of +Cespedes--The Seizure of the _Virginius_--Massacre of Many of Her +Passengers and Crew--Strenuous Intervention--Settlement of the +Affair--"The Book of Blood"--Spanish Confessions of Brutality. + +CHAPTER XVI--289 + +Renewed Cuban Successes--The Island in a State of Siege--Concha Again +Captain-General--Record of the Cost of the War--The United States +Threatens Intervention--Spanish Anger--A Protest to England Against +America--American Peace Proposals--Strength of the Spanish Army--A War +of Extermination--Martinez Campos Becomes Captain-General--His +Conciliatory Decrees--Surrender of Cuban Leaders--The Treaty of +Zanjon--End of the War--Campos's Explanation of His Course. + +CHAPTER XVII--305 + +Results of the Ten Years' War--Political Parties in Cuba--The Liberals, +Who Were Conservative--The Union Constitutionalists--A Third Party +Platform--Cubans in the Cortes--Failure to Fulfill the Treaty of +Zanjon--The Little War--Calixto Garcia's Campaign--Cuban Fugitives +Protected by England--Revolt of 1885--Custom House Frauds at Havana--A +Reign of Lawlessness--Tariff Troubles--The Roster of Rulers. + +CHAPTER XVIII--315 + +The Intellectual and Spiritual Development of Cuba--Some Famous Cuban +Authors--José Maria Heredia--Felix Varela y Morales--José de la Luz y +Caballero, "The Father of the Cuban Revolution"--Domingo del Monte and +the "Friends of Peace"--José Antonio Saco--Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces--Dona +Luisa Perez--Dona Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda--Nicolas Azcarate--Juan +Clemente Zenea--Rafael Merchan--The Distinguished Intellectual Status of +Cuba Among the Nations. + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +FULL PAGE PLATES + +_José_ Cipriano de la Luz y Caballero _Frontispiece_ + + FACING + PAGE + +The Old Presidential Palace 14 + +Falls of the Hanebanilla 110 + +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes 158 + +Ignacio Agramonte 258 + +Calixto Garcia 268 + +A Santiago Sunset 280 + +José Silverio Jorrin 308 + +José Maria Heredia 318 + +Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda 332 + + +TEXT EMBELLISHMENTS + + PAGE +Narciso Lopez 23 + +Ramon Pinto 62 + +Manuel Quesada 167 + +Francisco V. Aguilera 173 + +Bernabe de Varona 178 + +Miguel de Aldama 204 + +Domingo Goicouria 234 + +Nicolas Azcarate 251 + +Juan Clemente Zenea 252 + +Salvador Cisneros Betancourt 276 + +Felipe Poey 315 + +Antonio Bachiller 317 + +Felix Varela 320 + +José Agustin Caballero 321 + +Domingo del Monte 323 + +José Jacinto Milanes 324 + +José Manuel Mestre 326 + +Luisa Perez de Zambrana 328 + +Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces 330 + +Enrique Piñeyro 334 + + + + +THE HISTORY OF CUBA + + + + +CHAPTER I + + +The revolutionary era in Cuban history had its rise amid circumstances +of both political and commercial dissatisfaction and protest, and it is +by no means impossible nor even improbable that the latter form of +discontent was the more potent of the two. The commercial and industrial +development of the island, despite its almost incredibly opulent +resources, had been very slow, because handicapped by selfish and sordid +misgovernment. The typical attitude of the Peninsular government and its +agents in Cuba had been to use and to exploit the island for the sole +benefit of Spain, and not to permit other nations to enter in +competition. Other countries, in fact, so great was the secrecy +maintained with regard to Cuba, knew but little of the vast wealth +contained in this small space of land. Consequently the island was +developed in accordance with the wishes, needs, and potentialities of +Spain and with one other point of view. Cuba was never exploited by +Spain for all its worth, and indeed there seems to be doubt as to +whether Spain ever grasped in full the future possibilities of the +island. Certain it is that she never actually realized them. And the +loss was in consequence as great to Spain as it was to Cuba. For had +Spain allowed herself to lose sight of the richness of present +extortions and aided Cuba to develop her resources for the future, the +whole story would have been far different. But the people of the United +States were beginning to recognize Cuba's possibilities. American +merchants began to flock thither. American money and American +resourcefulness opened new doors for Cuba's rich products. American +trade and enterprise contributed a great deal which made for Cuban +expansion and industrial development. In proof of this there is the fact +that the island towns on the north side, which is nearest the United +States, increased both in population and commercially, in striking +contrast to the slow growth of the towns on the south side of the +island. In 1850 these latter towns, with Santiago de Cuba as the chief +city, did not maintain more than twenty-five per cent. of the trade of +the island. + +In further proof of America's hand in the development of Cuba, we may +cite the following tables, in every one of which it is easy to see that +Cuba's trade was largely with the United States. Taking the records of +Cuban trade in 1828 as typical of the commerce of the early part of the +century, we get the following contrasts with the figures of the years +immediately preceding 1850: + +Cuban imports in 1828, $19,534,922; exports, $13,414,362; revenue, +$9,086,406. + +Cuban imports in 1847, $32,389,117; exports, $27,998,770; revenues, +$12,808,713. + +Cuban imports in 1848, $20,346,516; exports, $20,461,934; revenue, +$11,635,052. + +These statistics of the imports and exports of Cuba are divided +according to the chief countries concerned: + + 1847 Imports Exports + + United States $10,892,335 $8,880,040 + Spain 7,088,750 6,780,058 + England 6,389,936 7,240,880 + France 1,349,683 1,940,535 + + 1848 + + United States $6,933,538 $8,285,928 + Spain 7,088,750 3,927,007 + England 4,974,545 1,184,201 + +Entries and clearings of vessels from Cuba were as follows: + + 1847 1848 + + Entries Clearances Entries Clearances + + United States 2,012 1722 1733 1611 + Spain 819 751 875 747 + England 563 489 670 348 + France 99 81 85 63 + +Copper was at this time greatly exported from Cuba. Since its discovery +in 1530 comparatively little had been done until three centuries later. +In 1830 an English company commenced operating the copper mines and from +that time to 1870 had extracted this ore to the value of $50,000,000. + +Sugar had long been the greatest source of Cuban wealth. It was always +the sugar planter who had social as well as financial prestige on the +island. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century even the poorest and +smallest of sugar plantations had yielded a profit of $100,000 a year +while the larger and more prosperous ones had cleared even as high as +$200,000 annually. And all this had been accomplished with a minimum of +effort. Vast areas of Cuba at this period were given over to these +plantations. Some estates devoted themselves exclusively to raising the +cane, while others ran mills which ground the cane and prepared the +product for sale as sugar. Particularly with the soil as it was then, +unravished by revolution, with its original fertility unimpaired, it was +rarely necessary to replant the sugar cane. The old sprouts came up year +after year, yielding at least two crops a year without any necessity for +disturbing or enriching the soil. In 1800 Cuba exported 41,000 tons of +sugar; and in 1850 no less than 223,000 tons. + +From 1836 Cuba had no representation in the Cortes. Although Spain had +promised Cuba "special laws," these were not enacted, and such laws as +were put on the books were inimical to Cuban interests. Without +representation, Cubans were also denied free speech. To speak one's mind +against Spain meant to be thrown into a dungeon. If two or more persons +signed a petition to secure some slight betterment in conditions, it was +termed treason, and they were promptly apprehended. Business was under +control of the Captain-General. It had to pay him large sums to be +allowed to live, and it was compelled to conduct its affairs in +accordance with his ideas. The "Junta de Fomento" established by Arango +was no longer a factor in the improvement of Cuban affairs, but was +packed with creatures of the Captain-General, with favorites of the +court, and was used as a means of obtaining information and extorting +money from Cubans who were suspected of disloyalty to Spain. The public +offices were used to support additional taxation, and to strengthen the +despotic rule of the Captain-General. + +Under the decree of 1825 the Captains-General had taken unto themselves +the most autocratic power. Creoles were not allowed to serve in the +army, or in the treasury, customs or judicial departments. From these +last three they were excluded because such positions were lucrative, and +were desired by court favorites. The Captains-General financed and +fostered all kinds of nefarious schemes for extracting wealth from the +Cubans to pour it into their own pockets. The poor people were obliged +to police the rural districts, and to give up their own occupations to +work on the roads making repairs. The control of education in Cuba was +given--it hardly seems credible--into the hands of the military +functionaries to administer. The Spanish military authorities had a +well-organized system of blackmailing well to do citizens by threatening +to denounce them for sedition unless they paid hush money, which was +put at as large a sum as possible. Of course it did not matter whether +the victim was guilty or innocent. If the latter he would have no +opportunity of clearing himself. The only thing which the robbers took +into consideration was how much he could pay. Money was the open sesame +for prison doors, and the barrier which prevented their closing on the +unfortunate Cuban. + +Yet one would think he would have little left for bribery when he had +paid his taxes, for the subject of taxation was after all the most +grievous one, and was a direct cause of the various filibustering +expeditions which attempted to gain freedom for Cuba, and finally led to +the war of independence. + +The revenues from all sources, including export and import duties, +license fees, and the government lottery, for the year 1851 were +$12,248,712.06, which amounted to a tax of $20 for each free citizen. +The excess duties had a very deleterious effect on the commerce of Cuba. +The duty on goods shipped direct from Spain to Cuba was so much less +than the duty on goods shipped from other countries that it became the +custom to ship materials from the United States to Spain and from Spain +back to Cuba, since this cost less than a direct shipment. The direct +shipments of flour from the United States to Cuba decreased from 113,245 +barrels in 1826 to 100 barrels in 1852, while the imports of flour from +Spain, who could hardly produce enough for her own needs, increased from +31,749 barrels to 257,451 barrels in the same time. Of course, this was +the golden opportunity for the smuggler, who could slip across from +Florida and run his boat into one of the hundreds of little coves with +which the coast of Cuba is lined. + +Cubans might have more cheerfully rendered their tribute in taxes, but +unfortunately the huge sums were not expended for the good of their +country. An extravagant government had to be supported. In 1850 the cost +of maintaining the army and all expenses in connection with it were over +$5,000,000 and the navy cost more than $2,000,000, while the Spanish +legation in the United States was maintained from Cuban coffers. Writing +of such a state of affairs, José Antonio Saco said in 1835: + +"Enormous is the load of taxation which weighs upon us--perhaps there is +no people in the world which in proportion to its resources and +population pays as much as the island of Cuba, nor a country, perhaps, +where less care is taken to use on its own soil some part of its great +sacrifices." + +In 1851 the duty on sugar was raised from 50 cents a box to 87-1/2 +cents. Flour and hogs were more heavily taxed than any other imports. +Hogs carried a duty of six dollars each, while the tax on flour was so +enormous as to prevent its use by any but the very wealthiest +inhabitants. Foreign flour was discriminated against in favor of Spanish +flour; on the former the duty was $10 a barrel while on the latter it +was increased from $2.50 to $6 a barrel. The records show there +importations of flour to Cuba: + + 1847 1848 + + From Spain 175,870 bbls. 212,944 bbls. + From America 59,373 bbls. 18,175 bbls. + ------- ------- + Total 235,243 bbls. 231,119 bbls. + +Spain was favored in other ways in these taxes. Spanish vessels were +taxed only one-seventh of one per cent. on imports, while foreign +vessels were taxed 1.1 per cent, on the same goods. Nor were these taxes +the only ones which the people had to undergo. One of the most +pernicious of all taxes was the 1/10 of all farm produce which was +given to the church. The result of this tax was indirectly bad as well +as unjust, for it fostered a kind of priest in Cuba who could do little +for the moral and spiritual welfare of the people. + +The following table shows the revenue of the island in 1849-51: + + Import Export Other + Duties Duties Revenues Total + 1849 $5,844,783 $ 584,477 $4,782,226 $11,211,526 + 1850 5,639,225 757,071 3,655,149 10,051,443 + 1851 6,364,825 1,793,992 4,821,195 12,180,012 + +The currency of Cuba was gold and silver; and in 1842 she had a total +amount in her treasury of $12,000,000 in coin. + +An official statement compiled in 1844 lists a few of the taxes, and +gives some interesting figures as to the amounts collected. The Cubans +were taxed six per cent. of the selling price, on all sales of real +estate, or slaves, and on sales at auction and in shop. They were also +taxed on Papal Bulls, and there were brokers' taxes, cattle taxes, +shopkeepers' taxes, tax on mortgages, tax on donations, tax on +cockfighting, taxes on grants of crosses, insignia or use of uniforms; +taxes on promissory notes or bills of exchange, taxes on municipal +taxes, taxes on the death of all non-insolvent persons, taxes on +investments in favor of the clergy; the church did not escape, for there +were taxes on the property of the Jesuits. There were also taxes on +sales of public lands, taxes on the establishments of auctioneers, and +taxes on everything sold, water canal taxes, and customhouse duties on +imports and exports and the tonnage of vessels. Cubans were not only +taxed on the sale of lands, but of course on the land itself, and there +were state and municipal taxes, and they were taxed on their cattle and +all animals whether they kept them or sold them. Passports were taxed, +and as Cuba had a large transient population this tax brought in a +goodly sum. Public offices were privately sold to the highest bidder. +There were taxes on the sale of archives to notaries for the recording +of deeds. Small fines were being constantly imposed by grafting +officials, and the Captain-General's tribunal exacted a special fee, +which brought in large sums. Fees were demanded for marriages, both by +the church and the state. There was an inheritance tax; there were tolls +imposed on bridges; and large amounts were extorted for the nomination +to office of captains of districts, city ward commissaries, and +watchmen; gambling was licensed; and there were the taxes on sugar, on +pastures, on coffee and tobacco, and on minerals exported. The tax on +all crops, except sugar, when gathered was ten per cent. There was a tax +of $1.25 on every hundred weight of salt. Government documents were +required to be written on special paper, furnished by the government at +a high price. + +Worse than all this were the restrictions placed on personal liberty. No +private individual of a hospitable nature was allowed to give an +entertainment to his friends, even a small evening gathering, without +obtaining a license, for which he paid. If he neglected to do this he +was fined, and sometimes the license was declared invalid on some +pretext and he was fined anyway. + +No Cuban could move from place to place, or go on even a short journey, +without obtaining a license. If a man wanted to make an evening call on +a friend, he could not do so unless he carried a lantern, and obtained +from each watchman whom he passed permission to proceed. If he failed to +comply, he was arrested and fined $8. He could not entertain a guest in +his house over night, not even a neighbor, without informing the +authorities, under penalty of a heavy fine. The household goods of a +Cuban could not be moved from one house to another in the same town +without the consent of the authorities, and the penalty for failure in +this case was a fine. + +The cost of a passport, which was necessary before a foreigner could +enter any port in Cuba, and the proceeds of which went into the +treasury, was $2. The traveller was also obliged to give security for +good conduct, and his baggage was thoroughly searched. Particular care +was taken to see that he did not have any incendiary literature, and if +he had a Bible, which must have been considered a dangerous book, and +which, at any rate, came under the ban of both the church and the +government, it was promptly separated from his other effects and seized. +Unless he desired to remain in the seaport where he entered, he was +required to pay twenty-five cents more for a passport permitting him to +visit the interior. It seems to have been difficult enough to get into +Cuba, but like the proverbial church fair, it was even more expensive to +get out, for the privilege cost $7.50. + +Some authorities estimate that the taxes of Cuba averaged in 1850 $38 a +head, while in the United States, a republic and the nearest neighbor, +they amounted to only about $2. But then the people of the United States +were free, and were not paying tribute for the privilege of being +governed by royalty. The greater part of these taxes were exacted from +the Creoles, for the Spaniards made up only about 35,000 of the +population and there were estimated to be 520,000 Creoles at this +period. + +A large number of families came to Cuba from the Spanish colonies of +South America and Mexico, which had gained their independence from +Spain, and from Florida and Louisiana when they came into the +possession of the United States. These families were, of course, all +intensely loyal to Spain, and of the arrogant disposition which +naturally prevailed among men of such tendencies as led them to prefer +the autocracy of Spain to American democracy. In spite of this increase +in their number, the native white or Creole population of Cuba +outnumbered the Spanish by more than 10 to 1. + +In 1850 among the Cubans themselves there were 50 marquises and 30 +counts. These men were in the main wealthy planters who had bought their +titles from Spain for sums varying between twenty and fifty thousand +dollars. The fundamental reason for this expenditure on their part was +not wholly for social prestige but rather to enjoy the greater personal +freedom accorded to nobles. These latter could never be tried by +ordinary courts but only by tribunals, and they could not be arrested +for debt. + +Those Cubans who were hoping for better days for Cuba were eager that +their children should have opportunities not accorded them. They desired +to send them to the United States for education, in the hope perhaps +that they might imbibe some of the principles of liberty. But this did +not find favor with the Spanish authorities, and it was only by swearing +that the children were ill, that the climate did not agree with them, +and that they were being sent away for their health, that passports +could be obtained to get them out of the country. + +Many Cubans were persecuted by officials, high and low, falsely accused, +condemned without a hearing; shut up in fortresses without adequate +food, without the ordinary comforts of life, in solitary confinement, +often in dungeons; and frequently their own people were denied knowledge +of their whereabouts. They simply dropped out of sight and were gone. No +man knew when he opened his eyes in the morning whether that day might +be his last as a free human being--free so far as he might be with the +thousand and one restrictions imposed upon him. He was not sure that +some enemy, unwittingly made, might not inform upon him for some +imaginary action of disloyalty, or that he might not be falsely +denounced by hired spies. It was then no wonder that those who loved +their country, who had self-respect and affection for their families, +longed for freedom from Spain, and lived in the hope of emancipation +from what was virtual slavery. + +Under the Spanish rule the chief officer of government in Cuba was the +Captain-General, who after the promulgation of the decree of May 25, +1825, had absolute authority. Even prior to that time, because of the +long distance between Cuba and the mother country, the time consumed for +information and instructions to travel back and forth, and the fact that +Spain was more or less concerned with her own none too quiet domestic +affairs, the Captain-General was very powerful. + +There was another office under the crown which was much sought after, +that of Intendant. He controlled the financial affairs of the island, +and received his orders not from the Captain-General but direct from the +crown. In his own realm his power was equal to that of the +Captain-General, but he had no authority outside his own particular +domain. The title of Intendant was changed to Superintendent, in 1812, +at which time the financial business of Cuba had become so important +that it was impossible for it to be handled from one place, and +subordinate officers were placed in command at Santiago and Puerto +Principe, subject of course to the direction of the Superintendent. + +It is needless to say that the arrogant Spanish Captains-General did +not relish having anyone on the island who equalled them in rank, and +after much controversy at home and abroad the Captain-General in 1844 +was declared to be the superior officer, and later on, in 1853, the two +offices were united, under the title of Captain-General. The +Superintendent was head or chief of a "Tribunal de Cuentas" which had +judicial control over the treasury and its officers, was auditor in +chief of all accounts, and voted on all expenditures. Its rulings were +reviewed only by the Minister of Finance in Madrid, to whose direction +it was subject. + +The Captain-General was the presiding officer of the City Council which +had charge of the civic administration of Havana, but he had only one +vote, exactly as had every other member, and officially he had no power +except to carry out the resolutions of the juntas. Unofficially, he +controlled the city affairs absolutely. If occasion demanded he could +act as the presiding officer of any city council. This power was +exercised whenever he felt that the councils were growing too liberal in +their ideas and actions, and enabled him to exercise a despotic power +and coerce public opinion. + +Cuban leaders had no conception of the democratic form of government +which in the United States gave separate powers to the national, state +or province and city administrations. The national government was +closely linked with the provincial and with the city, and the functions +were so intertwined that it was hard to say where one left off and the +other began. The Captain-General always encouraged this close +amalgamation of governmental functions because it enabled him to keep in +close touch with all the branches of the government and to discover and +put down any movements which would tend to diminish the power of the +supreme officer. The Captain-General's power was civic, provincial, +national and indeed international. This enabled him very easily to line +his coffers, for he spent a great deal of time in signing papers of no +especial significance, except that to obtain his signature it was +necessary that he be paid a big fee. It was said that any +Captain-General who remained four years in Cuba, and did not take away +from the island with him when he departed at least a million dollars, +was a poor manager. + +The Captain-General had all prisons under his control; and the fate of +all prisoners, either those imprisoned for petty or state offenses, lay +in his hands. This did not mean that he personally supervised the +prisons, but that his creatures and officers were subject to his orders, +and the offices were within his gift. Thus he was able to extort fees +for various functions, as well as to demand largess for leniency +extended to state prisoners. Under Tacon's administration this power was +exercised to such an extent that it became a public scandal. + +The postal service also fell under the supervision of the +Captain-General, and there were many ways in which he could make this +office line his pockets. He acted as a police magistrate in the city of +Havana, another fruitful source of revenue, particularly as the office +was connected with that of president of the city council. + +Cuba was divided into three districts, the western, central and eastern. +Havana was the capital of the western district, Santiago de Cuba of the +eastern and Puerto Principe of the central district. Each district had +its governor who was directly under the Captain-General, and under the +governor, in charge of the affairs of the larger towns and their +out-lying districts, was a lieutenant-governor, who was president of the +local council and had control of military affairs for his district. +Under the lieutenant-governors were captains, who were located in +regions which were not very thickly settled, and who had absolute +military power--subject of course to commands emanating higher up--over +the affairs, lives and property of the people under their jurisdiction. +Each of these officers received his appointment from the Spanish crown, +but he was obliged to receive his nomination from the Captain-General, +so that these offices too were a source of revenue to that gentleman, +and his nominees, when appointed, were subject to his control. The +functions of the governors and lieutenant-governors were supposed to be +primarily military, and they received the salary which would naturally +attach to their rank, but since they also presided in civil and criminal +cases in their jurisdictions, as did the Captain-General in Havana, the +fees from these proceedings made very fat picking. Now the captains had +no salary at all, and the style in which they were able to live depended +on the number of fines they were able to impose, and therefore it is not +difficult to imagine that they were not easy on any Cubans who came +under suspicion of any offense. They received one-third of all fines +imposed by them. + +Each city in Cuba had its Ayuntamiento or council. In Puerto Principe +there seem to have been elections for membership to this body, but in +most cases seats were bought at enormous prices, and the receipts from +such sale went into the Spanish treasury, although the Captain-General +received his perquisite for allowing the transfer to be made. He also +seems to have had some power of appointment, which was seldom made +without pecuniary consideration, and there were some cases where members +had hereditary rights to their seats. Not every town had its +Ayuntamiento, but in most of the older towns they existed. The +Ayuntamiento elected its own mayor from among its members, but they were +all subject to the control of the Governor or Lieutenant Governor, who +was in line of course subject to the Captain-General. + +[Illustration: THE OLD PRESIDENTIAL PALACE + +The official residence of a long line of Spanish Governors and +Captains-General is a large and handsome building of stone, tinted white +and yellow, facing the Plaza de Armas from the east, and standing on the +site of the original parish church of Havana. Within its walls occurred +the memorable scene of the final abdication of Spanish sovereignty in +Cuba. It has now been replaced by the new Presidential Palace.] + +Early in the reign of the Spaniards in Cuba, courts called Audiencias +with both judicial and administrative functions had been established. +They were not at all pleasing to the more arbitrary of the +Captains-General for while they were subordinate to him, and their only +restriction on his power was in a kind of advisory capacity, yet they +often reflected public opinion, and too, if their conclusions differed +from that of the Captain-General, they were a moral curb upon his +actions which he resented. The most ancient and honorable of these +Audiencias was the one at Puerto Principe. It was the oldest in the +island, and it strove to uphold its dignity by conducting its +proceedings in the most formal and impressive manner, by adhering to the +most ancient customs. It was greatly reverenced by the people of the +district, and the Captain-General felt that somehow it detracted from +his glory, and from the respect which he felt should be accorded the +commands of his inferior officers. Various Captains-General strove to +abolish this court, and to turn its revenues into their own pockets. + +The judicial functions in criminal and civil suits were divided among +many bodies, and there must have been great confusion, overlapping of +authority, and consequent wrangling. Judicial powers were accorded to +the Alcaldes Mayors, to the Captains, Lieutenant Governors, Governors, +Captains-General, Audiencias, in some cases to juntas, and even to naval +officers. Judges could condemn, but they could not themselves be +condemned. There was no way of curbing a wrongful exercise of their +power, and even when their offenses were heinous they could not be +disciplined through any democratic measures. Civil prisoners were often +taken from the jurisdiction of the civil courts and tried by military +tribunals. In the last resort, the Captain-General could always +interfere, when he chose. + +The courts in Cuba at the middle of the nineteenth century were +notoriously corrupt, and while the people feared them, in their +gatherings in their homes they did not hesitate to condemn them. Justice +was almost a dead letter. When a well known offender against the laws +had influence with the Captain-General, or with some subordinate +official, the prosecuting attorneys would refuse to try him. The very +source of the pay of the captains made it impossible for them to make a +living without corruption, and an honest one would have been hard to +find, while the governors and lieutenant-governors were of opinion that +the only way to keep the people in subjection was to oppress and terrify +them, and the only way for governors and lieutenant-governors to return +to Spain with the proper amount of spoil was to exact it from the +unfortunate Cubans. + +While the Captain-General was the supreme military authority, he was not +the supreme commander of the naval forces, the latter being a separate +office. This was due principally at least to the fact that all the naval +forces of Spain in America were commanded from Havana, and all naval +expeditions for the defense of Spain in South America were commanded and +directed from that port. Therefore, it was necessary not only that the +naval officer should be a person of importance and ability, but also +that he should not be subordinate to the chief officer of any one of the +Spanish colonies. When Spain lost her large possessions in America, and +only Cuba remained to her, then the office of naval commander was +greatly curtailed in scope, and it was a matter of much irritation to +the Captain-General that there should be stationed in Cuba, or in Cuban +waters, an official of equal rank with himself. + +Over the army the Captain-General held undisputed sway. There were +quartered in Cuba in 1825 three regular army battalions, a brigade of +artillery and one cavalry regiment. This army was supposed to be +augmented by the local militia. In 1850 there were in the regular army +sixteen battalions, two picked companies of veterans, twelve squadrons +of cavalry, two brigades of artillery, and two light batteries. + +Cuba had reason to fear the success of an attack made from the southern +coast of Florida, from Hayti or from Yucatan. The island lies in the +midst of the gulf waters, long and narrow in outline, and with miles of +sea coast all out of proportion to its area. It was almost impossible +adequately to patrol the coast and it would have been easy for an enemy +to make a landing, provided the leader of an expedition was familiar +with the coasts. Means of communication were slow in those days, and +particularly slow in Cuba because of her geographical formation. If the +attackers once entrenched themselves in the mountains, they were in a +position to carry on an interminable guerrilla warfare. For these +reasons, Spain would have felt that Cuba should be heavily garrisoned, +even were it not also for the fact that the Cubans were growing so +restless and crying so vociferously for liberty that Spain had reason to +fear dangers both from within and without. + +People did not lightly express their opinions publicly in Cuba, +particularly if those opinions were unfavorable to the government. +Expressions unfavorable to the government were never allowed to leak +into print, for except for a short period in 1812, and another from 1820 +to 1823, the press was securely censored. The Captains-General who +reigned during the nineteenth century were particularly careful that +this censorship should be rigid and unbending. An American editor, Mr. +Thrasher, was more daring than the native Cubans and his paper, _El Faro +Industrial_, frequently contained matter which provoked the displeasure +of the Captain-General. He had powerful connections and he was therefore +unmolested until it was deemed that his comment on the death of General +Ena, during the Lopez uprising, was too offensive, and the paper was +suppressed. The Spanish interests conducted the largest newspaper in +Havana, _El Diario de la Marina_, which had a list of 6,000 subscribers. +Although this paper was avowedly Spanish in its sympathies and was +conducted with Spanish money, it too was carefully watched by the +censor. One day, it unguardedly, or through a misjudgment, accepted for +publication an article implying that the interests of Cuba and the +interests of Spain were not one and identical, and the entire edition +was promptly suppressed by the censor. + +Not only was the local press carefully muzzled, but a watch was kept +lest anything creep in from the United States, or from any other source, +which might put notions in the heads of the Cubans that would divert +their allegiance from Spain. The work of the censor was not an +acceptable one for the United States, and the American residents in Cuba +did not take pleasantly to the suppression of the American papers, and +friction on this score was constant. + +A paper called _La Verdad_, published in New York by Cuban sympathizers, +came under the especial displeasure of the Captain-General and of the +Spanish government in Madrid. Regarding it, the Spanish Secretary of +Foreign Affairs wrote as follows to Calderon de la Barca, the Spanish +minister at Washington, on January 2, 1848: + +"Your excellency knows that the paper called _La Verdad_, published in +New York, is printed with the specific object of awakening among the +inhabitants of Cuba and Porto Rico the sentiment of rebellion, and to +propagate the idea of annexation to the United States. The +Captain-General of the island, in fulfilment of his duty, prohibited the +entrance and circulation of this newspaper in the island, and tried to +investigate the ramifications in the island of this conspiracy against +the rights of Spain, and against the peace of the country. As a result +of the efforts made with this object, it was discovered that although +not numerous, there were in Havana some wicked Spaniards charged with +the task of collecting money to sustain the subversive publication, and +to distribute its copies to those who should care to read them." + +The Spanish government in Cuba did not look with favor upon foreigners. +It thought that other countries, especially those adjacent to Cuba, were +too tainted with liberal notions to render their inhabitants safe +associates for the already restless Cubans. It therefore preferred that +persons wishing to visit Cuba either remain quietly at home, or become +Spanish citizens, subject to Spanish rule, if they insisted on remaining +on the island. On October 21, 1817, a Royal Order was issued dividing +foreigners into three classes. First, transients, composed of those who +were merely enjoying the unwilling hospitality of Spain in Cuba. A +person could be regarded as a transient for a period of only five years. +After that he must either declare his intention of remaining in Cuba +permanently or depart. Second, domiciled foreigners, who must declare +their intention of remaining permanently in Cuba, must embrace the +church by becoming Roman Catholics, must forswear allegiance to their +native country in favor of allegiance to Spain, and must agree to be +subject to Spanish law exactly as native Cubans and Spaniards were +subject to it. Third, citizens by naturalization, who were regarded as +Spanish citizens in every sense of the word, and could be sure of the +same unjust treatment which Spain accorded all subjects in her +possessions. + +Now this subject of foreigners in Cuba was a complex one, because, +beside the tendency among Americans to settle on the island, now that +its rich resources were becoming recognized, there were, in the middle +of the nineteenth century, many Americans rushing to California to seek +their fortunes in the gold fields. The favorite route was via Havana and +Panama, and they naturally left their mark on the thought of the people +with whom they came in contact. Beside this each year during the sugar +harvest skilled mechanics came to work on the plantations. This did not +meet with the approval of those in command of the finances of the +island, because each of these visitors carried home with him every year +from $1,000 to $1,500 on which he had paid no taxes. Such conduct was +reprehensible, and it was entirely foreign to the policy or intent of +any Captain-General that anyone should get away with any money without +being either taxed or fined for it. Besides, these adventurers, as they +were contemptuously termed, were regular mouthpieces of treason, and +were said to talk of nothing else but freedom from Spain by annexation. +Naturally their coming was unpleasant to the high powers in Cuba. Now +under the treaty of 1795, between Spain and the United States, provision +was made that "in all cases of seizure, detention or arrest, for debts +contracted, or offenses committed by any citizen or subject of the one +party, within the jurisdiction of the other, the same shall be made and +prosecuted by order of the law only, and according to the regular course +of proceedings in such cases. The citizens and subjects of both parties +shall be allowed to employ such advocates, solicitors, notaries, agents +and factors as they may judge proper in all their affairs and in all +their trials at law in which they may be concerned before the tribunals +of the other party, and such agents shall have free access to be present +at the proceedings in such cases and at the taking of all examinations +and evidence which may be exhibited in the said trials." + +Americans charged with offenses against the Spanish government should +have had the benefits of the rights given them under this treaty, but +the government took refuge behind the fact that the Captain-General had +no diplomatic functions, and Americans were frequently thrust into +prison and allowed to remain there subject to much discomfort and to +financial loss until Washington and Madrid got the facts, and took the +time to arrange the matter. The Spanish Secretary for Foreign Affairs +wrote to Calderon de la Barca, on this matter, as follows: + +"Your Excellency knows that the government of Her Majesty has always +maintained the position with all foreign powers that its colonies are +outside of all the promises and obligations undertaken by Spain in +international agreements. With regard to Cuba, the discussions with +England to this effect are well known, in which the Spanish Government +has declared that the treaties which form the positive law of Spain had +been adjusted in times when the Spanish colonies were closed to all +foreign trade and commerce, and that when in 1824, these colonies were +opened to commerce of all other nations, they were not placed on equal +footing with the home country, but were kept in the exceptional position +of colonies. Of this exceptional position of that part of the Spanish +dominions, no one has more proof than the foreign consuls, since it is +evident to them that the Spanish government has only endured their +presence on the condition that they should not exercise other functions +than those of mere commercial agents. Thus in 1845 the English +government accepted formally the agreement that its consul should not +demand the fulfillment of treaties, not even of those which refer to the +slave trade." + +The natural inference to be drawn from this was that Spain considered +that foreigners who desired to live in Cuba must do so at their own +peril, and that the Captain-General was above the trammeling bonds of +international agreements in his dealing with interlopers who came to the +island. But it must be borne in mind that the government of Cuba was +administered not for the development of the island or the best good of +its inhabitants, but according to the short sighted and stupid policies +which seemed to Spain best calculated to prevent Cuba from slipping from +her grasp as had her other colonies. Therefore, the main solicitude of +each of the Captains-General was the subduing of the inhabitants by +force, if necessary, the defense of the island from an enemy who might +come by sea, and the lining of his own pockets while opportunity +offered. + + + + +CHAPTER II + + +Venezuela gave the struggling Spanish American colonies Bolivar, who was +their liberator and their savior. In the same country was born, at the +end of the eighteenth century, in 1798 or 1799, a child who fifty years +later was to lay down his life on the altar of freedom for Cuba. This +boy, like Bolivar, was of a wealthy and respected family. His father was +the proprietor of a large estate which was stocked with cattle and +horses and live stock of every kind. His mother had gentle and even +aristocratic blood in her veins and she endeavored to bring up her +children with high ideals of truth and honor. Narciso Lopez, who was to +fight so valiantly for enslaved Cuba, is reported to have been a boy who +was born to command. He roamed the plains with the men from his father's +ranch and they recognised him as a leader. He was a fine shot, a +fearless rider, brave, energetic, resolute and tireless. + +[Illustration: NARCISO LOPEZ] + +When he was a boy of fourteen or fifteen his family moved to Caracas. +His father had been stripped of his property by the wars by which +Venezuela was torn at that time, and consequently entered into +commercial life, and soon established a business with many nourishing +branches. Narciso must have been a lad of exceptional perspicuity and +judgment, for his father placed him in charge of a branch establishment +at Valencia. But a quiet commercial life, as quiet as the times would +permit, did not please a boy who had the instincts and tastes of a +soldier. Besides it probably would have been difficult for anyone with +any spirit to keep out of the turmoil which was threatening to engulf +Valencia at that time. For the place was armed and garrisoned against +the Spaniards, who under General Boves were advancing to attempt to take +it. The natural leader of the Venezuelans was Bolivar, and although he +had been routed, and had retired to reorganize his forces, he succeeded +in getting word through to Valencia to hold the town at any cost. The +Valencians were only too eager to obey these instructions, because they +well knew the devastation that inevitably followed in the wake of the +Spanish army. They could not view with equanimity the picture of their +town destroyed, their women ravished, little children killed, and men +massacred or led away into captivity, and so they laid plans for a brave +resistance. All of the valuable property was collected from the houses +into the public square. The town had no walls, so that the best that +could be done was to barricade the approaches to this square and strive +to defend it. + +The house where Lopez lived was situated in one corner of the square, +and he soon found himself not only in the centre of the preparations, +but, because of his resourcefulness and initiative, a recognized leader +in the defensive operations. The elder Lopez was in town at the time, +but while he did his part in preparing for the siege, it was the son who +took command and who issued the orders to the father. For three weeks +the little band of patriots held off the Spanish forces, sending runners +through, whenever this could be done, with messages asking Bolivar to +hasten to their aid, and each day praying that help might reach them. +But Bolivar was unable to do anything for them. Indeed his army was in +such straits that it was a relief to him to have the Spanish leader turn +his attention to the attack on Valencia and give an opportunity to rally +his own forces. At the end of the third week the victorious Spaniards +entered the town in triumph. The men were separated from the women, and +were marked for a general slaughter that night while the decree went +forth that the women were to be allowed to remain alive a little longer +so that they might serve the pleasure of their conquerors. Narciso was +not taken prisoner, because he was clever enough to hide himself with +some negroes, who it was expected would be taken away into captivity by +the Spaniards. Narciso was separated from his father, and was much +concerned for the latter's safety, for the son readily pictured the +horrible fate that might befall him; and finally his fears grew so +unbearable that he felt that anything rather than uncertainty would be +welcome. He therefore stole forth to reconnoiter and to see what he +could discover. With him he took two old colored men who had been family +servants. All night he searched, crawling from house to house, under +cover of the darkness, taking advantage of every bit of cover, lying +close to some friendly shelter to listen to the conversation of passing +soldiers in the hope that he might gather some news. He was later to +learn that his father had effected his escape, and that his own +fruitless search through the dark watches of that interminable night was +after all his own salvation. The next morning, when, worn out with +exhaustion and half dead with fatigue, he and his companions dragged +themselves back to the place where the slaves had been huddled, a +ghastly sight met their eyes. The Spaniards for once had been false to +their traditions. Perhaps they knew that these slaves had imbibed from +their masters too much of the spirit of liberty to make good Spanish +servants. At any rate there they lay upon the ground, eighty-seven of +them, each with his throat slit from ear to ear. + +Now we come to a period of Lopez's career which it is difficult to +harmonize with the whole story of his after life. The only plausible +explanation seems to be that he was only a boy, and that Bolivar's army +was suffering such reverses that the only way in which Lopez could save +his own life was by joining forces with the Spaniards, which he did. One +would have thought that after the valiant part he played in the defense +of Valencia, he would cast his lot with the insurgents. No writer of the +period gives us any real explanation of his course. But whatever the +motive, Lopez became a Spanish soldier, a fact which later was to be of +tremendous value to him, because it enabled him to visit Spain, to rise +high in the service, to hold exalted positions in the Spanish court, and +to obtain an insight into the cruelties and injustices perpetrated by +the men who were the oppressors of the country which he was to adopt as +his own, and the salvation of which he was to make his life work, which +he could have gained in no other way. His action may have been +precipitated by the fact that the people of Valencia did not understand +the straits in which Bolivar found himself, but felt that he had +deliberately deserted them. + +Through the long struggle which ended in the evacuation of Caracas by +Spain in 1823, Lopez fought with the Spaniards. So brilliant was his +service that he was at the age of twenty-three given the rank of major. +The story is told that early in the war, when he was a mere private, in +an attack against a position which was defended by field works, the +Spanish forces were divided, in an effort to take two bastions upon the +capture of which victory depended. But there was not sufficient +ammunition, and that of one of the divisions became exhausted, so that +it was necessary to obtain a fresh supply from the other division. This +information was signaled, and the leader of that portion of the +attackers which must now supply the other, called for volunteers. In +order to get the relief through it was necessary to lead three mules, +which were tied together Spanish fashion, the head of the second mule to +the tail of the first one, and the head of the third to the tail of the +second, past a position where they were exposed to the hot fire of the +opposing army. Lopez volunteered. When he reached the most dangerous +part of his course, the mule in the center was struck by the enemy's +fire and fell dead. Lopez did not hesitate, but with the bullets singing +about him--the insurgents in that party must have been singularly bad +marksmen, or perhaps their guns were not of an efficient pattern--he cut +out the dead animal and, tying the two remaining mules together, safely +reached his destination and delivered the ammunition to the commander. +He was not injured, but his gun had been broken by a chance shot, his +clothes were riddled with bullets, one of which had passed through his +hat within an inch of his head, and both of his mules were so severely +wounded that they had to be shot. His action gave the victory to the +Spanish. This exploit won for Lopez the offer of an officer's +commission, but he was modest in his estimate of his own ability, and he +felt that he was too young for the honor, and so he refused, with the +request that he might be taken from the infantry and placed in the +cavalry. So, in spite of his disposition to make light of his own +achievements, and almost against his own will, he found himself at +nineteen the commander of a squadron of horsemen. It was a force of +picked men, most of them older than Lopez, and it had the reputation of +never having shown its back to the enemy. From the command of this +company, Lopez was elevated to the rank of major. + +Now Lopez had made many friends in the Spanish army. All through his +career he had the ability to make men believe in him, love him and be +ready to follow wherever he led. The high honors which had fallen to his +lot seemed not to have incited jealousy among his companions; indeed on +the other hand he was urged by his friends to apply for the cross of San +Fernando, to which they believed he was entitled. Again that curious +quality in Lopez which did not make him shrink from deeds of bravery, +but which did make him draw back from demanding their reward, asserted +itself. The cross of San Fernando was a very great honor, and it was not +bestowed as a free gift, but when a man performed some action of unusual +courage he might publicly demand it, and anyone in the army who cared to +do so was free to enter their opposition, by proving, or trying to +prove, that the deed for which the cross was demanded was not of such a +character as to merit such a reward. In the whole Spanish army in Cuba +at that time, only one individual had succeeded in obtaining the cross +of San Fernando. While Lopez hesitated, his commander in chief, General +Morillo, had the application drawn up and personally insisted that Lopez +sign it. After a rigid inquiry into the merits of this petition, which +was backed up by the endorsement of his comrades and of Morillo himself, +the cross was granted. + +But it was no more than common justice that Morillo should take this +stand, for far better than anyone else had he cause to be grateful for +the bravery of this twenty-three year old boy. The larger part of the +Spanish army at this time was infantry, while the army of the insurgents +was largely cavalry. The natives knew the country, and were able to +carry on a successful guerrilla warfare, without allowing the Spaniards +to engage them in open battle. This harassed the Spaniards, wore down +their morale, and slowly but surely decimated their forces. Morillo, +well knowing this, was pursuing the insurgents, in a vain attempt to +join them in conflict. Lopez at this time was in charge of his cavalry +company, which had been almost exterminated in a conflict that morning. +Only a little band of thirty-eight men remained. Morillo was not aware +of the catastrophe which had overtaken Lopez's command, and did not know +how greatly it had been reduced in numbers. He therefore issued orders +that it gallop forward to attack the enemy in the rear, with an idea of +forcing them to face about and give battle. The engagement took place on +the plains, and the handful of men could be plainly discerned by the +enemy as they rode to obey their commanding officer. General Paez, who +was in command of the Venezuelans, sent a corps of 300 men to repel the +thirty-eight cavalrymen. Neither Lopez nor his men faltered, for they +must live up to their traditions. Lopez ordered them to dismount and +engage the advancing enemy on foot, using lances and carbines in the +attack. Morillo soon discovered what was in progress and sent +reinforcements, and Lopez's men held their position until aid reached +them. + +When this war was over and freedom had been won an extraordinary thing +happened. The patriot government invited this young man, who had fought +against them, to enter their service with the same rank which he had +held in the Spanish army. This he declined, and when evacuation took +place he retired with the Spanish army to Cuba, in 1823. + +Lopez married a very charming Cuban, adopted Cuba as his native land, +and gave up his position in the army. Perhaps the cruelty of the Spanish +government in Cuba may have awakened him to the nature of the +organization which he was serving. He was at heart a man who loved +freedom, who was impatient of unjust restraint, who loved his fellow men +and could not bear to see them suffer injustice. Spain was afraid that +her officers might be led away by the spirit of democracy which was +creating such havoc in her possessions in America. When absolutism was +again restored in Spain, and the constitution of 1812 was for the second +time overthrown, she required her officers in Cuba publicly to adjure +liberalism, and to take an oath to stand by the Spanish rule in the +colony. This Lopez could not bring himself to do, and so he remained in +retirement. + +Affairs in Spain underwent a change, for King Ferdinand died and +immediately a contest for the control of the government was on between +his widow, Maria Cristina, as regent for her infant daughter, Isabel, +and Don Carlos, who was the brother of the deceased king, and who +declared that under the Salic law the crown belonged to him. War between +the two factions seemed imminent, and the Spanish people were war weary, +when the Queen regent conceived a brilliant plan. She felt sure that the +will of the people was with her, since she represented the liberal party +as against Don Carlos who was at the head of the absolutists and whose +accession of power would mean new oppressions. Maria Cristina therefore +issued a proclamation calling on the people, if they loved their country +and wished to save her from civil war, to join in disarming the +absolutists. This movement was well organized and a day was set for the +disarmament to take place all over the kingdom. It seems almost +incredible, but it was successful, and from one end of Spain to the +other there were over six hundred thousand stacks of arms taken from the +Carlists by the people of the liberal party. + +Now while this action was being planned and executed, Lopez happened to +be in Spain. He had gone to the court at Madrid with his wife to +endeavor to have restitution made to her of large sums of money which +the government of Cuba had unjustly taken from her family. Unfortunately +there are no records which disclose whether his diplomacy was great +enough to persuade Spain to return any money which had once gotten into +her coffers. However, Lopez had grown to understand Cuban affairs by +this time well enough to know that if the liberals were successful it +might mean the reestablishment of the constitution of 1812, and the dawn +of better days for Cuba; but on the other hand, should the Carlists +triumph, Cuba was bound to be more fiercely ground beneath the heel of +tyranny and oppressions. Lopez loved his adopted country, and so he at +once took command of a body of liberals who were being hard pressed by a +company of the national guard, part of which had sided with Don Carlos. +He rallied the little band, filled them with new courage and enthusiasm, +and all day he worked with them, sometimes in company with other men and +often alone, driving before him companies of Carlists, forcing them to +go to the guardhouse of the liberals and surrender their weapons. When +news of this conduct reached royal ears, Lopez was made first +aide-de-camp to General Valdez, who was commander in chief of the +liberal forces, that same Valdez who was destined later to become +Captain-General of Cuba. A strong friendship sprang up between the two +men, a bond which was never broken, and which Lopez respected so much +that he later deferred action against the Spanish government in Cuba +until after Valdez had relinquished the office of Captain-General. +Indeed, it was through the influence of Lopez at the court of Spain that +Valdez became Captain-General. + +Valdez had many reasons for being grateful to Lopez, for during the war +which followed between the forces of the queen and those of Carlos, at +one crisis--a surprise attack when the troops were about to flee--Lopez +placed himself in command and led them to victory. On another occasion +Valdez, who had his headquarters in the little village of Durango, had +dispatched the main portion of his army against the forces of the enemy, +retaining with him only a few picked men. Suddenly he found himself +almost surrounded by the Carlists, who had seized the hills by which the +village was enclosed. It was necessary that someone carry news of the +situation to the main army and obtain relief. Lopez, who was then a +colonel, signified his willingness to undertake the task, and indeed +claimed that it was his right as first aide-de-camp to command the +rescuing party which he intended to bring back with him. Valdez was +loath to let him go, for he felt that success was problematic, and that +the expedition meant almost certain death for his friend. But there was +no alternative, and so at last he consented. Lopez set forth on +horseback with one servant attending him. When they approached the +enemy, they signalled that they were deserters, with valuable +information to impart. They were allowed to approach without being fired +on, and when they came abreast of the opposing forces, they set spurs to +their horses, ran the gauntlet of a shower of bullets, and escaped +unhurt, bearing the news of Valdez's perilous position to his main army. + +So great was Lopez's valor and fearlessness, and so high a reputation +had he for honor and fair dealing, that he was respected by the Carlists +as well as by his own party. At the end of this struggle he was accorded +the rank of General in the Spanish army, and was loaded with honors, +having the crosses of Isabella Catolica and St. Hermengilda bestowed +upon him, and being appointed commander in chief of the National Guard +of Spain. He stood high in the regard of the Queen Regent, but he grew +to know her as she was, a cold, selfish plotter, and when she was +finally expelled from the regency Lopez regarded it as a cause for +rejoicing, even though his own career might be expected to suffer. But +the regard in which he was held was too great for this to come to pass, +and after the insurrection which deposed Maria Cristina he was offered +and accepted the post of Governor of Madrid. + +Lopez also served Spain as a senator from the city of Seville. He was +present in the Cortes when the Cuban delegates who were elected during +the conflict of wills between General Lorenzo and Captain-General Tacon, +and who escaped to Spain and attempted to claim their seats in the +Cortes, were rejected. Perhaps more than anything else in his career, +Lopez's service as senator opened his eyes to the vile condition of +Spanish politics, and the methods which were used in ruling the +colonies. He was always on the side of the oppressed, he hated +injustice, and so, then and there, the love of liberty which had always +been a part of his character took concrete form in a resolve to be the +liberator of Cuba. + +When Valdez set forth to take over the command in Cuba, he had +earnestly requested that Lopez be allowed to accompany him, but on the +plea that there was important work for him to do in Spain, Lopez was not +allowed to depart. It may be that in spite of the fight which he had +made to maintain the unity of the Spanish kingdom, the astute and crafty +Spanish statesmen suspected his loyalty, for it was reported that during +Tacon's administration in Cuba, Lopez had entered into a conspiracy to +obtain freedom for the island, and had publicly toasted "free Cuba" at a +banquet. This seems more like a story which might have been born of +Tacon's mean jealousy and fear for his own power, and nurtured by his +vivid imagination when he sought to harm an enemy. It does not seem +credible that Lopez, who had not yet openly thrown in his fortunes with +the liberals in Cuba, would have been so foolish as to expose himself to +the vengeance of a Captain-General who he had good reason to know would +let nothing stand in his way when he sought to tear a rival in court +favor from a high place. Be this as it may, the story was current in +Spain, and while it seems not to have harmed Lopez's popularity with the +people or with the court, it did prevent his accompanying Valdez to Cuba +at this time. Lopez's ability to make friends, however, a little later +stood him in good stead. He had won the liking and indeed the warm +affection of Espartero, the leader at this time of the liberal party in +Spain, and the influence of Espartero finally made it possible for Lopez +to return to Havana, in 1839. + +The friendship between Valdez and Lopez remained warm, and Valdez +appointed Lopez President of the Military Commission, Governor of +Trinidad, and Commander-in-chief of the Central Department of the +Island. Now rumors that a revolution was imminent began to be generally +circulated. No one could tell the source from which they sprang, but +they seemed to be in the atmosphere, and were the constant subject of +whispered conversations in the cafés and restaurants and in the houses +of the liberals. + +When Valdez relinquished the Captain-Generalship, and O'Donnell began +his infamous rule, Lopez felt himself released from all obligations to +the government. Every particle of Spanish sympathy had long since been +purged from his heart, and his honors from such a source had become +irksome. He had refrained from actively plotting against Spain while +Valdez was ruling over Cuba, his friendship for Valdez making him +unwilling to embarrass him. This curb removed, Lopez gladly relinquished +his offices and retired to his own estates. He was not nearly so +successful as a business man as he was as a soldier, and the business +enterprises which he undertook proved to be failures. But he took over +the management of some copper mines and these were used as bases for the +organization of the attempt to free Cuba which was now beginning to take +form and shape in his mind. He mingled with the people quietly and +endeavored, successfully, to win their esteem and liking. The district +in which the mines were located was settled mainly by men who were +always in the saddle. Now Lopez was a fine horseman. There were no deeds +of horsemanship which they might perform which he could not duplicate or +improve upon. He thus soon won a popular following, and this curiously +enough without attracting the particular attention of the +Captain-General or his spies, and became a hero to the men among whom he +dwelt. They were all indebted to him for deeds of kindness, for no man +in difficulties ever appealed to Lopez's purse in vain. Thus he +acquired an influence which made him confident that should he speak the +word the countryside would rally with him under the banner of revolt +against Spain. + +Now Lopez was not particularly interested in the emancipation of the +slaves. He thought that they were necessary for the successful +cultivation of the island, and he could not successfully visualize a +free black population. He felt that a Cuba unbound by any ties to any +other nation meant free blacks. He therefore favored annexation to the +United States. He took the American Consul at Havana, Robert Campbell, +into his confidence, and asked his advice. Campbell was in favor of +annexation by the United States and expressed his opinion that the +majority of the American people, especially those in the southern +states, were heartily in favor of the United States taking over Cuba; +but he also called Lopez's attention to the numerous treaty obligations +binding the United States and Spain together, and assured him that +whatever secret support he might hope to gain from that country, he +(Campbell) certainly would not officially come out and sanction any +movement to free Cuba from Spain. He felt that if Lopez by revolution +could perform the operation and sever the bonds which bound Cuba to +Spain, the United States might reasonably be expected not to refuse the +gift of the island were it offered to her. + +Lopez at once began actively to outline his plans for a revolution, and +secret headquarters were established at Cienfuegos, while the +organization was extended to other parts of the island. + + + + +CHAPTER III + + +Lopez planned to begin the uprising for the freedom of Cuba on June 24, +1848. He had enlisted the sympathy and secret cooperation of many men in +the United States, chiefly in the southern part of that country, and +looked to them to provide him with the needed arms and ammunition. There +was no lack of readiness on their part to respond to his needs in this +respect, but there was much difficulty in transporting such supplies +from the United States to Cuba. Whatever the personal sentiments of the +officers of the American government, they were required publicly to do +all in their power to prevent illicit traffic; while of course the +Spanish officials in Cuba were vigilant to prevent the landing of any +such cargoes. The result was that sufficient supplies did not reach Cuba +in time for an uprising on the appointed date. + +The delay was fatal. It afforded opportunity for betrayal. Among the +followers of Lopez in Cuba was one José Sanchez Yznaga, a mere lad of +tender years. He could not resist the temptation to boast to his mother +of the great enterprise in which he was to take part, and she, drawing +from him all the details of the conspiracy, repeated the story to her +husband. Forthwith he gave information of it to the authorities; +reputedly in order to prevent his son from getting into mischief. Lopez, +unconscious of what had happened, was "invited" by the Governor of +Cienfuegos to call upon him, on a matter of important business, and was +actually on his way to keep the engagement when he learned of the +betrayal. Instantly he changed his course, and instead of going to +Cienfuegos he took train for Cardenas and thence a coasting vessel for +Matanzas. At the latter port he was so fortunate as to find the steamer +_Neptune_ just starting for New York. She had room for another passenger +and he got aboard without detection by the Spanish officers who were in +quest of him. The boy Yznaga also escaped arrest. Apparently the names +of the other conspirators were not disclosed, or else there was no +convincing evidence against them. At any rate, none of them were +imprisoned or punished in any way. But Lopez himself was tried _in +absentia_ and was condemned to death, on March 2, 1849; and Yznaga, also +absent, was condemned to six years' imprisonment. + +It was in July, 1848, that Narciso Lopez reached New York, a fugitive +from Spanish wrath. There he found that various Cuban Juntas had been +formed in the United States, and that a well-organized campaign for the +annexation of Cuba was being pushed. This movement was not, of course, +approved officially by the United States government; but neither were +any extraordinary efforts made to suppress or to discourage it. Several +Senators of the United States did not hesitate to make speeches in the +Senate in favor of annexation; some of them advocating its forcible +achievement if Spain declined to make the cession peacefully. Several of +the foremost newspapers also openly espoused the cause. Improving the +opportunity presented to him by these circumstances, Lopez sought some +prominent American, politician or soldier, who would identify himself +with the Cuban revolution and would place himself at its head. Some of +his first and strongest efforts were directed toward getting Jefferson +Davis, then a Senator and afterward President of the Confederate States, +to take command of the expedition which he purposed to fit out; and he +offered to place the sum of $100,000 in a New York bank to the credit +of Mrs. Davis as an inducement. Davis considered the offer and then +declined it; sending Lopez, however, to Major Robert Edward Lee, of the +United States army, afterward of the Confederate army, as a more likely +candidate. Lee, however, also refused the invitation, for reasons which +Jefferson Davis afterward set forth as follows: + +"He came from Mexico crowned with honors, covered by brevets and +recognized, young as he was, as one of the ablest of his country's +soldiers, and to prove that he was estimated then as such, I may mention +that when he was a Captain of engineers, stationed at Baltimore, the +Cuban Junta in New York selected him to be their leader in the +revolutionary effort on that island. They were anxious to secure his +services, and offered him every temptation that ambition could desire, +and pecuniary emoluments far beyond any which he could hope otherwise to +acquire. He thought the matter over, and, I remember, came to Washington +to consult me as to what he should do. After a brief discussion of the +complex character of the military problem which was presented he turned +from the consideration of that view of the question by stating that the +point on which he wished particularly to consult me, was as to the +propriety of entertaining the proposition which had been made to him. He +had been educated in the service of the United States, and felt it wrong +to accept place in the army of a foreign power while he held a +commission." + +Contributions to the amount of $70,000 were made in the United States to +help to finance the expedition, and $30,000 more was sent from Cuba. +Lopez had long interviews with many men who stood high in American +affairs, and he was assured by them that if the semblance of a real +revolution was created, the United States might be expected to +intervene and to annex the island. Recruiting was quietly going on in +several parts of the United States. There was little concealment about +the methods or plans, and Spanish spies who were closely following the +leaders in the movement were able to report very accurately to the +Captain-General in Cuba and to the Spanish minister at Washington, Señor +Calderon de la Barca, exactly what was going on. These two gentlemen +organized a small counter movement and expended large sums of money +extracted from the Cuban treasury to balk the plans of the +revolutionists. Promises of generous pay, however, lured large numbers +of adventurers into the ranks of Lopez's party. Those who enlisted were +promised $1,000, and five acres of land, if the expedition was +triumphant, and pay equal to that of a private in the United States army +in any event. + +Headquarters for the recruits were established at Cat Island, but the +little army was dispersed by the United States authorities, and then the +gathering place was changed to Round Island, near the city of New +Orleans, where Col. G. W. White, a veteran of the Mexican war, was in +charge. The number of men who were assembled under Col. White, ready to +sail for Cuba, was reported to be from 550 to 800. + +While all these preparations were going on, there was an incident in +Havana which threatened seriously to embroil Spain with the United +States. The prison at Havana was holding two men, Villaverde, who was +under arrest for sedition against Spain, and Fernandez, who had been +condemned to imprisonment for fraudulent acts in connection with a +bankruptcy proceeding. One of the jailors was Juan Francisco Garcia Rey, +an American citizen, and he aided these prisoners to escape, Villaverde +going to Savannah, while Fernandez went with Rey to New Orleans. Rey +was soon trailed by Spanish spies and he was either tricked into going +on board a Spanish sailing vessel or else he was forced to do so, and +hurried off to Cuba with no property but the clothes which he wore. When +the vessel reached Cuba, the United States consul went on board, but the +men who were guarding Rey forced him to state that he had arrived in +Cuba voluntarily. The vessel was held in quarantine for some time, and +immediately after it was released, Rey was placed in solitary +confinement; from which however he managed to get a letter through to +the American consul, which read as follows: + +"My name is Juan Garcia Rey; I was forced by the Spanish consul to leave +New Orleans. I demand the protection of the American flag and I desire +to return to the United States. + +"P.S. I came here by force, the Spanish consul having seized me under a +supposed order of the Second Municipality and having had me carried by +main force on board a ship at nine in the evening. + +"P.S.--I did not speak frankly to you because the Captain of the port +was present." + +The request which the American consul promptly made for an interview +with Rey was denied, and at this point the United States government +interested itself in the case and made an official demand for the return +of Rey. Relations between the United States and Spain were growing very +much strained and it looked as if the United States were soon to have an +excuse to fight Spain and to annex Cuba, when the Spanish government +suddenly suffered a change of heart, and Rey was pardoned and released. + +Meanwhile the plans for the invasion of Cuba were being carried out so +openly that the Spanish minister protested, and Zachary Taylor, then +President of the United States, being unwilling openly to affront +Spain, through his Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, issued on August +11, 1849, a proclamation which ran as follows: + +"There is reason to believe that an armed expedition is about to be +fitted out in the United States with an intention to invade the Island +of Cuba, or some of the provinces of Mexico. The best information which +the executive has been able to obtain, points to the Island of Cuba as +the object of this expedition. It is the duty of this government to +observe the faith of treaties, and to prevent any aggression by our +citizens upon the territories of friendly nations. I have, therefore, +thought it necessary and proper to issue this proclamation, to warn all +citizens of the United States who shall connect themselves with an +enterprise so grossly in violation of our laws and treaty obligations, +that they will thereby subject themselves to the heavy penalties +denounced against them by our Acts of Congress, and will forfeit their +claim to the protection of their country. No such persons must expect +the interference of this government in any form on their behalf, no +matter to what extremities they may be reduced in consequence of their +conduct. An enterprise to invade the territories of a friendly nation, +set on foot and prosecuted within the limits of the United States, is in +the highest degree criminal, as tending to endanger the peace and +compromise the honor of this nation, and therefore I exhort all good +citizens, as they regard our national reputation, as they respect their +own laws and the laws of nations, as they value the blessings of peace +and the welfare of their country, to discountenance and prevent, by all +lawful means, any such enterprise; and I call upon every officer of this +government, civil or military, to use all efforts in his power to arrest +for trial and punishment every such offender against the laws providing +for the performance of our sacred obligations to friendly powers." + +This proclamation did not find favor in the Southern States, where +sentiment was strongly in favor of the annexation of Cuba as a bar +against the freeing of the slaves. All the while the United States +government was officially discountenancing the expedition, private +citizens were aiding it, and again Spain protested and the American +government dispatched the steamer _Albany_ with officers to investigate +the state of matters at Round Island, to see that no supplies reached +the island, and to prevent the expedition from starting. Two ships, the +_Sea Gull_ and the _New Orleans_, had been purchased in New York to take +the expedition to Cuba, and these were promptly seized, but the fifty +men on one of them were not prosecuted, and while warrants were issued +for the five leaders they were never apprehended, and the ships were +simply returned to their owners. Public opinion was too much in favor of +aid for Cuba to make it feasible for the United States government to +place itself in the position of being inimical to Cuban interests, while +on the other hand that Government felt that it could not afford openly +to antagonize Spain. + +The Cuban organization in New York presently showed signs of +discouragement and disintegration, and Lopez in consequence transferred +his operations to the south, principally to New Orleans, where sentiment +was warmly in favor of his plans. There the next year he renewed his +efforts to organize an expedition to Cuba. Even more generous offers of +bounty were made than in the previous case. Recruits were promised +$4,000, and when they had served a year they were to be rewarded by a +grant of land in Cuba; this in addition to their regular pay. Those who +should attain the rank of officers were promised up to $10,000, and also +high rank in the new government which the revolutionists were to +organize in Cuba. Lopez was always conscious of the advantage of having +men of prominence connected with his enterprises, and he endeavored to +persuade Governor Quitman of Mississippi to take command, but that +gentleman expressed himself as believing that only an internal +revolution could be effective in Cuba and that any invasion from without +must fail, and, accordingly, he declined the invitation. + +Numerous recruits were obtained in various parts of the United States. +While interest in it was strongest in the South, many men in the North +and West were ready, for one reason or another, to cast in their lot +with Lopez. An important rallying point was Cincinnati, Ohio, and from +that city a party of 120 men started southward on April 4, 1850, on the +river steamer _Martha Washington_, which had been chartered for the +purpose. A stop was made at a point on the Kentucky shore, and more men +were there taken aboard. The trip down to New Orleans consumed a week, +which time was spent by the men in card-playing, carousing and indeed +almost everything save serious reflection upon the momentous undertaking +before them. There were a few among them of earnest purpose; and when +the expedition was completed at New Orleans it comprised a number of men +of high character and standing, members of some of the foremost families +of that part of the United States. But the majority of the recruits were +adventurers of the type familiar in most such undertakings. To them the +enterprise meant not so much the freeing of Cuba from Spanish oppression +as it meant getting "easy money," the fun of seeing a new country, good +food, and if the worst happened ... it was on the knees of the gods. + +It was April 11 when the boat reached Freeport, a town a few miles up +the river from New Orleans, where the men were hidden; or supposed to be +hidden, for little secrecy was attained, Spanish spies and United States +citizens being equally aware of their presence. There were two hundred +and fifty men in the party, and on April 25 they set sail for Cuba on +the Steamer _Georgiana_, with a supply of muskets and 10,000 rounds of +ammunition, which however did not come on board until after the mouth of +the Mississippi was passed. Lopez himself was not with this company, for +his work of organization was not completed, and he remained behind to +join them later. + +A second company of about 160 men was organized in New Orleans, and set +sail on May 2, on the _Susan Loud_, and a third company was to follow on +the _Creole_. On May 6 the _Susan Loud_ reached the place where she was +to meet the _Creole_, and she raised the new flag of Cuba for the first +time on the Gulf of Mexico. Here she was joined the next day by the +_Creole_ and another day was taken up in transferring the men from one +vessel to the other, the _Creole_ being much the faster of the two; the +idea being that the slower boat could follow at leisure. On the _Creole_ +there were only 130, making 290 men in this portion of the expedition. +The newcomers on the _Creole_ were for the first time introduced to +their commander, Lopez, and it is recorded that he promptly won all +hearts by his pleasing personality. + +A light-hearted spirit of adventure at first prevailed among the crews +and the men, until a storm arose on May 12, and the company began to be +less cheerful; many were sick, and the wind and clouds had a depressing +effect on the others. To add to the general dismay and discomfort, a gun +was accidentally discharged, and one of the company was killed. An +unpleasant foreboding began to cast a blight over the gay company. Evil +days had also attended the _Georgiana_. She met with foul weather, and +had great difficulty in reaching the island of Contoy, about ten miles +off the coast of Yucatan. This island was uninhabited and without +vegetation, a blank waste of sand, with no water for drinking purposes. +The men were discontented and mutiny seemed imminent. An unsuccessful +attempt was made to reach Mujeres, and then mutiny in earnest broke out, +led by Captain Benson, one of the leaders of the company. He instigated +the circulation of a petition for a return to New Orleans, and between +fifty and sixty signatures were obtained. Fortunately Lopez had one +faithful follower in the company, an eloquent and brave man. This was +Colonel Theodore O'Hara, a veteran of the Mexican War and author of the +classic poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead." He assembled the men and asked +them to agree to wait eight days longer, and spoke so feelingly that +finally the promise was given with cheers for Lopez, for Cuba, and for +the annexation of the island. Before further trouble could come to pass, +the _Creole_ was sighted. When she reached the island it was thought +best that she should proceed to Mujeres, obtain water, and return the +next day. This was done, and when he returned, Lopez issued the +following proclamation to his men: + +"Soldiers of the liberating expedition of Cuba! Our first act on +arriving shall be the establishment of a provisional constitution, +founded on American principles, and adopted to the emergencies of the +occasion. This constitution you will unite with your brethren of Cuba in +swearing to support in its principles as well as on the field of battle. +You have been chosen by your officers as men individually worthy of so +honorable an undertaking. I rely implicitly on your presenting Cuba to +the world, a signal example of all the virtues, as well as the valor of +the American citizen soldiers; and I cannot be deceived in my confidence +that by our discipline, good order, moderation in victory, and sacred +respect for all private rights, you will put to shame every insolent +calumny of your enemies. And when the hour arrives for repose on the +laurels which await your grasp, you will all, I trust, establish +permanent and happy homes in the beautiful soil of the island you go to +free, and there long enjoy the gratitude which Cuba will never fail +generously to bestow on those to whom she will owe the sacred and +immeasurable debt of her liberty." + +Now the _Creole_ was not a new vessel, and was sadly in need of repairs. +When the nearly six hundred men from the three boats were all on board +her--for the plan was that only one ship should be actively engaged in +the invasion--she took water, and some of the men were afraid. There +were desertions at Mujeres and Contoy which reduced the force to five +hundred and twenty-one. The men were packed in all parts of the ship, on +deck, in the cabin, in the hold, in every available corner. It was +impossible to keep discipline, to say nothing of holding drill practice. +The _Creole_ was fortunate enough to be driven by adverse winds far +north of the course which she had planned, because she thus escaped two +Spanish war ships which had been sent out to apprehend and sink her. +Thus from near the shore of Yucatan the adventurers sailed over +practically the same course which in the days of Cortez had been +traversed by the Spanish treasure ships from Mexico to Cuba and to +Spain. The plan was to land at Cardenas, and march at once to Matanzas, +thirty miles distant, which it was believed could be reached in 24 hours +and where the railroad was to be seized. It was here that it was +expected that the recruiting would be heaviest, for Lopez believed that +the Cubans would recognize them as liberators, welcome them with +rejoicing, and at once enlist under the new banner of freedom. One +hundred picked men would promptly be despatched to blow up an important +bridge, nine miles from Havana, and meanwhile Lopez expected his force +of five hundred to be swelled to five thousand. Indeed he dreamed of +attacking the city of Havana with an armed force of 30,000. He had +plenty of ammunition and guns and he anticipated no difficulty in +enlisting an army from among the Cubans who desired freedom from Spain. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + + +Cardenas was chosen as the place of landing probably for two reasons. +First, because the Cubans of this district were supposed to be +exceedingly dissatisfied with Spanish rule--more disgruntled than the +inhabitants of the other parts of the island, because the people of +Cardenas had been given their own particular grievances by the Spanish +garrison; and in the second place, the garrison at this point was +exceedingly small, and the town was situated on a bay the entrance to +which, like the coast for many miles, was undefended by fortifications. +Lopez therefore believed that he could penetrate the harbor with little +difficulty and no opposition. + +It was half past two in the morning when the _Creole_ entered the bay of +Cardenas, and her progress was not altogether free from difficulties. +The captain of the _Creole_ was unfamiliar with the waters of the bay, +and found it difficult to steer a safe course. As a matter of fact, the +vessel was grounded, and delayed for nearly an hour, during which time +her presence was observed by Spanish patrols, and the alarm given. Dawn +was breaking in the east when the landing was made. It bade fair to be a +beautiful morning. The air was soft and clear, and the first rays of +sunshine, brightening the roofs of the houses, sent a note of cheer into +the hearts of the little army of those who were seeking to deliver Cuba, +and seemed an omen of good fortune. + +Reports differ as to their reception. One account tells of a large +Spanish force drawn up on the shore, through which they had to fight +their way, but which they quickly dispersed. It is more in accord with +the events which followed to give credence to another story, which has +it that the Spanish troops took refuge in the barracks, while a smaller +number were quartered in the Governor's palace. + +The Kentuckians, soldiers of fortune, descendants of pioneers, whose +valor had been tested and not found wanting in the warfare which had +taken place from time to time in their own state, were the first to +land. There were sixty of them, under the command of Lieut. Col. +Pickett, and their instructions were to proceed at once to the railroad +station. Lopez knew that large bodies of Spanish troops were quartered +at Matanzas, which was connected by railroad with Cardenas, and his +purpose was to destroy the station, and if possible the line of the +railroad for some distance, to prevent the arrival of reinforcements to +the Spaniards, should the news of the coming of the filibusters be sent +to Matanzas. This action would also necessitate communications by +courier, which, of course, would be productive of a delay which would be +advantageous to Lopez's plan. + +The station was captured without any difficulty, indeed without +opposition, and the little body of Kentucky soldiers began their work of +destruction. That because of lack of numbers, or lack of equipment, they +did not accomplish this efficiently enough to prevent the arrival of +Spanish troops at Cardenas, we shall see later. But at any rate, they +proceeded with zeal and enthusiasm to the work which was allotted to +them, and held the station against the few Spanish troops from the +Cardenas garrison which later attempted to wrest it from them, and when +they relinquished it they did so voluntarily, to join their comrades in +retreating to the _Creole_. Indeed they manfully held their positions, +long after many of the other regiments had been withdrawn, in order to +cover the retreat. + +The moment Lieutenant Colonel Pickett and his Kentuckians were clear of +the vessel, General Lopez and his staff, and Colonel O'Hara, with the +remainder of the Kentucky regiment, disembarked, and with great +ceremony, for the first time, the flag of Cuba Libre was unfurled on +Cuban soil. General Lopez remained with his ship, to oversee the landing +of the remainder of his little army, while Colonel O'Hara, under orders, +advanced to take the barracks where four hundred Spanish troops were +garrisoned. The Kentuckians under Colonel O'Hara numbered one hundred +and eighty, and in addition he was reinforced by the Louisiana regiment +of one hundred and thirty, and the Mississippi regiment of one hundred +and forty-five, so that he had in all, for the business in hand, four +hundred and fifty-five men, thus outnumbering the Spanish force which +they were to oppose, by about fifty-five men. They advanced rapidly and +charged the garrison, which promptly opened fire, and Colonel O'Hara was +wounded, not seriously, but sufficiently so that he was obliged to +surrender his command to Major Hawkins. The engagement was resumed, but +only for a short time, when General Lopez came up and at once directed +the firing to cease. He then proceeded to do a thing which plainly +showed the spirit of the man, his resourcefulness and his undaunted +courage. He marched up to the barracks and demanded its unconditional +surrender. + +The Spanish soldiers evidently were not altogether whole hearted in +their defence, but their leaders were crafty. A long parley ensued, +during which the Spanish troops were hastily and quietly withdrawn +through a side door, with the intention of making their escape to the +Governor's palace. When the barracks had been in this manner all but +abandoned, the Spanish commander agreed to surrender, and it can be +imagined that he enjoyed the chagrin of Lopez when he discovered that +his prize was an almost empty building. + +But the Spanish troops were not destined to escape so easily. Colonel +Wheat, with the Louisiana regiment, had been the last to leave the +_Creole_. As he approached the barracks he heard the firing, but +supposing that Lopez had only to put in an appearance to be greeted with +loud acclaim as a deliverer, he decided that the Spanish troops had laid +down their arms to join the revolutionists and that the sound of guns +marked a salute to Lopez. He went around the barracks, toward the +square, and was just in time to intercept the flying Spaniards. +Instantly he grasped the situation, and a skirmish ensued. The Spaniards +at length made good their retreat to the Governor's palace, but not +without leaving some dead and wounded behind them. + +Lopez and his men at once advanced on the palace, where the Governor had +taken refuge with his forces, now reinforced by those who had made good +their escape from the barracks. Soon Lopez distinguished a white flag of +truce floating from one of the windows, and as he approached nearer +received word that the Governor was ready to surrender. Overjoyed, the +revolutionists rushed up to the palace only to be greeted in a manner +quite in keeping with Spanish treachery, for they were promptly fired +upon by the Spaniards, and before they could rally several of the +attacking party were wounded, including General Gonzales. Lopez's anger +at this violation of the rules of decent fighting was at white heat. +While the main division of his troops were returning the fire from the +palace, he took a small body of men to reconnoiter, and finding an +unguarded portion of the building, he set fire to it; indeed, with his +own hand he applied the torch. All this had taken much more time than +does its relating, and the forces in the palace were enabled to hold out +until between eight and nine o'clock in the morning, when they +surrendered, driven out by the flames and smoke, and the Governor and +the commander of the garrison were taken prisoners, while such troops as +had not found refuge in the palace fled to the outlying country, and +couriers hurried to carry the news of the Spanish disaster to Matanzas. + +Lopez was now in possession of the town. There was the work of caring +for the dead and wounded to be done, and besides this he wished to make +an appeal to Cuban residents who sympathized with the cause of freedom +to aid him. This was not so easy as it seemed. Lopez to his chagrin +found that reports which had reached him in the United States of the +willingness of the Cubans to join a revolution had been grossly +exaggerated. That there were a great many who sympathized with Lopez's +purpose there can be no doubt. But they had to deter them the memory of +other uprisings, in which the attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke had +utterly failed. They had also before them the courage-shaking memories +of the horrors which had befallen those who had participated in the +rebellions. It is ever a fact that while oppression always creates +leaders whose valor and daring will not stop at any obstacles, it also +makes the masses of the people timid, afraid of the punishment which is +bound to follow defeat. Spain had long held the Cubans in bondage. She +had meted out to them the most cruel injustices, and had taken +unspeakable revenge not only on those who had opposed her, but even on +those who were under suspicion of such opposition. Besides this, on this +May morning, things had been happening very fast. Lopez's little +victories had been won in whirlwind succession. This should have +inspired sympathizers with confidence, but there were in that town some +private persons who were in sympathy and in league with the Spanish +rulers. They now resorted to propaganda. They spread the report that +Lopez's band had no real intention of trying to free Cuba, that their +real object was plunder, that when they had subdued the garrison, they +intended to put the patriotic Cubans to new sufferings for their own +aggrandisement. Long years of injustice had made the Creoles wary of +asserting themselves openly against their Spanish tyrants. While those +who had been leaders in the town in the organization on Cuban soil of +the revolution tried to reassure the frightened people, they were far +from successful. A mob spirit of fear is not easily conquered. + +Aside from this Lopez's force, worn out with their efforts, tired and +hungry, and for the time idle, while the leaders were planning the next +move, dispersed through the town. It seemed necessary and expedient in +any event that they should be quartered on the citizens, and now they +sought the homes of the Creoles in search of food. They were met by a +frightened hospitality. Food and wine were set before them, with the +result that those of them who were merely adventurers lost sight of +their purpose and seized the opportunity to court intoxication. This +conduct did not increase the confidence of the Creoles, and so hopes of +support from the native Cubans proved delusive. + +To make matters worse, disquieting rumors were circulated that in spite +of the efforts of Pickett's men to disable the railroad, a large body of +Spanish troops was on its way from Matanzas. There seemed to be no doubt +as to the truth of these reports; indeed a message reached Lopez late +in the afternoon, containing unmistakable confirmation to the effect +that couriers had carried the news to Matanzas and that three thousand +Spanish troops were on their way to Cardenas. Lopez was now in a triple +quandary. He could advance against this huge force, which would of +course be joined by those of the Cardenas garrison who had escaped into +the country, and give battle against frightful odds. His own forces had +been depleted by losses and had failed to be swelled by the enlistment +of sympathizing Creoles. He would leave behind him a frightened and +almost hostile city, and a port unguarded against the landing of Spanish +troops from ships cruising in nearby waters, in the event of which he +would be subject to attack from both front and rear, and would be not +only in great danger, but almost in certainty of being surrounded. He +might remain where he was and entrench himself against the impending +attack, but this offered no better possibilities than the former plan, +for he had not enough men to defend both the town and the harbor and he +was in constant danger of betrayal by Spanish sympathizers, who were of +course cognizant of his every move. He had been told that at Mantua +large bodies of Creoles stood ready to revolt and join him. Of course, +he had no more accurate confirmation of the truth of this rumor than he +had had of the verity of the assurances which, before he had set out on +his expedition, he had received of the willingness of the inhabitants of +Cardenas to join him; and yet this plan last outlined seemed to hold +better possibilities than either of the others. He decided, therefore, +to adopt it, and while making a show of resistance, he began quietly to +assemble his baggage and equipment on board the _Creole_, and to make +ready for the re-embarkation of his men. + +Although the forces at the station, and indeed other small bodies of +his troops who had not been demoralized by the delights of the table, +sought to cover his retreat, and the former did render effective service +against the Spaniards, yet his movements did not escape observation, and +were hailed with delight and with renewed aggressions by the Spanish +troops. The retreat was not easy to effect, and when he had assembled +his scattered forces, his movements were halted from time to time by the +necessity of erecting temporary barricades, from which to cover the safe +return to the _Creole_. This was finally effected, and at nine in the +evening the vessel once more set out to sea. On board her, besides Lopez +and his men, were the Spanish governor and the commander of the +garrison, and they were retained as hostages until the ship cleared the +harbor. This was not accomplished without mishap, for the captain, again +hampered by navigating in what to him were uncharted waters, once more +grounded the ship, which caused some delay. At length they were on the +high seas, and just before they quit the shores of Cuba, they landed the +discomfited governor and the garrison chief. What would have happened, +had Lopez been in the governor's predicament, indeed what did happen, +when Lopez and his men finally fell into the hands of the Spaniards, is +another story. But Lopez was too high a type of gentleman to mete out to +the Spanish high commanders the fate to which they would too gladly have +consigned him. + +Lopez has in many quarters been most severely censured for his quick +abandonment of his plans and his hasty retreat from Cuba, but in the +cold light of reason, we hardly see how he could have pursued any other +course. Had his expectation of aid from the Creoles been realized, he +might then, as he had planned, have left Cardenas in their hands, and +with his little band strengthened by a large body of revolutionary +sympathizers he might have advanced against the Spanish army at Matanzas +with some hope of success. As it was, he could only make the best of a +bad situation, and depart, with the faint hope of better fortune at +Mantua, and at least with the nucleus of an organization which later +might be more effective in another expedition of greater scope for the +freeing of Cuba. Thus, when we review his action, after the passage of +many years, he seems to have taken the only sane course that lay open to +him. Any other would have meant even greater disaster. Lopez had lost, +in this short time, of his Louisiana regiment, twenty killed and +wounded, including those basely slaughtered through the Spanish +treachery before the Governor's palace; of his Kentucky regiment, forty +killed and wounded, including such men of high standing as Captain John +A. Logan, Lieutenant James J. Garrett, the Rev. Louis McCann and +Sergeant Harry Cruse, besides ten privates; while his Mississippi +regiment suffered five or six killed. The Spanish losses were greater +than those of the revolutionists and numbered over one hundred. + +But an even greater misfortune had overtaken Lopez. When the _Creole_ +had grounded, near the entrance to the harbor, while he was making his +hasty departure from Cardenas, it had been impossible to float her free +without lightening her, and to do this not only were provisions thrown +overboard, but large quantities of precious arms and ammunitions, and so +his men now found themselves insufficiently armed for any stubborn +resistance to Spanish troops, particularly should the odds be heavy. +Lopez was still bent on his purpose of making a landing at Mantua, but +while his gallant officers in the main supported him, he found himself +surrounded by a dissatisfied, angry, mutinous crew, who were for +abandoning the whole matter, and steaming for the United States with +all possible speed. Lopez addressed them, and tried to stir within them +a realization of what such action meant, and how fatal it might be to +the cause of Cuban liberty to abandon so easily an expedition so +propitiously and even gaily undertaken, but they were deaf to his +entreaties. At the suggestion of one of his officers the matter was put +to vote, and to his dismay Lopez found that only fifteen stood with him +on the Mantua project. He would not consent to abandon it, however, even +against such odds, and declared that he would himself make the landing, +taking with him the loyal few who were willing to stay with him. This, +however, he was prevented from doing by the fact that the majority saw +to it that the captain did not approach Mantua, but steered a course +which had as its object the port of Key West, Florida. + +Evidence soon was not lacking that theirs had been the part of wisdom if +not of valor, and indeed that there were some odds against their +reaching any port at all, for news of the expedition had not only been +carried to Matanzas, but it had somehow reached the Spanish ship +_Pizarro_, and she was soon in hot pursuit of the _Creole_. This soon +became a most serious situation; again and again it seemed as if the +_Creole_ were about to be overhauled, with the probable result that her +men would be taken prisoners and executed, and she would be sunk, or +taken to port a prize of war. Fate, however, intervened in favor of +Lopez, for the pilot on board the Spanish vessel was in sympathy with +the filibusters, and when, on nearing Key West, the _Pizarro_ seemed +about to overtake the _Creole_, at the peril of his own life he steered +such an eccentric course that the _Creole_ escaped, and made a landing +at Key West, while the Spanish ship put out to sea once more. + +Lopez and his men were welcomed at Key West with shouts of applause. +Sympathizers with his expedition refused to consider it a failure. They +declared that it had served to open the eyes of the Cubans to the fact +that their deliverance was near, and that when Lopez once more set out +with a larger force--as they assured him, with the assistance of the +people of the south in the United States, he would--victory would be +certain to spread her wings over his banner. So great was the popular +clamor in favor of Lopez, that the United States authorities did not +deem it prudent to arouse the ire of the mob, and therefore no attempts +at arrest were then made. Indeed, little chance was given before +debarkation, because in hardly more than ten minutes after the vessel +had docked, the work of removing the wounded had been completed, and her +decks were cleared of all men but seamen. The vessel was, however, +seized by the authorities. + +When news of Lopez's exploits reached Madrid, the government was thrown +into a great state of indignation, and promptly urged upon the United +States the punishment of the offenders, stating: + +"If contrary to our expectations the authors of this last expedition +should go unpunished, as did those who last year planned the Round +Island expedition, the government of Her Majesty will find itself +obliged to appeal to the sentiments of morality and good faith of the +nations of Europe to oppose the entrance of a system of politics and of +doctrines which would put an end to the foundations on which rests the +peace of the civilized world. If Europe should sanction by her silence +and acquiescence the scandalous state of affairs by which the citizens +of the United States (or those of any power whatever) might freely make +war from their territory against Spain, when the latter is at perfect +peace officially with the Union; if it should be tolerated or looked on +with indifference that the solemn stipulations which bind the two states +should be with impunity made hollow by mobs and that the laws of nations +and public morality should be violated without other motive than the +selfishness of the aggressors, and with no other reliance than force, +then civilized nations ought to renounce that peace which is based on +the laws of nations and the terms of treaties and make ready for a new +era in which might will be right, and in which popular passions of the +worst kind will be substituted for the reason of states." + +Even with the government in Washington practically controlled by the +pro-slavery interests, and with feeling in that quarter running high in +favor of the filibusters, the United States, for the sake of +preservation of peaceable relations with Spain, could hardly afford to +ignore this protest. Hence, Lopez was arrested at Savannah, whence he +had gone immediately upon his arrival on American soil, and a number of +the leaders of his expedition were apprehended. + +Indictments were returned against Lopez, Theodore O'Hara, John F. +Pickett, R. Hayden, Chatham R. Wheat, Thomas T. Hawkins, W. H. Bell, N. +J. Bunce, Peter Smith, A. J. Gonzales, L. J. Sigur, Donahen Augusten, +John Quitman, Cotesworth Pinckney Smith (a Judge of the Supreme Court of +Mississippi), John Henderson (a former United States Senator), and J. L. +O'Sullivan (a former editor of the _Democratic Review_, which had been +loud in its support of the filibustering expeditions). But great +difficulty was experienced in obtaining evidence against the prisoners. +This might seem extraordinary, in the light of the fact that there could +be no denial that the expedition had taken place, and that these men +had been prominent in its organization. But at the trial all the +witnesses by common agreement refused to answer any but the simplest and +least important questions, on the ground that they might thus +incriminate themselves. Three men were tried and three juries disagreed. +The matter seemed so hopeless of solution that the indictments were +allowed to languish without prosecution, and were finally dismissed and +the prisoners released. Everywhere the filibusters were received with +acclamations, and all the South joined in declaring Lopez a hero. + +The New Orleans _Bee_ at this time thus described Lopez: + +"General Lopez has an exceedingly prepossessing appearance. He is +apparently about fifty years of age. His figure is compact and well set. +His face which is dark olive, and of the Spanish cast, is strikingly +handsome, expressive of both intelligence and energy. His full dark +eyes, firm, well-formed mouth, and erect head, crowned with iron grey +hair, fix the attention and convince you that he is no ordinary man. +Unless we are greatly mistaken in the impression we have formed of him, +he will again be heard of in some new attempt to revolutionize Cuba. He +certainly does not look like a man easily disheartened." + +The _Bee_ was a true prophet; it was far from being "greatly mistaken" +about Lopez. The after events proved that it had judged him justly. No +sooner was he released than he began to lay his plans for a new +expedition, and since New Orleans had long been the stronghold of his +sympathizers, he went to that place to complete his organization. + + + + +CHAPTER V + + +[Illustration: Ramon Pinto] + +Spain was now thoroughly alive to the danger which threatened her future +retention of Cuba, and in the face of an emergency she vacillated. Her +high officials began to wonder if after all their policy of extreme +oppression and suppression had not been in a measure the wrong one to +pursue with the Cubans. Roncali, who had been so pleasing to the +Peninsulars, or Spanish party in Cuba, and so unpopular with the +patriots, was recalled and Don José Gutierrez de la Concha was +dispatched to take his place as Captain-General. He took over the +affairs of the island on November 10, 1850. Concha was as unwelcome to +the Peninsulars as his predecessor had been to their liking. He was a +man who had at least some regard for justice, and who, if given a free +hand, might have governed Cuba with a degree of wisdom and fairness. He +was not a believer in liberty for the Cubans, but at least he had some +conception of what constituted equity. He publicly stated his ideal of +his office, as "a government of justice" and might have worked out +something like a solution of Spain's problems in Cuba, unless, as we +think it fair to believe, it was now much too late to quell the +revolutionary spirit which had grown to such great proportions; with "a +government of force," no matter what its purpose, the Cubans were all +too familiar, and they had plainly shown how much they hated it and +despised its administrators. + + RAMON PINTO + + An early martyr to the cause of Cuban freedom, Ramon Pinto, was + born in Cataluna, Spain, in 1802, and engaged in the revolution of + 1820-23 in that country. Then he fled to Cuba and became a + brilliant writer in behalf of philanthropic works. In 1853 he + became director of the Havana Lyceum, and later was a close friend + and adviser of Captain-General Concha. In 1855 he was charged with + being engaged in a revolutionary conspiracy, was convicted on + dubious testimony, and died on the scaffold in March of that year. + +One evil this new Captain-General did earnestly try to overcome. He +endeavored to do away with the fee system which had caused so much +unjust imprisonment and suffering. He made an effort to obtain fixed +salaries for all government officials instead of fees, but at every turn +he was balked by the Peninsulars. There is some reason to believe that +he was not altogether sincere; that he was a fair spokesman, but an evil +performer; that he did not allow his right hand to know the injustice he +was planning to do with his left. At any rate, at the very time when he +was offering such cheering words of hope to the Cubans, he was putting +into operation a regular line of vessels from Cadiz, Spain, to Havana. +He offered various excuses--of course, expansion, and many others--for +this action, but thinking Cubans well knew that his real purpose was +that communications might be more easy and frequent with the Spanish +court, and that news of uprisings, and the dispatching of troops to +suppress them, might be less delayed. He also--but, of course, this was +done under orders of the Spanish government, induced, we are told, by +his recommendations--increased and strengthened the fortifications of +the island, and asked for and received a greater number of troops to man +them. + +However, there must have been some ground for the belief that Concha in +some ways favored the Cubans for in no other manner could he have +raised such a storm of dislike among the Peninsulars as constantly +whistled about his head, and finally resulted in his recall. + +While these events were taking place in Cuba, Lopez, in the United +States, was far from idle, and he was not lacking in friends who sought +to aid him. Singularly enough those in the South who were numbered among +his supporters seemed not to be disheartened by the failure of the +Cardenas expedition, and, of course, the juntas were active in stirring +up popular opinion in favor of filibustering, and in obtaining both +moral and financial support for another enterprise. But with it all +money was woefully lacking. + +General Henderson, who had been a member of the first expedition, and +had been one of those indicted and tried, at this time wrote to a +friend: + +"I need not tell you how much I desire to see him (Lopez) move again, +and it is more useless to tell you how wholly unable I am to assist him +to make this move. With my limited means, I am under the extremest +burdens from my endeavors on the former occasion. Indeed I find my cash +advanced for the first experience were over half the cash advanced to +the enterprise, and all my present means and energies are exhausted in +bringing up the arrearages. Yet I still believe in the importance, the +morality and the probability of the enterprise; and I believe it is one +the South should steadfastly cherish and promote. I feel it is more +especially incumbent on us who have once failed to retrieve ourselves +from so much of the opprobrium and reproach as the defeat has cast upon +us. For we know that, could we succeed, we should win all those triumphs +which success in such enterprises never fails to command. And would not +such triumph be glorious! I believe you yield equal consideration to +the importance of this subject as I do; and as a Southern question, I do +not think, when properly viewed, its magnitude can be overestimated." + +When a leader is able to enlist the sympathies, and drain the purse, of +a man so intelligent and of such high standing as John Henderson, former +Senator of the United States, and when he can bind such a man to him by +even stronger ties in defeat than in victory, the personality of that +leader must be one of extraordinary strength, courage and probity. It +speaks well for Lopez that all through his career he gathered around him +men of the finest families in the South, and indeed some of equally high +standing from the North which was not particularly in favor of his +venture, and those men fought for him and with him, and remained loyal +until the greater portion of them paid the penalty of their lives for +their devotion. + +Now recruiting began in earnest. Everywhere in the South agents of Lopez +were busy, but the headquarters of this new movement seem to have been +at Savannah. Spain, of course, was not unaware of what was taking place +and was on the alert. Spanish spies were everywhere watching the +plotters against Spanish dominion in Cuba, and reporting their findings +to the Spanish legation at Washington. The Spanish minister had in his +employ a man who called himself at times Burtnett. (He had many +aliases.) He was more clever than the rank and file of the Spanish +agents, and by associating himself with the filibusters, he was able to +learn their plans. Lopez's followers were not rash; they tried very hard +to cover their activities; but in any undertaking in which a number of +people are concerned, anything like complete secrecy is absolutely out +of the question. Burtnett represented himself as a sympathizer; he +joined the filibusters and wormed himself into the confidence of the +leaders. He learned that the plan was to assemble on the coast of +Florida, and from there to set sail for Cuba. The filibusters would +themselves circulate rumors that the attack would be made on the south +coast of Cuba, but Burtnett discovered that in reality the forces would +be divided, and while the Spanish troops were mustered to repel an +attack in the south, several small bands would land, organize the +friendly Cubans, and give battle if necessary to what depleted Spanish +forces might be located on the north coast. This would preclude the +chance of such a disaster as the Cardenas expedition, and the Cubans, +uncowed by the presence of large bodies of governmental soldiery, would +hasten to the aid of Lopez. Even the Spanish troops, some of whom were +supposed to be in sympathy with the revolution, might be hoped to mutiny +and join the Cubans. Thus this time there could be no thought of +failure. + +Meanwhile Southern gentlemen of wealth and family were eagerly supplying +funds to the enterprise. It is even said that some planters mortgaged +their estates to obtain funds to give to the expedition, in the +expectation that when rich Cuba was once acquired for the United States, +they would receive back a reward far greater than the amount which they +were contributing. Bonds of the proposed revolutionary government were +printed, and sold; arms and ammunition were purchased and stored in +readiness for the expedition. It was planned that the first consignment +of arms was to be conveyed to the steamer _Cleopatra_, which had been +purchased to carry the filibusters, by means of two small vessels, the +sloop _William Roe_, and the steamer _Nahantee_, which were to steal +respectively from the ports of New York and South Amboy, New Jersey, and +meet the _Cleopatra_ just beyond quarantine. When the details were +completed, Burtnett revealed the whole plan to the Spanish minister, +who lost no time in laying it before the United States government at +Washington. Now no matter what the sympathies of this government might +be, it could not be placed under the odium of giving its official +sanction to such an enterprise; indeed that would probably have resulted +in war with Spain. Its action was slightly delayed, and the expedition +might even yet have gotten off without interference had it not been that +the _William Roe_ was detained on account of a flaw in her papers, and +the _Cleopatra_, on which provisions were already stored, was delayed in +putting to sea to wait for the _William Roe_ and the _Nahantee_ because +at the last moment some of her crew went on shore and became +intoxicated. This slight postponement of her sailing gave an opportunity +for her attachment--at whose instigation it is not clear--for a writ for +$3,000, to cover repairs made by a former owner, and for which the +filibusters could hardly be held responsible. Nevertheless, they raised +the money, but before its transfer could be completed and the +_Cleopatra_ cleared on April 26, 1851, the leaders were arrested. + +Things looked black for Lopez and his followers, but they still had the +influence of the South behind them, and for this reason or some equally +effective one, again the courts failed to convict them, and to add to +their good fortune the government did not confiscate the _Cleopatra_ and +the provisions with which she was loaded, and she was afterward sold and +the proceeds used as a nest-egg toward financing another expedition. + +Spain was now thoroughly aroused to her danger, and determined to put +down the threatened revolution at any cost. Through her mouthpiece, the +Captain-General of Cuba, she issued a proclamation to the Governors and +Lieutenant Governors on the island: + +"It has come to the knowledge of the Government that a new incursion of +pirates is preparing, similar to the one which took place at Cardenas +during the past year. It is proposed, without doubt, as it was then, to +sack defenseless towns and to disturb the order which reigns in this +beautiful part of the Spanish monarchy. But the loyalty of its +inhabitants, the valor and discipline of the troops, and the measures +taken by the government, are the surest guaranty that its destruction +will follow immediately the news of its disembarkation. You must, then, +above all else see to it that the news of this invasion produces no +alarm in the district which you command. + +"To exterminate the pirates, whatever be their number, it is not +necessary to have recourse to extraordinary means; the ordinary means on +which the government can count are enough and even more than enough. Any +act, on the other hand, which is unusual would produce anxiety and +uneasiness among the peaceful inhabitants; it might cause, perhaps, an +interruption of business, and would thus occasion a real and important +loss for public and private interests. It is necessary, therefore, to +avoid any measures which may remove from the towns of that district the +confidence and sense of security which the government inspires. The +actual situation, however, imposes on the authorities the double duty to +cause order to reign, and not to appear to obtain it by unaccustomed +means which are only expedient when circumstances are really dangerous. +And this double object will be achieved if that vigilance, activity and +prudence are in evidence on which I should be able to count from you. +But you must not forget that in these circumstances, one of the most +important duties of the authorities is to quiet minds, and hush +suspicions, to take care, finally, that in not a single instance there +should be disturbed that harmony which now more than ever ought to +reign among the inhabitants of the island. Working to this end, I have +the most confidence that this event will end fortunately, making certain +the peace which the island needs to continue on the path of prosperity +which it has so far followed." + +The foregoing gives a very adequate idea, cleverly cloaked under soft +and reassuring words, of the panic under which the authorities were +laboring. Only too well they knew the danger of "any unusual +disturbance," and of the exciting of the populace, for in it dwelt the +menace that that same excited mob might turn and rend their masters. + +The Captain-General soon had another circumstance brought to his +attention which was a tremendous shock to his sensibilities, seeming as +it were a bomb placed at the very bulwarks of his authority. Puerto +Principe had been more or less a danger point, and harsh measures had +been used to put down the incipient rebellion there. The people had an +inkling that it was the intention of the Captain-General to deprive them +of their Audiencia. This would eliminate the cost of its maintenance, +and also keep the legislative or advisory power more closely +concentrated in Havana, where the Captain-General could keep a watchful +eye on proceedings. A petition was received by Concha requesting that +they be not deprived of their Audiencia, but when he examined it closely +he was shocked to observe that it was dated a month previous, and that +it had evidently been sent directly to the Spanish government at Madrid, +without the official sanction and endorsement of the Captain-General, +and this circumstance was aggravated by the fact that the Petition bore +the signature of the Commanding General. Things were coming to a pretty +pass if the Captain-General, the highest official in the land, was to +be ignored by his subjects. Concha made a great to-do about the matter, +and obtained the dismissal from office of the offending Commanding +General, at the same time securing the appointment of a close friend, +Don José Lemery, on whom he could depend to do his bidding. Lemery began +his tenure of office by using the most harsh and unwarranted methods of +suppressing what he termed an impending uprising, and by ordering the +arrest of a large number of the members of old Creole families--persons +who were known to have revolutionary sympathies--on suspicion of being +about to incite a rebellion. Among these were many members of the city +council under the old Commanding General, and one of the number, Don +Joaquin de Aguero, was later to figure as the leader of the most +successful revolution which Cuba had yet known. + +Meanwhile Lopez, not disheartened, was once more planning an invasion of +Cuba, with belief unshaken, in spite of his discouraging experiences, in +the real desire of the Cubans for liberty and in their purpose to join +the revolutionary movement, if they could only be brought to emerge from +the deadening stupor of acquiescence into which fear of Spanish +vengeance seemed to have plunged them. This belief was strengthened by +the correspondence, which by an underground method he was carrying on +with Cuban patriots--men who he expected would be leaders in future +revolutions. They all assured him that if he could only start a real +movement for revolt, which promised actual deliverance, the Cubans would +no longer hesitate but would rush to his support. The fact that a price +had now been set on his head, should he set his foot on Cuban soil, and +be so unfortunate as to fall into the hands of the Spaniards, had no +deterring power on Lopez's purposes. He was above suspicion of a +personal axe to grind, and there was never any question of his courage +and perseverance. + +Lopez was emboldened by the support which the Cuban juntas promised him, +but he did not find all of the men who had accompanied him on the +Cardenas expedition as confident as he was himself. Some of the less +daring spirits prepared a statement to their leader, setting forth their +viewpoint, in substantially the following language: + +"The people of Cuba charge us with endeavoring to create a revolution +for the sake of pillage; they state that the Cubans do not desire +freedom; if they did they would strike for themselves. We will not waste +any more time, nor take another step until we see something more on the +part of the Creoles besides promises. We took the first step at +Cardenas, and gave them an opportunity to show their hands, which they +did not. They must take the next, and then we will go to their +assistance; otherwise we shall not budge an inch." + +Naturally enough, upon consideration, this impressed Lopez and his more +loyal followers as embodying some pretty sound common sense. It seemed +to be logical that the Cubans themselves should make the next move, and +back up their assertions by action. This ultimatum was conveyed to them, +by the same devious ways in which their promises had gotten by the +Spanish spies, and the effect was miraculous. They rose to the +situation, and announced that they would bring about a revolution, and +that the first steps would be taken sometime between July 1 and 4. That +Lopez and his friends were astonished at this show of spirit in those +who had so sadly demonstrated their lack of grit at Cardenas a short +time before, is not beyond the realm of belief, nor is it necessary to +relate how delighted they were that at last the Cubans were about to +move in their own behalf. The time was then so near, and Lopez's own +preparations had made so little practical progress, that there was not a +sufficient period between the date on which he received this information +and the day set for the revolutionary movement to enable him to send any +aid, except cheering words. + +On the morning of July 3, 1851, Don Joaquin de Aguero led a small band +of patriots to the public square at Puerto Principe, all of them +shouting in loud tones: "Liberty! Freedom for Cuba! Death to the +Spaniards!" Now Aguero had been promised that at least four hundred +patriots would join him on this occasion, at the place appointed, and +give battle to the Spanish troops, which they well knew would be called +upon to put down the demonstration. But the Cubans had not yet found +themselves; it was still difficult for them to shake off the spell which +the Spaniards seemed to have cast upon them, and to come out into the +open and fight for their freedom. The promised four hundred were +represented by a pitiful fifteen, and the little band naturally had +small chance against the overwhelming forces which were sent against +them immediately the alarm was given. They fought bravely, but there +could be only one result, against such odds. They were routed and their +leader was captured. Aguero succeeded, however, in escaping from the +Spaniards, and went into hiding until the next day, when the patriots +again made a demonstration for freedom at Najassa. Here, for the second +time, the flag of Cuba Libre was flung to the breeze, and with shouts +and cheers, the following Declaration of Independence for Cuba was read +to a great multitude which had assembled in the square: + +"To the inhabitants of the Island of Cuba, Manifesto and Proclamation of +their independence by the Liberating Society of Puerto Principe. + +"Human reason revolts against the idea that the social and political +condition of a people can be indefinitely prolonged, in which man, +stripped of all rights and guarantees, with no security of person or +property, no enjoyment in the present, no hope in the future, lives only +by the will, and under the conditions imposed by the pleasure of his +tyrants; where a vile calumny, a prisoner's denunciation, a despot's +suspicion, a word caught up by surprise in the sanctuary of home, or +from the violated privacy of a letter, furnishes ample grounds for +tearing a man from his hearth, and casting him forth to die of +destitution or despair in a foreign soil, if he escapes being subjected +to the insulting forms of a barbarous and arbitrary tribunal, where his +persecutors are themselves the judges who condemn him, and where, +instead of their proving his offence, he is required to prove his +innocence. + +"A situation so violent as this, Cuba has been for many years enduring; +and, far from any promise of remedy appearing, every day adds new proof +that the policy of the mother-country and the ferocity of her rulers +will grant neither truce nor rest till she is reduced to the condition +of an immense prison, where every Cuban will be watched by a guard, and +will have to pay that guard for watching him. In vain have this people +exhibited a mildness, a prudence, and even a submission and loyalty, +which have been proverbial. + +"When the iniquity of the government has not been able to find any +ostensible grounds for persecution, it has had recourse to cowardly arts +and snares to tempt its victims into some offence. Thus were various +individuals of Matanzas entrapped into an ambuscade of the soldiery, by +the pretext of selling them some arms, under circumstances which made +them believe those arms were necessary for self-defence, against +threatened attacks from the Peninsulars. Thus have sergeants and even +officers been seen to mingle among the country people, and pass +themselves off as enemies of the government, for the purpose of +betraying them into avowals of their sentiments to the ruin of many +persons so informed against as well as to the disgrace of military honor +on the part of those who have lent themselves to so villainous a +service. + +"If the sons of Cuba, moved by the dread of greater evils, have ever +determined to employ legitimate means of imposing some law, or some +restraint upon the unbridled excesses of their rulers, these latter have +always found the way to distort such acts into attempts at rebellion. + +"For having dared to give utterances to principles and opinions, which, +to other nations, constitute the foundation of their moral progress and +glory, the Cubans most distinguished for their virtues and talents have +found themselves wanderers and exiles. For the offence of having +exhibited their opposition to the unlawful and perilous slave trade, +from which the avarice of General O'Donnell promised itself so rich a +harvest of lucre, the latter satiated his resentment with the monstrous +vengeance of involving them in a charge of conspiracy with the free +colored people and the slaves of the estates; endeavoring, as the last +outrage that an immoral government could offer to law, to reason, or to +nature, to prove the object of that conspiracy, in which they implicated +whites of the most eminent virtue, knowledge, and patriotism, to have +been no other than the destruction of their own race. + +"All the laws of society and nature trampled under foot--all races and +conditions confounded together--the island of Cuba then presented to the +civilized world a spectacle worthy of the rejoicings of hell. The +wretched slaves saw their flesh torn from them under the lash, and +bespattered with blood the faces of their executioners, who did not +cease exacting from their tortures denunciation against accomplices. +Others were shot in platoons without form of trial, and without even +coming to understand the pretext under which they were massacred. The +free colored people, after having been first lacerated by the lash, were +then hurried to the scaffold and those only escaped with life who had +gold enough to appease the fury of their executioners. And nevertheless, +when the government or its followers has come to fear some rising of the +Cubans their first threat has been that of arming the colored people +against them for their extermination. We abstain for very shame from +repeating the senseless pretences to which they have had recourse to +terrify the timid wretches! How have they been able to image that the +victims of their fury, with whom the whites of Cuba had shared in common +the horrors of misery and persecution, will turn against their own +friends at the call of the very tyrant who has torn them in pieces? If +the free colored people, who know their interests as well as the whites, +take any part in the movement of Cuba, it certainly will not be to the +injury of the mother who shelters them in her bosom, nor of those other +sons of hers who have never made them feel the difference of their race +and condition, and who, far from plundering them, have taken pride in +being their defenders and in meriting the title of their benefactors. + +"The world would refuse to believe the history of the horrid crimes +which have been perpetrated in Cuba, and would reasonably consider that +if there have been monsters to commit, it is inconceivable that there +could so long have been men to endure them. But if there are few able to +penetrate to the truth of particular facts, through all the means +employed by the government to obscure and distort them, no one will +resist the evidence of public and official facts. + +"Publicly and with arms in his hands, did General Tacon despoil Cuba of +the constitution of Spain, proclaimed by all the powers of the monarchy, +and sent to be sworn to in Cuba, as the fundamental law of the whole +kingdom. + +"Publicly and by legislative act, was Cuba declared to be deprived of +all the rights enjoyed by all Spaniards, and conceded by nature and the +laws of nations the least advanced in civilization. + +"Publicly have the sons of Cuba been cut off from all admission to the +commands and lucrative employments of the State. + +"Publicly are unlimited powers of every description granted to the +Captains-General of Cuba who can refuse to those whom they condemn even +the right of a trial and the privilege of being sentenced by a tribunal. + +"Public and permanent in the island of Cuba, are those courts martial +which the laws permit only in extraordinary cases of war, for offences +against the State. + +"Publicly has the Spanish press hurled against Cuba the threat +converting the island into ruin and ashes by liberating the slaves and +unchaining against her the hordes of barbarian Africans. + +"Publicly are impediments and difficulties imposed upon every +individual, to restrain him from moving from place to place, and from +exercising any branch of industry--no one being safe from arrest and +fine, for some deficiency of authority or license, at every step he may +take. + +"Public are the taxes which have wasted away the substance of the island +and the project of other new ones, which threaten to abolish all the +products of its riches--nothing being left for the opinions and +interests of the country. + +"Outrages so great and so frequent, reasons so many and so strong, +suffice not merely to justify, but to sanctify, in the eyes of the whole +world, the cause of the independence of Cuba, and any effort of her +people, by their own exertions, or with friendly aid from abroad, to put +an end to the evils they suffer, and secure the rights with which God +and nature have invested man. + +"Who will in Cuba oppose this indefeasible instinct, this imperative +necessity of defending our property, and of seeking in the institutions +of a just, free and regulated government conditions on which alone +civilized society can exist? + +"The Peninsulars (natives of Spain) perhaps, who have come to Cuba to +marry our daughters, who have here their children, their affections and +their property, will they disregard the laws of nature to range +themselves on the side of a government which oppresses them as it +oppresses us, and which will neither thank them for the service nor be +able, with all their help, to prevent the triumph of the independence of +Cuba? + +"Are not they as intimately bound up with happiness and interest of Cuba +as those blood-natives of her soil, who will never be able to deny the +name of their fathers, and who, in rising up today against the despotism +of the government would wish to count upon their co-operation as the +best guaranty of their new social organization and the strongest proof +of the justice of their cause? + +"Have they not fought in the Peninsula itself, for their national +independence, for the support of the same principles for which we, the +sons of Cuba proclaim, and which, being the same for men in all +countries, cannot be admitted in one and rejected in another without +doing treason to nature and to the light of reason, from which they +spring? + +"No, no--it cannot be that they should carry submissiveness to the point +of preferring their own ruin, and the spilling of the blood of their +sons and brothers, to be triumph of the holiest cause ever embraced by +man--a cause which aims to promote their own happiness and to protect +their rights and properties. The Peninsulars who adorn and enrich our +soil, and to whom the title of labor gives as high a right as our own to +its preservation, know very well that the sons of Cuba regard them with +personal affection--have never failed to recognize the interest and +reciprocal wants which unite the two--nor have ever held them +responsible for the perversenesses of the few, and for the iniquities of +a government whose infernal policy alone has labored to separate them, +on the tyrant's familiar maxim--to divide and conquer. + +"We, who proceed in good faith and with the noble ambition of earning +the applause of the world for the justice of our acts--we surely cannot +aim at the destruction of our brothers, nor at the usurpation of their +properties; and far from meriting that vile calumny which the government +will endeavor to fasten upon us, we do not hesitate to swear in the +sight of God and of man that nothing would better accord with the wishes +of our hearts, or with the glory and happiness of our country, than the +co-operation of the Peninsulars, in the sacred work of liberation. +United with them, we could realize that idea of entire independence +which is a pleasing one to our minds; but if they present themselves in +our way as enemies, we shall not be able to answer for the security of +their persons and properties, nor when adventuring all for the main +object of the liberty of Cuba, shall we be able to renounce any means of +effecting it. + +"But if we have all these reasons to expect that the Peninsulars, who +are in nowise dependent on the government and who are so bound up with +the fate of Cuba, will at least remain neutral, it will not be supposed +that we can promise ourselves the same conduct on the part of the army, +the individuals composing which, without ties or affections, know no +other law nor consideration than the will of their commander. We pity +the lot of those unfortunate men, subject to a tyranny as hard as our +own, who, torn from their homes in the flower of their youth, have been +brought to Cuba to oppress us on condition of themselves renouncing the +dignity of men and all the enjoyments and hopes of life. If they shall +appreciate the difference between a free and happy citizen and a +dependent and hireling soldier, and choose to accept the benefits of +liberty and prosperity, which we tender them, we will admit them into +our ranks as brethren. But if they shall disregard the dictates of +reason and of their own interests and allow themselves to be controlled +by the insidious representations of their tyrants, so as to regard it as +their duty to oppose themselves to us on the field of battle as enemies, +we will then accept the combat, alike without hate and without fear and +always willing, whenever they may lay down their arms, to welcome them +to our embrace. + +"To employ the language of moderation and justice--to seek for means of +peace and conciliation--to invoke the sentiments of love and +brotherhood--befits a cultivated and Christian people, which finds +itself forced to appeal to the violent recourse of arms, not for the +purpose of attacking the social order and the loves of fellow beings, +but to recover the condition and the rights of man, usurped from them by +an unjust and tyrannical power. But let not the expression of our +progress and wishes encourage in our opponents the idea that we are +ignorant of our resources, or distrustful of our strength. All the means +united, at the disposal of the Peninsulars in Cuba against us, could +only make the struggle more protracted and disastrous; but the issue in +our favor could not be any the less sure and decisive. + +"In the ranks of independence we have to count all the free sons of +Cuba, whatever may be the color of their race--the brave nations of +South America, who inhabit our soil and who have already made trial of +the strength and conduct of our tyrants--the sturdy islanders of the +Canaries, who love Cuba as their country, and who have already had an +Hernandez and a Monies de Oca, to seal with the proof of martyrdom, the +heroic decision of their compatriots for our cause. + +"The ranks of the government would find themselves constantly thinned by +desertion, by the climate, by death, which from all quarters would +spring up among them in a thousand forms. Cut short of means to pay and +maintain their army, dependent on recruits from Spain to fill up their +vacancies without an inch of friendly ground on which to plant their +feet, or an individual on whom to rely with security, war in the field +would be for them one of extermination; while, if they shut themselves +within the defences of their fortresses, hunger and want would soon +compel them to abandon them, if they were not carried by force of arms. +The example of the whole continent of Spanish America, under +circumstances more favorable for them, when they had Cuba as their +arsenal, the benefit of her coffers, and native aid in those countries +themselves, ought to serve them as a lesson not to undertake an +exterminating and fratricidal struggle, which could not fail to be +attended with the same or worse results. + +"We, on the other hand, besides our own resources, have in the +neighboring States of the Union, and in all the republics of America, +the encampments of our troops, the depots of our supplies, and the +arsenals of our arms. All the sons of this vast New World, whose bosom +shelters the island of Cuba, and who have had, like us, to shake off by +force the yoke of tyranny, will enthusiastically applaud our resolve, +will fly by hundreds to place themselves beneath the flag of liberty in +our ranks, and there trained to experienced valor will aid us in +annihilating, once and for always, the last badge of ignominy that still +disgraces the free and independent soil of America. + +"If we have hitherto hoped, with patience and resignation, that justice +and their own interests would change the mind of our tyrants; if we have +trusted to external efforts to bring the mother country to a negotiation +which should avoid the disasters of war, we are resolved to prove by +deeds that inaction and endurance have not been the results of impotence +and cowardice. Let the government undeceive itself in regard to the +power of its bayonets and the efficiency of all the means it has +invented to oppress and watch us. In the face of its very +authorities--in the sight of the spies at our side--on the day when we +have resolved to demand back our rights, the cry of liberty and +independence will rise from the Cape of San Antonio to the Point of +Maysi. + +"We, then, as provisional representatives of the people of Cuba, and in +exercise of the rights which God and Nature have bestowed upon every +freeman, to secure his welfare and establish himself under the form of +government that suits him do solemnly declare, taking God to witness the +ends we propose, and invoking the favor of the people of America, who +have preceded us with their example, that the Island of Cuba is, and, by +the laws of nature ought to be, independent of Spain; and that +henceforth the inhabitants of Cuba are free from all obedience or +subjection to the Spanish government and the individuals composing it; +owing submission only to the authority and direction of those who, while +awaiting the action of the general suffrage of the people, are charged, +or may provisionally charge themselves with the command and government +of each locality, and of the military forces. + +"By virtue of this declaration, the free sons of Cuba, and the +inhabitants of the Island who adhere to her cause, are authorized to +take up arms, to unite into corps, to name officers and juntas of +government, for their organization and direction, for the purpose of +putting themselves in communication with the juntas constituted for the +proclamation of the independence of Cuba, and which have given the +initiative to this movement. Placed in the imposing attitude of making +themselves respected, our compatriots will prefer all the means of +persuasion to those of force; they will protect the property of +neutrals, whatever may be their origin; they will welcome the +Peninsulars into their ranks as brothers and will respect all property. + +"If, notwithstanding our purposes and fraternal intentions, the Spanish +government should find partizan obstruction bent upon sustaining it, and +we have to owe our liberty to the force of arms, sons of Cuba, let us +prove to the republics of America, which are contemplating us, that we +having been the last to follow their example does not make us unworthy +of them, nor incapable of receiving our liberty and achieving our +independence. + + JOAQUIN DE AGUERO AGNEW, + FRANCISCO AGNERO ESTRADA, + WALDO ARETEACA PINA. + +"July 4, 1851." + +Immediately upon the reading of this the wildest excitement ensued. The +Cubans began to believe that at last deliverance was near. They flung +their hats into the air, while tears streamed down their faces, and they +shouted "Cuba Libre! Down with the Spaniards!" until hoarseness +compelled them to stop. Then an ominous noise, low at first, but growing +nearer and nearer, broke in upon their rapturous demonstrations. Well +they knew that sound, for they had heard it only too often. The Spanish +soldiers were approaching, and turning, those on the outskirts of the +crowd beheld column after column of infantry advancing from one +direction, while a troop of cavalry was apparently about to charge the +crowd from the opposite side of the square. Aguero knew that a crisis +had been reached and that on the work done in the next few moments +depended victory or defeat. He called upon those closest in his +confidence to organize the crowd. Plans for this action had previously +been completed, and the assembled people were quickly grouped into +divisions each containing one hundred men. By this time the Spanish +troops were only about a hundred yards distant, and they at once opened +fire on the revolutionists. Aguero's company was armed, and they had +brought with them extra equipment, which had been distributed among the +people. The revolutionists were by no means poor marksmen; they had long +been practicing in private for this very hour. They proved that they +were more skilled than the picked troops of Spain, and for a time they +showed astonishing efficiency in thinning the ranks of the Spanish +infantry. But the cavalry now charged the crowd, and this was more +serious than an infantry attack because the revolutionists were not +prepared to return it in kind. They stood their ground bravely, firing +at the horses, thus seeking to dismount and confuse the enemy, and +strange as it may seem they were successful. The cavalry commander +ordered a retreat, which was accomplished in great disorder, and under a +withering fire from the revolutionists, while the infantry, amazed and +alarmed to find themselves no longer able to rely on the support of the +cavalry, broke and fled toward Puerto Principe, from which place they +had come. The little army at Najassa well knew that no help could be +expected from their comrades at Puerto Principe, and therefore it seemed +the part of discretion to allow the Spanish army to retreat unmolested, +and for the revolutionists to take refuge in the interior of the island, +where it would be more difficult to apprehend them, and where they hoped +to find sympathy and support. They made their way to Guanamaquilla, +where they decided to make a stand, and where, after effecting a better +organization, they entrenched themselves. + +On July 6 at this place they were attacked by six hundred Spaniards +under General Lemery, and the Spanish troops were again routed, again +retired in disorder, and once more the revolutionists celebrated a +victory. Not only did the Spanish troops beat a hasty retreat, but they +left behind them, on the field of battle, forty dead and dying. + +It can be imagined with what elation the patriots celebrated this second +victory. They could hardly believe in their good fortune. It was +incredible that they should have prevailed against the trained forces of +Spain. It was not for them, at such close contact with events, to +realize that while they were fighting for their homes, for freedom, for +their families, for their very lives,--for capture meant as sure death +as any bullet of the enemy could bring,--after all the Spanish troops +were only hirelings, fighting for pay and not for a principle, and that +it has been the history of the world, since its beginning, that when +the home is at stake sooner or later victory comes to its defenders. + +Now the little bands of one hundred separated, and the mistake was made +which proved fatal to the cause for which they had already sacrificed so +much, and which seemed about to triumph. They should have waited until +news of their triumph penetrated to other patriots, and until their +forces had been greatly swelled in volume, before any division was made. + +Meanwhile, immediately after their first victory, they had sent a +courier to bear word to Lopez, through their mysterious channels of +communication, of their success, urging him to communicate the good news +to the junta in New York, and to hasten to their aid with a new +expedition, and promising that meanwhile they would spread the +revolution to all parts of the island, so that when he came again he +would have no cause to complain of lack of support. + +The companies of one hundred each went in a separate direction, each +bent on conquest and propaganda among timid sympathizers. One party, +which was led by Aguero himself, made its way to Las Tunas, and arrived +there late in the evening. Aguero divided his little band into two parts +and approached the town from opposite directions, sounding the cry of +the revolution, "Cuba Libre!" and calling upon all good patriots to join +their forces. But Spanish spies, always active, had preceded them and +the garrison of five hundred soldiers was already alert. Then a +catastrophe happened. The two bands of patriots, in the midst of the +great confusion which their arrival occasioned, met in a dark, unpaved +street, and not recognizing one another, each believed the other to be +the Spaniards, and each opened fire upon the other. Too late the error +was rectified. Some of the patriots had been injured by their own +comrades, and the organization was in confusion; before order could be +educed from this chaos, the Spanish troops were upon them, and this time +it was the patriots who were put to rout. + +Another of the bands of one hundred had proceeded, meanwhile, to the +plains of Santa Isabel. Large numbers of patriots rallied to their +assistance, but the attacking Spanish force, nearly a thousand strong, +and consisting of both cavalry and infantry, cast far too great odds +against them. The patriots again suffered defeat, and their losses were +twenty killed and forty captured by the enemy, while the Spanish +casualties were one hundred and thirty, fifty of whom were killed +outright. + +A third band of one hundred, which had as its commander Don Serapin +Recio, made its way to Santa Cruz. They were more fortunate than had +been their comrades, for when they were attacked by four companies of +Spanish infantry, under Colonel Conti, they not only were victorious, +but they took Colonel Conti prisoner. This triumph, however, was short +lived, for Spanish reinforcements, consisting of four hundred +cavalrymen, were rushed to the scene of battle, and the tide turned +against the patriots. Recio was captured, fifty six revolutionists soon +lay dead or dying, and as the others sought to escape a large proportion +of them were taken captive. + +Still a fourth band, advancing on Punta de Grandao, met with disaster, +as did the fifth division which had gone toward La Siguanea in the hope +of taking that place. + +Only one little division of patriots, one hundred strong, remained +unconquered. Aguero, who had made his escape after the defeat at Las +Tunas, took command of this company. The city of Nuevitas was entered in +triumph, amid shouts of welcome from the people, who in large numbers +threw in their fortunes with the revolution. Don Carlos Comus led the +Spanish forces against the city, and a desperate battle which raged for +over three hours was fought. The ammunition of the patriots was +exhausted, and fighting against frightful odds, they were almost +exterminated; fewer than the original one hundred remained alive. They +fled, and were speedily captured by the pursuing Spaniards. + +Complete defeat had now overtaken the revolutionists, who so boldly on +July 3 had declared their independence of Spain, and thrown a defiant +gauntlet before the Spanish power. By the end of July not a single one +of the original army remained at large to tell the story; they had all +been killed, captured, or frightened into cowed and silent obedience to +Spanish rule. Of those who had fallen into the hands of the Spaniards, +every one was tried by military tribunal, and sentence passed upon them. +Two courts sat in judgment on the offenders, one at Puerto Principe and +the other at Trinidad, at which latter the Captain-General, José de la +Concha, presided. Under his dictation sentence of death was pronounced +upon José Isidore Armenteros, Fernando Hernandez and Rafael Arcis, all +recognized as prime movers in the revolution. Ignacio Belen Perez, +Nestor Cadalso, Juan O'Bourke, Abeja Iznaga Miranda and Jose Maria +Rodriguez were sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, which was to be +suffered abroad, and they were forever banished from Cuba, while the +same terms were imposed on Juan Hevia and Avelind Porada, whose +sentences, however, were shortened to eight years each, and Pedro José +Pomarcz, Foribio Garcia, Cruz Birba and Fernando Medinilla were also +banished, and condemned to two years' imprisonment. All sentences went +into effect on August 18. It is interesting to note in passing a fact +which seems quite in keeping with the Spanish character as demonstrated +by the administration of the island; the men who were condemned to death +were led out into a field by the name of Del Negro, near the city of +Trinidad, and _shot in the back_. + +The court which sat in judgment at Puerto Principe tried the leader of +the revolutionists, and brave Joaquin Aguero was condemned to die by the +garrote. The same sentence was imposed on José Thomas Betancourt, +Fernando de Zayas and Miguel Benavides; while Miguel Castellanos and +Adolfo Pierre Aguero were sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, which +sentences were all decreed to take effect on August 12. + +It was impossible, even with the strict censorship which the Spanish +Captain-General maintained over the island, to keep reports of the +stirring events which were taking place from leaking forth into the +outer world. Of course, Lopez and the junta at New York learned of them +through the channels known only to themselves, and the news, spreading +to all parts of the United States, caused tremendous excitement. Great +interest was manifested, particularly in the southern states, and in New +York City, where the members of the Cuban junta had begun to stir up a +considerable amount of interest in and sympathy for the Cubans. The New +York papers dispatched correspondents to obtain the true story of the +rebellion, but the reporters had difficulty in getting into the country, +and encountered still greater obstacles in dispatching what news they +could gather to their respective sheets. They were hampered in their +efforts by Spanish officials and Spanish spies were always at their +heels. + +While the main uprising had been in the vicinity of Puerto Principe, +incipient rebellions and sympathetic insurrections occurred in other +parts of the island, which were quickly quelled by overwhelming forces +of Spaniards, and the news of which was confined as much as possible to +the immediate vicinity of the uprisings. At Trinidad a mob assembled on +horseback, crying vengeance on the Spanish oppressors, but they were +soon driven from the city and obliged to take to cover on a densely +wooded hill, where their movements were so hampered by underbrush that +they were perforce compelled to abandon their mounts, and soon +surrendered to superior numbers. It was suspected that the inhabitants +of Havana, or rather the revolutionary sympathizers in that place, were +about to revolt, but the guard was redoubled, the crowd was overawed by +numbers of well armed troops, and the movement, if it ever had been +contemplated, never materialized. However, many of the wealthy +inhabitants, fearing that they might be seized on suspicion of +complicity with the revolutionists, hastily fled to their estates in the +country. + +The New York _Herald_, which for a long time had been sympathetically +inclined toward the revolutionary party in Cuba, on July 16, 1851, +printed the following report, which was based on facts gathered by its +correspondent: + +"I consider that, in a political point of view, this island was never in +a more critical state than it is at this present moment. The Creoles of +Cuba have at length thrown down the gauntlet of defiance to the +authority of Spain." + +This statement was followed by a long account of the engagements between +the revolutionists and the forces of Spain. On July 22 the same paper, +under the guise of reporting conditions, issued what was really a call +of "The United States to the rescue," which in part read as follows: + +"The revolution of Cuba has changed from chrysalis to full grown fly. +The first blood has been spilled. Cuba, some seem to think, has had her +Lexington.... The revolution having begun, it cannot go backward and it +is more than probable that the days of Spain's rule are at least to be +much embarrassed. The government counts 14,000 troops, and no more, in +all the island, and may, perhaps, be able to raise as many more from the +Spanish population; but their fleet is a good one, comprising some +twenty vessels, of which six are steamers. _Whether the struggle be a +long one or a short one, will depend on the 'aid and comfort' the Cubans +receive from the United States, in the shape of guns, pistols, powder, +ball and men that can teach them to organize and manoeuvre._" + + + + +CHAPTER VI + + +It will be recalled that the Cubans, in the first flush of victory, had +dispatched the good tidings to the Cuban Junta in New York City. These +reports were so sanguine of victory that even though later rumors of +defeat at the hands of the Spaniards did reach that body, they were +regarded as Spanish propaganda and suppressed. These adverse rumors were +vague, and unsupported by confirming data, and Spanish spies had been +for some time active in dispensing unreliable news favorable to their +country, so it is not strange that little credence was given to such +advices as came to the Junta from Spanish sources. Lopez himself was +overjoyed at the tidings from the patriots and began eagerly to organize +another expedition. The greatest enthusiasm prevailed among Cuban +sympathizers in the United States. In some places, particularly in the +south, public meetings were held, and proclamations of the liberty of +Cuba were read to the assembled crowds. Men crowded to enlist and +$50,000 was quickly raised to finance the expedition. The new recruits +to the ranks were of by far the best character yet enlisted. They seem +to have been, for the most part, actuated by the highest motives, and +aflame with zeal for the cause of Cuban liberty. Garibaldi, who was then +in the United States, is reported to have been approached to be the +leader of the new expedition, but because he had his own Italian matters +to attend to, he declined with regret. + +The United States Government, of course, gave no official sanction to +the project, but it was deterred by the preponderance of favorable +public opinion from putting more than nominal obstacles in its way; +avoiding on the one hand the storm of protest which was bound to be +raised by Cuban sympathizers at any marked interference with their +plans, and on the other the anger of Spain and thus an international +complication. Spanish spies were as heretofore dogging the steps of the +conspirators and reporting their findings to the Spanish minister at +Washington, so that the United States Government found itself in an +exceedingly difficult position. However, preparations went on apace. A +steamer, the _Pampero_, was purchased by the Junta, and well stocked +with provisions. Arms and ammunitions were also procured, but these +were, as was usual, to be delivered to the steamer on the high seas. + +At daybreak, on the morning of April 3, the _Pampero_ slipped from its +dock at the foot of Lafayette Street in New Orleans, and made its way +down the river. At the mouth of the harbor the difficulties of the +filibusters began. The vessel was overloaded, and Captain Lewis in the +interests of safety declined to proceed further until some of the party +had been sent ashore. A landing was made that night, and one hundred men +were detailed to be left behind. They protested vigorously against this +action. The plan was that the _Pampero_ was to be only one of many +vessels to be sent within the next month to the relief of the Cubans, +and that she was to return, immediately her company had been landed in +Cuba, for reinforcements which would be assembled and be in waiting to +sail. However, none of the company on the _Pampero_ desired to await +another sailing, and when she once more put out to sea it was discovered +that the number on board her had not been perceptibly lessened, since +many of those put on shore had, in the confusion, and under the cover of +darkness, stolen back on board and hidden themselves securely until she +was once more on her way. + +The expedition thus auspiciously started was made up of the following +men and officers: + + 6 Companies of Infantry, including officers--219 men + 3 " " Artillery, " " --114 men + 1 Company " Cuban patriots (domiciled + in the United States) -- 49 men + 1 " " Hungarian recruits -- 9 men + 1 " " German recruits -- 9 men + +The command of this little army was distributed as follows: + + General-in-Chief Narciso Lopez + Second-in-Command and Chief-of-Staff John Pragay + _Officers of Staff_ + Captain Emmerich Radwitch. + " Ludwig Schlessinger. + Lieutenant Joseph Lewohl. + " Jigys Rodendorf. + " Ludwig. + " Miller. + Adjutant Colengen. + " Blumenthal. + Surgeon Hega Lemmgue. + Commissary G. A. Cook. + _Staff of the Regiment of Infantry_ + Colonel R. L. Dorman. + Lieutenant Colonel W. Scott Harkness. + Adjutant George A. Graham. + Commissary Joseph Bell. + Adjutant of Regiment George Parr. + _Company A._ + Captain Robert Ellis. + Lieutenant E. McDonald. + + Sub-Lieutenant J. L. LaHascan. + " R. H. Breckinridge. + _Company B._ + Captain John Johnson. + First Lieutenant James Dunn. + Second " J. F. Williams. + Third " James O'Reilly. + _Company C._ + Captain J. C. Bridgham. + First Lieutenant Richard Vowden. + Second " J. A. Gray. + Third " J. N. Baker. + _Company D._ + Captain Philip Golday. + First Lieutenant David Rassan. + Second " James H. Landingham. + Third " James H. Vowden. + _Company E._ + Captain Henry Jackson. + First Lieutenant William Hobbs. + Second " J. A. Simpson. + Third " James Crangh. + _Company F._ + Captain William Stewart. + First Lieutenant James L. Down. + Second " John L. Bass. + Third " Thomas Hudwall. + _Regiment of Artillery--Officers of Staff._ + Chief--William S. Crittenden. + Adjutant R. L. Stanford. + Second Master of Commissariat Felix Hustin. + Surgeon Ludovic Vinks. + _Company A._ + Captain W. A. Kelly. + + First Lieutenant N. O. James. + Second " James A. Nowens. + Third " J. O. Bryce. + _Company B._ + Captain James Saunders. + First Lieutenant Philip VanVechten. + Second " Beverly A. Hunter. + Third " William H. Craft. + _Company C._ + Captain Victor Kerr. + First Lieutenant James Brandt. + Second " William T. Vienne. + _Regiment of Cuban Patriots._ + _Company A._ + Captain Ilde Foussee Overto. + First Lieutenant De Jiga Hernandez. + Second " Miguel Lopez. + Third " José A. Plands. + Fourth " Henry Lopez. + _Regiment of Hungarians._ + Major George Botilla. + Captain Ladislaus Polank. + Lieutenant Semerby. + " Johan Petroce. + " Adambert Kerskes. + " Conrad Richner. + _German Regiment._ + Captain Pietra Muller. + " Hugo Schlyct. + Lieutenant Paul Michael. + " Biro Cambeas. + " Giovana Placasee. + +This seems perhaps an elaborate organization for so small a force, but +it must be borne in mind that Lopez and his followers firmly believed +that this time there was to be no repetition of the former lack of +enthusiasm on the part of the Cubans, but that they had only to land to +be greeted with rejoicing, and to have flock to their assistance a great +number of Cuban patriots. This impression was increased by forged +letters--which Lopez, however, accepted as genuine--which were waiting +for them at Key West and which are now believed to have been written by +a follower of Lopez in Havana, under duress and intimidating threats of +Captain-General Concha, for the latter having learned of the expedition +resorted to treachery to thwart the plans of the filibusters. These +letters intimated that Pinar del Rio and many cities in that vicinity +were in open revolt against Spanish rule, and prayed that Lopez come +quickly to the aid of the rebels, who were eager to join him. + +Colonel Crittenden, in command of the artillery regiment, was a man of +the highest connections in the United States. He was a seasoned soldier, +being a veteran of the Mexican war, and having received his training at +West Point. In Lopez's band were also several officers from the United +States Custom House at New Orleans, and many men from the best families +of the South. + +On April 7 the smoke of a steamer was seen in the distance, and it soon +seemed to indicate that the _Pampero_ was being pursued. Her course was +changed, and she either succeeded in outdistancing her pursuer, or the +latter decided that a mistake had been made in the identity of the +vessel, and abandoned the chase. The expedition neared Key West, and +they expected to find there United States vessels of war, and a strong +garrison. Therefore an attempt was made to disguise the character of the +_Pampero_ and her purpose, and the men were all ordered below. Lopez was +delighted to find that his anticipations were wrong, for there were no +men of war in the harbor and the barracks were empty. As the _Pampero_ +docked, and the men came on deck, they were greeted by a shouting mob of +enthusiastic people. They were welcomed as heroes, and the inhabitants +came on board bearing food of the most tempting variety and cases of +champagne. A feast followed, at which the health of the filibusters and +the success of the expedition was drunk with shouts of approval. + +Now the expectation had been to go up the St. John's River, where a +quantity of artillery for Colonel Crittenden's regiment had been hidden, +but the false reports in the forged letters made Lopez anxious to be on +his way to Cuba, and it was argued that the artillery would be +ineffective in the first engagements, for the roads were very bad, and +Lopez hoped to take to the mountains and conduct a sort of guerrilla +warfare. The St. John's River was some distance away, and there was +always fear of interference from the United States Government; and +besides, since this was merely a vanguard for a much greater invasion of +Cuba, and was intended to pave the way for the coming forces, why not +proceed to the rescue of the Cuban insurgents and let those who would +follow bring the artillery? Consequently, after consultation with his +officers, Lopez decided to sail for Cuba by the shortest route. + +On nine o'clock of the morning of August 11, the filibusters found +themselves about ten miles from the harbor of Havana. Off Bahia Honda +they took on a pilot. Meanwhile, two vessels were sighted, and were +believed to be Spanish ships lying in wait for the expedition. A contest +of wits ensued, in which Lopez was victorious, and the _Pampero_ +successfully evaded her pursuers. At eight o'clock that night they +neared Morillo, and Lopez decided there to make his landing. At eleven +o'clock this was accomplished, and while the provisions, arms and +ammunition were being brought ashore, the men were given permission to +lie down on their arms and rest for two hours. It can be imagined that +they were in the highest state of excitement and in no condition to +sleep, even if the attacks of mosquitoes had not made this impossible. + +Now the information which Captain-General Concha had received concerning +the expedition had led him to believe that the landing would be made at +Mantua, and he was delighted when information reached him, as it +speedily did, that the filibusters had gone ashore at Morillo. He +quickly dispatched Colonel Morales by rail to Guanajay, where he +collected a Spanish force of about four hundred men, who were instructed +to attack from the front; while General Ena from Bahia Honda and Colonel +Elezalde from Pinar del Rio were to join forces to cut off retreat, if +the filibusters attempted to escape by sea, and thus Concha hoped to +surround and destroy the army of invasion. + +Meanwhile, the _Pampero_ had been cleared, and under orders from Lopez +set out on a return trip to Key West to bring reinforcements, and Lopez +decided to march his forces to Las Pozas, ten miles away. Contrary to +their expectations, the filibusters had found the town of Morillo +practically deserted, and there were no enthusiastic patriots to welcome +their would-be deliverers. Now difficulty arose as to transportation of +the provisions, and the main portions of the military supplies. There +was no practical means of conveying them to Las Pozas, and in +consequence Lopez made a mistake which afterward proved his undoing. He +concluded to divide his forces, leaving Crittenden, with a hundred and +twenty men, to guard the supplies, and himself, with the remainder of +his army, to push on to Las Pozas. + +He reached this objective without mishap, but again found conditions +very different from what he had been led to expect. This town, too, was +almost deserted, and there was the same disheartening lack of support, +and failure of the Cubans to join his expedition. Lopez determined that +on this occasion there should be no occasion to bring against his army +the accusations which the Spaniards had made at Matanzas. He therefore +ordered his men to accept nothing in the way of food for which they did +not pay, and he stationed guards at places where liquor was sold to +prevent any drunkenness on the part of his men. In consequence the best +of order prevailed. + +An attack from the Spaniards was momentarily expected, and Lopez +maintained a careful watch for the approach of the enemy. This was +delayed until the next morning, when, in spite of his precautions, he +was taken virtually by surprise. A portion of his forces were eating +their breakfast, while others were bathing in a nearby stream, when word +came that the Spanish had overpowered the outposts, were then within two +hundred yards of the village, and that the attacking force was estimated +to be twelve hundred strong. Lopez hastily issued the call to arms, and +his men were arrayed to meet the on-coming Spaniards. A hot battle +ensued, in which, in spite of the fact that they were so largely +outnumbered, the filibusters were victorious and forced the Spaniards to +retire. However, Lopez suffered a very great blow in the death of +Colonel Dorman, who was the best disciplinarian and most efficient +organizer and drill-master in the army, while Colonel Pragay, Lopez's +chief adviser--who, however, had been responsible for persuading Lopez +to make the mistake of leaving Crittenden behind--was also killed, as +was Captain Overto. The other casualties amounted to fifty killed and +wounded. Even the fact that the Spanish losses were far heavier did not +compensate for the loss to Lopez of his three brave commanders. + +Lopez's army had been increased by only a few stray Cubans, whom they +had encountered on their march to Las Pozas, and who had joined fortunes +with them. He now had fifty-three less men that at first, and besides he +was separated from his stores. Unless they were promptly brought +forward, or unless he returned to Morillo and Crittenden, he would be in +a serious situation, since help from the natives was not materializing. +While he was contemplating this situation, a messenger arrived from +Crittenden, asking permission to join Lopez, and the messenger was +promptly ordered to return with orders to Crittenden to march his forces +to Pinar del Rio to join Lopez there, and Lopez headed his men toward +the mountains, with the intention of pushing on to Pinar del Rio. + +Promptly on receipt of the desired permission from Lopez, Crittenden, +with his one hundred and twenty men, set out to join him. They had +proceeded only three miles when the little band was attacked by a body +of five hundred Spaniards. Crittenden's men quickly took to cover, and +fought so desperately that in spite of the fact that they were so +greatly outnumbered, they killed a large number of the Spanish forces, +and put the others to rout. But Crittenden, it would seem, had not +learned the proper lesson from the earlier division of Lopez's forces, +and his own plight in consequence, for he now decided to make the +mistake a second time. The little band had made slow progress, because +of the necessity for transporting the supplies in carts, and Crittenden +made up his mind to leave Captain Kelly for the time with forty men to +defend the supplies, and with the remaining eighty himself to lead an +attack against the Spaniards who were now rallying. But the Spanish +soldiers were better trained than were Crittenden's men, and the Spanish +leader was cleverer in manoeuvres and had a greater knowledge of the +country. He had no difficulty in effecting a separation between the two +bodies of Crittenden's men, and he forced those under Crittenden to flee +for their lives. They took refuge in a wooded ravine, where they +remained for two days and nights without food and without water, in +constant terror of a Spanish attack. Realizing that if they stayed where +they were they faced no better fate than slow starvation, they finally, +under cover of the night, emerged from their hiding-place and made their +way to the coast, where they took possession of four small boats and set +out to sea, in the hope of reaching Key West, or of being picked up by +some other expedition, since they had no doubt that several were already +on their way from the United States. Two days later, starving, and +almost mad for want of fresh water, driven by the tides back to the +shore and aground on the rocks, they were captured and taken to Havana. + +The Spanish General Bustillos, gives the following account of their +apprehension: + +"Your Excellency: I started yesterday from Bahia Honda, in the steamer +_Habanera_, with a view to reconnoiter the coast of Playitas and +Morillo, in order to remove all the means by which the pirates could +possibly escape; or in case of more expeditions to these points, to +remove the means of disembarkation. At seven o'clock in the morning, I +communicated with the inhabitants of Morillo, and was informed by the +inhabitants that, at 10 o'clock on the preceding night, one part of +them embarked in four boats. Having calculated the hour of their sailing +and distance probably made in 10 hours and supposing they had taken the +direction of New Orleans--I proceeded in that direction 18 miles, with +full steam, but after having accomplished that distance, I could not +discover any of those I pursued. Believing the road they had followed +was within the rocks, I directed my steamer to that point, and made the +greatest exertions to encounter the fugitive pirates. At 10 o'clock I +detected the 4 boats navigating along the coast and I could only seize +one. Two others were upon the rocks of the island, the fourth upon the +rocks of Cargo Levisa. When I seized the men of the first boat, I armed +the boats of the ship in order to pursue the second and third, which +were on the rocks, but the officers of the army who were in the boats, +as well as the troops and sailors, the commander of the boat, Don +Ignacio de Arrellano and the captain of the steamer _Cardenas_, Don +Francisco Estolt threw themselves in the water to pursue the pirates of +whom two only escaped. Having left their arms we did not pursue them in +order to occupy ourselves with the boat in Cargo Levisa, for it was one +of the largest and contained more men. These, twenty-four in number, +were hidden within a small neck, having the boat drawn up among the +rocks; and here the pirates were seized. The number of prisoners was +fifty well armed men, headed by a chief and five officers." + +When the captives reached Havana, they were brought up on deck, stripped +except for their undershirts and trousers, and before the people who had +assembled at the dock they were made to undergo the greatest +indignities. Not only were they grossly insulted by word of mouth; they +were spit upon, and railed at, kicked and assaulted; nothing seemed too +harsh or vile for their captors to do in venting their spleen. + +Meanwhile, when the Captain-General was apprised of their arrival, he +sent spies to them to take down their statements and farewell messages, +promising to transmit these to their families, but in reality his agents +were instructed to use every effort to influence each man to inform on +the others. In this, however, they were entirely unsuccessful. Concha +announced his intention of dealing summarily with the offenders, as a +warning to others who might contemplate an invasion of Cuba. Therefore, +without even the pretense of a trial, the following decree was issued +against them: + +"It having been decreed by the general order of April 20 last, and +subsequently reproduced, what was to be the fate of the pirates who +should dare to profane the soil of this island, and in view of the +declarations of the fifty individuals who have been taken by his +Excellency the Commander-General of this naval station, and placed at my +disposal, which declarations establish the identity of their persons, as +pertaining to the horde commanded by the traitor Lopez, I have resolved +in accordance with the provisions of the Royal Ordinances, General Laws +of the Kingdom, and particularly in the Royal Order of the 12th of June +of the past year, issued for this particular case, that the said +individuals, whose names and designations are set forth in the following +statement, suffer this day the pain of death, by being shot, the +execution being committed to the Señor Teniente de Rey, Brigadier of the +Plaza. + + "JOSE DE LA CONCHA." + +Attached to this document was the following list of names. Since it is +known that fifty-two men were shot, the list is accordingly incomplete: + +"Colonel W. S. Crittenden; Captains F. S. Sewer, Victor Kerr, and T. B. +Veacey; Lieutenants James Brandt, J. O. Bryce, Thomas C. James, and M. +H. Homes; Doctors John Fisher and R. A. Tourniquet; Sergeants J. +Whiterous and A. M. Cotchett; Adjutant B. C. Stanford; Privates Samuel +Mills, Edward Bulman, George A. Arnold, B. J. Wregy, William Niseman, +Anselmo Torres, Hernandez, Robert Cantley, John G. Sanka, James Stanton, +Thomas Harnett, Alexander McIllger, Patrick Dillon, Thomas Hearsey, +Samuel Reed, H. T. Vinne, M. Philips, James L. Manville, G. M. Green, J. +Salmon, Napoleon Collins, N. H. Fisher, William Chilling, G. A. Cook, S. +O. Jones, M. H. Ball, James Buxet, Robert Caldwell, C. C. William Smith, +A. Ross, P. Brouke, John Christides, William B. Little, John Stibbs, +James Ellis, William Hogan, Charles A. Robinson." + +On August 16, early in the morning, the prisoners were taken from the +vessel and brought to the Castle of Atares for execution. An appeal was +made to the American Consul at Havana, F. A. Owens, to use his influence +with the Captain-General to obtain some clemency for the condemned men, +but he not only declined on the ground that they had been declared +outlaws by the American Government, but he seemed to be utterly lacking +in kindness of heart or compassion, for he refused to see the men, or to +make any attempt to transmit their last messages to their friends and +families. + +An eye witness thus describes the execution: + + + "Havana, August 16, 4-1/2 P. M. + + "I have this day been witness to one of the most brutal acts of + wanton inhumanity ever perpetrated in the annals of history. Not + content was this government in revenging themselves in the death of + those unfortunate and perhaps misguided men, and which, it may even + be said, was brought upon themselves; but these Spanish + authorities deserve to be most severely chastised for their + exceedingly reprehensible conduct in permitting the desecration, as + they have done, of the senseless clay of our brave countrymen. This + morning forty Americans, four Irish, one Scotch, one Italian, one + Philippine Islander, two Habaneros and two Germans or Hungarians, + were shot at 11 o'clock; after which the troops were ordered to + retire and some hundreds of the violent rabble, hired for the + purpose commenced mutilating the dead bodies. Oh! the very + remembrance of the sight is frightful. + + "I never saw men--and could scarcely have supposed it + possible--conduct themselves at such an awful moment with the + fortitude these men displayed under such trying circumstances. They + were shot, six at a time, i.e., twelve men were brought to the + place of execution, six made to kneel down and receive the fire of + the soldiers, after which the remaining six were made to walk + around their dead comrades and kneel opposite to them, when they + were also shot. They died bravely, those gallant and unfortunate + young gentlemen. When the moment of execution came, many, Colonel + Crittenden and Captain Victor Kerr among them, refused to kneel + with their backs to the executioners. 'No,' said the chivalrous + Crittenden, 'an American kneels only to his God, and always faces + his enemy!' They stood up, faced their executioners, were shot down + and their brains then knocked out by clubbed muskets. After being + stripped and their bodies mutilated, they were shoved, six or seven + together, bound as they were, into hearses, which were used last + year for cholera cases. No coffins were allowed them. + + "A finer looking set of young men I never saw; they made not a + single complaint, not a murmur, against their sentence, and + decency should have been shown their dead bodies in admiration for + the heroism they displayed when brought out for execution. Not a + muscle was seen to move, and they proved to the miserable rabble + congregated to witness the horrible spectacle that it being the + fortunes of war that they fell into the power of this government, + they were not afraid to die. It would have been a great consolation + to these poor fellows, as they repeatedly asked, to see their + consul, and through him to have sent their last adieus, and such + little remembrances as they had, to their beloved relations in the + States. But Mr. Owens, the American Consul, did not even make + application to the Captain-General to see these unfortunate + countrymen in their distress, and their sacred wishes in their last + moments have been unattended to. Lastly, at the very hour of + triumph, when the people of the Spanish steamer _Habanero_ knew + that the execution of the American prisoners, whom they had taken + to Havana, had taken place, two shots were fired across or at the + steamer _Falcon_ off Bahia Honda; and notwithstanding that this + vessel was well known to them, having as she had the American flag + hoisted, etc., she was detained and overhauled by these Spanish + officers." + +Another reliable source, the report of an American naval officer, +furnished the information, that after the prisoners had been shot, their +bodies were mutilated; they were dragged by the heels, and outraged in a +manner which would make the most unenlightened savage shudder; their +ears and fingers were cut off, and portions of these, together with +pieces of skull, were distributed to the Spanish officers as souvenirs, +while some of these grim relics were afterward nailed up in public +places as a warning against attempts to revolt against the Spanish +Government. Ten of the bodies were placed in coffins, and the rest were +merely thrown into a pit. + +When Captain Kelly and his forty followers had been separated from +Crittenden, they managed in some manner--the details of which have not +come down to us--to evade the Spaniards and to escape with such supplies +as they could carry. They took to the cover of the woods, and being +unfamiliar with the country wandered around, until they fell in with a +loyal negro who undertook to act as guide for them. He led them to a +dense wood, in sight of Las Pozas, and they sent him on ahead to report +conditions. He returned, stating that Lopez was in possession of the +town, and so they joined him, just as he was about to lead his men into +the mountains. Captain Kelly's men had been so engrossed with their own +predicament that they had remained in ignorance of the fate of +Crittenden's force, and they were therefore unable to give Lopez any +definite information concerning them, and he treasured the hope that +they too had escaped the Spaniards, and would be able to join him at +Pinar del Rio, in accordance with the original plan. + +Lopez's forces were now reduced to about three hundred men, and they +found themselves obliged to leave their wounded behind them. They pushed +forward all night, and until about nine in the morning, covering a +distance of twelve miles. They shot a cow, and roasting the meat on the +points of their bayonets, ate it without bread or salt. They then +continued their march until eight in the evening, when, utterly worn +out, they lay down and slept on their arms until midnight. + +The moon was now shining brightly, and Lopez awakened his tired army, +and again they were on their way. Shortly after dawn, they reached a +plantation, where they were received with kindness by the owner, who +was in sympathy with the cause of Cuban freedom. Two cows were killed, +and some corn roasted, and once more the little band was refreshed. But +now Lopez discovered that in the absence of a guide or a compass they +had been traveling almost in a circle, and instead of going southwest +toward San Cristobal and Pinar del Rio, they were within only three +miles of their original landing place, where there was a large Spanish +force. He immediately assembled his footsore companions, who were now +almost barefoot because the rough and stony passes had worn the shoes +from their feet, and led them on a forced march. Many had already +dropped out by fatigue, and the others were almost exhausted, but Lopez +realized that safety could only be assured by putting many miles between +his men and the Spanish garrison, and reaching, before they were +overtaken, some place of strong vantage. + +The Spaniards seem, however, to have been thoroughly puzzled by Lopez's +circuitous course, and they sent word to the Captain-General that since +they despaired of capturing him, they felt the best measure to take was +an effort to induce his men to desert him. Concha, therefore, issued the +following proclamation, which was posted in conspicuous places all over +the vicinity where Lopez was supposed to be hiding: + +"Proclamation! + +"The Most Excellent Señor, the Captain-General, has seen proper to +direct, under this date, to the chiefs of columns in the field and to +the Lieutenant-Governors of Bahia Honda, Mariel, San Cristobal and Pinar +del Rio, the following circular: + +"The greater part of the pirates who dared to invade the island have +been destroyed by the valiant troops of that army to whom the lot fell +of being destined to pursue them, as well as by the not less decided and +active cooperation of all the loyal inhabitants of the district they had +sought to make their den. Considering, at once, the unanimous confession +of all those who have been taken and executed, that they had been +brought here into a foreign territory through a complete deception, +having been made to believe that the country called them, that the army +would make common cause with them, and that triumph would be as easy as +it was certain, such being the promise of the traitor who led them; and +that the directors of such a foolish and disorderly enterprise could not +in any other way have got together the multitude connected herewith, and +also that public vengeance has already been satisfied by the severe +chastisement inflicted on those individuals hitherto captured, as well +as those that have perished by the balls or the bayonets of our gallant +troops; and that finally, the time has arrived to make use of clemency, +according to the dictates of humanity, I have determined: + +"I. That quarter shall be given to every individual belonging to the +band under command of the traitor Lopez who shall surrender or be taken +by the troops of His Majesty within four days from the publication of +this resolution in the respective districts; it being well understood +that after the expiration of that period the general army order of April +20 last will remain in full force as it has up to now. + +"II. The individual or individuals belonging to said band who shall +surrender said leader, Lopez, shall be free from all punishment, and if +he be a foreigner, shall be restored to his own country. + +"This I communicate to you for your exact observance, ordering that it +be immediately published in all the district under your command. God +guard your Excellency many years! + + "JOSE DE LA CONCHA. + +"Havana, Aug. 24, 1851." + +Meanwhile stragglers who fell by the wayside, and afterward fell into +the hands of the Spaniards, were brutally treated, and murdered in the +most revolting manner, their bowels being ripped open by bayonets after +they had been practically flogged to death. + +A native guide who offered his services to Lopez, now led him to a +coffee plantation near Las Frias. He represented to Lopez that the owner +was a sympathizer, and that the wanderers would be given rest and +shelter, and a place to hide until the arrival of reinforcements from +the United States. This guide is believed to have been a Spanish spy, +for while Lopez and his men were received with the greatest courtesy, +and entertained for two days by the planter, their host secretly +dispatched a courier to the Spanish leaders, and presently a Spanish +army arrived to attack the filibusters. Lopez dispersed his men, who hid +themselves behind the trunks of mango trees, and picked off the Spanish +soldiers, with the result that the Spaniards were put to flight, and +when word presently came that General Eno was advancing to the rescue of +his compatriots with a force of two thousand men Lopez retreated to a +high hill, with the remainder of his army, now reduced to two hundred +and twenty men, many of these disabled by wounds. Lopez was in a +position of vantage, and small parties of his men fired on the advancing +Spaniards, wounding their commander, and several of their number. + +[Illustration: FALLS OF THE HANEBANILLA + +Each of the Provinces of Cuba has its own characteristic charms of +scenery; among which it would be rash to attempt to choose. Santa Clara +boasts the great falls of the Hanebanilla River, a scene of majestic +splendor. This is one of numerous cataracts on the rivers of Cuba, +enriching the scenic attractions of the island, and at the same time +suggesting immense value as sources of industrial power.] + +Lopez now endeavored to reach a plain near San Cristobal, but his men +were worn out, their clothes torn, their flesh bruised and +bleeding, and their feet lacerated so that they could hardly walk. +Dissatisfaction and dismay was rife among them, and presently they sent +a committee to Lopez, asking him to advise them just what he intended to +do, and what he expected to accomplish, and stating that unless he had +some good plan, they were unwilling to proceed further. Lopez listened +to them attentively, and asked for suggestions. They were all for hiding +in the mountains, until relief should be sent to them from the country +which they all now sorely regretted leaving. While putting this project +into execution, they were again attacked by the Spaniards, three or four +of them were killed, and a number taken prisoners, and immediately +executed. One hundred and forty men escaped with Lopez through the +woods. Many of them had lost their arms; only sixty-nine guns remained, +while on most of these the bayonets were broken. They had no food and +they killed Lopez's horse and ate it. Open dissension broke out among +them. Lopez was, as will be recalled, under sentence of death, having +been condemned, after the betrayal of the first plans to free Cuba, to +be killed should he ever again be apprehended on the island. A price had +been set on his head, and now, with characteristic self-abnegation, he +besought his men to deliver him up to the enemy, securing clemency for +themselves in return for such action. To do them justice, they were +heartily ashamed, and repudiated the suggestion. Finally after a long +discussion it was decided to stake all on one attempt against the +Spaniards, and consequently they made their way again to the plain near +San Cristobal and there attacked a force of five hundred Spanish troops. +They were charged by the Spanish cavalry, and all but six were taken +prisoners. Lopez and his remaining six followers took refuge upon a +plantation. They were received with cordiality and assured of the +sympathy of their owner, Señor Castenada, who offered to hide them until +their friends, whom they believed to be even then on the ocean, or +perhaps making a landing on the island, should rescue them. He gave them +good food and drugged wine, and took them to the upper part of the +house, to his bedrooms, that they might sleep. They were utterly +exhausted, and soon fell into deep slumber, whereupon Castenada notified +the Spanish authorities, who at once sent troops to take the little +company prisoners. So profound was their sleep that they were securely +bound before they realized what had happened. They were at once taken to +Havana, where the Captain-General was so delighted at the turn events +had taken that he issued a proclamation complimenting his brave officers +on their capture "of this dangerous traitor." + +Concha did not accord Lopez a trial, but at once issued a proclamation +ordering his execution. It was dated October 31, 1851, and ran as +follows: + +"By a superior decree of the Most Excellent Señor, the Governor and +Captain-General, Don Narciso Lopez, who commanded the band of pirates +that disembarked at the place called Playitas, to the leeward of the +capital on the morning of the 12th instant, has been condemned to the +infamous punishment of the garrote. The execution is to take place at +seven o'clock in the morning of September 1st. The troops of all arms +composing the garrison of the town, and the forces from elsewhere, will +assemble at sufficient time beforehand, at the camp of the Punta, where +the scaffold is placed, around which they will form a square. The +regiment of Galicia will take its station in front with a banner +displayed. The other corps will be present with all their disposable +force. The artillery will take the right, with the engineers next them; +the other forces without distinction will occupy the places assigned to +them. The cavalry will be stationed according to the direction of the +Brigadier, the Royal Lieutenant commanding the town, who will command +the troops, having under his orders the staff officers of the army, and +an equal number of town adjustants. A true copy. + + "ZURITA." + +The Spanish archives contain the following names of members of the Lopez +expedition who were taken prisoners about this time and who witnessed +the execution of their leader. Most of these men after a long +imprisonment were finally pardoned, through the intervention of powerful +friends, and returned to their homes: + +Elias Otis, Michael O'Keenan, John Danton, First Lieutenant P. S. +VanVechten, M. L. Hefren, Captain Robert Ellis, W. Wilson, W. Miller, P. +Lacoste, M. Lieger, P. Coleman, Henry Smith, Thomas Hilton, First +Lieutenant E. H. McDonald, D. D. Waif, H. D. Thomason, Charles A. +Conunea, Emanuel R. Wier, First Lieutenant J. G. Bush, Conrad Taylor, +Thomas Denton, C. A. McMurray, J. Patan, Conrad Arghalir, Jose Chiceri, +G. Richardson, John B. Brown, Thomas S. Lee, Captain James Aquelli, +Franklin Boyd, Thomas Little, Commissary J. A. Simpson, George Wilson, +First Lieutenant D. D. Rousseau, First Lieutenant Robert McGrier, J. D. +Hughes, William H. Vaugale, Francis B. Holmes, Malbone H. Scott, First +Lieutenant W. H. Craft, J. D. Prenit, Julio Chasagne, John Cline, George +Forster, C. Knoll, Nicholas Port, Patrick McGrath, Charles S. Daily, +James Fiddes, S. H. Prenell, W. L. Wilkinson, C. Cook, James Chapman, +James Brady, Henry B. Hart, Jacob Fonts, Preston Esces, William +Cameron, Thomas Mourou, Isaac Fresborn, Cornelius Derby, Peter Falbos, +Benjamin Harrer; + +_From England_: William Caussans, John Nowes; + +_From Ireland_: Henry B. Metcalfe, George Metcalfe, James Porter, Thomas +McDellans; + +_From Cuba_: Bernardo Allen, Francisco Curbiay Garcia, Ramon J. Arnau, +José Dovren, Manuel Martinez, Antonio Hernandez, Martin Milesimo; + +_From Germany_: Johannes Sucit, Edward Wisse, Wilhelm Losner, Robert +Seelust, Ciriac Senelpi; + +_From Matanzas_: Ramon Ignacio Amaso; + +_From Hungary_: George Baptista; + +_From New Granada_: Andres Gonzales; + +_From Alquizar_: Francisco A. Leve; + +_From Bayamo_: Manuel Diaz; + +_From Navarre_: Antonio Romero; + +_From Spain_: Francisco J. Zamaro; + +_Nationality not Stated_: Antonio L. Alfonso, Manuel Aragon, Jose +Bojanoti y Rubina, Joaquin Casanova, Miguel Guerra, William MacKinney, +Dandrig Seay, Leonardo Sugliorti, J. D. Baker and Luis Bander. + +In accordance with the Captain-General's proclamation, the execution of +Lopez took place on the morning of September 1. The scaffold was erected +on a platform ten feet high, in a flat space opposite Morro. The garrote +consists of a post, and a stool on which sits the prisoner, while a +metal collar is passed around his neck and fastens him securely to the +post. A screw having long arms is attached to the post, by means of +which, at one turn, metal points are thrust into the victim's neck, +causing dislocation and death. + +There were present on this occasion, three thousand infantry, two +hundred cavalry and twenty thousand witnesses. Lopez presented a calm +and dignified appearance. With his hands tightly bound he walked to the +front of the platform and said in a strong, clear voice: + +"I pray the persons who have compromised me to pardon me, as I pardon +them. My death will not change the destinies of Cuba." + +Then as the executioner bade him be quick, he exclaimed: + +"Adieu, my comrades! Adieu, my beloved Cuba, adieu!" + +Thus died a man, as brave in his last hours as he had been during all +the strange fortunes and vicissitudes of his adventurous life, who had +sacrificed everything for a principle which seemed to him dearer than +all the material benefits which the world might have conferred upon him. +The Spanish leaders destroyed his body, but they could never destroy +that far more precious thing, the spirit of freedom which he had +instilled in the minds and the hearts of the Cubans, and which was to +live after him and at last lead Cuba to victory. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + + +Lopez had failed. Such was the obvious judgment of the world. Upon the +face of the matter, his expedition had ended in disaster and utter +tragedy. The first serious attempt to achieve the separation of Cuba +from Spain had come to naught. It had been completely suppressed and its +promoters had been destroyed. + +In a broader, deeper and more significant sense, however, the enterprise +and sacrifice of Lopez and his comrades had splendidly succeeded. That +valiant pioneer of Cuban liberation had indeed "builded better than he +knew." For his enterprise marked an epoch in Cuban history; the most +important since Columbus's discovery of the island. The abortive +attempts at emancipation, which had been sporadically but feebly active +since the days of the emulators of Bolivar, had by Lopez's efforts been +marvelously and effectively resuscitated. The movement which had been +nurtured by the "Soles de Bolivar," but which its members had been +unable, because of smallness of numbers and lack of funds and of +leadership, to make much more than a cherished ideal--for the attempts +at revolt had been still-born, choked almost on their conception--had +under Lopez been imbued with lusty life, and was never again to +languish. A force had been set in operation which could not and did not +cease its action until, though many weary years afterward, the end which +Lopez had foreseen was attained, and Cuba was securely placed among the +independent nations of the world. We say that Lopez "builded better than +he knew." That was literally true because his plans were merely for the +transfer of Cuban sovereignty from oppressive and reactionary Spain to +liberal and progressive America; building upon the foundation thus +outlined by him, subsequent bolder spirits constructed the triumphant +edifice of complete independence of which he had not so much as dreamed. + +The immediate results of the Lopez expedition were prodigious. It is not +easy, at this time and distance, to appreciate fully the tremendous +sensation which was caused, not only in Cuba and in Spain, but, to a +considerable extent, throughout the world, or at least, throughout that +most important portion of the world which had its frontage upon the +Atlantic Ocean, and which possessed more or less direct interests in the +countries of the Caribbean Sea. For a full appreciation of this, it is +necessary to take into consideration certain circumstances which are now +almost forgotten. + +We must remember that down to this time the world at large had been +profoundly ignorant of Cuba, save in the most general and external +manner. Spain, as we have already indicated in these pages, had long +pursued a persistent policy of secrecy and isolation. Cuba was not +allowed to know much of the outside world, and the outside world was not +allowed to know much of Cuba. A strict censorship was maintained over +information both entering and leaving the island. Marked inhospitality +was shown to travelers and visitors to discourage them from penetrating +the island or acquainting themselves with the real condition of its +affairs. Practically Cuba remained, so far as its social, economic and +political conditions were concerned, a _terra incognita_. The world knew +almost nothing of its natural wealth and its inestimable resources, its +potentialities of greatness. + +Now, in the baleful light of a great tragedy, the island was suddenly +thrust forward into the world's most intense publicity. From being a +minor colonial possession of a decadent power, it was transformed into +one of the foremost international issues. The eyes of two continents +were fixed upon it, while the hands of those continents involuntarily +reached for sword hilts in preparation for a decisive conflict which +might shake the foundations of the civilized world. + +Let us consider first the interests and sentiments of Spain at this +great crisis in her affairs. Hitherto she had regarded Cuba as a +helpless province, politically negligible, although economically of +immense value as the "milch cow of the Peninsula." The several +insurrections which had occurred had indeed been annoying, and, at +times, costly, but they had been suppressed with little difficulty, and +there had never been a thought of their really menacing Spain's +sovereignty over the island. Nor had there been any fear of losing the +island through alien aggression or intervention. Spain's title to Cuba +had been repeatedly underwritten by the United States of America, at the +hands of John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John Forsyth; as we have +hitherto seen. For a full generation Spain had confidently depended upon +both the purpose and the power of the United States to protect her in +her ownership of Cuba. But now came a revolt which in itself was +immeasurably more formidable than all the slave insurrections put +together, and which was, most ominous of all, operated from the United +States, with the obvious sympathy, if not with the actual aid, of the +people of that country. This powerful protector of Spain in Cuba was +assuming the character of a possible conqueror. The troubles of Cuba +were, therefore, no longer merely local, nor even national; they had +risen to international proportions. They menaced not only the domestic +tranquillity of Spain, but also her international relations with that +power from which, of all in the world, she had cause most to fear. + +No less marked was the effect of these events upon the Cubans. They were +made to feel that at last "the die was cast." An irrevocable step had +been taken. The dreamer had awakened; plans and conspiracies had been +transmuted into militant action. It is true that comparatively few of +the Cubans had been directly concerned or, at least, could be proved to +have been directly concerned in the undertakings of Lopez, but it was +quite certain that thereafter they would all be regarded as having +sympathized, and as being potential insurgents, with arms as well as +with ideas. Nothing thereafter could ever be as it had been before. The +Cuban people were vicariously committed to the policy of forcible +separation from Spain. War was begun and it would be war to the knife, +and the knife to the hilt. + +In Cuba, the Spanish authorities realized this change in Cuban +sentiment, and kept a sharp outlook for any signs of uprising. They also +"made examples" of any and everyone who came under suspicion of having +been in sympathy with Lopez, or of having any plans for starting a +similar movement. Thus some boys, who were outspoken in their +expressions of sympathy with the cause of freedom from Spain, were +seized and summarily executed without trial. Feeling ran high; native +born Cubans refused to associate with those of Spanish birth, and in +many cases even to speak of them. A carnival was about to be celebrated +in Santiago de Cuba, but it was abandoned, and the city went into +mourning. + +To retaliate some Spaniards sent out invitations for a ball at the +Filarmonia, the famous theatre in Santiago where, years afterward, +Adelina Patti made her début. This was resented as an insult by the +native Cubans of the city. Some hot-blooded young men forced an entrance +into the hall where the ball was being held, and rushing forward +destroyed a picture of Queen Isabella which hung at one end of the room. +Immediately everything was in an uproar, men were shouting and fighting, +and women were fainting. In the mêlée the disturbers escaped, and the +matter was hushed up, for the Spanish authorities feared that the +trouble might be made the occasion of another uprising, and so made no +attempt to secure the names of the culprits. + +But this was just the prelude for worse disaster. A wealthy Cuban woman, +with more money than judgment, decided to act as mediator and bring the +enraged parties together. She took a strange means for accomplishing her +object, issuing invitations for a party to both prominent Spaniards and +Cubans of the best families. When the ball took place it is difficult to +say who were the more dismayed and astonished, the Cubans when they saw +who had been invited to meet them, or the haughty Spanish grandees, who +hated the Cubans. An even wilder scene than that at the Filarmonia took +place. Women were thrown to the floor, their clothing torn, and their +bodies trampled on. The chandeliers were torn from the ceiling, many +windows were broken, men fought in hand to hand combat, and when it was +all over the injured had been removed, the hall which had been intended +for a scene of pleasure was wrecked and rent beyond description. Six +people were killed on this occasion, including one Spanish woman of high +rank, and over a hundred were more or less seriously injured. Arrests +were promptly made, but it was the Cubans who suffered, for no Spaniards +were apprehended. Several boys from the best Creole families were thrust +without trial into the dungeons of Morro Castle, from whence they were +transported to the Spanish penal institution at Ceuta, and never again +heard of. Those who were quick enough made their escape to the United +States, and the woman who was so foolish as to give the party hastily +left the island, without heralding her going. + +The Cubans were thoroughly aroused against Spain, and more and more +there began to grow within them the desire not for annexation to the +United States but for complete independence, and a government of their +own making. At last the people were finding themselves, and higher +aspirations and new longings were stirring in their souls. + +The Captain General, fearing new uprisings, began to get the island in +better shape for defense from aggression from within. He strengthened +the fortifications, and established a more central control over the army +and navy, so that from headquarters all army posts and the movement of +all vessels might be more easily governed. To further this end he built +new roads, and improved old ones, and he took into his own hands as +Captain-General a closer control and supervision of matters military. + +Perhaps nothing could be more indicative of the Cuban feeling and of the +conditions on the Island at this time than are contained in the +following letter written by a prominent Cuban--a man of the highest +intelligence and from one of the best known families--to a friend: + +"The cause of the liberty of nations has always perished in its cradle +because its defenders have never sought to deviate from legal +paths,--because they have followed the principles sanctioned by the laws +of nations, while despots, always the first to exact obedience to them +when it suited their convenience, have been the first to infringe them +when they came into collision with their interests. + +"Their alliances to suppress liberty are called _holy_ and the crimes +they commit by invading foreign territories and summoning foreign troops +to their aid to oppress their own vessels, are sacred duties, +compliances with secret compacts; and, if the congresses, parliaments +and Cortes of other nations, raise the cry to Heaven, they answer, the +government has protested--acts have been performed without their +sanction--there is no remedy--they are acts accomplished. + +"An act accomplished will shortly be the abolition of slavery in Cuba, +and the tardy intervention of the United States will only have taken +place when its brilliant constellation lights up the vast sepulchre +which will cover the bodies of her sons, sacrificed to the black race as +a regard for their sympathies with American institutions, and the vast +carnage it will cost to punish the African victors. What can be done +today, without great sacrifice, to help the Cubans, tomorrow cannot be +achieved without the effusion of rivers of blood, and when the few +surviving Cubans will curse an intervention which, deaf to their cries, +will only be produced by the cold calculations of egotism. Then the +struggle will not be with the Spaniards alone. The latter will now +accede to all the claims of the cabinet at Washington, by the advice of +the ambassadors of France and England, to advance, meanwhile, with surer +step to the end--to give time for the solution of the Eastern question, +and for France and England to send their squadrons into these waters. +Well may they deny the existence of secret treaties; this is very easy +for such beings, as it will be when the case of the present treaty comes +up, asserting that the treaty was posterior to their negative, or +refusing explanations as inconsistent with their dignity. But we witness +the realization of our fears, we see the Spanish government +imperturbably setting on foot plans which were thought to be the +delirium of excited imaginations doing at once what promised to be +gradual work; and hear it declared, by distinguished persons who +possessed the confidence of General Pezuela, that the existence of the +treaty is certain, and that the United States will be told that they +should have accepted the offer made to become a party to it, in which +case the other two powers could not have adopted the abolition scheme. +But supposing this treaty to have no existence, the fact of the +abolition of slavery is no less certain. It is only necessary to read +the proclamation of the Captain-General, if the last acts of the +Government be not sufficiently convincing. The result to the Island of +Cuba and the United States is the same, either way. If the latter do not +hasten to avert the blow, they will soon find it impossible to remedy +the evil. In the Island there is not a reflecting man--foreigner or +native, Creole or European--who does not tremble for the future that +awaits us, at a period certainly not far remote." + +Thus did the Cubans look forward with hope to, and at the same time +fear, the future. And meanwhile the tragedy of Lopez was having a +wide-spread effect on the feeling of the people, and on political +conditions in other countries. + +In the United States a profound impression was produced of a triple +character. There was, in the first place, the international point of +view. It was realized that the United States was being brought +uncomfortably near the possibility of a serious controversy, if not of +actual war with Spain. The neutrality laws had been evaded, and there +was every prospect that such evasions would thereafter be repeated. The +whole question of American relations with Cuba was acutely reopened, and +both those who favored and those who opposed the acquisition of that +island by the United States were made to realize that a momentous +decision might be called for at any moment. + +There was, in the second place, the point of view of the pro-slavery +states of the South, and their leaders, who were generally in control of +the national government at Washington. The South strongly favored Cuban +annexation, either voluntary or forcible. The island was wanted as Texas +and other Mexican territories had been wanted, to provide for the +extension of slave territory and for the addition of new slave states to +the union to counter-balance the new free states which were about to +seek admission at the north. There was also a passionate desire to avoid +the calamity of having Cuba made, as the other Spanish-American +countries had been made, free soil, thus encircling the slave states +with an unbroken ring of anti-slavery territory. Moreover, at this time +the spirit of conquest and of expansion was very much abroad in the +land. The lust for territory which had prevailed in the Mexican War was +by no means satisfied. Men still regarded it as the manifest destiny of +the United States to "lick all creation." In the geography of the +popular mind, the United States was, or was destined to be, "bounded on +the north by the aurora borealis, on the south by the precession of the +equinoxes, on the east by primeval chaos, and on the west by the day of +judgment." Under such circumstances, the attitude of the people of the +United States south of Mason and Dixon's line was unmistakable. + +There was also the point of view of the increasingly anti-slavery north. +During the Mexican war a strong aversion to territorial expansion by +conquest for the sake of slave soil had been manifested, and this +feeling was steadily increasing in extent and in influence. It +manifested itself by opposition to Cuban annexation. At the same time, +the commercial instinct was strong in the great cities of the north, and +there was an earnest desire to do nothing which might interfere with the +profitable trade which already existed between this country and Cuba, +and which it was hoped greatly to expand. + +The interest of Great Britain in Cuban affairs was scarcely less than +that of Spain or the United States. That country had once, for a time, +possessed Cuba, and had never forgotten that fact nor ceased to +entertain the desire to renew that possession as a permanent state of +affairs. That country also had very important colonial holdings in the +West Indies, and on the adjacent mainland; being, indeed, an American +power second only to the United States itself. It owned the Bahamas, +Jamaica and other islands, and colonies on the South and Central +American coast, which latter it was at that very time seeking greatly to +extend. It was keenly desirous of enlarging its possessions and forming +a great colonial empire in tropical America, and it realized that +nothing could conduce to that end more than the acquisition of Cuba. In +the prosecution of this policy, a certain "jingo" faction actually went +so far as to pretend that upon the acquisition of Cuba depended Great +Britain's retention of Canada, if not, indeed, of her entire American +holdings. It was represented that if Great Britain did not intervene to +prevent it, the slave-holding South was certain to annex Cuba, and that +this would provoke the abolitionist North into seizing Canada, in order +to provide in that direction free soil to counter-balance the slave soil +of Cuba. Thus, with Canada gone, and Cuba in the hands of the United +States, the remainder of the British holdings in the western hemisphere +would be in deadly jeopardy. Such visions seem at this time fantastic, +and it may be that they were then thus regarded by serious statesmen; +yet they were cherished and were not without their influence. + +Nor was France less deeply and directly interested in Cuba. She, too, +had colonies in the West Indies and on the South American coast. She had +never forgotten her former vast empire in North America, nor ceased to +regret its loss. She was soon to enter upon a campaign of conquest in +Mexico. She had at various times, both during and since the Napoleonic +era, entertained designs upon peninsular Spain itself, and she had +repeatedly made direct overtures for a protectorate over Cuba. + +These circumstances caused international relations to be ominously +strained in more than one direction, and as soon as news reached the +United States of the execution of those companions of Lopez who were +members of prominent families in the southern states, there arose a +widespread and furious storm of wrath. The center of this was, +naturally, at New Orleans, where the majority of Lopez's followers had +been recruited and where their families resided, and in that city an +infuriated mob stormed and destroyed the Spanish consulate, publicly +defaced a portrait of the Spanish queen, and, in some respects worst of +all, looted a number of shops owned by Spanish merchants. This was most +unfortunate from more than one point of view. It was not only +indefensible and inexcusable in itself, but it put the United States so +much in the wrong as to deter it from taking any action, or indeed +making any protest to Spain on account of the putting to death of the +American prisoners. + +The American Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, made, however, the best +of an unfortunate situation. He took a straightforward course by +immediately apologizing to the Spanish government for the New Orleans +outrages, and recommended to Congress the voting of an adequate +indemnity for the damage which had been done. Having done this, he was +enabled to secure the release of some American members of Lopez's +expedition who had not yet suffered the death penalty. + +Despite this settlement, the Spanish government continued to cherish +much resentment against the United States, partly for the participation +of so many of that country's citizens in the expeditions of Lopez, and +partly because of the outrages in New Orleans, and its Cuban +administration thereafter exhibited an increasing degree of animosity +against Americans. Numerous harsh impositions were put upon American +citizens, for which no redress could be had; and this caused resentment +throughout the United States, in the commercial North as well as in the +slaveholding and expansionist South, and relations between the two +countries steadily drifted from bad to worse. + +Candor compels the frank statement that there was much fault on both +sides. Spain was tremendously at fault because of her misgovernment of +Cuba, and indeed her whole policy in relation to that island, which was +quite unworthy of a civilized power in an enlightened age. A generation +before Spain had practically sacrificed her right to continued +possession of Florida by her maladministration of that territory, which +had made it an intolerable nuisance to the neighboring United States. +She was now making of Cuba a scarcely less international nuisance and +scandal. + +On the other hand, the United States, or some of its people, undoubtedly +gave Spain cause for grievance. The intentions and the conduct of the +United States government were beyond reproach. At the same time, they +were entirely insufficient for the prevention of serious wrongs to +Spain. Webster himself confessed that the United States government had +no power to protect Spanish subjects from such outrages as those which +had just been committed in New Orleans. There was no doubt that the +intentions and conduct of a large portion of the American people were +not only hostile to Spain, but were quite lawless in the manifestation +of that feeling. Among the offenders, moreover, were some men who stood +high in official life and who exerted much political influence. Nor +could these things be so well understood in Spain as in the United +States. Spain could scarcely be expected to distinguish between the case +of a man in his private capacity as a citizen and in his public capacity +as a member of Congress or other official of the government. When she +saw public officials participating in the organization and operations of +the "Order of the Lone Star," the confessed purpose of which was to take +Cuba from Spain by force, and without compensation, she very naturally +assumed that such things were being done with the permission and +sanction of the United States government, if not at its direct +instigation. + +At this point, moreover, a serious complication was injected into the +problem of Spanish-American relations by the attempted intervention of +Great Britain and France. Both these powers sought to persuade Spain +that they were better friends to her, especially in relation to Cuba, +than the United States. They impressed upon her the idea that the United +States intended to take Cuba away from her, while they were willing to +respect her title to it, and to protect her in possession of it. + +These suggestions were followed by the menace of overt acts which, if +committed, would have had very serious results. In 1851, the British and +French governments let it be known that instructions had been given to +their naval commanders to increase their forces in the waters adjacent +to Cuba, and to exercise guardianship over the shores of that island to +prevent the landing of any more filibustering expeditions from the +United States or elsewhere, such as those of Lopez. It does not appear +that this was done at the request of Spain. It was probably an entirely +gratuitous performance intended partly to ingratiate the Spanish +government, and partly to prevent the possibility of the seizure by the +United States of Cuba. But it was certainly a most unwarrantable +meddling in affairs which concerned only the United States and Spain. No +possible justification for it could be found in international law. In +the absence of a state of war, it was intolerable that vessels under the +United States flag should be subjected to search upon the high seas, +while, when they reached Cuban territorial waters, no other power than +Spain had any right to interfere with them. + +Daniel Webster was at that time ill and unable to perform the duties of +his office, but J. J. Crittenden, who was acting as Secretary of State, +made a forcible protest against any such action by Great Britain and +France, and gave warning in the plainest terms that it would not be +tolerated by the United States, and that any interference with American +shipping between the United States and Cuba would be resented in the +most vigorous manner. The result was that the British and French navies +refrained from the contemplated meddling. + +Following this, however, Spain made a direct appeal to the British +government for protection against American aggression. The request was +not so much for immediate military intervention as for securing treaty +guarantees. The British government was in a receptive mood, and, in +consequence, in April, 1852, it proposed to the United States that that +country should join it and France in a tripartite convention, +guaranteeing to Spain continued and unmolested possession of Cuba, and +explicitly renouncing any designs of their own for the acquisition of +that island. It may be recalled that a similar proposal had been made by +Great Britain and France in 1825, and that its acceptance had been +favored by no less an American statesman than Thomas Jefferson, +although, under the wiser counsels of John Quincy Adams, it had been +rejected. + +At this renewal of the proposal, in 1852, rejection was prompt and +emphatic. Edward Everett was then the Secretary of State, under the +Presidency of Millard Fillmore, and he refused positively to enter into +any such compact. His ground was that American interests in Cuba and +American relations toward that island were radically different, in kind +as well as in degree, from those of any other power. That was of course +a perfectly logical and sincere application of the principles of the +Monroe Doctrine, and of the traditional policy of the United States in +refusing to permit European intervention in the affairs of the United +States or in affairs exclusively concerning the United States and a +single European power. + +It may be assumed that Everett had in mind at the time, also, the +exceedingly unsatisfactory results of an attempt to establish just such +a tripartite protectorate guarantee over the Hawaiian Islands. + +There was still another reason for the refusal of the United States to +enter into such a compact. That country had already and repeatedly +guaranteed the Spanish possession of Cuba as against the aggressions of +any other power, but it had not guaranteed and would not guarantee her +possession of Cuba against the self-assertion of the Cuban people. It +recognized the right of revolution. It knew that the Cubans were +dissatisfied, and that with good reason, with Spanish rule, and that +sooner or later they would successfully revolt and establish their +independence, and it had no thought of making itself the accomplice of +Spain in repressing their aspirations for liberty. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + +The United States government, both before and immediately after the +expeditions of Lopez, exhibited an increasing desire to acquire +possession of Cuba by purchase or otherwise. We have already referred to +the historic expression of John Quincy Adams upon this subject. It is +also to be recalled that in 1823, in commenting upon the prospective +results of the Monroe Doctrine, Thomas Jefferson looked upon Cuba as the +most interesting addition that could be made to the United States. The +control which, with Florida, this island would give the United States +over the Gulf of Mexico, and all the countries bordering thereon, as +well as all those whose waters flowed into the Gulf, would well be, he +thought, the measure of American well-being. Such an end could be +attained, he added, by no other means than that of war, and that was +something to which he was reluctant to resort. He was, therefore, +willing to accept the next best thing, to wit, the independence of Cuba, +and especially its independence of England. James Madison, at the same +time, and discussing the same general subject, expressed much curiosity +to know what England's attitude toward Cuba would be, and what the +rights of the United States toward that island would be, under the +Monroe Doctrine. John C. Calhoun was willing to pledge the United States +not to take Cuba, although he had already expressed a desire for such +acquisition, and Monroe himself would have adopted Calhoun's policy, had +it not been for the resolute opposition of John Quincy Adams. That +strenuous patriot was for reserving the plenary rights and powers of +the United States, and for permitting Europe to have nothing whatever to +do in the matter, and his counsel fortunately prevailed. + +A little later, after the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine and in the +course of Congressional discussion of the Panama Congress, it was +emphatically stated in the Senate that, because of the great interest in +the United States in Cuba, there ought to be no discussion with other +powers concerning the destiny of that island, particularly with Colombia +and Mexico, which were then contemplating the invasion of Cuba in order +to take her forcibly from Spain. The British government, in August, +1825, proposed to the United States government, through its minister in +London, that the United States, Great Britain and France should unite in +a treaty engagement that none of them would take Cuba for itself or +permit of the taking of it by either of the others. This proposal was +promptly rejected by the United States. One of the grounds for her +rejection of it was that such action guaranteeing Spain her possession +of Cuba would encourage her to prolong indefinitely her struggle with +her other American colonies. Another was that this country had already +declared that it did not mean to seize Cuba for itself, and that it +would not permit its seizure by any other power. The United States +apparently did not fear that Great Britain would attempt to seize the +island, since for her to do so would mean a rupture with the United +States, which was at that time the last thing that the British +government desired. There was much more cause to fear that France might +attempt to take forcible possession of Cuba, and the suspicion that she +might do so was strengthened by the fact that while, at first, she +indicated a willingness to enter into the arrangement proposed by Great +Britain, she suddenly changed her attitude, and refused to do so. As a +result of this change of front on the part of France, the United States +government, in September, 1825, instructed its minister at Paris to +inform the French government that under no contingency, either with or +without the consent of Spain, would the United States permit France to +occupy Cuba. + +Scarcely less marked was the opposition of the United States to any +scheme for the acquirement of Cuba by any of the American republics. It +was notorious that both Colombia and Mexico had designs upon Cuba. These +were not so much that either of these countries should acquire the +island for itself, but that Cuba and Porto Rico should, nilly willy, be +taken away from Spain and made independent, and that thus Spain should +be deprived of her last foothold in the Western hemisphere. This purpose +was cherished, not only as a matter of sentiment, but as one of +prudence. Spain was still trying to reconquer her revolted American +provinces, and her possession of Cuba, of course, afforded her an +admirable base for such operations. But the United States government +took the ground that any such intervention in Cuba would make it much +more difficult to secure Spanish recognition of the independence of the +Central and South American States. In addition, there was +undoubtedly--indeed it was very openly, emphatically and repeatedly +expressed--the unwillingness of the slaveholding southern states of the +United States to see Cuba made free soil, as the other Spanish colonies +had been. It was because of the former consideration, however, that the +American Secretary of State, Henry Clay, immediately after the rejection +of the British proposal for a tripartite guarantee, addressed a note to +the governments of Colombia and Mexico, urging them to refrain from +sending the expeditions which they were fitting out against the Spanish +power in Cuba. To this request, the Colombian government promptly +acceded, and so informed not only the United States, but also the +government of Russia, which was, at that time, endeavoring to mediate +between Spain and her late American colonies. The Mexican government did +not receive the request so favorably, though it did withhold the +threatened expedition. + +With such antecedents set forth, we can more perfectly understand the +attitude of the United States toward Cuba at the time of which we are +now writing. In 1848 a change of policy occurred, and the United States +entered upon a new attitude. At that time James K. Polk was President of +the United States, and James Buchanan was his Secretary of State; both +men of southern, proslavery and expansionist proclivities. The American +minister to Spain was Romulus M. Saunders, of North Carolina, also a +proslavery expansionist. He was instructed by Polk and Buchanan to sound +the Spanish government as to the terms on which it would sell Cuba to +the United States. The response to his overtures was immediate and left +no room for doubt as to Spain's position. It was to the effect that Cuba +was not for sale. Under no circumstances would the Spanish government so +much as consider the sale of the island at any price whatever. No +Spanish Minister of State would venture for a moment to entertain such a +proposal. Such was the feeling of the Spanish government and of the +Spanish nation, that they would rather see Cuba sunk in the depths of +the sea, if it were possible, than transferred to the sovereignty of any +other power. Cuba was the "Ever-Faithful Isle." She was the last +remnant, the priceless memento of Spain's once vast empire in America, +and as such she would be forever retained and treasured. Although not +openly expressed, there was undoubtedly the additional feeling that +Spain had already suffered too much spoliation at the hands of the +United States. The United States, under Jefferson, had practically +compelled Spain to sacrifice her vast Louisiana territory by nominally +selling, but really giving it outright, to France. It had next taken +West Florida from her without compensation. Following this, under the +Monroe Doctrine, it had compelled her to sell it East Florida for a +pitifully inadequate sum, not one dollar of which had ever found its way +into the Spanish treasury. It had aided, abetted, and protected the +Central and South American provinces in their revolt. Certainly, after +such a record, it would be unthinkable to permit the United States to +proceed with the acquisition of the last remaining portion of the +Spanish American empire. The overtures for the United States purchase of +Cuba were, therefore, for the time being, abruptly abandoned, but it was +significant that they were promptly followed by the expeditions of Lopez +and the widespread and intense manifestations of American interest +therein. + +There next occurred one of the most noteworthy and it must be confessed +least creditable episodes in the whole story of the relations between +the United States, Cuba and Spain. Franklin Pierce became President of +the United States, and the active and aggressive William L. Marcy was +his Secretary of State. Because of the strained relations between Spain +and the United States, growing out of the Lopez expeditions, there was a +well defined expectation that Marcy would pursue a vigorous policy +leading to the annexation of Cuba, even at the cost of war with Spain. +Marcy was an expansionist, and would doubtless have been glad to have +annexed Cuba, but he was something more than an expansionist. He was a +statesman. He therefore considered the subject from its various aspects +with a prudence and conservatism which were probably not at all pleasing +to the impetuous proslavery propagandists of the south, but which were +in the highest degree creditable to his good sense and to the honor of +the United States. Unfortunately not even Marcy could remain entirely +exempt from political and partizan considerations. He was practically +compelled to acquiesce in the appointment as his minister to Spain of +one of the more egregious misfits that ever disgraced American +diplomacy. This man was Pierre Soule. He was of French origin, and had +been a political conspirator and prisoner in that country. He had come +to the United States as a refugee, but had continued there his political +intrigues and revolutionary designs. Settling in New Orleans, he had +been in active sympathy with the filibustering enterprises of Lopez and +others against the Spanish rule in Cuba; he was suspected of having +incited the anti-Spanish mob in that city; and he was known to be an +ardent advocate of the annexation of Cuba by any means which might prove +effective. The choice of such a man as American minister to Spain was +certainly extraordinary. It must be assumed that Marcy agreed to it only +with great reluctance and under protest; while it is plausible, and +indeed permissible, to suspect that some ulterior influence dictated it +for the deliberate purpose of provoking trouble with Spain. + +In these circumstances, Marcy did his best. He instructed Soule to +repress his anti-Spanish zeal, to do nothing which would irritate +Spanish susceptibilities, and especially to be particularly cautious in +making any suggestions or overtures concerning a change of relations in +Cuba. He instructed him, however, to seek reparation for the gross +injuries which Americans had undoubtedly suffered in Cuba, and to +suggest to the Spanish government that it would greatly facilitate the +friendly conduct of affairs for it to invest the Captain-General or +other governor of Cuba with a degree of diplomatic authority and +functions so that complaint could be addressed to him, and indeed all +such matters could be negotiated with him directly, instead of their +being referred to the government at Madrid. He did not urge Soule to +seek the purchase of Cuba, but he did authorize him to enter into +negotiations to that end, if the Spanish government should manifest a +favorable inclination. + +Despite these wise instructions and admonitions, Soule promptly entered +upon a career of the wildest indiscretion. He went to Spain by way of +France, where he was under political proscription, and this gave offence +to the government of that country. On arriving at Madrid, he immediately +quarreled with the French party there, and fought a duel with the French +ambassador in which the latter was crippled for life. + +Then word came to him that the Spanish authorities at Havana had seized +an American steamer, the _Black Warrior_. That steamer had, for a long +time, been plying regularly between the United States and Cuba in a +perfectly legitimate way. There was not the slightest proof or +suggestion that she had ever engaged in filibustering or in any +illegitimate commerce. Indeed she was not accused of it. But she was +seized and her cargo was condemned simply for alleged disregard of some +insignificant port regulation which, as a matter of fact, had not been +enforced or observed by any vessel for many years. The master of the +vessel resented and protested against the seizure and when the Spanish +authorities arbitrarily persisted in it, he abandoned the vessel +altogether, and reported the circumstances to the United States +government. The President promptly laid the matter before Congress at +Washington, stating that a demand for redress and indemnity was being +made. Passions flamed high in Congress, and southern members made +speeches demanding war and the conquest of Cuba. Marcy, however, +retained his sanity of judgment, and contented himself with instructing +Soule at Madrid to demand an indemnity of $300,000 and to express the +hope that the Spanish government would disavow and rebuke the act which +it was confidently assumed had not been authorized and could not be +approved. This gave Soule a fine opportunity to show himself a capable +diplomat and to do a good stroke of work, for Spain was manifestly wrong +and a proper presentation of the case would doubtless have caused her to +accede pretty promptly to Marcy's reasonable demands. + +Soule began well. He followed Marcy's instructions closely at the +outset, and had a friendly and temperate interview with the Spanish +Minister for Foreign Affairs; but when three days thereafter had passed +without a complete settlement, he seemed altogether to lose his head. He +sent to the minister a peremptory note, demanding payment of the +indemnity, and the immediate dismissal from the Spanish service of all +persons in any way responsible for the seizure of the _Black Warrior_. +If this was not done within forty-eight hours, he added, he would +immediately demand his passports and sever diplomatic relations between +the two countries. With customary arrogance, he instructed the messenger +by whom he transmitted the note to call the attention of the Spanish +minister to the exact hour and minute at which the messenger should +deliver the note into his hands, and to remind him that an answer would +be expected, under penalty, within forty-eight hours after that precise +moment of time. Worst of all, perhaps, this occurred during Holy Week, +when it was not customary for the Spanish government to transact any +business which could possibly be deferred. + +The Spanish Minister for Foreign Affairs was Calderon de la Barca, who +had formerly been Spanish minister to the United States, and with whom +Soule had personally very violently quarrelled at Washington. With +characteristic Spanish courtesy, he very promptly, within twenty-four +hours, replied to Soule that the matter would be most carefully +considered at the earliest possible moment, but that it manifestly would +not be practicable, and indeed would not be just, to dispose of so +important a matter so hastily, and upon the hearing of only one side of +it. He also added, quite properly, that the Spanish government was not +accustomed to being addressed in so harsh and imperious a manner, and +that he could not regard such a mode of procedure as calculated to +facilitate the amicable settlement which both parties undoubtedly +desired. + +Thus placed, through his own folly, at a hopeless disadvantage, Soule +abandoned the case. He sent to Marcy his own absurd and unauthorized +ultimatum, together with Calderon's dignified and statesmanlike reply, +possibly in the vain hope that Marcy would back him up in the impossible +attitude which he had assumed. Of course, Marcy did nothing of the sort. +As a matter of fact, it was not necessary for Marcy to pay any attention +whatever to Soule's report, since, before it reached Washington, the +Spanish authorities in Cuba had restored the _Black Warrior_ to her +owners, with the amplest possible amends for their improper seizure of +her, and the whole incident was thus happily ended. + +The project of acquiring Cuba for the United States continued to be +cherished by the American government. It must be supposed that the +Secretary of State appreciated the immense value of Cuba, both in its +resources and in its strategic position and so, for that reason, was +desirous of acquiring the island. It must also be believed that he was +to a degree moved by a desire to get rid of what he plainly saw would be +a perennial cause of annoyance and even of danger. Since the beginning +of the nineteenth century, Cuba had been a cause of anxiety to the +United States, and since the beginning of insurrections in that island, +and especially insurrections looking to the United States for sympathy +and aid, there was a constantly increasing danger of unpleasant and +possibly hostile complications with Spain. There is no indication, +however, that Marcy ever had any other thought than that of the peaceful +acquisition of the island through friendly negotiations. It was most +unfortunate that because of the political conditions which prevailed +during that administration, he was compelled to act through unfit and +indeed unworthy agents. + +At the beginning of 1854, Mr. Marcy directed the United States ministers +to Spain, France and Great Britain to confer among themselves as to the +best means, if indeed any were practicable, to persuade Spain to sell +Cuba to the United States, and at the same time to avoid or to overcome +objections which France and Great Britain might make to such a +transaction. That was a perfectly legitimate proposal, and indeed, under +the circumstances, was desirable and should have been productive of +excellent results. Its fatal defect lay in the personality of the men +who were called upon to put it into execution. The minister to Spain was +Soule, of whom we have already heard enough to indicate his very +conspicuous unfitness for the task assigned to him. The minister to +France was James M. Mason, a Virginian, and one of the most aggressive +and extreme Southern advocates of the extension of slavery. The +minister to Great Britain was James Buchanan, who was afterward +President of the United States, a northern man with strong southern +sympathies and in complete subservience to the slaveholding interests of +the south. The result of a conference among these three was practically +a foregone conclusion. + +They came together at Ostend in the summer of 1854, and a little later +concluded their deliberations at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the result of +their conference was embodied in that extraordinary document known to +history as the Ostend Manifesto. + +That document, which was drawn up in October, 1854, and was signed by +these three ministers and sent by them to Mr. Marcy, was written chiefly +by Soule. It set forth the various reasons why, in the opinion of Soule +and his colleagues, Cuba ought to belong to the United States. A variety +of reasons was set forth, but chief among them was this, that such +acquisition of Cuba was necessary for the security and perpetuity of the +slave system in the United States. Then Soule went on to tell why Spain +ought to be willing to sell the island, and why Britain and France ought +to be willing for her to sell it to the United States. The price to be +paid for Cuba was not stated. It ought not, however, Soule said, to +exceed a certain maximum sum to be prescribed by the United States; and +there are reasons for believing that the price which Soule had in mind +was $120,000,000. All this was bad enough. It was far removed from what +Marcy had intended. But the worst was to come. With astounding +effrontery and cynicism, the manifesto proceeded to say that if Spain +should be so swayed by the voice of her own interest and actuated by a +false sense of honor as to refuse to sell Cuba, then, by every law, +human and divine, the United States would be justified in taking Cuba +forcibly from her, on the ground that such seizure was necessary for the +protection of the domestic peace of the United States. This Manifesto +was sent by the three ministers to Marcy, with a memorandum written by +Soule, suggesting that that would be a good time to start a war with +Spain for the seizure of Cuba, because France and Great Britain were +just then engaged in fighting Russia in the Crimea, and therefore would +not be able to interfere with Spain's behalf. + +Marcy never for a moment, of course, thought of acting upon these +abominable recommendations. The overwhelming sentiment of this nation +would have been against it. Even in the South, the majority of +thoughtful men held that Soule and his colleagues had gone too far, +while throughout the North, the Manifesto was scathingly denounced as a +proposal of international brigandage. Not only in Spain, but almost +equally in France and Great Britain, American diplomacy and the honor of +the American government were regarded as seriously compromised. In these +circumstances Marcy, to whom the Manifesto must have been revolting, +very adroitly declined to recognize its real purport, but insisted upon +interpreting it in an entirely different way from that which its authors +had intended. The result was that the note was practically pigeonholed. + +Soule was so chagrined and enraged at this disposition of a favorite +child of his mind that he resigned his office as Minister to Spain, to +the unmistakable relief both of Marcy and of the Spanish government. +Buchanan, another of the signers, became President of the United States +a couple of years later, and in his second annual message, in December, +1858, sought to revive the Manifesto, referring to the possibility of +its sometime being necessary for the United States to seize Cuba under +the law of self-preservation. He also requested Congress to appropriate +$30,000,000 for the purchase of the island, and a bill to that effect +was introduced, but it was never pressed to final passage. Again in 1859 +he referred to the subject, being still apparently obsessed with the +idea that the conquest of Cuba was necessary for the preservation of the +United States, but on this occasion his reference to the subject was +entirely ignored by Congress. Then came the Civil War in the United +States, which, for a number of years, debarred that country from paying +any attention to the affairs of its southern neighbor. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + + +The years following the close of the Civil War in the United States were +marked with momentous occurrences in various other countries, +particularly in Cuba, and the two nations with which she had long been +intimately connected, Mexico and Spain. + +The beginning of the year 1866 in Peninsular Spain saw General Prim +heading a revolutionary body of troops at Aranjuez and at Ocana. These +operations caused great excitement, and feeling ran high throughout the +kingdom, for they were generally regarded as indicative and provocative +of a radical change of government. Martial law was, however, promptly +proclaimed at Madrid, and thus countless sympathizers with the +revolution were restrained from taking an active part in it. The army of +the government, under General Zabala, hastened to the scene of the +insurrection, and pursued the revolutionary troops with such vigor that +the latter, including General Prim himself, were compelled to retreat +across the Portuguese frontier near Barracas, since they were, in fact, +only about six hundred strong and were not prepared to make a resolute +stand. In the same month, January, 1866, other revolutionary bodies were +dispersed in Catalonia and Valencia. + +So confident was the royal government of its security, and of the +completeness with which the incipient revolution had been quelled, that +on March 17 it repealed the decree of martial law at the capital. It +was, however, cherishing a fool's paradise. The spirit of revolution was +at work, and was bound soon to reassert itself. Its next manifestation +occurred in June, when two regiments of soldiers in Madrid itself +mutinied and repudiated their officers, who had refused to join them in +their action. These troops were well armed, having twenty-six cannon, +and were soon reinforced by large numbers of volunteers from the +populace, so that it was only by a supreme effort that the government +troops were able to defeat and disperse them. + +At the same time, a corresponding movement took place in the garrison at +Gerona, where a considerable body of troops revolted and, when attacked +by government forces, conducted a successful retreat across the French +frontier. Having crossed the boundary, they laid down their arms, but +the larger proportion of them soon found their way back into Spain to +join the impending revolution. Other outbreaks occurred at other points, +all of which were suppressed with difficulty, but with great severity, +many of the leaders being summarily shot as a deterrent example. But +this action instead of being deterrent was provocative. The next +revolutionary manifestation was the formation of a junta at Madrid, +which issued a proclamation setting forth the complaints of the +insurgents against the government, in part as follows: + +"Savage courts have led hundreds of victims to sacrifice, and a woman +has contemplated passively and even with complacency, the scaffold which +has been erected. + +"The Cortes have abjectly sold to the government the safety of the +individual, the civil rights and the well-being of the commonwealth. The +government has overthrown the press and rostrum, and has entrusted the +administration of the provinces to rapacious mandarins and sanguinary +generals; military tribunals have despoiled the rich and transported the +poor to Fernando Po and to the Philippines. + +"The laws of the Cortes have been replaced by decrees squandering the +resources of the country by means of obscure and ruinous laws, trampling +under foot right and virtue, violating homes, property and family; and +during all this time, Isabella II, at Zuranz, and Madrid, meditating a +plot against Italy, our sister, for the benefit of the Roman curia, +participating meanwhile in the depredations of violence of the pachas in +Cuba, who tolerating the fraudulent introduction of slaves, are +outraging public sentiment both in the Old and in the New World, and +causing an estrangement between Spain and the great and glorious +Republic of the United States." + +Thereafter, a reasonable degree of quiet prevailed throughout the +Kingdom, which was merely a lull before the renewal of the storm. On New +Year's day of 1867, the Junta at Madrid issued another proclamation, +announcing to the people of Spain that another revolutionary movement +was about to begin, and inviting them to join it, and share its success. +To this there was not apparently a sufficient response to seem to +warrant action, and it was not until the following August that anything +more was heard of the revolution. The revolutionists, however, were +merely outwardly quiet. Propaganda and organization were being +systematically carried on, and the way was being paved for a really +effective revolt, which would have widespread and far-reaching results +in purging Spain of a tyrannous rule and substituting in its place +republican justice. When the time seemed propitious, in August, General +Prim issued a third proclamation, calling the people to arms, the chief +result of which was an increased degree of vigilance and severity on the +part of the government. Many of the revolutionary leaders were +apprehended and expelled from Spain on suspicion of sympathy and +complicity with the revolution. Among this number were Generals +Serrano, Cordova, Duke, Bedoya, and Zebula, and persons of no less high +standing than the Duke and Duchess of Montpensier. + +It is curious that all through history, movements like that which had +gained such force and impetus in Spain have been met with the high hand +of oppression. Instead of endeavoring to get at the root of the evil, to +realize that since there was so persistent a dissatisfaction there must +be real causes for grievance the removal of which would work toward a +harmonious solution, it has seemed to be impossible for those born in +the purple to understand the problems of the common people, and so when +the latter have risen in revolt, cruelty and injustice, if not actual +outrages, have marked the attempts to extinguish the trouble. The result +has ever been the same. The story of the attempts to suppress the revolt +in Spain differs not at all from the same story written on the pages of +the history of other nations. The increased oppression on the part of +the government only served to fan the smouldering fire into flame. The +popular wrath and indignation against the queen and her underlings bade +fair to burst into a huge conflagration. + +In consequence, when the next overt act of insurrection occurred, at +Cadiz, on September 17, there was a very general response throughout the +Kingdom. General Prim was again at the head of the movement, supported +by General Serrano and the other officers, to whom the sentence of +banishment had not proved effective, since they had found their way back +into Spain. Revolutionary Juntas were formed in almost all of the +provinces, and in a number of the most important cities, and in the +course of a few days the insurgents were in control of a considerable +part of the Kingdom. + +The City of Santander was seized for the revolution on September 21, but +they were obliged to relinquish it to superior forces on September 24. +However, the revolutionists were far from discouraged by this momentary +reverse, and four days later they rallied for their first important +victory, which was followed by a general revolt of the troops in and +about Madrid, and General Concha, the commander of the royal forces, was +compelled to resign. The revolution was now in full swing and gaining +impetus and strength every hour. General Serrano at the head of a +revolutionary army entered Madrid in triumph, followed four days later +by General Prim. Their reception exceeded their wildest expectations. +The city was on fire with revolt. The people greeted them with the +warmest fervor, with shouts of welcome and rejoicing. They were hailed +as the saviors of the nation, as the embodiment of Spain's hope for the +future, and hourly their forces were increased by the addition of +volunteers from all walks of life. + +It is evident that Queen Isabella had not found Madrid a comfortable +abiding place. There is no doubt that she entertained fears for her +personal safety long before it was actually in jeopardy. Some time +previous to these happenings she had, on some pretext, removed the court +from Madrid to San Sebastian, in the Pyrenees, near the French frontier, +and when news of the capture of the Spanish capital reached her, she +lost no time in making her escape across the frontier into France, where +she was met and welcomed by Emperor Napoleon III, at Hendye. Queen +Isabella had good reason to fear the vengeance of the Spanish mob, for +she had long been unpopular, an object of widespread hatred. She +therefore had no intention of returning to Spain while matters were in +such a turbulent condition, and shortly after her arrival in France, +she proceeded to Paris, where she decided to make her home. + +The Juntas which had been established throughout the Kingdom of Spain +were amalgamated by the formation of a National Junta, on October 8, at +Madrid, and a ministry was organized with General Serrano as Prime +Minister, General Prim as Minister of War, Admiral Topete as Minister of +Marine, Señor Figueroa as Minister of Finance, Señor Lorensano as +Minister of Foreign Affairs, Señor Ortiz as Minister of Justice, Señor +Sagasta as Minister of the Interior, Señor Ayala as Minister for the +Colonies and Señor Zorilla as Minister of Public Works. + +The next day, the United States Minister at Madrid, Mr. Hill, notified +General Serrano that his government has given official recognition to +the new order of affairs in Spain, being the first in the world to take +this action. Such was the state of affairs in Spain at the beginning of +the great struggle in Cuba known as the Ten Years' War. + +Conditions in Mexico likewise deserve passing attention. For a number of +years that country had been in a greatly troubled state. Years of +successive revolutions had been followed by the military intervention of +France, and the creation, under the protection of the French army, of a +pinchbeck "empire," with the Archduke Maximilian of Austria as Emperor. +The Mexican people, under the leadership of one of their greatest +statesmen, Benito Juarez, never gave their allegiance to this usurping +government, but maintained a more or less open resistance to it, and it +was sustained for a few years only by the presence of a considerable +French army. + +The United States of America, at this time, was engaged in its great +Civil War, and was therefore unable to do more than to register a formal +protest against French aggressions, which were recognized as a great +violation of the Monroe Doctrine. But when, in the spring of 1865, the +Civil War ended, the triumphant federal armies were moved toward the +Mexican frontier, and the United States Government sent to the French +Government what was practically an ultimatum, requiring it to withdraw +its forces from Mexico. Napoleon III demurred, temporized, and at length +offered to withdraw if the United States would recognize Maximilian as +the lawful emperor of Mexico. This the United States, with great +promptness, refused to do, and the French army was thereupon +unconditionally withdrawn, and the capture and military execution of +Maximilian soon followed, the final tragedy occurring on June 19, 1867. +This left the United States with its prestige immeasurably enhanced and +free to pay such attention as might be necessary to the affairs of Cuba, +the only part of the western hemisphere in which European despotism was +still maintained. + +The policy of the United States Government, and the sentiment of the +people of that country toward Cuba, had been materially modified by the +Civil War and its results. There was, of course, no longer any thought +of acquiring Cuba for the sake of expanding and fortifying the slave +power, but on the contrary, American influence was now exerted, so far +as it could properly be, toward prevailing upon the Spanish Government +to abolish slavery in Cuba. The Cuban revolutionists were almost without +exception in favor of such emancipation of the negroes, and that fact +caused them to be regarded with increased favor in the United States, +both officially and popularly. American influence was also exerted +toward the persuasion of Spain to give Cuba a more liberal and +beneficent government and to improve the commercial relations between +that island and the United States, for the benefit of both parties. +There was some expectation in both Cuba and the United States--a very +plausible belief--that the revolutionary movement in Spain, liberal and +democratic in character, and aiming at the establishment of a republic +in place of the Bourbon monarchy, would be accompanied by the grant of +liberal institutions and democratic freedom to Cuba; but such was not +the case. + +During the Civil War, because of the suspension of the sugar industry in +the southern part of the United States, there had been a vast and +immensely profitable development of the sugar industry in Cuba, and this +seemed to be dependent for its success upon the continuance of slave +labor. These conditions strengthened the Spanish party in Cuba, which +was equally devoted to the maintenance of slavery and to Spanish +domination in the Island. + +The Spanish party in Cuba, at this time, as we have seen, was known as +the "Peninsulars," and it comprised a great majority of the office +holders and wealthy planters and slave-holders. It was well organized +throughout the Island for the assertion of political influence, and for +the suppression of insurgent movements. Its central authority was in a +wealthy club at Havana, called the "Casino Espagnol," and similar clubs +on a more modest scale, existed in other cities and important towns +throughout Cuba, and from these, and under their control, there arose a +body known as the "Volunteers." This was ostensibly a military +organization to whose battalions all white men in the Island were +eligible, but as a matter of fact, membership in the Volunteers was +substantially confined to conservatives, loyalists and Spanish +sympathizers. The Volunteers, except in a few special cases, did not go +into the field, but left the actual fighting with insurgents to be done +by regular Spanish troops. They gave their own attention chiefly to the +overawing of the inhabitants of the cities and towns, and to +restraining them from joining the revolutions. They also acted as spies, +discovering and reporting to the Spanish Government the doings of Cuban +patriots. The leaders of the organization formed a "Council of +Colonels," meeting at the Casino Espagnol, and forming a sort of +_imperium in imperio_. + +During the progress of the Ten Years' War, however, the Volunteers were +organized and placed under the command of General Lersuno, and +thereafter exerted a much more militant power than ever before. They +were not under the direct orders of the Captain-General, but enjoyed an +independent authority, and yet they were presently entrusted with the +garrisoning of forts and cities, so that the regular Spanish troops +could go into the field. They exercised far more military, naval and +civil authority than the Captain-General and other royal officials. They +actually compelled the retirement of General Dulce from the +Captain-Generalship because they regarded him as too kindly disposed +toward the Cubans. They similarly drove Caballero de Rodas from office, +and they gave Valmaseda and Ceballos, who followed, to understand that +the success of their administration depended upon their compliance with +the demands and policies of the Volunteers. + +It was due to their opposition that the so-called Moret law, which +provided for the gradual abolition of slavery in Cuba, remained a dead +letter, and was not even published in the Island for several years after +the outside world had supposed it to be in force. The Volunteers were +also responsible for the numerous cases of violence against the patriot +party, the most flagrant of which was the execution of eight Cuban +students of the University of Havana. + +There is no reason to suppose that there was any complicity or +cooperation between the revolution in Spain and the outbreak of the Ten +Years' War in Cuba. Nevertheless, the former practically gave the +signal, for the result of the Spanish revolution was indeed regarded by +Cuban patriots with much satisfaction and enthusiasm. Cries of "Hurrah +for Prim!" "Hurrah for Serrano!" and "Hurrah for the Spanish +Revolution!" were mingled with cries of "Viva Cuba Libre!" and it did +not take long for the disappointed realization to dawn upon Cuba that +liberalism in Spain did not necessarily imply the granting of freedom to +Cuba, but that on the contrary the "Peninsular" revolutionists were +scarcely less intent that the Bourbons had been upon retaining Cuba as +an appanage, and especially as a source of revenue for Spain. + + + + +CHAPTER X + + +Cuban independence was proclaimed on October 10, 1868, at the Yara +plantation. That was the natal date and that was the natal place of the +Republic of Cuba. The event was made known to the world in a Declaration +of Independence, which was issued at Manzanillo, and which was as +follows: + +"In arming ourselves against the tyrannical Government of Spain we must, +according to precedent in all civilized countries, proclaim before the +world the cause that impels us to take this step, which though liable to +entail considerable disturbances upon the present, will insure the +happiness of the future. + +"It is well known that Spain governs the Island of Cuba with an iron and +blood-stained hand. The former holds the latter deprived of political, +civil, and religious liberty. Hence, the unfortunate Cubans being +illegally prosecuted and thrown into exile or executed by military +commissions in times of peace. Hence, their being kept from public +meetings, and forbidden to speak or write on affairs of state; hence, +their remonstrances against the evils that afflict them being looked +upon as the proceedings of rebels, from the fact that they are bound to +keep silence and obey. Hence, the never-ending plague of hungry +officials from Spain to devour the product of their industry and labor. +Hence, their exclusion from public stations and want of opportunity to +skill themselves in the art of government. Hence, the restrictions to +which public instructions with them is subjected, in order to keep them +so ignorant as not to be able to know and enforce their rights in any +shape or form whatever. Hence, the navy and standing army, which are +kept upon their country at an enormous expenditure from their own wealth +to make them bend their knees and submit their necks to the iron yoke +that disgraces them. Hence, the grinding taxation under which they +labor, and which would make them all perish in misery but for the +marvelous fertility of the soil. + +"On the other hand, Cuba cannot prosper as she ought to, because white +immigration that suits her best is artfully kept from her shores by the +Spanish Government, and as Spain has many a time promised us Cubans to +respect our rights without having hitherto fulfilled her promise, as she +continues to tax us heavily and by so doing is likely to destroy our +wealth; as we are in danger of losing our property, our lives, and our +honor under further Spanish domination; as we have reached a depth of +degradation utterly revolting to manhood; as great nations have sprung +from revolt against a similar disgrace, after exhausted pleadings for +relief, as we despair of justice from Spain through reasoning and cannot +longer live deprived of the rights which other people enjoy, we are +constrained to appeal to arms and to assert our rights in the +battle-field, cherishing the hope that our grievances will be a +sufficient excuse for this last resort to redress them and to secure our +future welfare. + +"To the God of our conscience, and to all civilized nations, we submit +the sincerity of our purpose. Vengeance does not mislead us, not is +ambition our guide. We only want to be free and to see all men with us +equally free, as the Creator intended all mankind to be. Our earnest +belief is that all men are brethren. Hence our love of toleration, order +and justice in every respect. We desire the gradual abolition of +slavery, with indemnification; we admire universal suffrage, as it +insures the sovereignty of the people; we demand a religious regard for +the inalienable rights of men as the basis of freedom and nation +greatness." + +Following the Declaration of Independence, the provisional government of +the Republic of Cuba was organized at Bayamo. The most prominent figure +in the organization of the Cuban revolutionists and the first really +constructive leader of the Cuban insurrection was Carlos Manuel +Cespedes, a native of Bayamo. At this time he was in the prime of life, +being forty nine years of age, a man of brilliant intellect and of fine +culture, for he had been educated at the University of Havana, and had, +in 1842, received his degree and license in law from the University of +Barcelona, in Spain. + +Cespedes's openly expressed zeal for the emancipation of the oppressed +Cubans, and the earnest efforts which he had long exerted in their +behalf, had won for him such widespread recognition as a patriot that he +was, without a dissenting voice, chosen for the head of the provisional +government. By nature and training he was admirably suited for the +position, for from boyhood he had been not only enthusiastically devoted +to the cause of Cuban independence, but he had more than once, under +circumstances where his outspoken advocacy of his principles actually +placed his life in jeopardy, proved himself a worthy champion of +freedom, not only for his fellow citizens, but for Spanish subjects +wherever they were being trodden beneath the iron heel of Spanish +oppression. His love of liberty was not a mere enthusiasm, something +superficial and acquired, but it was inborn, a fundamental part of his +character, firmly knit into the very fibre of his life and its +activities. + +While a student in Spain, he had joined the forces of General Prim, +during the latter's first attempt to establish a republic in that +country, and because of his complicity in that revolt, Cespedes had been +banished from Spain. Returning to Cuba, in 1844, he settled at Bayamo, +and took up the practice of law, where his skill as an advocate soon won +him recognition as one of the foremost lawyers of the Island. But again +his hatred of tyranny thrust him forth from the peaceful occupation of +amassing a fortune in the pursuit of jurisprudence. He could not +tranquilly pursue his daily course when he saw injustice and misrule +rampant around him, and so, in 1852, he made a speech, fervidly +denouncing Spain, and calling on high Heaven to aid the independence of +Cuba, which was considered by the authorities to be so incendiary that +he was arrested as a dangerous character, and subsequently suffered a +five months' imprisonment in Morro Castle, at Havana. + +Opportunity soon came to Cespedes to give actual proof that his +principles were not abstract but concrete. The acid test was to be +applied and he was not to be found wanting, for immediately upon the +declaration by the Cuban republic of its principles of freedom and equal +rights for all men, he voluntarily exemplified their operation, so far +as lay in his individual power, by emancipating all the slaves on his +own estate. + +[Illustration: CARLOS MANUEL DE CESPEDES + +The supreme chieftain of the Cuban patriots in the Ten Years' War was +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes y Borges, who before becoming a soldier was +eminent as an advocate, poet, and man of letters. He was born at Bayamo +on April 18, 1819, and completed his education at the University of +Barcelona, Spain. Then he settled in Madrid, became associated with +General Prim, and was implicated in his first attempt at revolution. For +that he was banished to France, and later he was imprisoned for his +Liberal utterances. Returning to Cuba, he personally started the Ten +Years' War, with the story of which as elsewhere related he was +inseparably identified as President of the Cuban Republic. On February +27, 1874, he was betrayed to the Spaniards by a servant who thus sought +to save his own life, and after desperate resistance was wounded, +captured, and put to death.] + +The first decree of the provisional government was issued by General +Cespedes on December 27. It was a proclamation of emancipation, as +follows: + +"The revolution of Cuba, while proclaiming this independence of the +country, has proclaimed with it all the liberties, and could not well +commit the great inconsistency, to restrict them to only one part of the +population of the country. Free Cuba is incompatible with slave +Cuba, and the abolition of the Spanish institutions must include, and by +necessity and by reason of the greatest justice does include, the +abolition of slavery as the most odious of all. Abolition of slavery +has, therefore, been maintained among the principles proclaimed in the +first manifesto issued by the revolution, and in the opinion of all +Cubans, truly liberal, its entire realization must be the first of the +acts for which the country employs its conquered rights. But as a +general measure it can only be fully effected when the country in the +full use of its conquered rights can, by means of universal suffrage, +make the most suitable provision for carrying it through to real +advantage, both for the old and the new citizens. The subject of the +present measure is not, nor can it be, the abrogation of a right which +those who are at present directing the operations of the revolution are +far from believing themselves entitled to invade; thus participating the +solution of so difficult a question. On the other hand, however, the +provisional government could not in its turn oppose the use of a right +which our slaveholders possess in virtue of our laws, and which many of +them wish to exercise, namely, to emancipate their slaves at once. It +also sees how desirable it is to employ at once in the service of the +country the freedmen, and how necessary to make haste to prevent the +evils which they and the country might receive from a failure to employ +them immediately. The government, therefore, urges the adoption of +provisional dispositions, which are to serve as a rule for the military +chiefs in the several districts of this department, in order to solve +the questions presented to them. Therefore, availing myself of the +faculties with which I am invested, I have now resolved that the +following articles be observed. + +"I. Free are the slaves whom their masters at once present to the +military chief for this purpose, the owners reserving, if they choose, a +claim to the indemnification which the nation may decree. + +"II. The freedom shall, for the present, be employed in the service of +the country in such a manner as may be agreed upon. + +"III. To this end a committee shall be appointed to find for them +employment, in accordance with regulations to be issued. + +"IV. In other cases, the slaves of loyal Cubans and of neutral Spaniards +and foreigners shall continue to work, in accordance with the principle +of respect for property proclaimed by the revolution. + +"V. The slaves of those who have been convicted of being enemies of the +country and openly hostile to the revolution, shall be confiscated with +their other property and declared free without a right to indemnity, +utilizing them in the service of the country. + +"VI. The owners who shall place their slaves in the service of the +revolution without freeing them for the present, shall preserve their +right as long as the slaving question in general is not decided. + +"VII. The slaves of the Palisades, who may present themselves to the +Cuban authorities, shall at once be declared free, with a right either +to live among us or to remain among the mountaineers. + +"VIII. The isolated refugees who may be captured, or who may, without +the consent of their masters, present themselves to the authorities or +military chiefs, shall not be received without consulting their +masters." + +Now this first government, of which Cespedes was made the chief, was +merely, after all, a temporary affair, organized to provide ways and +means for creating a more permanent body. Accordingly, on October 30, +1868, less than a month after the Declaration of Independence, Cespedes +issued a proclamation declaring that his election to office had been +only to provide for the time being an acting head of the provisional +government; that he believed that the organization should at once take +on the character of permanency; that he had no thought of imposing his +will upon Cuba; that he realized that he had not been elected to his +place by the suffrage of the Cuban people, and that he had no assurance +that, had they been given an opportunity to individually express +themselves, he would have been their choice; and that, therefore, since +it was practicable for all loyal Cubans to assemble in their respective +communities and by their suffrage constitute a permanent government, he +would gladly abide by their decision, and, if they desired, relinquish +the power with which they had entrusted him. + +In response to this patriotic utterance, a convention was called, on +April 10, 1869, at Guaimaro. The leaders of this first representative +body of the Cuban people were the following: Miguel Gutierrez, Eduardo +Machado, Antonio Lorda, Tranquilino Valdez and Arcadio Garcia, +representing Villa Clara; Honorato Castillo, representing Sancti +Spiritus; José Maria Izaguirre, representing Jugari; Antonio Alcada and +Jesus Rodriguez, representing Holguin; and Salvador Cisneros, Francisco +Sanchez, Ignacio Agramonte Loynaz, Miguel Betancourt Guerra and Antonio +Zambrana, representing Camaguey. + +At this convention, Cespedes resigned his position as provisional head +of the government and commander-in-chief of the army, in order that some +one might be regularly elected in his place, and in doing so he +addressed his colleagues in the following memorable terms: + +"Now that the House of Representatives, gathered from all parts of the +Island, has been happily inaugurated in Guaimaro, it becomes from the +moment of its organization the supreme and only authority for all +Cubans, because it constitutes the depository of the people's will, +sovereign of the present and controller of the future. All temporary +power and authority ceases to have a rightful voice in Cuba from the +very moment in which the wise democratic system, laying its solid +foundations beneath the gigantic shadow of the tree of liberty, has come +to endow us--after suffering the most iniquitous rule--with the most +beautiful and magnificent of human institutions--a republican +government. + +"Unfeigned gratitude I owe to the destiny which afforded me the glory of +being the first in Yara to raise the standard of independence, and the +still greater though less merited satisfaction, to see crowded around me +my fellow-citizens in demand of liberty, thus sustaining my weak arm and +stimulating my poor efforts by their confidence. But another glory was +reserved for me, far more grateful by my sentiments and democratic +convictions--that of also being the first to render homage to the +popular sovereignty. + +"This duty fulfilled, having given an account to the fatherland of its +most genuine representation of the work which with the assistance of its +own heroic sons I had the good fortune to have commenced, it still +behooves me, fellow-citizens, to fulfill another, not less imperious to +my heart, of addressing my gratitude to you--to you, without whom my +humble, isolated efforts would not have produced other fruit than that +of adding one patriot more to the number of preceding martyrs for +independence--to you, who, recognizing in me the principle rather than +the man, came to stimulate me by your recognition of myself as chief of +the provisional government and the liberating army. + +"Fellow citizens of the Eastern Department, your efforts as initiators +of the struggle against tyranny, your constancy, your sufferings, your +heroic sacrifices of all descriptions, your privations, the combat +without quarters which you have sustained and continue to sustain +against an enemy far superior in armament and discipline, and who +displays, for want of the valor which a good cause inspires, all the +ferocity which is the attitude of tyranny, have been witnessed by +myself, and so will remain eternally present to my heart. You are the +vanguard of the soldiers of our liberties. I commend you to the +admiration and to the gratitude of the Cubans. Continue your abnegation +of self, your discipline, your valor, and your enthusiasm, which will +entitle you to that gratitude and that admiration. + +"Fellow citizens of the Western Department, if it has not been your good +fortune to be the first in grasping arms, neither were you among the +last in listening to the voice of the fatherland that cried for +revolution. Your moral aid and assistance responded from the very outset +to the call of your brethren of the Eastern and Central Departments. +Many of you hastened to the scene of revolution to share our colors. At +this moment, despite the activity displayed by the Spanish Government in +your districts, where its resources and the number of its hosts render +more difficult the current of the revolution, that same Government +trembles before your determined attitude, from the Las Villas to Havana, +and from Havana to the western boundary, and your first deeds of arms +were the presage to you and the brave and worthy sons of the Eastern and +Central Departments of new and decisive triumphs. + +"Fellow citizens of all the Island: The blood of the patriots who have +fallen during the first onset of the struggle has consecrated our +aspirations with a glorious baptism. At this moment, when destiny has +been pleased to close the mission of him who was your first leader, +swear with him by that generous blood, that in order to render fruitful +that great sacrifice you will shed your own, to the very last drop, in +furtherance of the consummation of our independence, proclaimed in Yara. +Swear with me to give up our lives a thousand times over in sustaining +the republic proclaimed in Guaimaro. + +"Fellow citizens, long live our independence. Long live the popular +sovereignty! Long live the Cuban Republic! Patria and liberty!" + +The convention before proceeding to the election of officers of the +Republic, drafted and adopted the first Constitution of Free Cuba, as +follows: + +"Article I. The legislative power shall be vested in a House of +Representatives. + +"Article II. To this body shall be delegated an equal representation +from each of the four states into which the Island of Cuba shall be +divided. + +"Article III. These states are Oriente, Camaguey, Las Villas and +Occidente. + +"Article IV. No one shall be eligible as representatives of any of these +states except a citizen of the Republic, who is upward of 20 years of +age. + +"Article V. No representative of any state shall hold any other official +position during his representative term. + +"Article VI. Whenever a vacancy occurs in the representation of any +state, the executive thereof shall have power to fill such vacancy until +the ensuing election. + +"Article VII. The House of Representatives shall elect a President of +the Republic, a General-in-Chief of its Armies, a President of the +Congress and other executive officers. The General-in-Chief shall be +subordinate to the Executive, and shall render him an account of the +performance of his duties. + +"Article VIII. The President of the Republic, the General-in-Chief and +the Members of the House of Representatives are amenable to charges +which may be made by any citizen to the House of Representatives, which +shall proceed to examine into the charges preferred; and if in their +judgment it be necessary the case of the accused shall be submitted to +the Judiciary. + +"Article IX. The House of Representatives shall have full power to +dismiss from office any functionary whom they have convicted. + +"Article X. The legislative acts and decisions of the House of +Representatives, in order to be valid and binding, must have the +sanction of the President of the Republic. + +"Article XI. If the President fails to approve the acts and decisions of +the House, he shall, without delay, return the same with his objections +thereto, for the reconsideration of that body. + +"Article XII. Within 10 days after their reception, the President shall +return all bills, resolutions and enactments which may be sent to him by +the House for his approval, with his sanction thereof, or with his +objections thereto. + +"Article XIII. Upon the passage of any Act, Bill or Resolution, after a +reconsideration thereof, by the House, it shall be sanctioned by the +President. + +"Article XIV. The House of Representatives shall legislate upon +Taxation, Public Loans, and Ratification of Treaties; and shall have +power to declare and conclude War, to authorize the President to issue +letters of marque, to raise troops and provide for their support, to +organize and maintain a Navy, and to regulate reprisals as to the +public enemy. + +"Article XV. The House of Representatives shall remain in permanent +session from the time of the ratification of this fundamental law by the +People until the termination of the war with Spain. + +"Article XVI. The Executive Power shall be vested in the President of +the Republic. + +"Article XVII. No one shall be eligible to the Presidency, who is not a +native of the Republic, and over 30 years of age. + +"Article XVIII. All treaties made by the President may be ratified by +the House of Representatives. + +"Article XIX. The President shall have power to appoint Ambassadors, +Ministers-plenipotentiary, and Consuls of the Republic, to foreign +countries. + +"Article XX. The President shall treat with Ambassadors, and shall see +that the laws are faithfully executed. He shall also issue commissions +to all the functionaries of the Republic. + +"Article XXI. The President shall propose the names of the members of +his Cabinet to the House of Representatives for its approval. + +"Article XXII. The Judiciary shall form an independent co-ordinate +department of the Government, under the organization of a special law. + +"Article XXIII. Voters are required to possess the same qualifications +as to age and citizenship as the members of House of Representatives. + +"Article XXIV. All the inhabitants of the Republic of Cuba are +absolutely free. + +"Article XXV. All the citizens are considered as soldiers of the +Liberating Army. + +"Article XXVI. The Republic shall not bestow dignities, titles, nor +special privileges. + +"Article XXVII. The citizens of the Republic shall not accept honors nor +titles from foreign countries. + +"Article XXVIII. The House of Representatives shall not abridge the +Freedom of Religion, nor of the Press, nor of Public Meetings, nor of +Education, nor of Petition, nor any inalienable Right of the People. + +"Article XXIX. The Constitution can be amended only by the unanimous +concurrence of the House of Representatives." + +[Illustration: MANUEL QUESADA] + +The next day the Convention proceeded to the election of officers of the +House of Representatives. Salvador Cisneros was elected President; +Ignacio Agramonte Loynaz and Antonio Zambrana were elected Secretaries, +and Miguel Betancourt and Eduardo Machado, Vice-Secretaries. + + MANUEL QUESADA + + Manuel Quesada, for a time military head of the Ten Years' War, was + born in Camaguey in 1830. He was banished for political reasons and + went to Mexico, where he fought under Benito Juarez. In 1868 he + joined the patriot army and became one of its leaders; in 1870 + being its commander in chief. Failing to carry the war into Pinar + del Rio, he went on a trip to Venezuela, and trying to return was + pursued by a Spanish cruiser and took refuge in Santo Domingo. On + his final return to Cuba he was deposed from his command for being + too ambitious and autocratic, whereupon he went to the United + States and thence to Venezuela, where he died in 1886. + +The seventh article of the Constitution was immediately put into +practice, when the convention, constituting itself a House of +Representatives, confirmed the confidence of the Cuban peoples in +Cespedes, by appointing him President of the Republic of Cuba, while +Manuel Quesada was made Commander-in-Chief of the Army. President +Cespedes immediately assumed his office and issued this proclamation: + + "To the People of Cuba: + + "Compatriots: The establishment of a free government in Cuba, on + the basis of democratic principles, was the most fervent wish of my + heart. The effective realization of this wish was, therefore, + enough to satisfy my aspirations and amply repay the services + which, jointly with you, I may have been able to devote to the + cause of Cuban independence. But the will of my compatriots has + gone far beyond this, by investing me with the most honored of all + duties, the supreme magistracy of the Republic. + + "I am not blind to the great labors required in the exercise of the + high functions which you have placed in my charge in these critical + moments, notwithstanding the aid that may be derived from other + powers of the state. I am not ignorant of the grave responsibility + which I assume in accepting the Presidency of our new-born + Republic. I know that my weak powers would be far from being equal + to the demand if left to themselves alone. But this will not occur + and that conviction fills me with faith in the future. + + "In the act of beginning the struggle with the oppressors, Cuba has + assumed the solemn duty to consummate her independence or perish in + the attempt, and in giving herself a democratic government she + obligates herself to become Republican. This double obligation, + contracted in the presence of free America, before the liberal + world, and, what is more, before our own conscience, signifies our + determination to be heroic and to be virtuous. + + "Cubans! On your heroism I rely for the consummation of our + independence, and on your virtue I count to consolidate the + Republic. You may count on my abnegation of self. + + "CARLOS DE CESPEDES. + + "Guaimaro, April 11, 1869." + +This was followed two days later by General Quesada's proclamation: + + "Citizen Chiefs, Officers and Soldiers of the Liberating Army of + Cuba: When I returned to my country to place my sword at your + service, fulfilling the most sacred of duties, realizing the most + intense aspiration of my life, the vote of the Camagueyans, to my + surprise, honored me by conferring on me the command of their army. + Notwithstanding my poor merits and capacity, I accepted the post + because I expected to find and did find in the Camagueyans civic + virtues well established, and this has rendered supportable the + charge of the responsibility which I assumed. + + "Now the legislative power of the Republic has filled me with a + greater surprise, promoting me to the Command-in-Chief of the + liberating army of Cuba. The want of confidence in my own resources + naturally moves me anew upon stronger grounds, although it also + strengthens the conviction that the patriotism of my brethren will + supply the insufficiency of my capacity. + + "Camagueyans! You have given me undoubted proofs of your virtues. + You are models of subordination and enthusiasm. Preserve and extend + your discipline! + + "Soldiers of the East! Initiators of our sacred revolution! + Veterans of Cuba! I salute you with sincere affection, counting on + your gallant chiefs, in order that they may aid me in realizing the + eminent work which we have undertaken, and I hope that union will + strengthen our forces. + + "Soldiers of the Villas! You have already struggled with the + despot. I felicitate you for the efforts made and invite you to + continue them. You are patriots. You will be victors. + + "Soldiers of the West! I know your heroic exploits, and venerate + them. I am well aware of the disadvantage of the situation in which + you find yourselves, in contrast with our oppressors, and it is our + purpose to remedy this. Accept the homage of my admiration and the + succor of my arms. + + "Citizen chiefs, officers, and soldiers of the Cuban Army! Union, + discipline, and perseverance! + + "The rapid increase which the glorious new Cuba has taken frightens + our oppressors, who now are suffering the pangs of desperation, and + carrying on a war of vengeance, not of principles. The tyrant + Valmaseda rages with the incendiary's torch and the homicidal knife + over the fields of Cuba. He has never done otherwise, but now he + adds to his crime the still greater one of publishing it by a + proclamation, which we can only describe by pronouncing it to be a + proclamation worthy of the Spanish Government. Thereby our property + is menaced by fire and pillage. This is nothing. It threatens us + with death; and this is nothing. But even our mothers, wives, + daughters, and sisters are menaced with resort to violence. + + "Ferocity is the valor of cowards. + + "I implore you, sons of Cuba, to recollect at all hours the + proclamation of Valmaseda. That document will shorten the time + necessary for the triumph of our cause. That document is an + additional proof of the character of our enemies. Those beings + appear deprived even of those gifts which Nature has conceded to + the irrationals--the instinct of foresight and of warning. We have + to struggle with tyrants, always such; the very same ones of the + Inquisition, of the Conquest, and of Spanish dominion in America. + In birth and in death they live and succeed; the Torquemadas, the + Pizarros, the Boves, the Morillos, the Tacons, the Conchas, and the + Valmasedas. We have to combat with the assassins of old women and + of children, with the mutilators of the dead, with the idolaters of + gold! + + "Cubans! If you would save your honor and that of your families; if + you would conquer forever your liberty, be soldiers. War leads you + to peace and to happiness. Inertia precipitates you to misfortune + and to dishonor. Viva Cuba! Viva the President of the Republic! + Viva the Liberating Army! Patria and Liberty! + + "MANUEL QUESADA." + +The proclamation of Count Valmaseda, to which General Quesada referred, +had been issued at Bayamo on April 4, and was as follows: + + "Inhabitants of the Country-- + + "The forces which I expected have arrived. With them I will afford + protection to the good and summarily punish all those who still + rebel against the government of the metropolis. + + "Know ye that I have pardoned those who have fought against us, + armed; know ye that your wives, mothers and sisters have in me + found the protection they admired and which you rejected; know, + also, that many of the pardoned have turned against me. After all + these excesses, after so much ingratitude and so much villainy, it + is impossible for me to be the man I was heretofore. Deceptive + neutrality is no longer possible. 'He that is not with me is + against me,' and in order that my soldiers may know how to + distinguish you, hearken to the orders given them: + + "Every man from the age of 15 upward, found beyond his farm, will + be shot, unless a justification for his absence be proven. + + "Every hut that is found uninhabited will be burned by the troops. + + "Every hamlet where a white cloth in the shape of a flag is not + hoisted in token that its inhabitants desire peace, will be reduced + to ashes. + + "The women who are not found in their respective dwellings, or in + those of their relatives, will return to the towns of Jiguani or + Bayamo, where they will be duly provided for. Those who fail to do + so will be taken by compulsion. These orders will be in force on + and after the 14th inst.! + + "COUNT VALMASEDA. + + "Bayamo, April 4, 1869." + +General Cespedes about this time sent to the Government of the United +States, in his name and in that of the Provisional Government of Cuba, a +request for recognition, as belligerents. His letter contained these +references to the strength of the movement in Cuba: + +"We now hold much more than fifty leagues of the interior of this Island +in the Eastern Department, among which are the people (or communities) +of Jiguani, Tunas, Baire, Yara, Barrancas, Datil, Cauto, Embarcadero, +Guisa, and Horno, besides the cities of Bayamo and Holguin, in all +numbering 107,853 inhabitants, who obey us, and have sworn to shed to +the last drop of blood in our cause. + +"In the mentioned city of Bayamo, we have established a provisional +government, and formed our general quarters, where we hold more than +three hundred of the enemy prisoners, taken from the Spanish Army, among +whom are generals and governors of high rank. All this has been +accomplished in ten days, without other resources than those offered by +the country we have passed through, without other losses than three or +four killed and six or eight wounded." + +However this impressed the Government at Washington, and notwithstanding +the marked sympathy in the United States for the cause of the Republic, +the desired recognition was not obtained. + +The impression of the revolution and its leaders which was given to the +people of the United States may be judged from what was written by an +authoritative correspondent of the New York _Tribune_: + +[Illustration: FRANCISCO V. AGUILERA] + + FRANCISCO V. AGUILERA + + One of the organizers of the Ten Years' War, Francisco V. Aguilera + was born at Bayamo in 1821, of a wealthy and distinguished family, + and was finely educated in America and Europe. Although married to + the daughter of the Spanish Governor of Santiago, General Kindelan, + he was an ardent patriot, liberating his slaves and giving his + great fortune to the cause of independence. He served in the Ten + Years' War as Secretary of War and as Commander in Chief in + Oriente; and succeeded Salvador Cisneros Betancourt as President of + the Revolutionary government. He died in New York on February 22, + 1877, and though his government had not been officially recognized, + full honors as to a Chief of State were paid at his funeral. + +"General Cespedes, the hero and chief of the revolt--is a man of good +appearance, fifty years of age, and has traveled in the United States. +His second in command, Arango, the Marquis of Santa Lucia, is a native +of Puerto Principe, and at taking part in the insurrection emancipated +his slaves. General Aguilera was a man of great wealth, and had once +held under the Government the office of mayor over the town of Bayamo +just burnt by the rebels. He too released his slaves. General Donato +Marmol bears the repute of having genuine military talent, as he is +said to have defeated his opponents in most of their encounters with +him, and signally at Bairi, in the Eastern District. He is admired for +the ready invention of a new weapon of defence in war, which is called +the horguetilla, and is a kind of hook to resist bayonet charges. The +hook, which can be made without much trouble, of wood, is held with the +left hand to catch the bayonet, while with the right the rebel brings +his rude machete, a kind of sword, down upon his Spanish foe. General +Quesada, the other mentionable Cuban leader, served with credit on the +side of Juarez during the intervention in Mexico. The soldiers of the +revolt are of the rawest kind. A good part of them have been recruited +from the emancipated slaves of Cespedes, Arango, and Aguilera. Many of +the weapons are of the poorest kind, but I have heard that a certain +number of Enfields have been furnished them, and lately some hand +grenades. It is told me that no help, or exceedingly little, has reached +them from the North. Among some other things of their own device, they +have been employing wooden cannon, good for one shot and no more." + +The insurrection was eagerly supported by the "Juntas of the Laborers." +These societies, formed at the suggestion of Rafael Merchan, issued a +proclamation which enumerated the wrongs and insults endured by them +under the Spanish rule of Cuba, and stated the principles for which they +were willing to fight: + +"The Laborers, animated by the love for their native land, aspire to the +hope of seeing Cuba happy and prosperous by virtue of her own power, and +demand the inviolability of individuals, their homes, their families, +and the fruits of their labor, which they would have guaranteed by the +liberty of conscience, of speech, of the press, and of peaceful +meetings. In fact, they demand a government of the country for and by +the country, free from an army of parasites and soldiers that only +serves to consume it and oppress it. And, as nothing of that kind can be +obtained from Spain, they intend to fight that power with all available +means, and drive and uproot its domination from the face of Cuba. +Respecting above all and before all the dignity of man, the association +declares that it will not accept slavery as a forced inheritance of the +past. However, instead of abolishing it as an arm by which to sink the +Island into barbarity, as threatened by the government of Spain, they +view abolition as a means of improving the moral and national condition +of the working men, and thereby to place property and wealth in a more +just and safe position. + +"Sons of their times, baptised in the vivid stream of civilization, and, +therefore above preoccupation of nationality, the laborers will respect +the neutrality of Spaniards, but among Cubans will distinguish only +friends and foes, those that are with them or against them. To the +former they offer peace, fraternity, and concord; to the latter, +brutality and war--war and brutality that will be more implacable to the +traitors to Cuba, where they first saw the day, who turn their arms +against them, or offer any asylum or refuge to their tyrants. We, the +laborers, do not ignore the value of nationality, but at the present +moment consider it of secondary moment. Before nationality stands +liberty, the indisputable condition of existence. We must be a people +before becoming a nation. When the Cubans constitute a free people they +will receive the nationality that becomes them. Now they have none." + +The Captain-General replied to this in January, 1869, with a +proclamation, full of promises which, however, were never fulfilled. It +said: + +"I will brave every danger, accept every responsibility, for your +welfare. The revolution has swept away the Bourbon dynasty, tearing up +by the roots a plant so poisonous that it polluted the air we breathe. +To the citizen shall be returned his rights, to man his dignity. You +will receive all the reforms which you require. Cubans and Spaniards are +all brothers. From this day, Cuba will be considered a province of +Spain. Freedom of the press, the right of meeting in public, and +representation in the national Cortes, the three fundamental principles +of true liberty, are granted you. + +"Cubans and Spaniards! Speaking in the name of our mother, Spain, I +adjure you to forget the past, hope for the future, and establish union +and fraternity." + +Cuba had declared herself to be an independent state, but that was +merely the first step in establishing her independence, and a long and +bitter struggle lay before her before she could hope to accomplish in +fact that for which her loyal citizens had armed themselves and which +they were determined to achieve. + +The first regularly elected House of Representatives took their seats at +Guaimaro, whereupon the members of the former convention resigned their +seats to their successors. In the new House, Jorge Milanes was elected +from the District of Manzanillo, Manuel Gomez Silva from Camaguey, +Manuel Gomez Pena from Guantanamo, Tomas Estrada from Cobre, Pio Posada +from Santiago de Cuba, Fernando Fornaris from Bayamo, and Pedro Aguero +from Las Tunas. Later sessions of the House of Representatives were held +at Cascorro and at Sibanico. These towns, held sacred by Cubans as the +birthplaces of liberty, were stoutly defended during the revolution, and +in spite of repeated efforts the Spaniards were never able to effect +their capture, although they used their most highly trained troops, and +most efficient officers in their attacks. + +Beginning with August 6, 1869, the Assembly began to organize the +government along the most enlightened lines, and provided for the +administration of justice by establishing a Judiciary Department with +the following branches: + +1. A Supreme Court. + +2. Criminal Judges. + +3. Civil Judges. + +4. Prefects and sub-prefects. + +5. Court Martial. + +The Supreme Court was composed of a presiding officer, two judges and a +judge-advocate. Each of the states of the Republic was divided into +districts, and a civil and criminal judge as well as an attorney for the +Commonwealth were appointed for each district. + +Each state was to be ruled by a Civil Governor, and each district by a +Lieutenant-Governor, while the districts were divided into prefects and +sub-prefects, each with its appropriate ruler. The officers in question +were in every case to be elected by popular suffrage. + +A chronological enumeration of the laws enacted by the Congress during +1869 is not only pertinent, but it divulges their evident intention to +administer the government of the island, should they obtain the power to +do so, along the most humane and enlightened lines. + +On May 11, 1869, an amnesty was granted to all political prisoners, who +had not already been sentenced. + +On June 4, much needed provisions for civil marriages, and regulations +concerning the same, were enacted. + +On June 7, the commerce of the Republic was declared free to all +nations. + +The enactment of June 15, while a customary proceeding, would have a +touch of irony connected with it, if it were not almost pathetic, as +revealing the sturdy belief of these officials of the young Republic in +the ultimate triumph of their cause. It was an authorization of the +issue of $2,000,700 of legal tender paper money, to be redeemed by the +Republic in coin, at par, when circumstances enabled them to do so--that +is when they had conquered the enemy and established their Republic on a +lasting basis. The bills thus issued had already reached the officers of +the Republic, having been engraved in New York, and sent to Cuba by the +New York Junta. + +[Illustration: BERNABE DE VARONA] + +On July 9, the army was definitely organized, and this organization +remained in force until the capture and death of General Quesada. It was +as follows: + + Commander-in-Chief General Manuel Quesada + Chief-of-Staff General Thomas Jordan + Chief of Artillery Major Beauvilliers + Brigadier-Major of Orders Major Bernabe Varona + Sanitary Department Adolfo Varona + + _First Division_ _Army of Camaguey_ + Major General Ignacio Agramonte + Commanding 1st Brigade Colonel Miguel Bosse + " 2d Brigade General Francisco Castillo + " 3d Brigade Colonel Cornelio Porro + " 4th Brigade Colonel Lope Recio + " 5th Brigade Colonel Manuel Valdes Urra + " 6th Brigade Colonel Manuel Agramonte + " 1st Battalion Colonel Pedro Recio + " 2d Battalion Colonel Jose Lino Cica + " 3d Battalion Colonel Rafael Bobadilla + + _Second Division_ _Army of Oriente_ + Major General Francisco Aguilera + Commanding 1st Brigade General Donate Marmol + " 2d Brigade General Luis Marcano + " 3d Brigade General Julio Peralta + + _Third Division_ _Army of Las Villas_ + Commanding 1st Brigade General C. Acosta + " 2d Brigade General Salome Hernandez + " 3d Brigade General Adolfo Cabada + +A law was enacted providing that every citizen of the Republic, between +the ages of 18 and 50 years, must under compulsion take up arms for the +cause of liberty. + + BERNABE DE VARONA + + Bernabe de Varona, a brilliant writer and devoted patriot, was born + at Camaguey in 1845, a member of a distinguished family. He entered + the Ten Years War with much zeal and displayed exceptional military + skill. He went on various patriotic missions to New York, to France + and to Mexico, and was instrumental in securing much aid for the + patriot cause. His last expedition was on the ill-fated + _Virginius_, on which he was captured and shot to death at Santiago + de Cuba on November 4, 1873. + +On August 7, the powers of the various officers of the Government, +including the Secretaries of State, were described and fixed. + +From the foregoing it will be seen that the officers of the new Republic +had high aspirations for an orderly government, and for the just +administration of wise laws for the benefit of the people. +Unfortunately, in a large measure, the Republic of Cuba established at +that time was a government only in name, and was not destined to take +the reins in administering the affairs of the Island, except in a more +or less theoretical way. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + + +A revolution usually involves fighting as well as the organization of a +government. In the case of Cuba, this was especially inevitable. It was +realized by the patriots in advance that the redemption of Cuba from the +tyranny of Spain could only be accomplished by force of arms, and +consequently plans to that effect had been carefully perfected in +advance. It was highly creditable to the Cubans that they so promptly +organized a dignified and worthy government, and adopted a constitution +favorably comparable with that of any other republic in the world. It +was no less creditable to their judgment and their earnestness that they +had already prepared for extensive military operations, and that they at +once entered upon these in a vigorous and systematic manner. Plans for +the uprising had indeed been matured before the breaking out of the +revolution in Spain, but the latter event undoubtedly hastened the +execution of their designs. + +At the outset, before complete organization was effected, the insurgents +at Bayamo were under the leadership of Francisco V. Aguilera, Manuel A. +Aguilera and Francisco M. Osorio; at Manzanillo the leader was Carlos +Manuel Cespedes; at Holguin, Belisario Alvarez was in command; at Las +Tunas, Vincente Garcia; at Jiguani, Donato Marmol; and at Santiago, +Manuel Fernandez. + +When Cespedes issued his proclamation on October 10, the insurgents had +only 147 men in their ranks, armed with forty-five fowling pieces, four +rifles, and a few pistols and machetes--not enough arms to provide one +weapon apiece. But volunteers began to flock to their standards and in +two days the army had increased to over twenty-six times its original +strength, and numbered upwards of four thousand men, while at the end of +the month it had more than doubled, and had grown to nine thousand seven +hundred. By November 8, the revolutionary army contained twelve thousand +men, and at the end of 1868, it had grown to twenty-six thousand. + +But even this growth did not give them anything like the strength of the +Spanish Army in Cuba. In October, 1868, Spain had in Cuba twelve +regiments of infantry, one corps of engineers, one regiment of +artillery, two regiments of cavalry, one section of civil guards, one +regiment of armed firemen, one regiment of prison guards, and five +regiments of infantry and cavalry militia, amounting to the following: + + Regular troops of all kinds, including officers 14,300 + Civil guards 640 + Prison guards 120 + Armed firemen 1,000 + Infantry and cavalry militia 3,400 + Soldiers who had served their time but had been + kept in service 300 + ------ + 19,760 + +These troops were distributed to the proportion of three-fifths of them +in the Western Department, and the remainder divided between the Central +and Eastern Departments. They were amply armed and munitioned, although +it must be admitted that not all of their armament was of the newest +pattern. It was, however, in excellent condition and they had six +thousand of the latest model Remington rifles. + +At the end of the year, the Spanish troops had been augmented by large +reinforcements from the mother country, so that Spain had in the field a +thoroughly organized and abundantly equipped army of about 110,000 men, +which, of course, was capable of being greatly increased. She also had +in Cuban waters the following men of war, at the beginning of October, +1868: + + 2 Steam frigates 91 guns + 2 2d class steamers 12 guns + 5 3d class steamers 10 guns + 5 screw steamers, schooner rigged 15 guns + -------- + 128 guns + +Of course, she at once added to this navy, and it soon grew to +formidable proportions, while the revolutionists had no navy at all, +with which to repel Spanish attacks from the sea. + +Despite the great preponderance of forces in its favor, the Spanish +government did not at first depend upon military prowess for the +suppression of the insurrection and the retention of Cuba as its colony. +This was perhaps, in a measure, because of the revolution in Spain, +which was keeping the Government well occupied with its internal +affairs, and also because of the desire of some of the liberal leaders +in Spain to avoid endless strife and bloodshed. Therefore at first, +pacific measures were contemplated. It had been thought that General +Dulce, as Captain-General of the Island for his third term, would be +able to effect a compromise with the Cubans, because of his kindly +disposition, and the good feeling which prevailed between him and the +Cubans. His good offices were greatly hampered and off-set by the +arrogance of the Volunteers, who did not hold him in high regard, since +they thought him much too gentle with the Cubans, and who were not in +sympathy with his mediations. Perhaps the flame of revolution had now +grown too hot to be quenched by soothing measures. At any rate, the hope +of the Spanish Government proved delusive. On the one hand, the patriot +leaders were outspoken in their unwillingness to accept Dulce's +proposals of an amicable settlement, based on compromise; and on the +other, the Volunteers frankly opposed making any concessions to the +Islanders, and directed all their influence against every measure which +Dulce offered as a solution. In this they had the ulterior motive of +driving Dulce from office, so that there might be placed in his position +a more arbitrary and ruthless man, one of their own kidney. + +In reviewing the state of affairs in Cuba at this early stage of the Ten +Years' War, and comparing the strength and composition of the contending +forces, it should be borne in mind that the Cuban army in the field was +a mere fragment of the potential strength of the Cuban people. There +were probably 150,000 Cubans, able bodied and of military age, who were +both willing and eager to enter the war, but who were restrained from so +doing for fear of what would befall their families if they identified +themselves openly with the patriot cause. If they left their homes to +take the field, their wives and children would be at the mercy of +Spanish troops or of the still more to be dreaded and pitiless +Volunteers. If we add to this the not unnatural doubt of the possibility +of succeeding in the revolt against the formidable power of Peninsular +Spain--a doubt fostered and confirmed by the failure of the former +attempts--we cannot blame the Cubans for not more generally +participating in active operations. Their absentation from so doing is +to be charged not, certainly, to cowardice or to lack of patriotism, +but to an excess of prudence. + +In these circumstances, the numerical odds were at the beginning, and +remained all through the war, tremendously against the Cubans. Besides +this their army in a large measure, particularly at the beginning, +consisted of men who had had no experience in warlike manoeuvres, and +who lacked military drilling, for while preparations for uprisings had +been as constant as had been the uprisings themselves, naturally the +revolutionists, when their revolt was in an incipient stage, did not +wish to call attention to what they were planning by putting their +sympathizers through military tactics. The Cuban Army also lacked a +tremendous stabilizer of morale, in not being properly uniformed, but +rather presenting a motley appearance on the field. In fact there were +many times when they were so hard put that they were not only +inadequately clothed, but suffered for lack of food. The fact that they +were able so frequently to defeat the highly trained and well equipped +Spanish forces, and to hold their ground as successfully, as they did +year after year, is the highest possible tribute to their valor, their +intelligence in military matters, and their patriotic devotion. + +The earliest engagements between the opposing forces occurred on October +13, 1868, at three places, not widely separated; Yara, Bairi and +Jiguani; in all of which the Cuban patriots were successful. The last of +the three named was considered by the patriots to be an extremely +important victory, and was accomplished by troops under the command of +General Donato Marmol. Heartened by this good fortune, the patriots on +October 15 laid siege to Bayamo, and three days later effected its +capture; whereupon that place was made the temporary seat of the Cuban +Government. These victories were all the more creditable and encouraging +because, we must remember, while the Spanish Army numbered many +thousands--scattered it is true in various parts of the Island--the +Cuban Army was only one-fourth as large and poorly armed and equipped. +At all times during the first engagements, the patriots were +outnumbered, but they made up in courage what they lacked in numbers, +and their enthusiasm and zeal for the cause for which they were fighting +carried them safely against tremendous odds. + +Late in October--on the 26th to be exact--the patriots attacked the +Spanish troops at Las Tunas, and also at Villa del Cobre at the foot of +Monte Alta Garcia, between Puerto Principe and Nuevitas, and at Moran. +In all these engagements the Cubans were greatly hampered by the serious +lack of arms and munitions, but if they were not entirely successful +they were far from routed, they lost little ground, and maintained very +complete control over those portions of the Central and Eastern +Departments which were in sympathy with them. + +By the early part of November, 1868, the Cubans had thoroughly beaten +the troops under the command of the Spanish Colonel Demetrio Quiros, and +forced him to retreat, and were thus enabled to advance into the very +suburbs of Santiago de Cuba, the ancient capital of the Island, and at +this time the capital of the Eastern Department. They promptly cut the +aqueduct which supplied that city with water, and thereby caused not +only great discomfort but something resembling panic among the +inhabitants. The patriots were naturally reluctant to resort to such +measures, because of the suffering which it caused to their own friends +and sympathizers; yet if the Spanish garrison in Santiago was to be +brought to terms, any strategic advantage which the Cubans could +acquire must be used to the utmost. + +The third week in November found them in possession of the towns of El +Caney and El Cobre; the latter famous as the site of the first copper +mines opened in Cuba, and the former as the scene of one of the sharpest +engagements of the United States war with Spain in 1898. The patriots +kept control of these two places for several weeks, and then deeming it +inexpedient to undertake any further operations against Santiago, which +was not only garrisoned by the Spanish Army but also protected by the +Spanish fleet, they withdrew their forces to the defense of Bayamo, +which was now being seriously threatened by the troops of Count +Valmaseda, reenforced by those under Colonel Lono, who had come thither +from Manati, under Colonel Campillo from Manzanillo, Colonel Mana from +Puerto Principe, and Colonel Quiro, who had hastened to Bayamo from +Santiago. With all these Spanish troops, well armed and abundantly +supplied with ammunition concentering upon the place, President Cespedes +realized that it would be impolitic to attempt to resist a siege. After +consultation with his associates, the result of which was a unanimous +decision, he set fire to the city and withdrew his troops. In +consequence, when Valmaseda arrived a little later, he found nothing +left of Bayamo but ruins. + +This loss of their temporary capital did not perceptibly weaken the +Cuban position; indeed the patriot cause steadily grew in strength and +numbers. The entire jurisdiction of Holguin revolted against Spanish +authority, on October 28, and the inhabitants, in large numbers, rushed +to take up arms with the patriots. A week later Camaguey followed the +example of Holguin. The Spanish government both at home and in Cuba was +in the position of a man sitting on a couch under which had been stored +a quantity of bombs, all timed to go off at irregular intervals, and +from which position there was no escape. They did not know which way to +jump. The high officials in both countries lived in an uncertainty as to +events in Cuba which must have been nerve racking. Indeed--to mix our +metaphors--they never knew where the fever of revolutions was scheduled +to break out next. If they succeeded in getting it under control in one +place, and began to feel a bit secure against an epidemic, the next +morning they found what to them seemed a new eruption, and one which +they had not been able to anticipate. They conquered, or apparently +subdued, the patriots in one portion of the Island, and immediately +those in another burst forth into active opposition to what the Spanish +government would have termed law and order, but which the insurgents +called by the less pleasant terms of cruelty and unjust oppressions. And +occasionally, as we have seen, there glimmered in some Spanish +intelligence a faint doubt as to the efficacy of their usual methods, +and then for a very short time the authorities would try temporizing. +But the patriots had not suffered for generations from Spanish misrule +without having learned to mistrust the wiles of their oppressors, and +they viewed with more or less cynicism any surface indications of a less +tyrannous rule. + +With the revolts of Camaguey and Holguin, the Spanish authorities came +to the conclusion that it was about time to try temporizing, and to +endeavor in some way to pacify the patriots. It may be that they would +have actually made concessions--we have it from one authority that they +were willing at this time to grant almost anything but the one thing +which was the single desire of the patriots. At any rate, on January 19, +1869, they made a formal proposal for a meeting between representatives +of the belligerents for the discussion of the issues between them, and +for a serious attempt to effect a compromise. President Cespedes felt +that the time for compromise had passed, long years before. The die had +been cast. The revolution had one aim, complete freedom, and that was +above all things the one concession which the Spaniards would not make. +But he was too clever not to realize that after all something might be +gained by compliance, if no more than a chance to feel out the mettle +and present designs of the Spaniards. It was possible that if he sent a +clever enough envoy he might learn much that would be to his advantage +in future negotiations. He was under no obligation to consent to or even +to consider seriously any terms which the Spaniards might offer, so that +he had nothing to lose by such a proceeding, and it was barely possible +that he might gain valuable information. + +So he assented to the proposal, and sent his representative, Augustin +Arango, to Puerto Principe, under safe conduct issued by the Spanish +Government at Manzanillo. It is probable that the safe conduct would +have been respected by the Spanish authorities and Spanish troops. But +unfortunately, not only for the innocent envoy, and for the patriots, +but also for any hope that the Spaniards may have entertained--if indeed +their offer had been made in good faith, and there is always a measure +of doubt, in the face of their usual trickery--of an amicable +understanding, Arango fell into the hands of the Volunteers, who, in +quite characteristic manner, contemptuously disregarded the credentials +of their own government, and cruelly and brutally murdered General +Cespedes's messenger, immediately upon his entrance into Puerto +Principe. + +It is not difficult to picture the rage and disgust of the patriots at +this new example of Spanish perfidy, which so clearly demonstrated the +futility of attempting any negotiations of any kind whatever with an +enemy capable of such lack of honor. The death of Arango, therefore, put +an end to the farce of Spanish pretended repentance. And this +circumstance did not pass without the news being spread all over the +island. Patriots who had been timidly balancing themselves in outward +neutrality, were so aroused with indignation that they began boldly to +plunge into the maelstrom of civil war. On February 9, 1869, the entire +district of Las Tunas revolted and cast its lot with the insurgents. +Each new act of injustice emanating from the Spaniards was like removing +the supports of a dam behind which had been restrained the waters of +patriotism. The Spaniards had killed one Cuban patriot in cold blood; +the cause of revolutions had gained thousands, each fired with +enthusiasm. + +Thus far General Quesada had been waging an almost exclusively irregular +or guerrilla warfare. This was because of the smallness of his army, the +lack of arms and equipment, and the unfamiliarity of his men with +military tactics. Indeed, such methods of warfare were in a large +measure continued throughout the entire Ten Years' War. But by the time +of which we now write he was able on some occasions and at some places +to array his troops in orderly fashion and to conduct his campaign in +much the same manner as the Spaniards themselves. Thus, he was able to +carry on regular siege operations against Colonel Mena, and his garrison +of three thousand Spaniards, at Puerto Principe. Colonel Prieto with +several thousand Cubans busied himself with cutting the railroad lines +which the Spanish authorities had constructed for strategic purposes, +and destroying communications between Villa Clara and Cienfuegos. A +strong Spanish force was sent against him, and a serious engagement +occurred at San Cristobal, where the patriots were entirely successful. +The Spanish troops retreated to Guanajay, a short distance from Havana, +closely pursued by the patriots, and when forced to give battle, the +Spaniards were once more put to rout, with heavy losses. + +Havana was now practically in a state of siege, with a patriot army in +possession of Guanajay, and small bands constantly harassing the Spanish +troops at different points in the vicinity of the city. The Spanish +Captain-General, Dulce, was still nursing the idea that some sort of an +agreement might be reached, and at least a truce declared, and he +therefore refused to officially declare the besieged condition of the +city, and endeavored to placate the patriots by leniency toward the +sympathizers in the city, and a conciliatory attitude toward the +revolutionists. However, his efforts had little effect on the Cubans. +Their forces pressed forward against Santiago de Cuba, and disaster for +the Spanish garrison at that city was only averted by the timely arrival +of Count Valmaseda with reinforcements. Las Tunas was still in the hands +of the revolutionists, who were divided into small parties and were +conducting a guerrilla warfare throughout practically the entire Island, +attacking whenever it seemed to be to their advantage, and dispersing +when the forces sent against them were sufficiently large to give the +odds to the Government. Trinidad was practically segregated from the +outside world so far as communications by land were concerned. The +patriots had stopped the mail service, and had cut the telegraph wires. +The city was in a turmoil of fear and apprehension, sending requests +for aid whenever they could get word through, which was not frequently, +since the patriots took a cynical delight in having so far turned the +tables on their oppressors, and in detaining and making prisoners the +couriers who tried to reach the Spanish lines with news of Trinidad's +predicament. + +The patriots did not confine their efforts to any part of the Island, +although the major part of them were east of Havana, and only that small +stretch of territory embracing the province of Pinar del Rio was +comparatively free from trouble. The insurgents were insufficiently +provisioned, and so they resorted to pillage. This was particularly true +of the bands in the vicinity of Nuevitas, where attacks were constantly +being made on the plantations, and the farmers lived in a state of +alarm, never knowing when a patriot band might descend upon them +demanding food for the present and for the future, and proceeding to +take it by force, if necessary. Frequently those who were not in favor +of the cause of liberty extended a frightened hospitality, rather than +to excite the wrath of their hungry visitors, and resorted to treachery +to carry the news of the marauders to some nearby Spanish camp, only to +have the rescuing forces chagrined to find, when they arrived, that the +birds were not "in the hand," but had been fed, and had fled with their +booty. Nuevitas was well garrisoned, and therefore the patriots confined +their operations to a region sufficiently remote from the outskirts of +the town, so that reprisals would be slow and difficult. + +The Cubans were strongly entrenched at San Miguel, where, on February 7, +they were attacked by the Spaniards. When other means failed, the +Spanish forces tried to "smoke out" the insurgents by burning the city, +but while this dislodged them from the city itself, it failed to drive +them from the vicinity, where they took up an advantageous position and +held it against assault. + +Puerto Principe was surrounded; the aqueduct was cut, and food was +scarce and growing scarcer. The inhabitants clamored for succor, when +starvation seemed imminent. Their cries for aid became too insistent to +be disregarded, and therefore a body of troops was dispatched from +Santiago de Cuba toward Jiguani, whither the main body of the Spanish +troops under Count Valmaseda, had retired. The patriots were apprised of +this manoeuvre, and the Spanish troops were constantly harassed by bands +of Cubans, and it was only after several severe engagements, and +considerable losses, that they succeeded in joining Valmaseda at +Jiguani. + +In the sort of warfare which they were now waging, the advantages were +all with the revolutionists. They were thoroughly acquainted with the +country, and knew well how to take advantage of its natural defenses, +while the Spanish forces, especially those imported from Spain for the +purpose of putting down the rebellion, lacked such knowledge, and in +strategy were always at a disadvantage. The Cuban leaders were not only +exceedingly clever in their manoeuvres, but they seemed to have a sense +of humor, and to take a grim delight in fooling the Spanish commanders, +and luring them on a fool's errand. The patriots, whenever the tide of +battle went against them, retreated to fastnesses in the interior, well +known to them, and uncharted by the enemy, from whence they would sally +forth, when opportunity presented, harass the Spaniards, and again +retire to their lair, whither the enemy feared to follow them, lest they +might fall into a trap. + +The Cubans had a particularly annoying practice of spreading reports +that a large revolutionary force had assembled in a certain place, and +enticing the Spaniards to that location, when the latter would only +discover, to their chagrin, that the report had been "grossly +exaggerated," and that in reality there was only a handful of men +instead of the large number which they expected; and to this would be +added the further annoyance of having the little body of Cubans melt as +if by magic in retreat to some position unknown to the Spanish or +practically impenetrable by them, with their lack of information as to +its potentialities, and their fear that it might prove their undoing. If +this were not sufficiently annoying, the Cubans had a habit of sending +out anonymous and misleading information, to the effect that an attack +on the Cubans at a particular point would have felicitous results for +the Spaniards, since it was believed that that position was inadequately +defended, and upon acting on this information, the Spaniards would be +baffled by discovering that the supposed forces, if indeed there had +been any previously present, had long since departed, leaving the place +deserted. Again and again the Spaniards were thus decoyed and beguiled, +and yet they continued to act on the misleading advices, because failure +to do so might lose them a real victory, should one message out of the +many really prove reliable. + +Thus were the patriots learning to match Spanish cunning with a new, +peculiar and ironic brand of their own, and were turning the tables on +the tormentors who had for so many years mistreated them and laughed at +their protests. It will be recalled that Bayamo had been burned by the +revolutionists, when it seemed apparent that their capital city was +about to fall in to the hands of the Spaniards, or at least, when it +seemed the part of prudence to surrender it. In spite of the fact that +this meant that the inhabitants would be rendered homeless, so strong +was the patriotic feeling in that city, that the destruction was done +with the consent of the populace. A thousand of these people now fell +into the hands of the Spaniards, and on February 14 were taken to +Manzanillo. The next day long expected reinforcements arrived from +Spain. They were small in number, it is true, only a thousand strong, +but conditions in Spain made it difficult for her to spare large numbers +of troops, and this was most fortunate for the cause of freedom, for +thus Spain was unable to send to Cuba a sufficient number of drilled +soldiers to offset the advantage which the little Cuban army had in its +acquaintance with the geography of the Island, and the physical +possibilities which it afforded for scattered and sporadic attacks in +unexpected quarters. + +Captain-General Dulce, alarmed at the conditions which existed, and at +the failure of the Spanish army to subdue the revolution, and +undoubtedly spurred on by the Volunteers, who had no patience with his +conciliatory methods, changed his policy, and issued a proclamation, +thoroughly muzzling the press, to avoid the spreading of the news of the +extent of the revolution and the success of the revolutionists, and thus +endeavored to stem the influx of recruits into the Cuban Army. He also +established a military court martial, which planned to deal summarily +with the leaders of the revolution should any fall into their hands. +Next he proclaimed the expiration of the amnesty previously granted, +while he--true to type--softened this decree, probably as a bit of +insidious strategy, by offering to pardon all insurgents who would +surrender themselves, excluding the leaders, and those who had been +convicted--unrepresented at the trials, of course--of the crimes of +murder, arson and robbery. The underlying thought of this proclamation +probably was that the rank and file of the insurgents might surrender +and deliver their leaders into his hands for punishment. This was +accompanied by a demand upon the citizens of Havana for the sum of +$25,000,000 to support the government, and to aid it in carrying on its +campaign against the revolutionists. + +He only too well knew that the sympathy of the people of the United +States, if not the secret sympathy of the government at Washington, was +with the Cubans, and not only Dulce himself but indeed all the leaders +of the Spanish cause lived in constant fear of private aid to the +insurgents from the United States, if not of possible governmental +intervention in their behalf. They well knew also that the Americans who +had made their homes on the Island, and who were deeply interested in +its commercial salvation, were all sympathizers in the cause of the +revolution, and felt that only through freedom from Spanish rule and a +resumption of peace could they hope to retrieve the fortunes which they +had invested, and now apparently sunk, in Cuban business ventures. That +these Americans, despite the censorship, were in communication with +their friends in their own country Dulce did not doubt, and that they +would urge the sending of relief to Cuba he felt certain. He therefore +applied to the United States Consul at Havana for the names of all +American residents of Cuba, that he might keep them under surveillance, +check up their movements, and act, if necessary, to prevent them from +either personally, or through their influence in the United States, +lending any material aid to the revolutionists. + +In spite of the Captain-General's precautions, his fears were realized. +Aid did reach the revolutionists from the United States, in the shape of +guns and ammunition, accompanied by American sympathizers, who in some +fashion ran the gauntlet of the Spanish navy in Cuban waters. The Cuban +Army advanced against La Guanaja, wrested it from the Spaniards, and +proceeded to fortify it with American guns, manned by American gunners. +The town was believed by both of the belligerents to be impervious to +attack from the land, and the Spanish commanders therefore dispatched a +naval force to conquer it from the sea. The bombardment which ensued +dashed the hopes of the revolutionists, so far as the effectiveness of +their fortifications were concerned, as against a naval attack. The +Spanish shells wrought great damage, and when they had reduced the +defenses, a landing was made and the town was retaken by assault. The +Cubans were therefore forced to beat a hurried retreat to the +surrounding country, and the Spaniards were left in complete control of +the city. Now they had a decided advantage, for from this vantage-point +they were able to send aid to Puerto Principe, and, on February 23, two +battalions were hurried thither. Meanwhile, General Lesca, who had been +stationed at La Guanaja, set out to attack the Cuban Army at Colonia de +Santo Domingo and in this expedition he was reinforced by the troops +under General Puello. The Spanish army in this encounter greatly +outnumbered the patriots but the latter fought with the courage of +desperation; a wholesale slaughter ensued in which both sides suffered +enormous losses; and when, worn out, the Cubans withdrew, the result +might well be termed a draw, for neither side could justly claim +victory. + +During the month of February, the revolutionists harassed the Spaniards +in the vicinity of Santa Cruz, but not with their usual success, the +odds being largely in favor of the latter. On February 25, a band of +revolutionists surprised the town of La Lujas, situated only a short +distance from Cienfuegos. Before opposition could be mustered, they took +possession of the town, and with it the uniforms of the city guards, and +all the arms, ammunition and horses which they could find, and they also +burned the police archives, thus destroying any records at that place +which might later be used against individual revolutionists, in the +event of an ultimate Spanish victory. + +But, with it all, neither army was making any particular progress toward +a decisive victory. The balance of advantage swung first one way and +then the other. The Spanish found their well drilled troops unable to +match themselves with any degree of effectiveness against the +resourcefulness of the revolutionists, and their methods of warfare. The +attempts at mediation had failed; indeed had been thwarted by the +treacherous action within their own body--by the murder which was staged +by the Volunteers' faction. On the other hand, as yet Cuba had been able +to secure but little aid from the one country on the sympathy of the +citizens of which she might count. The United States had far from come +up to expectations in the assistance she had thus far unofficially +rendered. Perhaps this was because the authorities in that country had +no desire to embroil themselves with Spain, and kept a close watch on +the movements of suspected Cuban partisans. The Cubans were able to make +life exceedingly uncomfortable for the Spanish forces, and for Spaniard +sympathizers throughout the country, but with their present numbers and +equipment they had little hope of gaining a decision of the hostilities +in their favor. The best they could do was to keep the country in a +state of uproar, gaining what little advantage they could, and meanwhile +the inhabitants were facing starvation, the destruction of their +holdings, the burning of their buildings, and the devastation of a +fruitful country. The constant operations of marauders, who took +advantage of the Cuban method of warfare, to pillage and steal and lay +in ruin various portions of the country, as well as the fear of attack +from the guerrillas, were driving the farmers and their families to the +protection of the cities, and thus farms were standing idle and +uncultivated, and there was bound to be an even greater food shortage. +The Government was being aided by the church, and the neutrals, +despairing of any change in conditions for the better, were, whenever +the opportunity presented itself, emigrating from the Island to regions +less tumultuous, where living conditions were not so uncertain and +dangerous. + +The Government was finding conditions intolerable, and decided to make a +strenuous effort to dislodge the revolutionists from their inland +strongholds and thus to compel them to abandon their badgering methods, +and to come forth into the open and give battle, well knowing that, if +this could be accomplished, the odds would all be in favor of the +Spaniards. Therefore, a special company of Volunteers was assembled, +with fresh reinforcements direct from Spain, and they were sent into the +fastnesses of the interior, in a strong endeavor to drive out the +Cubans. Simultaneously General Letona conducted a vigorous campaign in +relief of Cienfuegos, and General Puello organized small parties which +were sent out on marauding expeditions. But the principal result of +these efforts was to throw the Island into a still greater state of +excitement, and to encourage robbers and bandits, who, taking advantage +of the consequent uproar, seized the favorable opportunity for pillage. +Thus their devastation was added to the troubles of the already much +tried farmers in Cuba. The country around Holguin and Gibara was in a +state beyond description, and the life of every citizen, no matter what +his sympathies, was in constant danger. + +Then a very serious battle took place between the forces under General +Lesca, and an army of four thousand Cubans. The Spaniards were advancing +from La Guanaja to the succor of Puerto Principe, when the two forces +met. The Cubans were well entrenched on the Sierra de Cubitas. They were +principally infantry, and they had the Spanish at a disadvantage. The +engagement might have ended in an utter defeat for that portion of the +Government Army, had it not been that they were well supplied with +artillery, which did effective work against the Cubans, and therefore +the Spaniards were able to escape, though with heavy losses. + +Early in the next month, March, 1869, the Cubans obtained--from what +source is not disclosed, but it may be that their American sympathizers +were responsible--large accessions of artillery, with a goodly supply of +ammunition, which a small body of not over a hundred men, under +Cisneros, were able to convey to Mayari, where General Quesada was +stationed with seven thousand Cubans. When we consider that heretofore +the revolutionists had been much more blessed with enthusiasm and belief +in the ultimate triumph of their just cause than they had with the +material means for accomplishing that end, it is not difficult to +picture with what new hope and confidence this much needed assistance +was received. Now more than ever they began to feel the certainty of +final success, and to be imbued with a steadfast purpose to fight to the +last ditch for the cause of freedom. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + + +At the time of the beginning of the Cuban insurrection the United States +was undergoing one of its quadrennial political campaigns, and March 4, +1869, saw General Ulysses S. Grant inducted to the Presidency--the man +who had led the nation to victory in the Civil War and had thus +maintained the union of the United States of America; a soldier of the +highest character, and one whose sympathies were keenly enlisted in +behalf of the Cuban revolution. When this news reached the Cuban leaders +they at once addressed to him an appeal for recognition, which ran as +follows: + + * * * * * + +"To his Excellency, the President of the United States: + +"Sir: + +"The people of Cuba, by their Grand Supreme Civil Junta, and through +their General-in-Chief, Señor Cespedes, desire to submit to your +Excellency, the following among other reasons, why your Excellency, as +President of the United States, should accord to them the belligerent +rights and a recognition of their independence. + +"Because from the hearts of nineteen-twentieths of the inhabitants of +the island go up prayers for the success of the armies of the republic; +and from the sole and only want of arms and ammunition these patient +people are kept under the tyrannical yoke of Spain. + +"Because the republic has armies numbering over 70,000 men, actually in +the field and doing duty. These men are organized and governed on the +principles of civilized warfare. The prisoners whom they take--and so +far they have taken three times as many as their enemies have taken from +them--are treated in every respect as the prisoners of war are used and +treated by the most civilized nations of the earth. In the hope of +recognition by the United States, they have never yet in a single +instance retaliated death for death, even in cases of the most provoking +nature. + +"Because the Spanish authorities have almost invariably brutally +murdered the soldiers of the armies of the republic who have surrendered +to them, and have recently issued an official order requiring their +military forces hereafter instantly to kill and murder any prisoner of +the republic who surrenders. This is due, the order cheerfully tells us, +to save trouble and vexation to the Spanish civil authorities. This is +an outrage the civilized nations of the earth ought not to allow. + +"Because the United States is the nearest civilized nation to Cuba, +whose political institutions strike a responsive chord in the hearts of +all Cubans. The commercial and financial interests of the two peoples +being largely identical and reciprocal in their natures, Cuba earnestly +appeals for the unquestionable right of recognition. + +"Because the arms and authority of the Republic of Cuba now extend over +two-thirds of the entire geographical area of the island, embracing a +very great majority of the population in every part of the island. + +"Because she has a navy in course of construction which will excel in +point of numbers and efficiency that heretofore maintained by the +Spanish authorities in these waters. + +"Because these facts plainly show to the world that this is not a +movement of a few discontents, but the grand and sublime uprising of a +people thirsty for liberty and determined with this last effort to +secure to themselves and their posterity those unquestioned +rights--liberty of conscience and freedom of the individual. + +"Finally, because she is following but in the footsteps of Spain herself +in endeavoring to banish tyrannical rulers, and in their stead place +rulers of her own choice, the people of Cuba having a tenfold more +absolute and potent right than Spain had, because Cuba's rulers are sent +without her voice or consent by a foreign country, accompanied by and +with swarms of officials to fill the various offices created only for +their individual comfort, drawing their maintenance and support from the +hard earnings of the natives of the soil. + +"Allow us to add, with the greatest diffidence and sensitiveness, that +the difference between the rebellion in the United States and the +present revolution in Cuba is simply that in the former a small minority +rebelled against laws which they had a voice in making, and the +privilege of repealing; while in the case of Cuba, we are resisting a +foreign power in crushing us to the earth, as they have done for +centuries, with no appeal but that of arms open to us, and appointing +without knowledge, voice, advice or consent, tyrannical citizens of +their own country to rule us and eat our substance. + + "Patria y Libertad! + "Approved by the Supreme Junta and ordered approved + By SEÑOR GENERAL CESPEDES, + Commander in Chief Republican Forces in Cuba. + Headquarters in the Field, March 1, 1869." + +President Grant was strongly inclined to grant this petition, and in +this he was upheld by his most trusted friend and advisor, General +Rawlins. In consequence, he prepared on August 19, 1869, a proclamation +by which he recognized the insurgents as belligerents, the result of +which would have been to legalize the shipment of arms to them. +Unfortunately for the Cuban cause, though doubtless fortunately for the +United States, there was at the head of the State Department of the +United States a man of cooler judgment than General Grant, and one whose +emotions of pity were not so easily moved. This was the Secretary of +State, Hamilton Fish. Before Grant's proclamation could become +effective, it was necessary for the Secretary of State to sign, seal and +publish it, and this Mr. Fish refused to do. He felt that to do so would +constitute a grave error in diplomacy, and one which might have +far-reaching detrimental effects for the United States. It was his +judgment that the President had been betrayed by his sympathies, and he +felt it incumbent upon himself, as chief of the Department of State, to +restrain him from making a bad mistake. There was to be taken into +consideration the fact that the United States, in the war so recently +fought for the maintenance of the Union, had made vigorous protests +against the recognition of the Confederacy by foreign powers, and +Secretary Fish felt that the proclamation in favor of the Cuban +revolutionary government would stultify the course of the United States +government in that matter. Indeed, in sound judgment, it was impossible +to deny that the Confederates of the South were more justly entitled to +recognition, under all the circumstances of both cases, than were the +Cuban revolutionists. Fish felt that the condition in Cuba, at that +time, at any rate, did not merit the official recognition of the United +States government, and he was not backward in conveying his conviction +to General Grant. Then he simply pigeon-holed the proclamation and let +it die a natural death in musty obscurity. Upon second thought, General +Grant saw the soundness of Fish's conclusions, and not only did not +register a protest, but took occasion some months later to thank Fish +for his intervention, and the suppression of the proclamation. + +[Illustration: MIGUEL DE ALDAMA] + + MIGUEL DE ALDAMA + + A man of letters and of great wealth and social leadership, Miguel + de Aldama was a native of Havana and one of the foremost citizens + of that capital when the Ten Years' War began. He at once placed + his fortune and himself at the disposal of his country, and was + appointed by President Cespedes to be Agent of the Cuban Republic + in New York. To that place he was reappointed by President Cisneros + Betancourt. He served in that capacity throughout the war, to the + great advantage of the patriot cause. + +Meanwhile, reports of the cruelties of Spanish soldiers began to +penetrate the ears of American citizens. It was reported, and pretty +well authenticated, that disgusting atrocities were the order of the +day, when the Spanish troops found in their path anyone, male or female, +who was not in a position to resist them. There were stories of the +raping of little children before the eyes of their mothers, and of +mothers in the presence of their children, of the crucifixion, and +hanging by the thumbs of old men, and even of able bodied persons, who +happened to fall defenseless into the hands of the Spaniards. Tales of +barbarity to prisoners, even to the extent of roasting them alive, fired +the rage of justice-loving American citizens, and again touched the kind +heart of their President. To these reports were added others, less +revolting, but touching the commercial sense of the nation. American +property in Cuba was being destroyed, and American citizens were being +molested and restrained from the peaceful pursuit of their business. +American commerce was impeded and losses were suffered. It was recalled +that Spain had been prompt to recognize the Confederacy as a +belligerent power, and it seemed but the irony of justice, and a fair +sort of retaliation, that now the United States should give recognition +to those who were rebelling against Spain's misrule. But Fish was deaf +to all pleas in behalf of the Cubans, and resolutely blocked all +attempts to secure recognition for them. He argued and pleaded with the +President with such eloquence that presently he seemed to have him +convinced that the cause of freedom in Cuba was not yet worthy of the +recognition of the United States. In consequence, in his annual message, +in December, 1869, President Grant, less than four months after his +unpublished proclamation of recognition, declared that "the contest has +at no time assumed the conditions which amount to a war in the sense of +international war, or which would show the existence of a political +organization of the insurgents sufficient to justify a recognition of +belligerency." He added that "the principle is to be maintained, +however, that this nation is its own judge when to accord the rights of +belligerency either to a people struggling to free themselves from a +government they believed to be oppressive, or to independent nations at +war with each other." + +It is needless to say that this position was a great disappointment to +the Cubans, and seemed to them utterly at variance with what they might +have expected from a nation so lately torn by Civil War, and which had +shown such keen individual sympathies with the cause of the freedom of +Cuba. However, from that time on, the United States, officially, at +least, showed the greatest patience--a patience which seemed almost +unbelievably enduring--toward the hardships which the Spanish +authorities put upon innocent Americans, and was indefatigably zealous +in its efforts to prevent violations of neutrality on the part of +sympathetic United States citizens. That there was some bitterness in +the hearts of the Cuban leaders, who felt they had a right to expect the +support of their sister republic, and a country which had against such +odds won her own independence, it is easy to believe, and there were +many who felt that this was a righteous indignation. + +But during the months in which the Secretary of State and the somewhat +unwilling President of the United States were shaping this policy, the +war in Cuba was continuously waged. On March 7, 1869, a few days after +the Cubans addressed their petition to the United States government, the +Spanish attacked a strong Cuban position at Macaca, and were successful +in ousting the revolutionists. This disheartening occurrence was +followed by defeats for the Cubans, first at Mayari, where Spanish +forces under General Valcosta were victorious over a small army of which +General Cespedes was in command--General Cespedes, however, effecting a +withdrawal with safety to his own person and a part of his +supporters--and again at Jiguani, where it was the Cubans who made the +attack upon a Spanish force under General Valmaseda, only to meet defeat +at the hands of the Spaniards, and to be forced to flee in disorder to +their mountain fastnesses. + +Meanwhile reinforcements came from Spain; this time as before, not a +large number, being only about twelve hundred men, but enough materially +to aid the governmental army, and to strengthen its morale. The +Captain-General also endeavored to win the hearts of the timid by +issuing a proclamation which declared important concessions in tax +regulations. A fifty per cent reduction was made in the direct taxation +on plantations, on cattle and on country real estate, as well as in +those taxes only recently levied on merchants and tradesmen. As a +crowning concession the taxes due for the last quarter of the year +1868-1869 were nullified. But it was apparently impossible for Spain to +make concessions without accompanying them with demands of some sort to +offset her seeming generosity. Therefore the Captain-General took +occasion to levy some new duties: On muscovado sugar, if shipped under +the flag of Spain, a tax of 16¢ a hundred weight, while shipment under a +foreign flag called for an additional 4¢ duty; on boxed sugar shipped +under the Spanish flag, a tax of 75¢ a box, while if under a foreign +flag, 12¢ additional; on every hogshead of sugar shipped under the flag +of Spain a tax of $1, and if under a foreign flag, 75¢ additional; a tax +on molasses of 50¢ a hogshead, and on rum of $1 for an equal quantity. + +It will be recalled that the Cuban patriots had by their proclamation of +December 27, 1868, granted freedom to all slaves on the island. They now +began a campaign to enforce this decree by removing, from all +plantations of which their armies were able to take possession, the +slaves for service in the Cuban army, and to make their liberation +doubly sure, burning the buildings, and laying waste to the crops. In +the districts around Sagua and Remedios there were nine thousand +insurgents engaged in this work. This action it would be hard to excuse, +if there were not taken into consideration the fact that the Cubans had +endured such grievous wrongs at the hands of the Spaniards that they +would have been much less than human if they had not had some desire to +retaliate; and, after all, the retaliation which spoke most forcefully +to the Spaniard was that which attacked his worldly goods and his +pocketbook. + +But to offset these actions, the Spanish at the same time proved +themselves victorious in several engagements. On March 18, at Alvarez, +they defeated the Cuban forces; at about the same time, at Guaracabuya, +they won another victory, with Cuban losses numbering one hundred and +thirty-six killed outright; and two thousand Cubans, under Generals +Morales and Villamil, were routed by the Spaniards at Potrerillo. In +this last affair the patriots suffered severe losses; three hundred +wounded, two hundred and five killed, and twenty-one taken prisoners, +together with many horses killed or captured. They were also obliged to +retreat in such haste that they had to abandon a considerable quantity +of ammunition, which was seized by the enemy. It is only necessary to +add that the Spanish lost but one officer, one private and one of their +number taken prisoner, to demonstrate the disheartening nature of the +encounter. But the Cubans were, as has been stated, drafting large +quantities of slaves into their army, and this victory for the Spaniards +was a signal proof that the slaves were not good material for soldiers. +Besides this, the patriots who took part in this engagement suffered +severely a lack of proper equipment. + +The tide seemed to be turning against the Cubans, and in the days that +followed they were to face still further losses. The quality of the +recruits which were being added to the patriot army did not increase its +valor, skill or morale. They lacked guns, and those which they had were +of antiquated pattern; there was a woeful scarcity of larger arms and +ammunition, and the troops were weary and poorly fed. Against that +portion of the Cuban army stationed in the Villa Clara district the +Spanish now began to concentrate a large army, pouring troops into that +district until they were ten thousand strong. The Cubans were +outnumbered, and lacked the weapons of warfare, they had been +outmanoeuvred, and suffered tremendous losses, and yet another crushing +defeat lay before them, for on March 20, two thousand Cubans who were, +as they fondly believed, strongly entrenched at Placitas, were put to +flight by a small body of Spanish troops, highly skilled and well armed +it is true, but numbering only three hundred regulars and a small +company of the much feared Volunteers. + +Emboldened by these successes, the Captain-General again shifted his +position, and issued an order, to be made the excuse for an outrage +against American shipping, which was severely to tax the friendliness of +international relations. The Spanish government was ever haunted by the +bugbear of American intervention, and doubtless the decree in question +was issued as a preventive against such action, for the Spanish well +knew that should such intervention once take place their cause would be +irrevocably lost, and with it their dominion over Cuba. The decree +provided for the confiscation on the high seas of any and all vessels +carrying either men, arms or ammunition or all three, or indeed anything +which might be construed as intended for material aid to the +revolutionists, and further provided that "all persons captured on such +vessels without regard to their number will be immediately executed." +Viewed in the calm light of history this decree would seem bound, if +enforced, to be almost suicidal to the Spanish interests, being in +opposition to law and justice, and in express violation of existing +treaty obligations between Spain and the United States, and thus bound +to bring a storm of protest from the United States government. + +As if this were not enough, Dulce followed this action by another +decree, promulgated on April 1, which prohibited the transfer of +property, except by the direct consent of the government, and this +prohibition included the sale of produce of all sorts, stocks, shares in +mercantile projects, and real estate, together with many minor +provisions; while by a third decree, which shortly followed, he ordered +the confiscation of the estates of American citizens who were suspected +of sympathy or complicity with the revolutionists. Naturally, the United +States government made a strong protest against such summary action, +rightly declaring it to be in violation of the provisions of the treaty +of 1795. + +The Cuban troops now began a more or less concentrated attack on +Trinidad, and to relieve the pressure at this point, the Spanish sent a +large force toward Puerto Principe, hoping to weaken the Cuban army at +the former place, because of the necessity of withdrawing men to combat +the Spanish army at the latter. The Spanish government also sought to +offset the damage and destruction done by the insurgents to property of +loyalists by issuing a decree proclaiming their intention to confiscate +the property of all individuals who were absent from home without a +governmental excuse--which would of course include all landowners who +were fighting in the Cuban army--and providing for a detail of men to +protect against the revolutionists every estate thus taken. + +On April 17 battle was again joined by the Cubans under Colonel +Francisco Rubalcava and a Spanish force under the combined leadership of +Generals Letona, Escalante and Lesca. The fighting which ensued taxed +the Cuban resources to the utmost. All day long the battle raged, and +when both sides were worn out with combat, the result was not decisive +for either army, while one hundred and eighty Spanish troops and two +hundred Cubans lay dead under the stars. + +For nearly two weeks thereafter there was a period of quiet and +recuperation on the part of the Cubans, with the exception of a number +of minor skirmishes, but on May 3 the belligerents again met in battle +at Las Minas, when twelve hundred Spaniards, under the command of +General Lesca, and a large Cuban force under General Quesada, fought in +the most violent of hand to hand conflicts. Frightful butchery ensued, +for this time victory again returned to the Cuban standards, and the +Spanish were forced to retreat in disorder, leaving behind them one +hundred and sixty killed and three hundred wounded, while the Cuban +losses were two hundred killed and an equal number wounded. + +To add to the rejoicing over this victory, small as it was, a few days +previous the Cubans had had a practical demonstration of the sympathy of +United States citizens for their cause, and of the ability of those +citizens to evade the drastic provisions of the government against any +display of that feeling. On May 1 there arrived at Mayari a body of +three hundred Americans, under the leadership of General Thomas Jordan, +a tried veteran of the Civil War, in which he had been an officer in the +Confederate Army. He was an experienced soldier, who had had a fine +military training and had been graduated from West Point. This in itself +might have been quite enough to put new heart into the Cuban leaders, +but General Jordan had brought with him not only reinforcements but +arms, ammunition, clothing, medical supplies and food. A detailed list +of this material included four thousand long range rifles, three hundred +new pattern Remington rifles, five hundred revolvers, twelve pieces of +artillery of various sizes including twelve, twenty-four and thirty-two +pound cannon, and a large supply of ammunition for these arms. And the +relief did not stop here, for there were a thousand pairs of shoes, and +clothing for one thousand persons, two printing-presses, medical +supplies, and quantities of rice, tinned biscuits, salt meat, flour and +salt. This meant food and arms for at least six thousand men, and there +is no wonder that there seemed to be occasion for the wildest rejoicing +on the part of those who were so manfully and against such great odds +engaged in upholding the cause of freedom in Cuba. Now the patriots +might oppose the Spanish with at least six thousand well equipped men, +and they had also acquired in the person of General Jordan an officer +whose aid in drilling raw recruits could not be overestimated. + +The Cubans did not get their booty to headquarters without some +opposition from the Spaniards. That was hardly to be hoped, since their +every movement was reported to the government by Spanish spies, and it +would have been impossible for an expedition like the one in question to +land without detection. But they were able to resist all attempts to +wrest their supplies from them. + +Around Trinidad and Cienfuegos fighting was constant. Each day saw its +skirmishes, and there were some violent engagements, all of which left +matters pretty much as they had been so far as any victory of a decisive +character for either side was concerned. The Cubans were, however, able +to disperse a body of Spanish troops which were advancing toward Las +Tunas in the hope of relieving the citizens of that place, which was +also in a state of siege. The Spaniards were bearing a quantity of +provisions for the city, and in their flight these were abandoned and +fell into the hands of the Cubans. + +When matters were succeeding in a manner more or less favorable to the +Spanish cause, the Volunteers were quiet and inclined to discontinue +temporarily their opposition to Dulce, but when things took a turn for +the worse he was always made the scapegoat. Hence the Volunteers were +renewing their attacks on his policies, although for the time being he +had been suffering one of his periodic reversions to severity. This +time, the Volunteers were successful in obtaining the recall of Dulce as +Captain-General. They simply drove him out by mob force, on June 4, and +put into his place one Señor Espinar. This appointment was an arbitrary +act, which the Spanish government refused to confirm, and therefore +Espinar's political life was cut short almost at its inception, and +General Caballero de Rodas became Captain-General of the island. Now +Rodas should have been a man entirely to the liking of the Volunteers. +He had won for himself a reputation for cruelty toward the republican +insurgents in Spain while he was stationed at Cadiz, which had caused +him to be called "the butcher of Cadiz." He evidently felt it incumbent +to live up to his title, for now the Spanish troops were incited to +unspeakable cruelties. + +Promptly on taking office, Rodas began his career with the decree of +July 7, 1869, which he fondly hoped would prevent further aid from +reaching the revolutionists from the United States or from any other +country. The proclamation was as follows: + +"The custody and guardianship of the coasts of this island, of the keys +adjacent, and the waters appertaining to the territory, being of the +greatest importance, in order to suppress the insurgent bands that have +hitherto maintained themselves by outside assistance, and determined as +I am to give a vigorous impulse to the pursuit of them, and with a view +of settling the doubts entertained by our own cruisers as to the proper +interpretation of the decree promulgated by this superior political +government under dates of November 9, 1868, and February 18 and 26 and +March 24 last, I have decided to amplify and unite the aforesaid orders +and substitute for them the following, which, by virtue of the authority +vested in me by the nation, I decree: + +"Article I.--All parts situated between Cayo Bahia de Cadiz and Point +Maysi on the north side, and from Point Maysi to Cienfuegos on the +south, with the exception of Sagua La Grande, Caibarien, Nuevitas, +Gibara, Baracoa, Guantanamo, Santiago de Cuba, Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, +Zaza, Trinidad and Cienfuegos, where there are custom houses, will +continue closed to the import and export trade, both by foreign and +coasting vessels. Those who may attempt the entry of any closed ports, +or to open communications with their coasts, will be pursued, and, on +being captured, are to be tried as violators of the law. + +"Article II.--Vessels carrying gunpowder, arms and warlike stores, will +likewise be judged in accordance with the law. + +"Article III.--The transportation of individuals in the service of the +insurrection is by far more serious than that of contraband of war, and +will be deemed an act of decided hostility, and the vessel and crew +regarded as enemies to the state. + +"Article IV.--Should the individuals referred to in the foregoing +article come armed, this will be regarded, _de facto_, as proof of their +intentions, and they will be regarded as pirates, as will also be the +case with the crew of the vessel. + +"Article V.--In accordance with the law, vessels captured under an +unknown flag, whether armed or unarmed, will also be regarded as +pirates. + +"Article VI.--In free seas adjacent to those of this island, the +cruisers will limit themselves to their treatment of denounced vessels, +or those who render themselves suspicious, to the rights given in the +treaties between Spain and the United States in 1795, Great Britain in +1835, and with other nations subsequently; and if, in the exercise of +these rights, they should encounter any vessels recognized as enemies of +the integrity of the territory, they will carry them into port for legal +investigation and judgment accordingly. + + "CABALLERO DE RODAS." + +Of course this action was incited and backed by the Volunteers, and met +with their heartiest approval, but if either they or their mouthpiece, +Rodas, had any real idea that such a decree would act as a deterrent +against aid being sent to the Cubans, they misjudged the temper of the +friends of the revolution in America. It simply made them aware of the +necessity of increased secrecy and caution, but did not one whit curtail +their enterprises. + +To reinforce his action, Rodas promptly issued another decree against +the insurgents in the following contemptuous terms: + +"The insurrection, in its impotency, being reduced to detached bands, +perverted to the watchword of desolation and daily perpetrating crimes +that have no precedent in civilized countries, personal security and the +rights of justice, the foremost guarantees of person and property, +imperiously demand that said insurrection be hastened to its end, and +without consideration toward those who have placed themselves beyond the +pale of the law. The culprit will not be deprived of the guarantee of +just impartiality in the evidence of his crime, but without delay +admissible in normal periods, which would procrastinate or paralyze the +verdict of the law and its inexorable fulfilment. + +"As the guardians of the national integrity, the protection of the +upright and pacific citizen, fulfilling the duties of my office, and in +virtue of the authority conceded to me by the Government of the nation, +I hereby decree: + +"Article I.--The decrees promulgated by this superior political +government under date of the 12th and 13th of February last shall be +carried out with vigor. + +"Article II.--The crimes of premeditated incendiarism, assassination and +robbery, by armed force and contraband, shall be tried by a council of +war. + +"Article III.--The courts of justice will continue in the exercise of +their attributes, without prejudice, however, of having submitted to me +such cases as special circumstances may require. + + "CABALLERO DE RODAS." + +Thus, in high-sounding phrases and treacherous hypocrisy, did the +"butcher of Cadiz" proclaim himself the guardian of persons and +property. If his pronouncements had not had too grim a significance, +they might have filled the Cuban patriots with the spirit of ironical +laughter, such a divergence was there between his character and his past +record, and the new rôle which he now announced himself as about to +play. + +Naturally this action did not pass unnoticed by the United States +government. On July 16, the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish, informed +the Spanish minister at Washington that Rodas's decree of July 7 +interfered with the commerce of the United States in a manner which +could only be tolerated in times of war; that the United States would +maintain her right to carry contraband in times of peace, and would +permit no interference with her vessels on the high seas, except in time +of war; that if Spain was in a state of war with Cuba it was incumbent +on her to proclaim the fact; and further adding that the United States +would regard any attempt to enforce Rodas's decree as a recognition by +Spain of the existence of a state of war in Cuba, and would govern +itself accordingly. Spain was in no position and had no desire to +declare Cuba in a state of war. Such action would wrest from her certain +advantages which in her present ambiguous position she was prepared to +enjoy to the utmost. She at once recognized that Rodas's action was +entirely too arbitrary, and might be productive of a most embarrassing +situation, and therefore acting under instructions from the Spanish +government, he at once receded from his arrogant position and his decree +was materially modified. + +American commerce with Cuba had been exceedingly profitable to those +engaged in it, and, under the disturbed condition of affairs in the +island, not only did it suffer, but the commercial interests of American +residents in Cuba were badly jeopardized. General Grant still nursed his +secret good will toward the cause of the revolutionists, although the +advice of his Secretary of State had put a temporary restraint on it. It +may be that this new indignity which Spain had sought to impose not only +on the insurgents but also on American interests spurred him to action. +However, that may be, when Daniel E. Sickles was appointed United States +Minister to Spain, on June 29th, 1869, he was instructed at once on his +arrival in Madrid to offer to the Spanish government the good offices of +the United States in an effort to bring about an understanding and +adjustment between the revolutionists and the governmental party and to +effect a cessation of the hostilities which were rapidly ruining both +the Creoles and the Spanish landowners alike. Sickles received the most +careful instructions to proceed in a conciliatory fashion, and in no +manner to imply any recognition by the United States of the belligerency +of Cuba. To guide him in his work, terms were drafted as a basis for the +negotiations and they embodied the following points: + +1. The acknowledgment by Spain of the independence of Cuba. + +2. Cuba to pay Spain an indemnity under conditions to be thereafter +agreed upon. In case such sum could not immediately be paid in full, the +unpaid portion to be secured by the pledge of export and import duties, +in a manner to be agreed upon. + +3. The abolition of slavery in the island of Cuba. + +4. The declaration of an armistice pending negotiations for a final +settlement. + +And, furthermore, Sickles was empowered, if necessary, to suggest that +the United States would guarantee the payment by Cuba of the indemnity. + +Sickles took up the negotiations with the Spanish government at Madrid +in accordance with his instructions, and after much consideration the +Spanish government agreed to accept the good offices of the United +States government, provided it was not required to treat with the +revolutionists on a basis of equality--that would be too galling to the +sensitive Spanish dignity--but that it would be allowed to take the +position of making concessions to a rebellious people, such concessions +of course to be couched in legal terms, and carried out in accordance +with constitutional forms and with all due solemnity. Above all, the +result of the negotiations was not to be regarded as a treaty between +armed powers on an equal footing. In support of her position, Spain made +the following demands, as constituting the basis of settlement to which +she would agree: + +1. The revolutionists to lay down their arms and return to their homes. + +2. Whereupon, Spain would grant a full and complete amnesty. + +3. The question of the independence of Cuba to be submitted to vote by +their own vote whether they desired independence or not. + +4. Provided a majority vote was cast for independence Spain would grant +it, the Cortes consenting, upon the payment of a satisfactory sum by +Cuba, or the partial payment and guarantee by the United States of the +remainder. + +When Sickles submitted the result of his efforts to the government of +his own country, that government, well knowing that the Cubans would +never consent to the first two stipulations laid down by Spain, promptly +rejected them. Sickles again took up the matter with the Spanish +government, but they stood firm, and since there seemed no hope of an +agreement on any terms which would be acceptable to the revolutionists, +the matter was finally dropped. + +Meanwhile Spain had been sending considerable reinforcements to Cuba, +and commenced an active campaign against the force under the command of +the American General Jordan. These were probably the best equipped and +best trained troops which the Cuban army had at its command, and they +were well fitted to administer a rebuff to the Spaniards, which they +did. The attacks of the Spaniards were all unsuccessful, and the Cubans +were elated by the certainty that in bravery and resources they were +more than a match for the Spanish army, and that, when they were +properly equipped they seemed to have the advantage. In these different +battles--none of them of very large scope--the Spanish lost four hundred +killed, wounded and taken prisoners. Meanwhile the Cubans attacked the +Spanish forces near Baja, a small town on the bay in the vicinity of +Nuevitas, and defeated three hundred marines under General Puello, +killing eighty of the enemy. + +But the rainy season was approaching and soon caused a halt in +hostilities, while both armies were strengthening their positions +looking forward to the time when weather would permit a resumption of +the warfare. If the Spanish were obtaining reinforcements, the Cubans +also were, in spite of the Spanish blockade and the decrees of the +Captain-General, as well as the activities of the United States +officials, constantly receiving aid from the United States. This mainly +took the form of small expeditions from the southern states. However, at +the close of July there arrived a company of two hundred and +seventy-five recruits from the states of Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky, +bringing with them large stores of food, clothing, arms and ammunitions. +So it appeared that faith in the righteousness of the Cuban cause was +not confined to what were known as the southern states. + +These men were placed under the direct command of General Quesada, and +thus reinforced he decided to make an effort to subdue and capture the +besieged Las Tunas. He set out to go thither with twelve hundred men. +All night long the fight raged on the outskirts of the town, and just as +the morning was breaking the Cubans made a triumphal entry. By two +o'clock the next afternoon the town was completely under their control. +When news of this victory reached the Spanish headquarters, a large +force was immediately dispatched to dislodge the Cubans, and spies +reporting to General Quesada that the Spanish troops sent against him +not only largely outnumbered his own, but also were bringing large +quantities of heavy artillery with them, he decided that to hold the +town would not be of sufficient importance--if indeed he could do so +against such odds--to risk an engagement. He, therefore, again retired. +He had been welcomed as a deliverer by the inhabitants of Las Tunas, +for they had suffered gross indignities under Spanish occupation, and +now many of them enlisted in the Cuban army, and accompanied General +Quesada on his retreat. + +It may have been that the attempted intervention of the United States +government at Madrid led the Spanish government to believe that the time +had again arrived to temporize; at any rate, several concessions were +made in an attempt to pacify the insurgents, but without any perceptible +effect. + +Not every attempt to bring aid from the United States to Cuba was +productive of results, and during the summer there had been a number of +efforts which were abortive, or which failed of execution. But just as +hope of a successful relief expedition was dying in the hearts of the +Cubans, a party of six hundred men with a quantity of rifles and a large +amount of ammunition arrived from that stronghold of Cuban sympathizers, +New Orleans. Meanwhile General Jordan communicated a request for aid to +his compatriots who composed the Cuban Junta in the City of New York. He +reported that the Cuban army was composed of twenty six thousand eight +hundred men, besides whom there were at least forty thousand freed +slaves, who were armed merely with machetes. He requested that seventy +five thousand stands of arms be in some manner dispatched to the Cubans, +and expressed the opinion that if this could be accomplished, in ninety +days the war would be determined in favor of the patriots. + +Small bodies of Cubans were still carrying on guerrilla warfare wherever +it seemed most effective, and the plantations belonging to Spanish +sympathizers were suffering in consequence. The idea of this action was +not wanton destruction. The Cubans argued that it was from such sources +as the rich Spanish planters that Spain, by taxation, obtained revenues +which were enabling her to continue the war, and thus their own country +was being used to supply funds for her own destruction; and therefore +when they destroyed Spanish holdings, they were not only wreaking +vengeance on their tormentors, but they were also reducing the resources +which made the prosecution of the war possible. To offset these actions, +the Spanish commanders were countenancing the most scandalous +conditions, and allowing most wholesale torture and butchery of such +luckless patriots as fell into their hands, in which they could have had +no motive except to terrorize the Cubans, and to enjoy that peculiar +pleasure which they seemed to take in cruelty and murder. However, in +the month of November alone, the patriots were able to burn the +buildings on and destroy the productiveness of over a hundred and fifty +sugar plantations, which the Spanish government had confiscated under +the order which Dulce had promulgated. These were plantations which +belonged to soldiers in the Cuban army, and which had been seized by the +Spaniards in the absence of their owners, and the revenues of which had +been flowing into the Spanish treasury. + +This work of destruction had the approval of General Cespedes, for he +felt that it was necessary to cut off every possible source of revenue +for Spain from the island, and so, in December, he issued a proclamation +calling on all loyal patriots to see that it was made impossible for +Spain to collect revenue from sugar and tobacco plantations on the +island, when by any action of patriots this could be avoided. + +The revolutionists had been encouraged, not only by their friends in the +United States, but also by the sympathetic expressions of former Spanish +colonies in South America, who were now enjoying their own freedom. As +early as May 15, 1869, the President of the Republic of Peru expressed +to General Cespedes his good wishes, in a letter couched in the +following terms: + +"The President of Peru sympathizes deeply with the noble cause of which +your Excellency constitutes himself the worthy champion, and he will do +his utmost to mark the interest that island, so worthy of taking its +place with the civilized nations of the world, inspires him with. The +Peruvian Government recognizes as belligerents the party which is +fighting for the independence of Cuba, and will strive its utmost to +secure their recognition as such by other nations; and likewise that the +war should be properly regulated in conformity with international usages +and laws." + +This action on the part of Peru was followed by recognition of the +revolutionists on the part of other South American states of Spanish +origin. Action was taken on this subject in Colombia, in June, 1870, +when a bill was introduced into the House of Representatives proposing +that all the Spanish-American republics form a combination for the +active promotion of aid to Cuba, material and political, in her struggle +for independence. This bill was reported out of Committee, with the +following comments: + +"1. The cause for which Cuban patriots fight is the same for which +Colombia fought incessantly from 1810 to 1824. + +"2. The interests of self-preservation, and our duty as a civilized and +Christian nation, justify in the most complete manner Colombian +intervention. + +"3. The aggressions of monarchial Europe against the liberty and +independence of America always have had and will have for a base Spanish +dominion in Cuba. + +"4. The policy of the United States cannot serve as a guide to Colombia +on this occasion. + +"5. The resources we may need for this war are not beyond our means. + +"6. The time has arrived when Colombia should assume in the politics of +South America the position to which she is called by her topographical +situation, her historical traditions, her population, and her political +conquests." + +In spite of this favorable report, and the fact that the bill passed the +House, the Senate rejected it. + +Thus the struggle went on, the patriots fighting almost with the courage +of desperation, gaining a little here, and losing there, but always +holding before them the justice of their cause, and resolutely refusing +to admit the possibility of failure. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + + +With the opening of the year 1870, the revolutionists had in the field +forty thousand well disciplined, and for the time being at least well +armed troops, who were under the command of efficient officers, and a +competent military organization. The movements of the troops were, so +far as possible, directed according to a concerted plan, and their +distribution through the island was governed in the same manner. + +Spain had also increased her regular army, and her navy had been greatly +augmented, for she now had in Cuban waters, in addition to the +men-of-war which had at the beginning of the war been stationed there, +the following: + + 2 iron-clad vessels 48 guns + 2 1st class wooden steamers 85 guns + 6 2nd class wooden steamers 69 guns + 1 3rd class wooden steamer 2 guns + 4 steam schooners 11 guns + 6 gunboats 6 guns + 13 armed merchantmen 41 guns + 2 sailing gunboats 2 guns + 1 transport 4 guns + 1 schoolship 6 guns + +About the middle of April, 1870, an occurrence happened of which the +Spanish made great capital, spreading the tidings throughout the world. +Connected with it is one of the illustrious names in Cuban history--a +name which has been borne by some of the most famous Cuban patriots. +However, it has been said that there is no family which has not its +black sheep. + +Augustin Arango gave his life for his country, when he was murdered by +the Spaniards, while on the way to the conference at Puerto Principe, +under safe conduct from the Spanish leaders. Two other members of the +Arango family were prominent in the support of the revolution. It +remained for Napoleon Arango to disgrace his family. He had taken an +active part in the revolution upon its inception, but had not been +accorded a high place in the revolutionary government, or the rank which +his ambition craved in the army, because his loyalty had been suspected. +Angry and disgruntled, he made an attempt to betray his friends to the +Spanish troops. His action was, however, discovered in time, and he was +arrested, tried, found guilty and sentenced to death. The high standing +of the Arango family, and the fact that his brother had given his life +for the cause of liberty, were urged as reasons for commuting his +sentence, and he was finally taken from confinement, and driven outside +the Cuban lines, with orders never to return under penalty of having the +death sentence executed. He quickly made his way to the Spanish army. + +All this happened in 1869, and for almost a year Arango had been living +under Spanish protection. Suddenly, in April, 1870, the Spanish +authorities caused the report to be circulated that Arango had +surrendered himself to them, bringing with him a large force of Cubans, +who had declared their allegiance to Spain, and the Spanish Government +in Cuba cited this as an indication of the weakness of the patriots, and +as an augury of their approaching dissolution and of the ultimate +triumph of Spain. As a matter of fact, Arango had always been a trouble +maker and a potential traitor; he had been characterized by one Cuban +officer as a "poor, despised, worthless creature," and it is needless to +say that the whole story was false from beginning to end. However, +Arango issued a grandiloquent statement, in which he explained his +supposed action, and urged the Cuban revolutionists to lay down their +arms and follow his example. His open letter to Cuban patriots is to be +recalled as one of the curiosities of treason. It ran as follows: + +"Cubans!" + +"When Carlos Manuel de Cespedes thought of raising the cry of +Independence and expected the other cities of the Island to second him, +he received as a reply, from the jurisdiction of Holguin and Puerto +Principe, _that they would not support him_; and the Cinco Villas and +other towns maintained an attitude of expectancy. Notwithstanding this, +Cespedes said that he had no need of the _reminder_ and that he _would +pronounce_ on the 14th of October as he did in fact but somewhat in +advance of that date. Having so many reasons, as I have, to know the +country as well as the character and tendencies of its inhabitants; and +also what Spain would do and what was to be _expected of the people_ on +the Island; knowing moreover the policy of the United States and the +effects as well as the consequences that must follow a revolution +especially when it was an _extemporaneous outburst_; and being convinced +besides that owing to the heterogeneous nature of our population and to +the little _enlightenment_ of the masses, _nothing but extermination_ +could be expected for Cuba, I took part in framing the reply given to +Cespedes by Puerto Principe, stating that _since he took pains to carry +out so wicked an idea, he should not be seconded by us_; and _we made +him responsible_ before posterity for the evils which he was about to +bring on Cuba. + +"Cespedes and his inexperienced fellow-believers proclaimed Independence +at Yara without any supply of arms or munitions of war, without +provisions, clothing, etc., etc., with which to support their movement. +Ignorant of what revolution is, they bunched forth just like children +who heedlessly play with a wild beast, in entire ignorance of its +nature. The first movement of enthusiasm on the part of the people, and +of surprise on the part of the Government gave them the victory at +Bayamo; and they at once thought that the Independence of Cuba was +already secured. This was a fatal error, a sad illusion, which blunted +the common sense and gave _loose rein to their passions_. It was the +fatal error of those men who had not sufficient strength of will to be +able to wait. Ah! how fatal it is not to know when to wait! + +"The Camagueyans were aroused at the enthusiastic shout for liberty, and +they wished to help their brethren of Bayamo, driven on by a sentiment +of fraternity and by their yet stronger love of liberty;--that noble +aspiration which God has imbued in the hearts of all men. I shared not +in these desires, although I did really in their sentiments, but I was +restrained by experience and by my knowledge of the situation. Anxious +to be of service to my country, I offered to go to Bayamo as a +representative from Puerto Principe, which I did. + +"From my first steps into the Eastern Department, I was _convinced of +the error_ into which the people had fallen, and the _impossibility_ of +keeping up so unequal a contest. Moreover after studying the revolution +and sounding the feelings of the people, I discovered that they _did not +desire_ the movement but had been dragged into it; without noticing in +the beginning, owing to their blind precipitation, that they were not +prepared to receive a successful issue. + +"In some private circles I spoke of the propriety of _changing_ the cry +for Independence into an acceptation of the _Cadiz programme_;--an idea +which was _well received_ and seemed so to change the course of affairs, +that I saw a great risk, being threatened by the few who persisted in +their original intention. I spoke to Cespedes and made known to him the +untimeliness of the revolution; that if he really desired the welfare of +Cuba, this latter consisted in withdrawing from a war that must be +ruinous and unsuccessful in the end; that the liberties offered in the +Cadiz programme _were perhaps even more than would suit Cuba_, etc., +etc. Cespedes, _convinced_ by my reasoning _agreed to my proposals_; and +if he then failed to follow my advice it was, to use his own words, +because he feared that he would not be obeyed by those who had already +proclaimed for Independence. They did not understand the true policy +that should be followed in the guidance of returns. They began badly and +will end worse. + +"On my return to Puerto Principe I found the country in insurrection, +_dragged on_ by two or three men who were led wrong by their +ill-digested ideas of liberty or by their own _private interest_, and +whose only wish was _revolution in whatever way it could be brought +about_. I grieved at this mistake, but without losing heart, and always +firm in advancing the prosperity of Cuba, I called a meeting which was +held at Clavellinas. There I made known the result of my observations +during my trip to Bayamo; and after some discussions, the force of my +arguments _prevailed_. With _one_ exception all agreed that we should +_adhere to the Cadiz programme_. I was afterwards appointed +General-in-Chief with _especial charge_ (thus it was set forth in the +record) _that I should have an interview with General Valmaseda for the +purpose noted above_. + +"In a conversation with that gentleman he manifested the _best of +intentions_ in favor of a pacification, but stated that he was not +empowered by his government to make any concession. He offered +nevertheless to grant _effectual ones_, so soon as he could obtain the +power. He called my attention to this; that whatever the liberties which +should be granted to Cuba, the rights of the Cubans would have to be +regarded as attacked if they did not _send representatives_ to have a +hand in everything that might be done in regard to this country. + +"I knew too well the _reasons_ of General Valmaseda, but fearing that my +fellow countrymen might not seize the force of his reasoning, we agreed +upon a truce for four days which I requested in order to call another +meeting more numerous and one which should decide the matter. This +meeting _took place_ at _Las Minas_; and there as well as at +Clavellinas, the majority was _not for a continuation of the war_ but +for _accepting the Cadiz programme_. Had a vote been taken, it is +certain that this choice _would have carried_; but I refrained from +calling a vote in order to be consistent with the Caunao district which +had made known through its delegate, Don Carlos L. Mola, Junior, that it +wished to have no voting; because in case thereof they would be bound to +its result; and that district was only in favor of _accepting_ whatever +the government _chose to grant them_. + +"An _immense majority_ was in favor of the _programme_, and, +nevertheless, the war was kept up because those bent upon it spared no +means nor suggestion to entice away those in favor of the _Cadiz +programme_. That is to say that, taking advantage of family ties, of +friendships, and of an ill comprehended association, etc., etc., they +dragged along with them the _unwary_ and the _inexperienced_, who were +_reluctant_ enough and who now know their error, as I never wished to +force upon anyone (not even on my own brothers) my own ideas, nor to +make use of any other means than persuasion, in accordance with reason. +I confined myself to simply resigning the rank that had been conferred +on me and withdrew to my plantation. From that time forward, I busied +myself merely with enlightening the people, showing them the mistakes +into which they were led by those who were interested in the continuance +of the war. + +"I have not sought to impose my notions upon anyone, but I do not any +the more accept those of others when my reason and my conscience reject +them. And I believe there is no right, nor law, nor reason to support +those who willingly, or through force, wish to force upon others their +own ideas however good or holy these may be. + +"Those who are at the head of the Cuban government and guide the +revolution believe their triumph possible; they think their ideas are +correct and their way a good one. Very well; but not believing as they +do, I move aside from that government, whose _pressure and +arbitrariness_ are such, that it will not even admit neutrality in +others. I will not wage war against you; I will not take up arms against +you except in personal defence; but I separate from men who wish to +_impose_ their own notions on others _through force_. You are free to +think and act as you like, and I reserve to myself the same right and +act in accordance therewith. + +"But there is more. In the position where, unfortunately and much +against my will, events have placed me, I occupy a place as a public +man, as a politician in Cuban politics; and I should not remain inactive +while I behold the destruction of Cuba and look out merely for my +personal safety under the protection of the Spanish government. No, +Gentlemen, I would then be a bad patriot, and I love my country before +liberty or rather I do not understand the former principle as divorced +from the latter. Both are intimately bound together; and in order that +the first be worthy, honorable and beneficial to humanity it cannot be +separated from the second. + +"I am a Cuban, the same as yourselves, and I have consequently the same +right to busy myself with the welfare of my country. Let everyone have +his method; you pretend that you obey the popular will; that you are at +the head of government, because the will of the people and popular +choice; that you act in uniformity with ideas and sentiments of the +Cubans; and finally that you are provoking the welfare and prosperity of +Cuba. _I shall prove entirely the contrary._ + +"The favorable reception with which my ideas were met at Bayamo, the +meeting at Clavellinas, that at Las Minas, and the desire--almost +unanimous--to accept the _concessions_ offered by General Dulce, prove +sufficiently that the country wanted peace, nevertheless you maintain +war. Hence, popular suffrage in the country is but a chimera. + +"Let us see how the actual government was formed. On the one side, +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes who, _for himself_ and in _his own name set +himself up_ as the _dictator_ of Cuba, _appointed_ a certain number of +deputies for the cast, at the famous meeting in Guaimaro. That is a fine +representation of popular will and an admirable republic, when the +deputies are not elected by the people! On the other hand, the assembly +at Puerto Principe was _illegally constituted_ and _entirely +unauthorized_; and, finally, some deputies from the Cinco Villas--the +only ones which perhaps held a legitimate representation--met together +and formed the actual government, which they should have called the +_Venetian_ rather than a _Cuban Republic_. They formed the government by +_sharing with each other the offices_, and they propose thus to shape +the destiny of Cuba. A _handful of men_ thus representing over a million +souls, who _have had no share_ in their nomination, does not assuredly +constitute popular election. + +"The Cubans want the liberty of assemblage, freedom of speech, respect +of property, personal security, the liberty to leave the territory of +the Republic,--which is a right secured in all nations of the world to +every individual, they want, in fine, to be governed as the majority +choose, and not according to the will of a few. But _nothing of all this +is done_. Whoever puts forth ideas _contrary_ to those of the government +or any of its _functionaries_, is _threatened_ with four shots, +_property is a prey to the first comer_, who, with arms in hand can take +_possession_ of what suits him; the _lives_ of men are _sported_ with, +just as children sport with flies; and in fine whoever attempts to +abandon the government, even without intruding to wage war on it, is +persecuted to death. Hence the conduct of said government is not in +conformity with the ideas and sentiments of the country. + +"If to all this be added the _arsons_ and the complete _destruction_ of +Cuban wealth, the _demolition of towns_ and--what must follow in the +end, can there be one sensible man who will maintain that all this +constitutes the prosperity and well-being of Cuba? Assuredly not. + +"You employ _force, deceit, terror_ to _drag the masses_ on and carry +out whatever you judge beneficial for the cause of Cuba; I use only +reason, truth and the irrepressible logic of facts and of experience, +not the material argument of arms. + +[Illustration: DOMINGO GOICOURIA] + +"Well, then, knowing as I do that the country _does not want war_, and +that it continues therein under the _pressure_ of the Cuban government +in the one hand and on the others out of fear of the punishment which +the Spanish government might inflict, knowing as I do that nothing is to +be expected from the United States as it was attempted to make the +people believe; knowing that since the beginning of the Insurrection, +40,000 men have come from Spain, and that many more will come--a fact +generally unknown in this country; aware, as I am, that over 100,000 men +are under arms; that the coasts are well watched, and that the New York +Junta lacks resources to send material aid to the Insurrection; aware +moreover that the _Cuba_, the _Lillian_, the expedition of Goicouria and +others are lost resources; that the Insurrection is almost stifled in +the East and in the Cinco Villas; that in the Vuelta-Abajo far from +there being any secessionists, it is the country people themselves who +pursue the insurgents, as has taken place in Guines; knowing as I do +that the families to be met with in the fields are anxious to return to +the towns; and aware of the importance attached to my conduct, both in +the Island and abroad, I have made a new sacrifice for my country. I +have come forward with my family to prove by my example that I do not +believe in the triumph of the Insurrection, nor do I fear the Spanish +government; which animated as it is with the best of wishes is ready to +draw a veil over the past, provided the country can be pacified and many +tears, much blood and loss of property be spared. + + DOMINGO GOICOURIA + + General Domingo Goicouria, one of the pioneers of Cuban + independence was born in 1804, and was an active participant in the + Lopez expeditions and other uprisings. He was one of the leaders in + the beginning of the Ten Years' War, but was captured by the + Spaniards, at Cayo Guajaba, and was put to death at Havana on May + 14, 1870. + +"It is a sacrifice indeed, Gentlemen, for I expose my name to the +evil-tongued and make it the butt of false interpretations. + +"I believe firmly that the happiness of Cuba and the welfare of humanity +consists in the pacification of this beautiful country, and maintain +this in the presence of the whole universe with my hand on my conscience +and head erect as becomes a man of honor. + +"There is no man who is infallible, and perhaps my opinions and +determination may be wrong; but I can at least affirm that I am acting +in good faith, having for sole object in view the welfare of my country +and of humanity and making total abstraction of my own personality, as +well as of my own interests. + +"I am not a time server but a man of fixed principles; I am convinced of +my opinions and feel the energy of my convictions. I now maintain what I +have maintained since the beginning of the revolution, even previous +thereto. My actual conduct is not therefore an apostasy but the +energetic continuance in my opinions and principles. These I do not mean +to impose on any one; merely make them known, inviting all to examine +them in every detail, and I am sure that they will follow my example. +But if blind to reason and unmindful of the events which for a year and +a half have supported my predictions, they persist in a struggle which I +believe hopeless, let them keep on, but without _extending the horrors +of war to families_. Let the women and children whom _government_ wishes +to _foster_ and _daily supports_ with rations of bread, rice, butter, +etc., come to the city; and let you keep on, if unfortunately you refuse +to listen to the voice of reason and patriotism, in that senseless +contest, which you must later repent having ever begun. + +"Reflect a moment; examine thoroughly, and not merely the appearances of +the situation, and you will see that the existing strife is an +unqualifiable mistake, and its continuation an unparalleled +blindness.... What has become of the intelligence of Cubans? Where are +the energy and the influence of men of intelligence and character? + +" ...Cubans! You have seen that I have always been a protector to the +people; that I have tried to enlighten them, that they might have a +participation in everything and know what they were doing, so as to +follow their own ideas and not be carried off by others; but what has +been the result? I was treacherously and illegally arrested, at the +request of those who wish to rule the masses; I was sentenced to death, +and over twenty times they have tried to put an end to my life.... +Natural sense shows clearly that when an attempt is made to annihilate +him who speaks the _truth_, who _enlightens_ and never _deceives_; who +instead of speculating on his fellow countrymen and growing rich on the +revolution makes use of his own means to succor the masses (let all +Yaguajey speak); who never makes use of any pressure to enforce his +ideas, who allows himself to be ruined from the neglect of his own +interests, in order to give himself up solely to the welfare of his +country; does it not show clearly, I say, that the attempt is made only +because his adversaries have different pretensions and a different line +of conduct from his? Now what is this difference? It consists in +_violence, deceit_, the use of _force, spoliation_ of the neighbor for +_his own benefit_; it is despotism, based on the ignorance in which the +people are kept. I have sought to have the country governed as it is its +wish to be governed, in accordance with universal suffrage; your +government, _on the contrary_, pretend to rule it as they see fit. They +state that they want liberty for the people whilst the most _cruel +despotism_ weighs upon you.... + +"The people are told that from the United States will come reinforcement +and resources; that there are elements to spare for the continuation of +the war; that the Spanish soldier carries a cartridge-box and wears +shoes of rawhide and is short of provisions; that there are _no troops_ +nor will _any come_ from Spain; that the _taxes are ruining_ the +country, etc., etc. Well, I ... tell you all this is _illusion, deceit_, +and a fatal chimera. + +"The government of the United States does not busy itself nor can it +with the Cuban Insurrection. Look at Article 16 of the Treaty of 1797 +and you will learn that they cannot favor the Cubans in the least +efficacious way without failing in national dignity and exposing +themselves to a coalition against themselves. That government is too +polished and financially shrewd to compromise itself in a war that would +entail serious mischief upon its commerce; and moreover there are other +motives that would be too lengthy to detail.... + +"I have just read a manifesto of Manuel Quesada, published in New York +under date of the 8th inst., in which he sets astray entirely the +opinion that should be formed of the state of insurrection. I shall tear +off the bandage. He states that the Cuban army numbers 61,000; that +there are here five powder factories; that firearms are manufactured +here as well as swords and bayonets; that there are thirteen public +schools and thirteen churches; that three thousand shoes are made every +week and four thousand hides tanned every month; that the soldier +receives for daily ration, beef, sugar, coffee, vegetables and rice at +his discretion, tobacco, etc.; that there are many sugar mills grinding +for the state; that several warehouses are filled with tobacco, sugar, +hides, etc., to the value of many millions of dollars, that the +territory which is occupied by the Cubans in insurrection is in a +cultivated and producing condition, such as has never before been +witnessed, even during years of the greatest abundance; that thousands +of percussion caps are daily made; that he (Quesada) left here under +commission of importance after having temporarily put Jordan in command +under instructions, as well as the other leaders, etc., etc., to an +endless length. I address you, fellow countrymen, who are there on the +ground of this insurrection, whence I have lately come. You all, as well +as myself, know that all these things are _false_, entirely _false_. + +"Quesada states that he has gone to seek means and bring arms, with +which to end the insurrection, but for what _does he need them if he has +61,000 men_? Is it possible that it should not occur to the inhabitants +of New York to ask him _what need he has of more means when he has so +many thousand men? When he has over 20,000 arms and can make more as +well as powder and caps?_ Why has not _that soldier of fourteen years' +campaigning_ taken possession with that army of _one single town_ at +least wherein to _locate the government_ of the republic? Why has he not +_captured one single port_ through which to get aid, export the +productions of the country to the value of millions, and thus acquire a +right to recognition as belligerents? _Where are schools? Where are +those churches?_ Have those at Guaimaro and Sibarncu, which _were +burned_ by that renowned general been perchance rebuilt? Why are the +soldiers _unshod_ or wearing _strips of raw hide_ if there are three +thousand shoes made weekly and four thousand hides tanned per month? +_Where is the abundance_ for the soldier? _Where has he got coffee, +rice, tobacco, etc.? Where are those sugaring mills_ in regular running +order?... Then as to the commission of Manuel Quesada and his separation +from command, do you know as well as I do that he was _ignominiously +deposed by the Chamber_, and that _during his stay_ in Cuba, from his +first arrival his conduct has been _blameworthy under all aspects_? + +"Well, then, Cubans, this is the plan followed from the beginning of the +revolution. They are deceiving you and our brethren in New York as well +as the whole world. For these reasons I say that the edifice is raised +on insecure and imaginary foundations. For these reasons have I always +tried to undeceive the country and let them see clearly, so as to +prevent Cuba from sinking into the abyss wherein she is intended to be +cast. Withal I have not been understood. There has been no lack of +someone who, out of exaltation and under pressure of some sad aberration +has qualified my conduct as treasonable. Ah! Whoever stated that knows +not even the meaning of his words! When did I ever recognize this +government? Never; but rather have I always been in opposition thereto. +For as I wish my country's welfare I could not second an _illegal, +arbitrary, despotic_ government that is _annihilating_ our land. + +"They recognize their error, but they have not loyalty enough to confess +it, they are aware that they are neither statesmen nor lovers of +liberty, nor patriots and their consciences sting them; they know that I +have always seen farther than they could, and more clearly, that all my +predictions have been fulfilled; that I have been alone in maintaining +energetically my principles; bearing up against all kinds of privation +and danger; and they do not forgive me for these advantages over them; +they know that my past and my present career have been free from all +stain; and they do not forgive me for that. + +"Well, if to have thus behaved, to have made entire abstraction of self +and my interests, to look after the welfare of Cuba, to have done harm +to no one, but much good; far from having taken life, to have saved the +lives of many, without distinction of nationality; to have respected +always the property of others, and never have let my hand touch the +incendiary torch, to forward pacification, when I know that the country +needs it; and that by it alone can tears, blood, and destruction be +prevented;--if to have done all this constitute treason, ah! then I am a +traitor; yes, Gentlemen, I am one and feel proud of it. + +"Your government claims to favor liberty for the country; why then does +it not consent to _freedom of one's principles_? Why does it not _admit +of neutrality_? Why does it force people to take up arms without +_distinction of persons_? Why has it always been opposed to _speaking +out in public_? Why did it oppose the _country's acceptance_, when so +close, of _General Dulce's concessions_? Why does it _persecute to +death_ whoever tries to separate himself from said government without +having any intention of waging war against it? Why? I will tell you. +Because then there would _remain in the camp of the insurrection only a +dozen men; the only ones interested in the continuance of this war_ +between brethren; this war of desolation and extermination. + +"I agree that there was reason for the Cuban people to complain and be +resentful against the government that ruled them; but all this has +changed, not only with regard to the institution but as to the manner of +being as well. I am myself an example of what I state. I presented +myself to the Captain-General who received me in such a way as to prove +by his manner alone, his good wishes; even if these were not confirmed +by the conduct which he followed in the Villas and wherever he has been +able to make the impress of his own feelings felt. In his proclamation +he offers a pardon to all who will present themselves; but as every +medal has its reverse, so whoever fails to do so must suffer the cold +and inexorable rigor of the law. + +"Fellow-countrymen, my brethren, let us throw a veil over the past. Let +us look to the future of our families and to the prosperity of our +nation. + +"You know well how many persecutions, privations and even vexations I +have suffered. I forget it all and forgive from my heart all who have +sought my death and wanted my blood. I forgive all who, directly or +indirectly have offended me, of whatever nation or condition they may +be. I sacrifice all, all, on the altar of my country, and for the +welfare of humanity. Why do you not follow my example? + +"Brethren! let there be no more tears, no more blood, no more ruins! +Return to your presides and let a fraternal embrace unite forever both +Spaniards and Cubans and let us all together make of this beautiful +Island--the Pearl of the Antilles--the Pearl also of the world. Cubans, +I await you, and the undeserved consideration shown to me by the first +authority of Cuba which fortunately is held by Señor Don Antonio +Caballero de Rodas I offer to use in your behalf. For myself I seek only +the satisfaction of having always forwarded the welfare of Cuba. + + "NAPOLEON ARANGO. + +"March 28th, 1870." + +The italics are Arango's and his alone also the extraordinary sentiments +expressed in this remarkable document. + +In this same year, the question of slavery came up for attention. While +the United States government had abandoned its attempt to mediate +between Spain and Cuba it had, of course, by its own action during the +Civil War, definitely arrayed itself against slavery wherever it +existed, and it now, through its Minister to Spain, Daniel E. Sickles, +entered into negotiations with the Spanish government, looking to the +actual freeing of the slaves in Cuba. + +Of course news of these happenings did not fail to penetrate Cuba and to +reach the ears of the Captain-General. Indeed he seemed to have a +premonition of them, even before the United States government had +definitely taken up the matter with Spain. He was nothing if not an +opportunist, and he, therefore, on his own account, on February 24, +1870, issued a decree which had the effect of freeing two thousand +colored prisoners of war, and which read as follows: + + + "Superior Political Government of the Province of Cuba: + + "Decree: + + "By virtue of the faculties with which I am invested, and in + keeping with the royal decree of the 27th of October, 1865, I think + fit to extend by decree of the 21st of September, ultimo, declaring + exemption from dependency on the government the expeditions + entitled Puerto Escondido, Cabanas 10, Cabanas 85, Cabanas San + Diego de Minez and Trinidad. + + "In consequence thereof the employers who have in their service + emancipated slaves of the referred-to expeditions, will present + them in the Secretary's office of this superior government within + the period of one month, in order that, after the usual + formalities, they may receive their letters of exemption. + + "At the same time, the governors and lieutenant-governors will + publish this direction in the periodicals of their respective + jurisdictions, so that it may come to the notice of the holders of + these emancipados and they cannot allege ignorance of it. + + "CABALLERO DE RODAS. + + "Havana, February 24, 1870." + + +Rodas was crafty, and he now thought of a device which under the guise +of mercy would hamper the Cuban army. On May 26th he promulgated a +second decree freeing all slaves who had acted or would act as guides to +the Spanish army, or render any like valuable service to the government, +an effort, of course, to induce the former servants of patriots to +betray their masters and the Cuban army into the hands of the Spaniards. +To disguise the baldness of this attempt at corruption, he also included +a provision, freeing all slaves belonging to the insurgents or who had +escaped to foreign countries. This provision was for all practical +purposes meaningless and without any value, because the Cubans +themselves who were fighting for freedom from Spain had already +emancipated their slaves. + +Meanwhile negotiations between Sickles and the Spanish government +resulted in the promulgation of a decree, which was known as the Moret +law, acquiring its name from the Spanish Minister of Colonies, whose +signature was one of many signed to the document, and who is reported to +have had a hand in its composition. It bore date, July 4, 1870, and was +promulgated by the Captain-General nearly two months later, as follows: + + + "Superior Political Government of the Province of Cuba: + + "His Excellency the Regent of the kingdom communicates to me, under + date of July 4th ultimo, the following law, which has been + promulgated or sanctioned by the Congressional Cortes: + + "Don Francisco Serrano of Dominguez, Regent of the kingdom, by the + will of the sovereign Cortes, to all to whom these presents shall + come, greeting: + + "Know ye that the Congressional Cortes of the Spanish nation does + hereby decree and sanction the following: + + "Article 1. All children of slave mothers, born after the + publication of this law, are declared free. + + "Article 2. All slaves born between the 18th of September, 1868, + and the time of the publication of this law, are acquired by the + state by the payment to the owners of the sum of twenty five + dollars. + + "Article 3. All slaves who have served under the Spanish flag or + who have in any way aided the troops during the present + insurrection in Cuba are declared free. All those are equally + recognized as free as shall have been so declared by the superior + government of Cuba, by virtue of its jurisdiction. The state shall + pay their value to their masters, if the latter have remained + faithful to the Spanish cause; if belonging to insurgents, they + shall receive no indemnity. + + "Article 4. Slaves, who, at the time of the publication of this + law, shall have attained the age of sixty years are declared free, + without any indemnification to their owners. The same benefit shall + be enjoyed by those who shall hereafter reach this age. + + "Article 5. All slaves belonging to the state, either as + emancipated, or who for any other cause are at present under the + control of the state, shall at once enter upon the full exercise of + their civil rights. + + "Article 6. Those persons freed by this law who are mentioned in + articles 1 and 2, shall remain under the control of the owners of + the mother, after the payment of the indemnity prescribed in + Article 2. + + "Article 7. The control referred to in the foregoing article + imposes upon the person exercising it the obligation to maintain + his wards, to clothe them, care for them in sickness, giving them + primary instruction, and the education necessary to carry on an art + or trade. The person exercising the aforesaid control acquired all + the rights of a guardian, and may, moreover, enjoy the benefit of + the labor of the freedman, without making any compensation, until + said freedman has reached the age of eighteen years. + + "Article 8. When the freedman has reached the age of eighteen + years, he shall receive half the wages of a freedman. Of these + wages, one half shall be paid to him at once, and the other half + shall be reserved in order to form a capital for him, in the manner + to be determined by subsequent regulations. + + "Article 9. On attaining the age of twenty-two years, the freedman + shall acquire the full control of his civil rights and his capital + shall be paid to him. + + "Article 10. The control will also be annulled: first, by the + marriage of the freedman, when the same is entered into by females + over fourteen years and males over eighteen years old; second, by a + proved bad treatment on the part of the guardian or his + noncompliance with his duty, as stipulated in Article 7; third, + should the guardian prostitute or favor the prostitution of the + freedwoman. + + "Article 11. The above mentioned control is transmissible by all + means known in law, and is also resignable when just motives exist. + Legitimate or illegitimate parents who are free shall be permitted + to assume the control of their children by the payment to the + guardian of the same of any expense he may have incurred for + account of the freedman. Subsequent regulations will settle the + basis of this indemnification. + + "Article 12. The Superior civil government shall form, in the space + of one month from the publication of this law, lists of the slaves + comprised in articles 3 and 5. + + "Article 13. The freed persons mentioned in the foregoing article + remain under the control of the state. This control is confined to + protecting them, defending them and furnishing them the means of + gaining a livelihood, without limiting their liberty in the + slightest degree. Those who prefer to return to Africa shall be + conveyed thither. + + "Article 14. The slaves referred to in article 4 may remain with + their owners, who shall thus acquire control over them. When they + shall have preferred to continue with their former masters it shall + be optional with the latter to give them compensation or not, but, + in all cases, as well as in that of the freed persons being unable + to maintain themselves by reason of physical disability, it shall + be the duty of the said former masters to feed them, clothe them, + and care for them in sickness. This duty shall be a concomitant of + the right to employ them in labors suitable to their condition. + Should the freedman object to the compliance with his obligation to + labor, or should he create disturbances at the house of his + guardian, the authorities will decide the questions arising + therefrom, after having first heard the freedman. + + "Article 15. If the freedman of his own free will shall leave the + control of his former master, the latter shall no longer be under + the obligations mentioned in the foregoing article. + + "Article 16. The Government shall provide the means necessary for + the indemnifications made necessary by the present law, by means of + a tax upon those who shall remain in slavery, ranging from eleven + to sixty years of age. + + "Article 17. Any act of cruelty, duly justified as having been + indicted by the tribunals of justice, will bring with it as a + consequence the freedom of the slave suffering such excess of + chastisement. + + "Article 18. Any concealment impeding the application of the + benefits of this law shall be punished according to title 13 of the + penal code. + + "Article 19. All those shall be considered free who do not appear + enrolled in the census drawn up in the Island of Porto Rico the + 31st of December, 1869, and in that which will have been drawn up + in the Island of Cuba on the 31st of December of the present year, + 1870. + + "Article 20. The Government shall make a special regulation for the + execution of this law. + + "Article 21. The Government will report to the Cortes when the + Cuban deputies shall have been admitted, a bill for the compensated + emancipation of those who remain in slavery after the establishment + of this law. Meantime this emancipation is carried into effect; the + penalty of the whip, authorized by chapter 13 of the regulations + for Porto Rico and Cuba, shall be abolished; neither can there be + sold separately from their mothers children younger than fourteen + years, nor slaves who are united in matrimony. + + "By a resolution of the Congressional Cortes the foregoing is + reported to the Regent of the Kingdom for its promulgation as a + law. + + "MANUEL RUIZ ZORILLA, President. + + "MANUEL DE LIANOS Y PERSI, Deputy Secretary. + + "JULIAN SANCHEZ RUANO, Deputy Secretary. + + "FRANCISCO XAVIER CARRATALA, Deputy Secretary. + + "MARIANO RUIZ, Deputy Secretary. + + "Palace of the Cortes, June 23, 1870. + + "Therefore I order all tribunals, justices, officers, governors and + other authorities of whatsoever class or position, to obey the same + and cause it to be obeyed, complied with and executed in all its + parts. + + "FRANCISCO SERRANO, Minister of Ultramar. + + "SIGISMONDO MORET Y PRENDERGAST. + + "San Ildefonso, July 4, 1870. + + "And, having opportunely omitted the publication of the same for + the want of the regulation referred to in Article 20, and having + received the sense in which said document is to be drawn up, I have + ordered the exact compliance of said law, in virtue of which it is + inserted in the Official Gazette for future guidance. + + "CABALLERO DE RODAS." + + "Havana, Sept. 28, 1870." + +If these decrees were intended to fill the insurgents with gratitude, +and to have the effect of halting the revolution, they fell far short of +their mark. In the first place, the Spanish Government had too often +tricked her Cuban subjects, and they had little cause to have faith in +either her good will or her good intentions, and much more cause to +believe that her action was intended as a sop to the Government at +Washington, an attempt to "pull the wool over the eyes" of American +sympathizers, and even a very cursory glance at the provisions of the +Moret law would convince even a layman with no knowledge of +jurisprudence that there was small chance of their ever being enforced. + +It is true that this law provided for the freedom of all slaves born +after a certain date, but it left them in the care of their mothers, and +under the control of their former masters, condemned to serve without +pay and virtually free only in name. It also proclaimed the freedom of +slaves who had reached the age of sixty years and who very likely had +endured years of such hard treatment that they were infirm and in no +condition to support themselves. If they were reluctant to start life +alone and either by timidity or by coercion remained with their masters, +the latter were at liberty to pay them or not, and when a Spanish +planter had the option of obtaining labor free rather than paying for +it, there was not much room for doubt as to what course he would pursue. +The whipping post was abolished, but the Cubans were too busy with other +matters to patrol the country in search of violations of this +regulation, and the masters were pretty safe to conduct themselves as +they chose. This law, which contained such fair words that it met with +the approval of the American minister, was almost ludicrous in its +paradoxical terms, and instead of impressing the patriots with the +softened hearts of their tyrannical masters, it must have filled the +intelligent ones with mirth. + +Besides this, since upon the declaration of the independence of Cuba the +revolutionary government had declared the freedom of all men on the +Island, Spain's action so long afterward was like opera bouffe, or +rather a grimly amusing anti-climax. As a matter of fact the Moret law +remained a dead letter, unenforced, overlooked, violated, almost +forgotten, and the subject of slavery again fell into the background, +while the war took the front of the stage. + +Spain was having constantly to reinforce her army, and she was unable to +do this in sufficient numbers to make up deficits properly. The climate +of Cuba was very hard on the new recruits who had not become accustomed +to it, and Spain lost almost as many by disease as she did in battle. +She renewed her cruelties against the unprotected Cuban planters, and +not only burned and pillaged, but subjected all captives to the most +revolting and sickening cruelties, gouging out eyes, cutting out +tongues, crucifying and hanging men by their hands. Probably the +atrocities practiced by the Spaniards in this war were never equalled, +unless we recall the barbarities which they practiced later in 1895, +until the Huns of Prussia invaded Belgium and France in the great war of +1914-18, and showed what inefficient novices in deviltry the Spanish had +been when compared with the disciples of "Kultur." + +The year 1871 opened brightly for the patriots. That seasoned warrior +General Jordan led a company to victory, at Najassa, against a force of +Spaniards under General Puello. The Spanish losses were especially +gratifying, if that term may be employed, since they included thirty-six +officers. + +Meanwhile Rodas, in spite of his methods, which must have been most +gratifying to them, fell into disfavor with the Volunteers, and they +exerted their power against him, finally effecting his resignation and +the elevation of Count Valmaseda in his place, in a temporary capacity, +until another Captain-General could be sent from Spain. + +[Illustration: NICOLAS AZCARATE] + +[Illustration: JUAN CLEMENTE ZENEA] + + NICOLAS AZCARATE + + Nicolas Azcarate was the founder of the New Lyceum of Havana which + for years was the centre of the intellectual life of that city, and + his home was the resort of the literary and artistic world. Papers + read at his receptions by eminent men were published in two volumes + under the title of "Literary Nights." He was born in 1826 and died + in 1894, leaving a literary influence which is still gratefully + perceptible. + +Spain once more made overtures to the United States Government, asking +it to use its offices in eliciting from the revolutionary government +some statement of terms which would be satisfactory to them as a basis +of peace. Since former efforts to bring the belligerents together had +been so productive of failure, Washington demurred from officially +undertaking the matter; whereupon Don Nicolas Azcarate went to +Washington from Spain with authorization to offer to the insurgents an +amnesty, and disarmament of the Volunteers, provided the Cubans laid +down their arms. They were further to be granted the immediate and +unconditional emancipation of slaves, irrespective of age and condition +of servitude. All confiscations made by either side were to be annulled, +and the property thus seized was to be restored to the original owners. +Religious freedom, free speech, and free assembly, were to be granted +the Cubans, while Cuba was to have representation in the Spanish Cortes, +and to be governed by colonial autonomy, similar to that which Great +Britain maintained in her American provinces. Last of all, and by no +means least, all officials who were offensive to the Cubans were to be +removed from office. Of course, these instructions were confidential, +because of the offense which they would have given the powerful +Volunteers. The United States, however, did not undertake to transmit +the proposed terms to the insurgents, and finally Azcarate undertook to +do so on his own initiative. He had little faith in the fate which his +proposal might meet, should it be transmitted through Spanish sources in +Cuba and its terms be divulged to the Volunteers. He doubted whether it +would ever reach President Cespedes. He therefore decided to transmit it +by special messenger, for this purpose choosing Juan Clemente Zenea, a +man in whose discretion and resourcefulness he had the greatest faith. +To make the journey safe for his envoy, he obtained from the Spanish +minister at Washington a safe conduct for Zenea, ordering the military +and naval authorities of Cuba, as well as the Volunteers, to afford safe +passage to Don Juan Clemente Zenea "into and out of any port on the +Island of Cuba." Zenea reached President Cespedes without accident and +laid the proposition before him, which was promptly refused. The +Volunteers, meanwhile, had learned of Zenea's coming, and of the nature +of his errand. Even the greatest of secrecy could not have kept the +knowledge from them, for their spies were everywhere active, not only in +the Island, but in the United States and at the Spanish court as well. +When Zenea left the Cuban lines, he was immediately seized by the +Volunteers and imprisoned at Havana, under heavy guard. The news of this +occurrence reached Spain and immediately the Duke de la Torre, then +President of King Amadeus's Council of Ministers, protested to the +authorities at Havana, and insisted that Zenea be released and be given +safe conduct from the Island. But the will of the Volunteers was more +powerful in Cuba than were the wishes of those high in authority in +Spain, or than the common tenets of decency, right and justice. Zenea +was not released and he was not given safe conduct. After many months' +imprisonment under the most revolting conditions, he was condemned to +death without trial, and on August 15 was taken out and shot in the +back. + + JUAN CLEMENTE ZENEA + + Poet, patriot and martyr, Juan Clemente Zenea was born at Bayamo in + 1831, and in boyhood settled in Havana. He was a teacher in La + Luz's school, El Salvador, and wrote some exquisite poems. But + politics and Cuban independence claimed his chief attention. From + his seventeenth year he was incessantly engaged in revolutionary + conspiracies, in Havana and in New Orleans and New York. In 1868, + he went to New York where he was an active member of the Junta. In + 1870, he was sent on a mission to President Cespedes, which he + accomplished but soon afterward was captured by the Spaniards, + imprisoned in Cabanas, and then shot. + +This action would hardly have been conducive to good feeling between the +opposing leaders, even had the Cubans had faith in Spanish promises. In +too hard a school had they learned that it was useless to expect the +Spanish authorities on the Island to keep their word to the Cubans, +either in the small matter of a safe conduct for an innocent messenger, +or the larger one of proposed concessions to an oppressed people. The +Cuban government was not to be thus easily lured from their attempts to +secure the one thing which was to them paramount, the real object for +which they had made so many sacrifices, the absolute independence of the +Island. Moreover, even were the promise made under the guarantee of the +United States Government, the Cubans could not be convinced of the good +faith of Spain, or that when once they had abandoned their struggle, +laid down their arms, and given Spain the advantage, she would act +otherwise than she had during her entire occupation of the Island. They +felt sure that if her advances were graciously met, she would, when she +again had the balance of power, simply impose upon the Island new +indignities, and cover her treachery with fair words and vague promises +whenever the United States might enter a protest. + +Spain expressed indignation at the shortsighted policy of the Cuban +leaders, and then gave demonstration of how she intended to punish Cuba. +She renewed her persecution of individual Cubans, and her cruelty toward +Cuban sympathizers who while nursing their cordial feelings for the +revolution had not yet taken up arms against Spain. It was only +necessary that such persons should be suspected, and that suspicion +might be of the slightest variety. They were immediately seized and +thrown into dungeons and tortured to extract their confessions; the +right of trial was at this time almost entirely dispensed with, and +victims of Spanish wrath were put to death without an opportunity to +defend themselves, and executed in ways which are usually associated +with the most barbarous savageness. So glaring did these outrages become +that General Cespedes undertook to write a letter to the Spanish +Government at Madrid concerning them, although why, knowing the +character of his opponents as he did, he should have entertained the +idea that this mild intervention on his part would have the slightest +effect, or should have imagined that Spain was not cognizant of the +actions of her legionaries in Cuba, and that such actions were performed +without her fullest sanction, is not revealed. Cespedes certainly +displayed a childlike faith in the ultimate spark of good in depraved +human nature, when he took up his pen for such a communication. But be +that as it may, he addressed the following epistle to the "Supreme +Government of Spain." + +"The respect inspired by the laws of nations, which, under the influence +of modern civilization has, as far as possible, deprived war of its +savage character, imposes on us the obligation of addressing the Spanish +Government an energetic remonstrance, in consequence of several +offensive acts, which could not be known without causing offense to the +civilized world. From the time when the standard of Independence was +raised in Cuba, unworthy motives have been attributed to our contest. We +shall not explain the justice of the Cuban Revolution, for such an +explanation would be unpleasant to that Government, and besides it is +not now necessary; but we may say, in general, a colony is justified in +severing the knot which binds it to the mother-country, if it possesses +sufficient elements to live independently. + +"Colonial life is restricting, it can never entirely satisfy the +aspirations of an intelligent people, and, therefore, it cannot be +justly imposed upon them when they are in a position to maintain their +political existence. + +"A vicious rule, which was dissipated in Spain by the popular rising of +September, made worse, we might say intolerable, the colonial existence +of the Cubans. + +"The Cubans have decided to conquer with the sword, as they can obtain +in no other manner the exercise of their most important rights. Weighty +motives prevent their government from being more explicit in so delicate +a matter, but it is certain that only taking into consideration the +results of the war, no other relations are now possible between Cuba and +Spain, than those of a friendly spirit based on the condition of perfect +independence. + +"In addition to what we have already stated, a political party armed +from commencement of the struggle, under the denomination of Spanish +Volunteers, and known by their intolerance and retrograding tendencies, +have converted a question of ideas into a question of petty personal +interest; wresting the authority from those delegates of that +government, and imposing their caprices like laws; giving an indecorous +character to official manifestations relating to the revolution; and in +entire forgetfulness of the rights of man, have perpetrated incredible +crimes, which cast a blot on the history of Spain in America. + +"To relate all in detail would be very painful to us, and to the +government whom we are addressing. + +"It is sufficient to say that the troops charged with preserving the +Spanish dominion occupy themselves, in preference, in persecuting the +families who reside in the territories of the Republic, by depriving +them of all they possess, burning their habitations, and have even gone +several times so far as to make use of their arms against women, +children and old people. At the very moment whilst we are writing this +remonstrance, an awful example has occurred. + +"On the 6th of January of the present year, a Spanish column, commanded +by Colonel Acosta y Alvear, while marching from Camaguey to Ciego de +Avila, assassinated in its march these citizens of Juana, Mora de Mola +and Mercedes Mora de Mola; the children, Adrina Mola, aged twelve, +Agnela Mola, aged eight, and Mercedes Mola, aged two years. The horror +which is produced by crimes of such enormity, above all in the minds of +those who are far from the theatre of the events, is such as to make +them appear hardly credible, if we did not take into consideration the +demoralization of an army accustomed to pillage and violence, which +generally has no limits. + +"Such excesses doubtless are not with the consent of the Supreme +Government of a nation, in which the spirit of modern times has made +very eloquent manifestations. + +"If Spain will not grant to us the happy establishment of their acquired +liberties, recognizing the right of the Cubans to the separation, we +hope she will at least be disposed to guarantee the observation of human +principles in the prosecution of the struggle; and as some chiefs of the +liberating forces have on several occasions demanded in vain from the +opposing chiefs a proper method of conducting the war, we now ask the +Supreme Government of the Spanish nation to enter into arrangements to +protect the lives of the prisoners, and secure the inviolability of the +individuals who, on account of their sex, age and other personal +considerations may be exempt from liabilities protesting that we shall +not be responsible, if such Spanish chiefs will not regard what we now +offer, for the terrible consequences which will certainly follow this +barbarous system of warfare. + + * * * * * + +"We give publicity to the present dispatch, that it may come to the +knowledge of foreign governments. + +"Headquarters of the Government. + + "CARLOS MANUEL DE CESPEDES. + President of the Cuban Republic. + + "January 24, 1871." + +The foregoing did have the effect of acquainting the world with Spanish +atrocities, but its influence in restraining the further perpetration of +outrages, or in producing any official action by Spain looking toward +that desirable end, was absolutely nil. + +It possibly did impress the United States Government, confirmed as it +was by constant complaints from citizens of the United States, resident +in Cuba. At any rate, the United States issued a rebuke to Spain for the +indignities inflicted on American citizens in Cuba, and backed up this +communication with an order to her navy to stand by and protect the +lives and property of Americans in Cuba, and to maintain the dignity of +the flag of the United States. + +The Cuban forces were at this time suffering from grave disorder. +Attacks by the enemy were not so menacing to the success of the struggle +as internal disruptions and dissention among the leaders of the +Republican army. They grew so serious that an actual break occurred, and +on January 19, General Cornelio Porro proved disloyal to the cause of +freedom, and in company with some other supposed patriots, entered +Puerto Principe and surrendered to the Spanish Government, while at the +end of the month, Eduardo Machado, the Secretary of the Cuban House of +Representatives, wrote to the Captain-General, Count Valmaseda, stating +that the Cuban House of Representatives had dissolved and beseeching +clemency for the former members of that body. He added that Señor Miguel +G. Gutierrez was a fugitive, wandering about with his little son. + +It naturally was a severe blow to loyal patriots to find such treachery +within their own ranks, although they may have comforted themselves with +the truism that such has always been the case in rebellions against a +powerful ruler. The weak, the fearful, and the selfish have abandoned +the cause, when its fate seemed wavering. They may also have justly +argued that, if these men were traitors, loyal supporters of the cause +of freedom were well rid of them; that the strength of an organization +is like that of the proverbial chain, and that it becomes shorter but +immeasurably stronger by the removal of the weak links. Whether they +were sustained by any such comforting philosophy or not, the defection +of Porro and Machado did not for a moment cause the loyal Cuban leaders +to falter from their purpose to secure freedom for Cuba. To strengthen +the courage of loyal Cubans, President Cespedes and Ignacio Agramonte +issued proclamations in which they expressed the greatest faith in the +Cuban cause, and its ultimate victory, and urged all loyal hearts to +maintain their support of the battle for liberty. + +IGNACIO AGRAMONTE + + One of the foremost heroes of the Ten Years' War was Ignacio + Agramonte y Loinaz, a member of one of the most distinguished + families in Cuban history. He was born in Camaguey in 1841, was + educated for the bar, and became an eminent advocate, writer and + orator, with intense devotion to the cause of Cuban independence. + Immediately upon the outbreak of the revolution at Yara in 1868 he + took the field and showed himself a born leader of men. He was made + Secretary of the Revolutionary government, signed the Emancipation + act and the Cuban Constitution, and then returned to active work in + the field. As Major General he participated in many battles, + including the capture of a part of Camaguey on July 20, 1869. + President Cespedes made him Chief of the Department of Camaguey, + and for a time he succeeded Quesada as commander in chief of the + Revolutionary Army. He fell in the battle of Jimaguayu on July 1, + 1873. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + + +While these things were occurring in the "Ever Faithful Isle," there +were doings of epochal significance in Peninsular Spain. Queen Isabella +had, as we have seen, for some time been an exile, and on June 25, 1870, +the Serrano republican government forced her to sign a final manifesto +of abdication. The government itself, however, was far from strong, and +was unable to stand against strong opposition in the Cortes. It was +shortly overthrown by a vote of that body, and a monarchical form of +government was re-established. The crown was formally offered to and +accepted by Amadeus, son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, on +December 4, 1870. When this news reached Cuba, the Spanish troops on the +island took formal oath of allegiance to the new king of Spain. + +The reestablishment of a monarchy was, of course, exceedingly pleasing +to the Volunteers, for they had no sympathy with a republic, and the +freedom which it was supposed to entail, although in the case of the +republic in Spain, few changes or concessions had been extended to its +Cuban subjects. The Volunteers promptly took oath to support the +monarchy, and denounced the republican constitution. They embraced this +as a favorable opportunity to further an end of their own. They had long +suspected the Bishop of Havana of being in sympathy with the revolution. +He was at this time absent in attendance at the Vatican Council at Rome, +and the Volunteers were able so to manipulate matters that, upon his +return on April 13, 1871, he was refused permission to land. + +Believing that the new government would give even more cordial support +to their machinations than had the previous one, the Volunteers now +began a system of persecutions against Cuban patriots. The Volunteer +corps, in 1872, numbered eighty thousand members, and in 1870 and 1871 +they could not have fallen far below that number. They were so powerful +that the Captain-General must either conform to their wishes or sooner +or later give way to a successor whom they selected. Now there was +published in Havana a paper, called _La Voz de Cuba_, which was really +the "_Voice of the Volunteers_," for its editor, Gonzalo Castanon, was a +Colonel of that organization. It busied itself, among other things, with +attacks on the patriots, and took occasion to voice some derogatory +remarks concerning Cuban women. Naturally the Cuban husbands, sons, +fathers and lovers were hot with indignation against such calumny. +Castanon paid the just penalty of his scurrilous lack of chivalry, for +he was challenged by an outraged Cuban and in the duel which followed he +received a mortal wound. He was buried in a tomb in the Espada Cemetery. +Some time afterward, a party of young students--hardly more than +boys--from the University of Havana, visited the cemetery, and it was +reported to the authorities that one of them had been heard, while +standing near the tomb of Castanon, to make remarks derogatory to the +dead Colonel. This information was given by a Spanish soldier, who +claimed to have overheard the conversation, and when it was repeated to +a Spanish judge, the accusation was added that the boy's companions had +defaced the glass which closed the Castanon tomb. The Volunteers +immediately pounced upon the happening, as a delightful opportunity to +chastise and punish the members of wealthy families in Havana who were +suspected of aiding and abetting the revolution. The power of the +Captain-General was invoked, and forty-three students were arrested and +brought to trial. They were ably defended by a Spanish officer, Señor +Capdevilla, and he made such a good case for their innocence that they +were acquitted. The Volunteers, however, were not satisfied. Injustice +had in some manner miscarried, how they could not conceive, and justice +had triumphed. Such things would not do in dealing with Cubans. They +made a vigorous appeal to the Captain-General, and obtained from him an +order for assembling a second court martial, and this time they saw to +it that their own body was well represented in that body. The boys were +again apprehended, and the trial which ensued was a tragic farce, in +which they were given not the slightest chance for justice. Eight of +them were condemned to death, and the others to imprisonment at hard +labor. Consternation reigned among the best families of Cuba. One +distracted father offered a ransom of a million dollars for the life of +his son, but without avail. On November 27, 1871, the condemned +criminals, whose worst offence, if indeed there was any offense at all, +was the utterance of an indignant remark about a ruffian who had +attacked those dearest to all loyal, chivalrous and patriotic hearts, +the women of Cuba, were led out and shot in the presence of fifteen +thousand Spanish Volunteers, all under arms. In after years when the +wrong was beyond repair, justice was done to the memory of these +martyred youths, for not only did the Spanish Cortes, with admirable +fairness, investigate the matter and pronounce in favor of the innocence +of the students, but also the son of Castanon came to Cuba from Spain +with the object of removing thither his father's remains, investigated +the condition of the tomb, and made a sworn statement before a notary +that it had never been disturbed. + +The murder of the students of course created intense feeling in Cuba; +Havana was in a turmoil, and the sentiment engendered by this and +similar outrages committed or incited by the Volunteers swelled the list +of those who were in sympathy with a speedy release for Cuba from +Spanish rule. The scene of the tragedy has since been marked by the +Cuban government with a tablet which bears this inscription: + +"On the 27th of November, 1871, there were sacrificed in front of this +place, by the Spanish Volunteers of Havana, the eight young Cuban +students of the First Year of Medicine: + + Alonzo Alvarez de la Campa, + Carlos Augusto de Latorre, + Pascual Rodriquiz Perez, + Angel Laborde, + Jose de Marcos Medina, + Eladio Gonzales Toledo, + Anacleto Bermudez, + Carlos Verdugo. + +To their eternal memory, this tablet is dedicated, the 27th of November, +1899." + +While these events were taking place, and in spite of the troubles which +had beset them within their own ranks, the Cuban leaders maintained a +force of fifty thousand men in the field, and gained an important +victory in the vicinity of Mayari. This was more than offset by an +occurrence which struck brutally at the very foundation of the Cuban +army. In July, 1871, the Spanish defeated at Guantanamo a force of two +hundred men, under General Quesada, but this was trivial compared with +the catastrophe which it involved. General Quesada was taken prisoner, +as was General Figueredo, and in August these two loyal patriots who had +so ably supported the revolution, and the former of whom had been the +brains of the army, were executed by the Spaniards. The deepest gloom +filled the hearts of the Cuban leaders, and their discouragement is the +only explanation which can be offered of what followed, when a force of +Cubans, who had been operating in the central part of the island, under +General Agramonte, deserted, and approaching the Spanish authorities, +agreed to lay down their arms, provided their lives would be spared. The +Spaniards accepted their offer, and promptly gave out a statement that +the Cuban army was disrupted and that all that remained was a few slaves +under General Agramonte. They were to learn, however, that the Cubans +still had some fighting spirit left in them. Although the defection of +so large a body of his command left only thirty-five men under +Agramonte, he speedily recruited a new company, and was able to harass +the Spanish for two years longer, until he was killed in battle. + +The death of General Quesada left the post of Commander-in-Chief of the +Cuban army vacant, and General Modeste Diaz was elected to that office. +An official report made by the Cubans at this time shows the composition +of the army to have been: + +_Army Corps of Oriente._ + +Commander-in-Chief, General Modeste Diaz + +Division of Santiago de Cuba; Major-General Commanding, Maximo Gomez + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 and 2 Col. Jesus Perez Cobre 600 + 3 Lt. Col. Prado Baracoa 450 + 4 Lt. Col. Guillermo Moncada Baracoa 550 + 5 Lt. Col. Pacheco Guantanamo 450 + 6 Brig. Calixto Garcia Jiguani 600 + ----- + Total 2,650 + +Division of Holguin--General Commanding, Jose Inclan + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 Co. Fco. Herrero West 300 + 2 Gen. Inclan East 500 + --- + Total 800 + +Division of Bayamo--General Commanding, Luis Figueredo + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 Maj. Gen. N. Garrido Manzanillo 550 + 2 Gen. Luis Figueredo Bayamo 450 + ------ + Total 1,000 + Grand Total Army Corps of Oriente 4,300 + +_Army Corps of Camaguey_ + +Commander-in-Chief, General Vicente Garcia + +Division of Las Tunas--General Commanding, Vicente Garcia + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 General Vincente Garcia Santa Rita 650 + 2 Brig. Francisco Vega Arenas 400 + ------ + Total 1,050 + +Division of Camaguey--General Commanding, Ignacio Agramonte + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 Lt. Col. La Rosa Guaican Amar 300 + 2 Col. Agramonte Porro Guaican Amar 400 + 3 Lt. Col. Espinosa Guaican Amar 250 + 4 Lt. Col. Manuel Suarez Guaimaro 300 + 5 Lt. Col. Antonio Rodriguez Cubitas 200 + ------ + Total 1,450 + Grand Total Army Corps of Camaguey 2,600 + +_Army Corps of Las Villas_ + +Commander-in-Chief, Major-General Matso Casanova + + _No. of Men_ + Division of Trinidad, General Commanding, Brig. Juan Villegas 700 + Division of Sancti Spiritus, General Com'ding, Brig. Jose Villamie 800 + Division of Villa Clara, General Commanding, Brig. Carlos Ruloff 600 + Division of Cienfuegos, General Commanding, Brig. Juan Villegas 700 + Division of Remedios, General Commanding, Brig. Salome Hernandez 600 + ------ + Grand Army Total of Las Villas 3,400 + Grand Total 10,300 + +In June, 1871, three regiments under General Maximo Gomez--that able +soldier and patriot who was to figure so largely in the final struggle +against Spain in 1895--were instructed to take up their position and +endeavor to hold the line between Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo, and +they accordingly entrenched themselves in the Loma de la Gallista, but +they were almost immediately attacked by the Spanish. The battle was +hotly contested for four hours and ended in a victory for the Cubans. +The Spanish losses included arms and ammunition which were eagerly +appropriated by the conquerors. A few days later, a Spanish force +renewed the attack, advancing fifteen hundred strong against the men +under Gomez, and again they went down to defeat, their total losses in +the two battles amounting to one hundred killed, and a large number +wounded. In addition to this, the Cubans took fifteen Spaniards +prisoners. What must have been still more gratifying was an encounter +which a small band of Cubans had about this time with a company of +Volunteers, in which twenty-five of the latter were made prisoners. + +On July 3, Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Guevara with a company of Cubans +was encamped at La Cabana del Estribo, when they were attacked by a +force of three hundred Spaniards. He promptly ordered the camp +abandoned, covering his retreat by a weak fire on the enemy. The Cubans +were unable to make a more vigorous resistance, because they were +inadequately supplied with ammunition, even though, with plenty of +supplies, their position at La Cabana del Estribo might have been +considered an advantageous one. But with the odds so greatly against +them, the Cubans killed five Spaniards, and wounded forty others, among +whom was Pedro Popa, one of those who had turned traitor to the cause of +the revolution. But the Spaniards took vengeance on two practically +defenseless persons. On their retreat, with their wounded, they met +Major Baldoguin and two companions, who were on their way to see +Lieutenant-Colonel Guevara, and captured Major Baldoguin. They took him +to Bayamo, and in spite of the fact that he was severely wounded, they +executed him at once upon arrival at that city. + +A few days later, the same force which had attacked Lieutenant-Colonel +Guevara at Estribo, were reported to be again advancing against him. He +sent a company of infantry to meet them, and an engagement ensued which +lasted for over an hour. The Spaniards retreated to Los Toros, leaving +behind them fifty-three killed and wounded. On this occasion Guevara's +son was wounded, and one private was killed. + +A few days previous, on the evening of July 4, a small Cuban force +attacked the Spanish camp at the village of Veguita, and harassed the +enemy during the entire night, and the next day a company from the same +division of the Cuban army had an engagement with a hundred and fifty +Spanish cavalry, and put them to flight. The Cubans pursued them, and +forced them to take a stand, when a fight took place which lasted an +hour. The Cubans did not suffer a single casualty, while several of the +Spaniards were killed, and they were obliged to retreat. + +On July 25, Major Dominguez with a small force, attacked the sugar +plantation of Las Ovas, and sacked it almost in the presence of the +Spaniards, who were encamped only about half a mile distant, on the +Esperanza estate. Having accomplished this feat, Major Dominguez's +soldiers raided a nearby estate, which was owned by Tomas Ramirez, +another of those who had turned traitor. All the buildings on this +plantation were set on fire, and razed to the ground, as were also those +on the estate of Antonio Lastes. Curiously enough, although the +Spaniards in much larger numbers, were near at hand, and must have been +cognizant of these happenings, they made no attempt to interfere. + +A few days later, Major Noguera, with a small band, attacked forty of +the enemy on a road leading to Bayamo, and put them to rout, capturing a +considerable stock of supplies. This same band of patriots a little +later encountered a company of fifty Spaniards, who were driving a herd +of cattle toward El Huinilladero. They opened fire, and dispersed the +Spaniards, wounding an officer, and taking possession of the cattle, +together with a supply of cartridges, horses with their equipment, +blankets and provisions. + +On July 30, several companies from the division of Bayamo and Manzanillo +attacked a force of a hundred Spaniards who were strongly entrenched +near La Caridad. After a fight which lasted not over half an hour, the +Spanish were dislodged from their trenches, and fled into a nearby wood. +The Cubans followed, forcing the Spaniards into the open, and, after a +brief engagement, put them to rout. One Spaniard was captured, and he +gave information that the Spanish forces had lost seventeen men killed, +and that in their flight they had thrown away their rifles, which were +afterward recovered by the Cubans, who also took possession of a large +amount of supplies of all kinds. + +The estate of La Indiana had been fortified by the Spaniards, and on +August 4, General Gomez led an attack against it. The Spanish put up a +strong resistance, but the Cubans were able to take the buildings, and +capture thirty-five Spaniards. The entire district of Guantanamo was at +this time practically controlled by the insurgents. They destroyed +fourteen coffee plantations, and did other damage to the property of +Spanish sympathizers. On August 8, the Spaniards made an attack at El +Macio, but it was unsuccessful. For the next week there was one +engagement after another, with victory first with the Spaniards and then +with the Cubans, but the results were not of moment to either of the +belligerents. The Cubans were not able to marshal a sufficiently large +or well equipped force to venture a decisive battle, and so kept up an +annoying guerrilla warfare. Late in the month they advanced to the +outskirts of Santiago, destroying all plantations which lay along the +line of march, and defeated the Volunteers in an unimportant engagement. +Perhaps the most serious defeat that they inflicted on the Spanish at +this time was the destruction of the fortified camp at Miguel, in the +district of Sagua de Tanamo. Earlier in the month they had attacked and +taken a fortified camp in the neighborhood of Santa Isabel. All the +buildings were burned to the ground, twenty-six Volunteers were killed, +and a large quantity of stores was taken. There followed other +engagements in which the odds and the victory were with the Spaniards, +and the Cuban patriots were put to rout with heavy losses. But for the +most part in guerrilla warfare the Cubans had the advantage and made the +most of it. + +Late in August, a force under Major Villanueva and Captain Rios +surprised some Spanish soldiers at breakfast near Malangas. The +Spaniards largely outnumbered the Cubans, but the attack was so sudden +that they fled, leaving their rice and salted beef behind them. In this +engagement eight Spaniards were killed. + +On the first day of September, news reached Major Noguera that the enemy +were convoying a stock of supplies in the neighborhood where he was +stationed. He divided his men and concealed them at different points +along the road over which the Spaniards must pass. Six Volunteers and +one regular soldier were killed, and the enemy abandoned to the Cubans a +number of carts, filled with food stuffs, carbines, machetes, and other +supplies. + +[Illustration: CALIXTO GARCIA + +One of the most gallant figures in the patriot ranks in the Ten Years' +War and the War of Independence was that of Calixto Garcia e Iñiguez. +Born at Bayamo on August 4, 1839, he was in the prime of young manhood +when he took the field under General Marmol in 1868. Soon as a brigadier +general he was the right-hand man of Maximo Gomez, and was made by him +commander in chief in Oriente when Gomez himself marched westward. After +six years of almost incessant and victorious fighting, he was surprised +and surrounded at San Antonio de Baja, when, rather than be captured, he +placed the muzzle of a pistol in his mouth and fired. The bullet pierced +the roof of his mouth and came out at the centre of his forehead. The +Spaniards then took him to a military hospital and, respecting his +valor, nursed him back to health. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was +released, whereupon he took the lead in the Little War. He was in Spain +in 1895 and could not get into the War of Independence until March, +1896, but thereafter he was one of its chief warriors. After the close +of the war he was sent to Washington on a diplomatic mission, and died +there on December 11, 1898.] + +September 18 was to be a memorable day in the year's fighting, for on +that date General Calixto Garcia with three regiments advanced against +Jiguani, where a large force of Spaniards were garrisoned. The latter +defended the town for two hours, but in the end the Cubans were +victorious, and gained control of the major portion of the town and its +fortifications. Many houses were burned, and two hundred Spaniards lay +dead in the streets. General Garcia then retreated, carrying with him a +large quantity of captured supplies, since he did not have a large +enough force to complete the occupation of Jiguani. He was pursued by +the Spaniards who had been reinforced, but the patriots made good their +escape with only slight losses. + +Throughout the entire months of August and September the eastern part of +the island was in a constant state of uproar and confusion. Attack and +counter-attack followed in succession, and yet neither side was any +nearer a significant victory or a decision. + +On October 23, the Spaniards gained a victory over the Cubans at El +Toro, and in November the insurgents turned the tables by defeating the +Spanish forces under Captain Ferral y Mongs. So the war continued, the +whole country witnessing the destruction of plantations, the burning of +buildings, the pillaging of villages, and loss of life as well as of +property. In the end it was the land of Cuba that suffered, for from a +once prosperous country it bade fair to be transformed into waste lands. + +Meanwhile the Cuban forces were slowly degenerating. The Spaniards were +well fed, well clothed and well equipped, while the Cuban forces were +poorly armed, often hungry, and in torn and ragged garments. The +resources of Spain reinforced her army, but the patriots had to rely on +chance help that came to them from their American sympathizers. Nothing +in their existence was certain, and as the war was prolonged without +their gaining a victory which seemed to bring the end nearer, the weaker +spirits began to despair and there was dissension and an undercurrent +of revolt among the common soldiers. In vain the leaders tried to put +heart into their forces, and desertions became alarmingly common. The +reductions in numbers compelled the Cuban leaders more and more to +resort to guerrilla warfare. This involved deplorable destruction of +property, valuable holdings of both loyalists and patriots were rendered +valueless, and naturally the morale of both armies suffered from a +spirit of lawlessness. By the end of 1871, two thirds of the farms and +coffee and sugar plantations in the district of Trinidad were destroyed +or abandoned, and the entire central portion of the island had suffered +grievously. + +Valmaseda on December 27, 1871, issued a proclamation to the effect that +after the first of the year every prisoner would be shot, and every +patriot who delivered himself up would suffer life imprisonment. This +applied to both negroes and white men; while all white women captured +would be banished, and all negro women would be returned to their +owners, and condemned to wear chains for a period of four years. +However, prior to that date, only if four days distant, the leaders or +any of the soldiers would lay down their arms and announce their +allegiance to Spain, they would be received with kindness and clemency. +This might have had more effect than it did but for the fact that the +Cubans were distrustful of promises of clemency, and feared that if they +escaped the vengeance of the government, they would later suffer at the +hands of the Volunteers. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + + +At the beginning of 1872 the storm center of the insurrection moved +eastward to Puerto Principe, Santiago and Guantanamo. Engagements in the +vicinity of these places had been frequent, and now they were almost +daily consisting chiefly of little skirmishes between small forces of +men. + +It was estimated that by this time Spain had sent to the island in the +neighborhood of sixty thousand trained soldiers, but they had come few +at a time, and on no occasion in larger numbers than two or three +thousand. Evidently the Spanish Government had at no time properly +estimated the strength, if not in numbers, at least in valor and +determination of the insurgents, and had never realized that only by +investing the island with overwhelming superiority could they hope to +put down the rebellion. However, during all this time Spain had been +struggling against disturbances at home of no mean dimensions, and early +in the year 1872 she was to endure another revolution, and the +abdication of Amadeus, followed once more by a republican form of +government. Records compiled by both sides prove that the war continued +during the year 1872 with the same persistence, unchanged in character, +and apparently no nearer a decision. The Spanish government, both at +home and abroad, seems to have suffered at this time from great +apprehension that the United States government would officially +recognize the Cubans as belligerents, in which event their position +would be materially strengthened. In February Spain sent more troops to +Cuba, at the request of Captain-General Valmaseda, who accompanied his +appeal by a statement--for publication, and to impress the United +States--that the war would be over by April or May. + +March found the struggle continuing, and on March 5, General Cespedes +himself, with a large body of Cuban troops, succeeded in taking Sagua de +Tanamo by storm. In this same month aid came from the United States, for +the steamer _Edgar Stewart_ arrived with arms, ammunition and supplies +for the Cuban army. + +Small engagements took place all during April, and in May the Cuban +leaders issued a statement to the effect that if Valmaseda was expecting +that the war would soon be ended, he was not taking into consideration +the strong resistance which the Cubans were still able to offer, and +which they intended to continue until Spain granted them independence. +Truly the war might end at once, but Spain would end it not by force of +arms but by acceding to the frequently expressed desire of Cuba for +complete separation from her rule, by withdrawing the offensive +government, and by transporting her troops back to their native land. + +Early in June the Cubans defeated the Spaniards near Las Tunas, and on +the 9th of that month, after heavy fighting, took Sama. The Cuban losses +in these engagements were heavy in comparison with the number of men +involved, but they were able to comfort themselves with the knowledge +that the Spanish killed and wounded totaled a much greater number, for +while the Cubans had only fifty killed and less than a hundred wounded, +the Spanish left dying on the battle field more than four times as many +as the Cubans, and their wounded amounted to three hundred and fifty. +But the Spanish navy was able to capture an expedition bearing relief to +the Cubans, and to defeat a band of patriots at Holguin, so that it +would seem that the honors for the month were about equal. + +In July, General Garcia attacked Spanish troops under the Governor of +the Province, Colonel Huertas, and a very hot fight resulted, in which +the victory fell to the Cubans; and when Spanish reinforcements arrived, +they too were routed and put to flight. But this was offset by the fact +that General Inclan, one of the bravest and most loyal of the Cuban +commanders, as well as an expert tactician, fell into the hands of the +enemy, and was summarily executed at Puerto Principe. + +Count Valmaseda, Captain-General, now ran foul of the displeasure of the +Volunteers, and suffered a downfall in consequence. On July 15 he was +recalled, and General Ceballos served in his place until the arrival of +his successor, Don Joachim Jovellar. + +It now seemed time again for the Spaniards to assert themselves against +defenseless sympathizers with the revolution. Spies were busily at work +in Guira, Jiguani and Holguin, and presently they purported to discover +grave disloyalty among the members of some of the well known Cuban +families. This was the signal and the excuse for a wholesale slaughter +of innocent unoffending people, who, whatever their feelings, had taken +no active part in the uprising. As a means of reprisals the Cubans made +an attack on Guira, but it was not entirely successful. + +The people of the United States were now following the insurrection with +much interest, particularly in those portions of that country in which +there were large numbers of sympathizers, and they were no longer +willing to ignore well authenticated reports of Spanish cruelty. A State +Convention of the Republican party was held at Jacksonville, Florida, +where there were many who were friendly to the Cuban patriots, and +adopted a resolution, denouncing the action of the Spanish authorities +in Cuba as cruel and inhuman, and calling upon Congress to pass the +necessary legislation to make it possible for the United States +government to extend such aid to the Cubans as "becomes a great and free +republic, whose people so ardently sympathize with the struggles and +hopes of the oppressed of all nations." However, the Government at +Washington did not look with favor upon this suggestion, and ignored it, +and it had little effect in stemming the tide of Spanish oppression in +Cuba. + +The close of the year 1872 registered a splendid victory for the +patriots, when on December 20 they stormed and took Holguin, and +captured large quantities of supplies of all kinds. + +Public documents compiled by the Spanish in August, 1872, estimated the +losses of the patriots up to that time as "thirteen thousand six hundred +insurgents--and a large number taken prisoner" while "sixty-nine +thousand six hundred and forty were in submission to the government; our +thousand eight hundred and forty-nine firearms, three thousand two +hundred and forty-nine swords and bayonets, and nine thousand nine +hundred and twenty-one horses were captured." + +When, in 1873, Spain once more became a republic, the Cuban patriots had +high hopes that their independence would be recognized, but these were +soon dashed to the ground, when the Spanish government sent an appeal to +the Cubans to lay down their arms, and to entrust their fortunes to the +doubtful mercies of the new rulers of Spain, with the idea that Spain +needed the co-operation of her colonies to bring about the permanence of +the new government, which it was represented would result in a fair and +equitable Spanish rule in Cuba. These overtures were promptly rejected, +and the patriots made preparations to continue their struggle, adhering +with tenacity to their one goal, complete independence. The Spanish +government then appealed to the Volunteers, but that was such an +aristocratic organization that it had no sympathy with democracy, and no +desire to ally itself too closely with a republican form of government; +wherefore for once it refused to aid in coercing the patriots. + +New Year's day, 1873, was doubly a gala occasion, because on that date +another relief expedition arrived from the United States, which brought +much needed supplies. The Cubans continued to harass the Spaniards, and +on the occasion of one successful engagement captured a number of horses +which were turned over to General Agramonte for his cavalry regiment. +This was one of the best organized regiments in the army, and had done +good work against the enemy, but it was soon to lose its leader, for in +May, 1873, General Agramonte was killed while charging the enemy at +Jimaguaya, and his command was taken over by Major-General Maximo Gomez. + +Meantime another change was made in the head of the Spanish insular +government, and Don Candido Pieltain succeeded to the office of +Captain-General. + +But there was serious trouble among the leaders of the Republic of Cuba. +No man in as high a position as that which General Cespedes occupied +could escape exciting jealousy. The Cubans were actuated by high ideals +and motives, but they were only human. Rumors derogatory to the +administration of General Cespedes began to be circulated, and on +October 27, 1873, the House of Representatives, assembled at Vijagual, +preferred charges against him of having in the administration of his +duties exceeded the powers which the Republic had conferred upon him. He +was tried and found guilty, and removed from office. By this action, a +great injustice was done to a man whose sole thought was the good of +his country, and who had given his best endeavors in its service. His +removal was a hard blow to the cause of the Republic, because it gave +the enemy notice of dissension among the patriots, placed the republican +government in a bad light in the eyes of the rest of the world, and lost +to the Cuban cause a loyal and efficient leader. General Cespedes +accepted without complaint the will of the Assembly, and took leave of +his office, after delivering a very eloquent and convincing address, +protesting his innocence of any thought of wrong. He was now in a +delicate position, for he was not in good standing with those with whom +he had cast his lot, and a price had been set on his head by the +Spaniards. He took refuge with a friend, and remained virtually in +hiding, until on February 27, 1874, he was betrayed by a negro who had +been captured by the Spaniards and who sought their clemency by +delivering Cespedes to them. He was taken prisoner and speedily executed +by the garrote. + +[Illustration: SALVADOR CISNEROS BETANCOURT] + + SALVADOR CISNEROS BETANCOURT + + The Marquis of Santa Lucia, patriot and statesman, was born in + Camaguey on February 10, 1828, and from boyhood was an ardent + advocate of Cuban independence. In early life he joined the + Liberator Society of Camaguey, and because of his activities was + arrested and confined for a time in Morro Castle. He was one of the + leaders of the Ten Years' War from its beginning, participated in + the making of the Constitution, and succeeded Cespedes as President + of the Revolutionary government. Old as he was, he eagerly joined + in the War of Independence and took part in several battles. He was + a member of the Constitutional Assembly of 1895, and was elected + President of the Republic in Arms, which office he held until + October 10, 1898. Then he retired to private life, and died on + February 28, 1914. + +The office of President was filled temporarily by Don Salvador Cisneros, +Marquis de Santa Lucia, the Chairman of the House, in the absence of the +Vice-President of the Republic, who was temporarily out of the country. +Cespedes had been the only one of the Cuban leaders who had really made +a study of civil government, and who was thus qualified for the position +of President. While Cisneros was a man of fine education, and great +intelligence, he was neither a leader of men nor a wise administrator, +and the downfall of Cespedes marked the beginning of the end of the long +struggle, and foreshadowed the final defeat of the Cubans. + +But now came an incident which for a time bade fair to bring the United +States into the quarrel. There was a small side-wheel steamer called the +_Virginius_ which had for a long time been active in running the Spanish +blockade of the Cuban coast and in conveying reinforcements and +contraband supplies to the insurgents. She was under the command of +Captain Fry, an American citizen, and a veteran of the Civil War, in +which he had served on the side of the Confederates. The vessel was +manned by American and British seamen, and flew the American flag. In +October, 1873, at Port au Prince, Captain Fry took on board his vessel +five hundred Remington rifles, six hundred sabres, four hundred +revolvers, and other arms and ammunition intended for the Cuban army. +The steamer was well known to the Spanish navy, which had long been +seeking to capture her. + +The end came on October 31. The _Virginius_ was hastening toward Cuba +with her questionable cargo when off the south coast she was sighted by +a Spanish cruiser, the _Tornado_, which had by curious coincidence, been +built by the same builders as had the _Virginius_. Her captain +recognized the _Virginius_ and gave chase. Captain Fry, who had been +vainly trying to effect a landing with his supplies and his men, some +of whom were going to Cuba to fight with the patriots, gave up the +endeavor and endeavored to escape to British waters at Jamaica; but the +_Tornado_ soon overhauled the _Virginius_ and took her with her +passengers and crew, numbering one hundred and seventy. When capture +seemed inevitable, an attempt was made to dump the cargo overboard, but +the _Tornado_ captured the _Virginius_ before this could be +accomplished. The vessel was taken to Santiago de Cuba, where four of +the passengers were at once recognized by the authorities as officers in +the revolutionary army, and were speedily sentenced to death. The +official Spanish report of the execution was as follows: + + + "Santiago de Cuba, Nov. 4, 1873. + + "To His Excellency, the Captain-General: + + "At six o'clock this morning, we shot in this city, for being + traitors to their country, and for being insurgent chiefs, the + following persons, styling themselves 'patriot generals': Bernabe + Varona, alias Barnbeta, General of Division; Pedro Cespedes, + Commanding General of Cienfuegos; General Jesus Del Sol; and + Brigadier-General Washington Ryan. The executions took place in the + presence of the entire corps of Volunteers, the force of regular + infantry, and the sailors from the fleet. An immense concourse of + people also witnessed the act. The best of order prevailed. The + prisoners met their death with composure." + +There followed a summary court martial of the remainder of the company; +conducted according to the ruthless Spanish fashion, and under the +domination of the implacable Volunteers. The result was that Captain Fry +and forty-eight of the crew and passengers, including a number of +Americans and Englishmen, were sentenced to death. The sentence was +promptly executed, despite the earnest and urgent official protests of +the American and British consuls of Havana and their demands for at +least a decent delay of proceedings to enable them to consult their +governments and to have interviews with the condemned men. In fact, the +American consul was prevented from doing anything more than to protest +by being made a virtual prisoner in his own house, under a strong guard +of Spanish soldiers; under the pretence that in the excited state of +public feeling it would be unsafe for him to go upon the street. + +The tragedy began on the afternoon of November 7, at 4 o'clock. The +scene was the chief public square of Santiago. It was ordered that the +victims should be shot in groups of four; all the others being compelled +to witness the fate of their fellows. As on the former occasion, a great +company of the Volunteers attended the butchery, together with a +multitude of the populace. In the first group of four was Captain Fry +himself. He refused to have his eyes bandaged, or to turn his back to +his slayers, and with his latest breath spoke words of comfort and cheer +to his comrades. The other victims of that day's slaughter were James +Flood, mate; J. C. Harris, John N. Boza, B. P. Chamberlain, William +Rose, Ignacio Dueñas, Antonio Deloyo, Jose Manuel Ferran, Ramon La +Wamendi, Eusebio Gariza, Edward Day, Francisco S. Trujillo, Jack +Williamson, Porfirio Corbison, Pedro Alfaro, Thomas Gregg, Frank Good, +Paul Plumer, Barney Hewals, Samuel Card, John Brown, Alfred Hosell, W. +F. Price, George Thomas, Ezekiel Durham, Thomas W. Williams, Simeon +Brown, Leopold Larose, A. Arcey, John Stewart, Henry Bond, George +Thomson, James Samuel, Henry Frank, and James Read--35 men beside the +Captain. More than two-thirds of them were obviously, judging from their +names, Americans or Englishmen. It is probable, however, that many of +these names, as also those of the passengers, were assumed, in order to +conceal the identity of their bearers in just such an emergency as this. + +The next day, November 8, the massacre was continued, the victims of +that day being Arturo Mola, Francisco Mola, Louis Sanchez (who was in +fact Herminio Quesada, an active revolutionist), Jose Bortel, Augustin +Varona, Salvador Pinedo, Enrique Castellanos, Joseph Otero, Francisco +Rivera (otherwise Augustin Santa Rosa, an active patriot), Oscar Varona, +Justus Consuegra, and William S. Valls--12 in all; making with the 35 +and the Captain of the day before, and the four of November 4, the total +of 52. But even this wholesale slaughter did not appease the blood-lust +of the Volunteers, or of General Burriel, the Spanish commander at +Santiago. Ninety-three more of the passengers of the _Virginius_ were +held in prison under sentence of death, which there was every reason to +fear would be executed. + +But a militant Providence intervened. The British government learned of +what had been done, and of what was threatened. In consequence, as +quickly as engines under forced draught could drive her thither, the +British cruiser _Niobe_ sped to Santiago harbor. She entered the inner +harbor, rounded broadside to the city, and double-shotted her guns. Then +her captain, the intrepid Sir Lambton Lorraine, went ashore and demanded +of General Burriel that there should be no more murders. That worthy +protested that it was no affair of Sir Lambton's, since there were no +British subjects among the men. This latter statement was false, though +Sir Lambton did not know it, and may have thought it true. But Sir +Lambton knew his business. He curtly replied that the nationality of the +prisoners did not enter into his consideration of the affair; he +was there to stop the butchery, and the butchery must stop. The Spanish +general retorted hotly that he was not yet under British rule, and that +until he was he would take his orders from the Captain-General of Cuba. +To that Sir Lambton replied that as for him, he took his orders from the +Queen of England, at whose command the _Niobe_ lay in the harbor with +her guns double-shotted and trained on the city, the biggest of them, +indeed, aimed at the governor's palace; and he gave warning that the +slaying of another prisoner would be the irrevocable signal for every +gun to be put into action. It was enough. There were no more shootings; +and presently all the prisoners were released. + +[Illustration: A SANTIAGO SUNSET + +Cuba is world-famed for its land-locked harbors, described as +bottle-shaped, or purse-shaped, with a narrow but deep entrance leading +to a spacious inland lagoon, secure from storms and affording room for +vast fleets to ride at anchor. One of the largest and finest of these is +at the old capital, Santiago; so large that a scene upon its waters +appears like one on the open Caribbean. It was from this harbor that +Admiral Cervera's fleet emerged to be destroyed in the great sea fight +which broke the power of Spain in Cuba.] + +Following is a list of the captured passengers on the _Virginius_, who +were bound to Cuba for the purpose of serving in the revolution. It does +not include those who were bound for the island on legitimate personal +business, but does include those already mentioned as having been put to +death: + + Bernabe Varona (alias Benebata) + Pedro Cespedes + Arturo Mola + Jose Diaz + Francisco de Porras + Juan Merrero + Jose Medeo + Raimundo Pardo + Francisco Gonzales + Jose Palaez + Leonardo Alvarez + Julio Arango + Jose Hernandez + Nicholas Ramirez + Pedro Pajain + Manuel Padron + Alexandro Cruz Estrada + Felix Fernandez + Juan Soto + Manuel Perez + Jose Otero + Jose Antonio Ramon + Radom Barrios + Ignacio Valdes + Jose Santesteban + Felix Morejon + Francisco Pacheco + Evaristo Sungunegri + Ignacio Quentin Baltran + Perfecto Bello + Benito Glodes + Louis Sanchez + Nicholas Reriz + Juan Alvarado + Jose Boitel + Ricardo Calvo + Augustin Varona + Silverio Salas + Domingo Salazar + Justus Consuegra + Jose Ignacio Lamar + Andres Acosta + Benjamin Olazara + Enrique Castellanos + Alejandro Calvo + Jesus de Sol + Leon Bernal + Rafael Cabrera + Ignacio W. Tapia + Santiago Rivera + Andres Echeverria + Jose Maren + Pedro Saez + Severo Mendive + Enrique Ayala + Domingo Rodrigue + Arturo Rivero + William S. Valls + Manuel Menenses + General Ryan + William Curtis + S. Gray + Ramon Gonzalez + Antonio Chacon + Francisco Rivero + Sireno Otero + Carlos Pachero + Antonio Padilla + Enrico Canals + Indalecio Trujillo + Domingo Diaz + Carlos Gonzalez + Oscar Varona + Alfredo Lopez + Andres Villa + Francisco Castillo + Salvador Penedo + Rafael Pacheco + Camito Guerra + Camilo Sanz + Emilio Garcia + Amador Rosello + Manuel A. Silverio + Antonio Gomez + Luiz Martinez + Pedro Sariol + Miguel Saya + Patricio Martinez + Manuel Saumel + Luis Rebollo + Carlos Manin + Ramon R. D. Armas + Joseph A. Smith + Philip Abecaler + Samuel Hall + Sidney Robertson + George Winter + Evan Pento + Ricardo Trujillo + Leopoldo Rizo + William Marshall + George Burke + Gil Montero + +These occurrences, when known, aroused tremendous excitement and wrath +in the United States, and there was much talk of war. But the +government, under the wise counsel of Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, +kept its head and resorted to diplomacy before force. The Spanish +government, too, kept its head. It realized that its officers in Cuba +had acted outrageously, and that their deeds must be disavowed. So it +agreed, on December 8, to surrender the _Virginius_ on December 16, to +release all surviving passengers and sailors and deliver them safely to +an American warship at Santiago, and to punish all Spanish officials who +had acted illegally. There remained the supposed outrage to the American +flag, which the _Virginius_ was flying when she was fired upon and +seized. The Spanish government agreed to make amends by saluting the +American flag at Santiago on Christmas Day, provided it could be proved +that the _Virginius_ had a right to carry it. But as a matter of fact +the vessel had no such right. The Attorney-General of the United States +gave, before the day set for the salute, the opinion that the vessel was +the property of General Quesada and other Cubans, and therefore had no +right to sail under the American flag. The final settlement of the +affair occurred in February, 1875, when the Spanish government paid an +indemnity of $80,000 to the United States, and a smaller sum to Great +Britain, for their citizens who had been slaughtered. The _Virginius_ +was lost at sea while being returned to the United States. + +Meanwhile the patriots had not ceased fighting, and on November 9 they +met the Spaniards in a battle in which a large force was engaged on +both sides. They were equally matched, each belligerent having about +three thousand men in the field. The Cubans were victorious, and they +lost only a hundred men killed and double that number wounded, while the +Spanish losses were four times as many killed, and six hundred wounded. + +Stories of Spanish cruelty to prisoners and to peaceful citizens +continued to be heard, and the Cubans were not content to allow these to +remain unsubstantiated. In 1873, Cuban sympathizers compiled a statement +which they called "The Book of Blood." In some manner they gained access +to Spanish records, and used not their own personal knowledge but the +official reports of the Spaniards themselves as a basis for their +accusations. The acts complained of were not confined to one year, but +covered the administrations as Captain-General of Lersundi, Dulce, +Rodas, Ceballos, Pieltain and Jovellar. There was almost no comment; +simply a plain statement of facts. The book commences with the names of +three thousand nine hundred and twenty-seven persons, exclusive of men +killed in battle, who had been brutally murdered by the Spaniards. The +dates and places of execution are given, so that there can be no mistake +as to the accuracy of the data. Following this is a list of four +thousand six hundred and seventy-two prisoners, captured by the +Spaniards, who had simply dropped out of sight, and whose fate had never +been determined. Next there is a record of one hundred and ninety-one +men who had been garrotted. There are the names of eighty-four men who +had been court-martialled in accordance with the decree of February 12, +1869, and under orders from the Captain-General; then the names of five +men condemned for life to hard labor in the chain gang of the penal +colony of Ceuta; the names of five others who had been given the same +sentence for a period of ten years, twenty sentenced for eight years, +and one for six years. After this is a list of men condemned to the +chain gang, place unknown, five for ten years, two for eight years, +seventeen for six years, three for four years, and one hundred and +fifty-eight from two to eight years. Then comes a list of two hundred +and fifty men from all walks of life, including superintendents of +plantations, attorneys at law, brokers, bankers, one architect, +clergymen, carpenters, druggists, engineers, farmers, masons, military +officers, notaries, Post Office clerks, railroad clerks, one British +Consul, three dentists, several police officers, surveyors, pilots, +students, shoemakers, silversmiths, physicians, an artist, seventeen +property holders, seven teachers, five tobacco manufacturers, a tailor, +fifteen sailors, musicians, boatmen, sugar makers, journeymen, and even +one schoolboy, who had been transported on May 21, 1869, to the island +of Fernando Po, off the coast of Africa. They were reported to have been +badly treated; so badly in fact that forty-seven died on the voyage or +immediately on landing. Besides this there is a report of forty-four men +transported to the penal colonies of Africa. + +A defense is made against the charge that the Cubans had during the war +been no more merciful than the Spaniards. It was claimed that during the +first years of the war, when a number of officers had been captured by +the patriots, they were not executed, but were placed under parole not +to attempt to escape. They broke their parole, and in return for the +merciful conduct of their former captors they became the most violent +and brutal of all the Spanish officials in their persecution of the +Cubans. On the other hand, when men of Spanish birth approached the +patriots expressing sympathy for their cause, and a desire to fight for +independence, their services were accepted and in every instance they +proved to be spies, who furnished the Spanish leaders with valuable +information and delivered their Cuban comrades into the hands of the +enemy. It was alleged that up to August, 1869, the Cuban leaders adhered +to their policy of fair and decent treatment of their captives, and when +they learned of the brutal conduct of the Spaniards, General Quesada +addressed a message to General Lesca, and endeavored to effect a mutual +agreement on the subject. The reply received declared that the Spaniards +saw no reason to depart from their custom in the matter of this and left +the Cubans no alternative but to resort to similar measures. General +Quesada therefore ordered the execution of sixty-seven persons who had +voluntarily taken up arms under the Cuban banner, and who had later been +apprehended in a conspiracy to betray the patriots. It is stated that +the report of the affairs erroneously added an extra numeral to the +figures, which caused the number to be stated as six hundred and +seventy. + +In proof of the truth of the statements contained in the "Book of +Blood," an account from the Spanish journal "Diario de la Marina," under +date of March 24, 1870, is cited: + +"All the officers, sergeants and corporals who were in the hands of the +enemy have been shot. In connection with many Cubans they had planned a +counter-revolution, and had concerted the delivery of all rebel +chieftains to General Puello. Two days before the one appointed by this +gallant general to commence his march, he sent a messenger to Captain +Troyano with the news of his advance. The bearer of the news was +arrested, however, and searched, the letter was found, and on the +following day, the messenger, our officers, and the Cubans compromised +in the counter-revolution, were shot, thus sealing with their lives +their devotion to their beloved mother country." + +This seems to be an ample corroboration of the fact that the men in +question were shot as traitors and not as prisoners of war. Another +Spanish officer, Don Domingo Graino, a Captain of the Volunteers, under +date of September 23, 1869, writes: + +"More than three hundred spies and conspirators are shot monthly in this +jurisdiction. Myself alone with my band have already disposed of nine." + +We have also this testimony from Jesus Rivacoba, an officer of the +Volunteers: + +"We captured seventeen, thirteen of whom were shot outright; on dying +they shouted, 'Hurrah for Free Cuba!' A mulatto said, 'Hurrah for +Cespedes!' On the following day we killed a Cuban officer, and another +man. Among the thirteen that we shot the first day were found three sons +and their father; the father witnessed the execution of his sons without +even changing color, and when his turn came he said he died for the +independence of his country. On coming back we brought along with us +three carts filled with women and children, the families of those we had +shot; and they asked us to shoot them, because they would rather die +than live among Spaniards." + +Still another officer of the Volunteers, Pedro Fardon, writes: + +"Not a single Cuban will remain in this island, because we shoot all +those we find in the fields, on the farms, and in every hovel. + +"We do not leave a creature alive when we pass, be it man or animal. If +we find cows we kill them; if horses, ditto; if hogs, ditto; men, women +and children, ditto; as to the houses, we burn them; so everyone +receives his due--the men in balls, the animals in bayonet-thrusts. The +island will remain a desert." + +At the end of the year, the forces under General Maximo Gomez were +victorious over those under the Spanish General Bascones, in the +district of Camaguey, while the fortified town of Manzanillo was on +November 11 taken by storm and occupied by troops under General Garcia. +The Cubans lost forty-nine killed and eighty wounded, while the +Spaniards lost two hundred killed and one hundred and thirty wounded. On +December 2, the battle of Palo Seco occurred. Seven hundred patriots +under General Gomez were arrayed against a thousand Spaniards. A lively +fight took place, and the Spaniards were put to flight in such disorder +that they abandoned their wounded, their arms and their impediments. +They lost several officers and two hundred common soldiers, while the +Cubans captured seventeen officers, one of them being a +Lieutenant-Colonel. The Cuban casualties were small in comparison, being +ninety killed and one hundred and six wounded. Among the stores left +behind by the fleeing Spaniards were twelve revolvers, sixteen thousand +five hundred cartridges, two hundred and fifty Remington rifles, eighty +horses, and thirty mules, their packs containing ammunition, clothing +and a small amount of money. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + + +At the beginning of the year 1874 a _coup d'etat_ placed Serrano again +at the head of the government in Spain, but in Cuba there was no change. +The struggle was still continued. The first battle of the year was on a +larger scale than the majority of those which had preceded it. At +Naranjo, on January 4, two thousand Cubans under General Gomez were +victorious over four thousand Spaniards, and the Cuban losses were +slight in comparison with those of the enemy. Again, at Corralillo, on +January 8, the Cubans scored a triumph, and on the next day a third +victory was achieved at Los Melones by the forces of General Garcia. + +Don Joachim Jovellar, the Captain-General, declared the island to be in +a state of siege, and in a bold but hardly successful attempt to swell +the Spanish forces proclaimed a conscription of all men from twenty to +forty years old, and exacted the payment of a thousand dollars in gold +in lieu of compliance with this decree. He antagonized the Volunteers, +who considered themselves of much finer quality than the Spanish common +soldiers, by demanding that one-tenth of their number be allotted to and +placed under the command of the regular army. The Volunteers resisted +this order, and made an attempt to secure Jovellar's removal from +office, but were unsuccessful, and he continued to take the most +extraordinary measures, stating that he would summarily put down the +rebellion; and yet the fighting steadily continued. + +General Portillo was considered one of the most able of the Spanish +officers, and it was expected that he would be able to inflict great +losses on the insurgents, hence the Spanish leaders were greatly +chagrined when he went down in defeat at the hands of General Gomez, who +then proceeded to administer a like chastisement to the forces under +General Arminan, who had taken up his position at Guasimas, and who was +forced to make his escape to Puerto Principe, abandoning his command, +all of whom were killed, wounded or taken prisoner. In all the history +of the war no such victory had ever before been won. The battle had +raged for three days and nights, and at its inception General Arminan +had been at the head of an army of three thousand men. When the +Spaniards had heard how Arminan was faring, they had sent General +Bascones to the rescue, but he never got through to aid Arminan, for he +was routed by the Cubans while on his way. + +Jovellar was a little less confident, after these occurrences, that it +would be a simple matter to put down the rebellion. He seems to have +lacked the quality of resolute perseverance, and when matters were +against him he resigned his office, and again Don José de la Concha +returned to take charge of Spanish affairs in Cuba. Now Concha had been +_persona non grata_ with the Volunteers and he was not received by them +with great enthusiasm. He began at once upon assuming office to take the +force out of the decrees promulgated by Jovellar, by greatly modifying +their terms, and promising freedom to all blacks who would serve in the +army for a period of five years. + +In April, 1874, Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, made public +announcement in Washington that during the five years of the war the +Spanish losses had totaled more than eighty thousand men and officers, a +large number of these casualties being due to sickness caused by +unsanitary conditions, while Spain had spent over one hundred million +dollars in her ineffective efforts to put down the revolution. He +further stated that it did not appear that she was likely to accomplish +this speedily, since the revolutionary government seemed quite as +powerful and as active as in the beginning. + +The history of the year 1875 was one of unimportant engagements, small +skirmishes and guerrilla warfare, no important battle being fought until +the year had about reached its close, when Gomez suffered a severe +defeat at Puerto Principe, which is believed to have been the turning of +the tide against the Cubans. Meanwhile the United States began to +display a strong interest in Cuban affairs. + +On November 5, 1875, a letter was sent by the State Department to Caleb +Cushing, then United States minister to Madrid, containing the following +information, intended, of course, as admonition to the Spanish +government: + +"In the absence of any prospect of a termination of the war, or of any +change in the manner in which it has been conducted on either side, the +President feels that the time is at hand when it may be the duty of +other governments to intervene, solely with a view of bringing to an end +a disastrous and destructive conflict, and of restoring peace in the +island of Cuba. No government is more deeply interested in the order and +peaceful administration of this island than is the United States, and +none has suffered as the United States from the condition which has +obtained there during the past six or seven years. He will, therefore, +feel it his duty at an early day to submit the subject in this light, +and accompanied by an expression of the views above presented, for the +consideration of Congress." + +For some strange reason, Mr. Fish seemed to have lost his usual cool +wisdom; for he went perilously near to ignoring the Monroe Doctrine, so +sacred to all the traditions of American diplomacy, when he directed +that a copy of this letter be forwarded to General Robert C. Schenck, +the United States Minister at London, directing him to ask for the +support of Great Britain in his position. + +Following this action of his Secretary of State, President Grant, in his +message to Congress in December, 1875, said: "The past year has +furnished no evidence of an approaching termination of the ruinous +conflict which has been raging for seven years in the neighboring island +of Cuba. While conscious that the insurrection has shown a strength and +endurance which made it at least doubtful whether it be in the power of +Spain to subdue it, it seems unquestionable that no such civil +organization exists which may be recognized as an independent government +capable of performing its international obligations and entitled to be +treated as one of the powers of the earth." + +The Spanish government was very wrathful when these facts became known +to it and at once sent a note to Great Britain claiming that the United +States had no reason to bewail the Cuban situation, for on account of it +her commerce had increased; that Spanish had had under the most jealous +and watchful care, as regards the safety of their person and property, +all American citizens who were engaged in business ventures on the +island, and that most of them were making huge fortunes. A complaint was +made that the United States gave refuge to Cuban outlaws, and it was +alleged that all past claims of the United States growing out of the +Cuban difficulty had been or were about to be settled. + +However, Great Britain refused to have anything to do with an attempt, +in conjunction with the United States, to end the Cuban war, stating +that it was doubtful whether Spain would accept any terms that could be +offered, and that if she refused, Great Britain did not feel willing to +bring pressure to bear. + +Spain, in a note dated February 3, 1876, intimated that the reason why a +settlement of the insurrection in Cuba had not been effected was because +the insurgents would not come out into the open and fight, but preferred +to wage a guerrilla warfare from mountain fastnesses; that could they be +lured into the open, Spain had a sufficient force in the field promptly +to defeat them. It was further intimated that the Creoles were tiring of +the insurrection and that it was now being supported mainly by negroes, +mulattoes, Chinese laborers, adventurers, and deserters from the Spanish +army. Finally the assertion was made that when Spain was finally +victorious, as it was assumed that she would be, she would at once +abolish slavery, and put into effect the most liberal of administrative +reforms. + +In strange contradictions of these pretensions, Spain presently looked +to the United States Government to mediate in the affairs of Cuba, and +early in the year 1876 asked that it attempt to bring about an +understanding with the insurgents. Hamilton Fish, who was still +Secretary of State, replied, stating plainly the points which the United +States considered essential for the establishment of peace, law and +order in distressed Cuba: + +"1--The mutual and reciprocal observance of treaty obligations, and a +full, friendly and liberal understanding and interpretation of all +doubtful treaty provisions, wherever doubt or question may exist. + +"2--Peace, order, and good government in Cuba which involves prompt and +effective measures to restore peace, and the establishment of a +government suited to the spirit and necessities of the age, liberal in +its provisions, wherein justice can be meted out to all alike, according +to defined and well-established provisions. + +"3--Gradual but effectual emancipation of slaves. + +"4--Improvement of commercial facilities and the removal of the +obstructions now existing in the way of trade and commerce." + +The Spanish government replied on April 16, making a specific answer to +each point made by the United States: + +"1--The government of his majesty is in entire conformity as regards +complying for its part with all the stipulations of the existing +treaties, and giving to them a perfect, friendly and liberal +interpretation in all that which may be the subject of doubt or +question. + +"2--The government of the king likewise proposes, because it believes it +necessary, to change in a liberal sense the régime hitherto followed in +the island of Cuba, not only in its administration but also in its +political part. + +"3--Not merely gradual and genuine, but rapid emancipation of the +slaves, because the government of his majesty recognizes and +unreservedly proclaims that slavery neither can nor ought to be +maintained in any of its dominions, by reason of its being an +anti-Christian institution and opposed to present civilization. + +"4--The government of the king finds itself in complete accord not only +as to increasing but as to extending to the furthest possible limit all +commercial facilities, and causing the disappearance of all the +obstacles which today exist, and which hinder the rapid and free course +of commercial negotiations." + +The United States made no further attempts at intervention, and for the +time being the matter was dropped. + +During the year which followed, 1877, more and more the Cuban methods of +warfare merited the description which Spain had given of them. It became +a war of extermination, rather than battle for independence. Cespedes, +Quesada, Agramonte, and many other of the original leaders had died in +battle, or had been captured and murdered by the enemy. Foreigners, who +knew nothing of early ideals, and indeed little of early struggles, had +largely replaced the great Cuban patriots, and their idea was not so +much separation from Spain and conquest of the enemy as plunder. +Property was no longer respected, the once prosperous island was fast +becoming desolate, and on every hand deserted and ruined plantations +were covered with weeds, where once had been wide cultivated fields. The +insurgents were a motley array of men, of many races, and of varied +color, yellow Chinese, and all shades of mulattoes, with only a small +proportion of Creoles. The bands were now composed principally of +marauders, who destroyed everything that they could not steal. Their +victory no longer meant a triumph for democracy, and the establishment +of a liberal government where there was now an oppressive one, but +rather it would be a menace to civilization, hostile to all ideals of +law and order. + +The constitution of Spain's army at this period is reported to have been +two hundred and seventy-three superior officers; three thousand and +fifty-four subalterns; sixty-eight thousand one hundred and fifteen +privates, with an equipment of eight thousand four hundred and +seventy-eight horses; four hundred and sixty-two mules; forty-two field +guns, and plenty of small arms and ammunition. The men were properly +clothed, and well fed. Notwithstanding the confusion of the Carlist +uprising, Spain had been able to send over, during the first year of +King Alfonso's reign, twenty-four thousand, four hundred and forty-five +soldiers, while her naval force included forty-five vessels, equipped +with one hundred and thirty-two guns, and manned by two thousand four +hundred and twenty-six men. Besides this, over ten thousand men were on +the high seas to reinforce the Spanish army. The disorganized, ragged, +weary, badly fed Cuban forces, with the lawless element which now +unhappily predominated among them had small chance of victory against +such overwhelming odds. Nothing but the natural topography of the +country, so favorable to guerrilla warfare, and the knowledge which the +natives had of its mountain strongholds, had enabled the Cuban army to +prolong thus far the war. The only thing which had saved the island from +entire economic destruction was the fact that the belligerents had not +invaded the western provinces, and their inhabitants had been free to +plant and reap and conduct their lives in an orderly fashion. + +The expenses of the war had made heavy inroads on the Spanish treasury, +and in August of this year, the Spanish capitalists had contributed +nearly twenty-five thousand pesetas toward the expenses of the army in +Cuba. As the season advanced, troop ships arrived at regular intervals. +In October, General Martinez Campos--one of the ablest soldiers and +statesmen in Spain--was appointed Captain-General of Cuba and commander +of the army, and he sailed from Spain to take over his command, +accompanied by fourteen thousand men. Determined that the revolution +should once for all be terminated, and not content with the sum which +Spain's bankers had placed at her disposal, the Spanish Cortes passed a +bill providing for a foreign loan, which would be devoted to the +suppression of the insurrection. + +The beginning of the year 1877 thus saw the cause of liberty in a +precarious condition. The Cuban army had been so greatly weakened that +in the encounters which took place the Spaniards were constantly +victorious, and they were soon able to regain the major portion of the +territory which had previously been occupied by the revolutionists. The +time seemed favorable for a settlement of the difficulties in a manner +which, while offering a few concessions to the Cubans, might still be +greatly to the advantage of Spain. To the Captain-General this seemed +the proper occasion for some nice diplomacy, for coaxing with fair words +instead of coercing with violence. He therefore on May 5 issued a +proclamation which he felt would be effective in inducing the +revolutionists to abandon the struggle and to return to the doubtful +protection of allegiance to Spanish rule. His proclamation read as +follows: + +"Article I--From the date of this decree, all orders of banishment +decreed gubernatively by this Government for political motives are +hereby rescinded, and all proceedings now under way regarding the same +are hereby overruled. + +"Article II--The embargoes imposed gubernatively on insurgents who have +presented or may present themselves for pardon before the termination of +the war shall also be raised. There will, however, be excepted from the +favor of disembargo the property of backsliding insurgents and that of +the leaders of the insurrection, in respect to which this General +Government will adopt the measure it deems most convenient, according to +the special circumstances of each case. + +"Article III--The property, embargoed gubernatively, of the disloyal +('infidentes') who have since died, shall also be released from embargo, +and delivered unto their lawful heirs, if these remain faithful to the +Spanish nation. + +"Article IV--The property referred to in the two preceding articles once +returned, its owners or holders shall not sell, assign, transfer or +burden it in any manner until two years after the official publication +of the complete pacification of the island. + +"Article V--The proceeds of property before its return shall be +considered as applied toward the expenses of the war, unless otherwise +provided for, and its owners without any right to make reclamation of +any nature whatsoever. + +"Article VI--None of those whose property has been released from embargo +shall either have the right to make reclamation for any loss or injury +that may have been suffered by the property or object returned them. + +"Article VII--To assist as far as possible in the return of said +property, this Government will authorize the Governors and +Lieutenant-Governors of the island to effect the same in each case, to +those comprised in this decree, whose property is situated within their +respective jurisdictions, with the due precautions which shall be +communicated to them from the office of the Secretary of the General +Government. + +"Article VIII--The judicial proceedings actually under way against +_infidentes_ shall be forwarded until overruled, or judged, as may +result in law. + +"Article IX--Concerning the property adjudged to the State, by sentence +of competent tribunals, his Majesty's Government will decide in due time +whatever it may deem most convenient. + +"Article X--The requisite orders shall be issued through the office of +the Secretary of this General Government, that the foregoing articles +shall be duly complied with by whom it may concern." + +Seven months later, on November 3, he promulgated a second decree +providing "that all estates ruined during the war, and in the way of +reconstruction, shall be free from contributions for five years, from +the date of the decree. Every new state and all new property acquired in +cities or villages of the central and oriental departments will have the +same privilege. All industries and commerce in said departments newly +established will be exempt for three years from contributions. All +female cattle, either Spanish or foreign, imported into Cuba with the +exclusive object of raising stock, will be duty free for two years." + +The first decree had the desired effect. A number of the Cuban leaders +surrendered in October, 1877. It is true that when some of these men +attempted to return to the Cuban lines and persuade the other officers +to join them in submission to Spanish authority, they were tried by +court-martial and sentenced. But the tide had turned, and was now +steadily flowing favorably for the Spaniards. The war was over. Cuban +independence had once more been postponed. + +Negotiations were entered into at Zanjon, in which General Maximo Gomez +represented the Cubans, and Captain-General Campos the Spanish +government. On February 15, 1878, the so-called Treaty of Zanjon was +signed; its terms being in brief as follows: + +"Article I--The political, organic and administrative laws enjoyed by +Porto Rico shall be established in Cuba. + +"Art. II--Free pardon for all political offenses committed from 1868 to +date, and freedom for those who are under indictment or are serving +sentences within or without the island. Amnesty to all deserters from +the Spanish army, regardless of nationality, this clause being extended +to include all those who have taken part directly or indirectly in the +revolutionary movement. + +"Art. III--Freedom for the Asiatic coolies and for the slaves who may be +in the insurgent ranks. + +"Art. IV--No individual who by virtue of this capitulation shall submit +to and remain under the authority of the Spanish government shall be +compelled to render any military service before peace be established +over the whole territory. + +"Art. V--Every individual who by virtue of this capitulation may wish to +depart from the island shall be permitted to do so, and the Spanish +government shall provide him with the means therefor, without passing +through any town or settlement, if he so desire. + +"Art. VI--The capitulation of each force shall take place in uninhabited +spots, where beforehand the arms and ammunition of war shall be +deposited. + +"Art. VII--In order to further the acceptance, by the insurgents of the +other departments of these articles of capitulation, the +commander-in-chief of the Spanish army shall furnish them free +transportation, by land and sea, over all the lines within his control +of the Central Department. + +"Art. VIII--This pact with the Committee of the Central Department shall +be deemed to have been made with all the departments of the island which +may accept the conditions." + +In addition to this, there were reported to have been secret agreements, +which provided for "a civil governor with duties distinct from those of +a military governor; a provincial parliament in each of the three +departments; popular elections for municipal officers; the inclusion of +the war debt in the public estimates of the island; the dissolution of +the Volunteer Corps of Havana, and the organization of a new militia to +be composed alike of Cubans and Spaniards; a representation of the +island in the Cortes; a recognition of the military rank of the +insurgent chiefs and officers, and those accredited with foreign +commissions, their rank 'to be effective only in the list of the Spanish +army in Cuba,' and the complete abolition of slavery in five years, with +indemnity." + +Both parties disregarded the terms of the treaty. Doubtless the Cubans +would have played with entire fairness, had it not been for the fact +that the Spaniards at once demonstrated that they did not intend to keep +their promises. General Garcia retained the title of "President of the +Republic," and the House of Representatives continued, until 1869, to +meet somewhere in the wilderness. General Campos made a bid for popular +favor, and went on record as advocating a peace which would be lasting. +The Spaniards had good cause not to desire resumption of warfare, and +the Cubans were too worn out to start any serious trouble. Campos wrote +a report to the Spanish government, couched in florid language and +breathing benevolence: + +"I do not wish to make a momentary peace. I desire that this peace be +the beginning of a bond of common interests between Spain and her Cuban +provinces, and that this bond be drawn continually closer by the +identity of aspirations and the good faith of both. + +"Let not the Cubans be considered as pariahs or minors, but put on an +equality with other Spaniards in everything not inconsistent with their +present condition. + +"It was on the other hand impossible, according to my judgment and +conscience, not to grant the first condition; not to do it was to +postpone indefinitely the fulfilment of a promise made in our present +constitution. It was not possible that this island, richer, more +populous, and more advanced morally and materially than her sister, +Porto Rico, should remain without the advantages and liberties long ago +planted in the latter with good results; and the spirit of the age, and +the decision of the country gradually to assimilate the colonies to the +Peninsula, made it necessary to grant the promised reforms, which would +have been already established, and surely more amply, if the abnormal +state of things had not concentrated all the attention of government on +the extirpation of the evil which was devouring this rich province. + +"I did not make the last constitution; I had no part in the discussion +of it. It is now the law, and as such I respect it, and as such endeavor +to apply it. But there was in it something conditional, which I think a +danger, a motive of distrust, and I have wished that it might disappear. +Nothing assures me that the present ministry will continue in power, and +I do not know whether that which replaces it would believe the fit +moment to have arrived for fulfilling the precept of the constitution. + +"I desire the peace of Spain, and this will not be firm while there is +war or disturbance in the richest jewel of her crown. Perhaps the +insurgents would have accepted promises less liberal and more vague than +those set forth in this condition; but even had this been done it would +have been but a brief postponement, because those liberties are destined +to come for the reasons already given, with the difference that Spain +now shows herself generous and magnanimous, satisfying just aspirations +which she might deny, and a little later, probably very soon, would have +been obliged to grant them, compelled by the force of ideas and of the +age. + +"Moreover, she has promised over and over again to enter on the path of +assimilation, and if the promises were more vague, even though the +fulfillment of this promise were begun, these people would have the +right to doubt our good faith and to show a distrust unfortunately +warranted by the failings of human nature itself. + +"The not adding another one hundred thousand to the one hundred thousand +families that mourn their sons slain in this pitiless war, and the cry +of peace that will resound in the hearts of the eighty thousand mothers +who have sons in Cuba who are liable to conscription, would be a full +equivalent for the payment of a debt of justice." + +February 21, 1878, saw the Cuban insurrection officially at an end. The +Cubans laid down their arms and surrendered to the Spanish forces. On +March 1, telegrams announcing this fact were received by the Cortes in +Spain with the greatest rejoicing. On the next day a royal decree was +published at Havana announcing that Cuba was to be accorded the same +treatment which had been granted to Porto Rico; and many concessions +were nominally made to the former insurgents. Cuba was to be allowed to +have her own municipal government and city councils, and was to be +granted representation in the Cortes, while a second decree was +promulgated at Puerto Principe declaring the freedom of all slaves who +had been born since the enactment of the measure of February 10, 1869, +on the condition that within a month they presented themselves to the +authorities for the proper legal procedure. Spain had so frequently gone +on record, particularly in her efforts to enlist the sympathy of the +United States Government, that she would, immediately on a determination +of the war in her favor, declare the abolition of slavery, that she +could not now very well give the lie to her assurances. The +proclamation at Puerto Principe, however, contained the extremely +unjust provision that all patriots who had taken part in the revolution +would not receive compensation for the financial loss suffered in the +freeing of their slaves, but that the loyal Spaniards would be +indemnified. It is not difficult to picture how this provision must have +impressed those patriots who had sacrificed everything in an effort to +free themselves from that very rule which was now imposing such an +unfair enactment upon them. + +Official Spanish reports give the following table of their losses yearly +during the Ten Years' War: + + _Year_ _Force in Field_ _Deaths_ + 1869 35,570 5,504 + 1870 47,242 9,395 + 1871 55,357 6,574 + 1872 58,708 7,780 + 1873 52,500 5,902 + 1874 62,578 5,923 + 1875 63,212 6,361 + 1876 78,099 8,482 + 1877 90,245 17,677 + 1878 81,700 7,500 + ------ + Total 81,098 + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + + +The Spanish government had granted concessions to the Cubans, or what on +their face seemed to be concessions, but in actual administration, the +government remained practically the same. The power remained vested in a +military government, at the head of which was the Captain-General, whose +name was subsequently changed to Governor-General, but whose nature and +functions remained in the last analysis very little different from what +they had been before the revolution. The struggle had, however, given +the Cubans less fear of their tyrant. They had demonstrated that they +were able for ten years to keep up an armed resistance against their +oppressors, and one which had occasioned Spain a great loss of life, and +of property, and had caused her rulers to have many unpleasant hours, +struggling with vexing problems. Those who had accomplished this would +never again be quite the same. They could never again be ground beneath +the heels of Spanish tyrants in the same unresisting if not +uncomplaining fashion, which had been the regular order of things before +the revolution. Had a Lopez come to Cuba, he would have found a far +different people from those who failed to rally to aid him when in 1851 +he made his fruitless efforts to free the island. + +During 1878 two political parties were organized in Cuba, and another +was essayed, the proposed constitution of the latter forming the basis +for the platform of the Autonomistas, then the most radical of all Cuban +political organizations. + +The Liberal Party belied its name, for its platform was a most +conservative one. It followed closely the lines of the agreement with +Spain, as laid down in the Treaty of Zanjon, and the negotiations in +connection therewith, and it sought mainly to obtain the enforcement of +the promises which Spain made at that time, and in which, from long +experience, most Cubans had little faith--nor was this lack of faith +unwarranted. The party was really an organized movement to enforce the +provisions of the treaty. Its platform provided for the right to +assemble and to discuss political questions, the right of freedom in +religious worship, the removal of the restrictions which had been placed +on the press, and the right of petition. It also provided for the +protection of the homes and property of loyal Cubans, and for the right +of correspondence without censorship or interference from the Spanish +authorities. It stood for improvements in the criminal law, which would +make it impossible for the crimes which had been so prevalent to be +committed further against the persons and property of those who were in +sympathy with the liberation of Cuba. It also sought to obtain the +admission of Creoles to office on the island on the same basis as +Spanish born citizens, and above all a complete separation of the +military and civil functions of the government. It will be recalled that +one of the promises said to have been made by Spain was that there +should be a civil governor. By these means it hoped to abolish the +discrimination against the Creoles in the government of their own +country. Changes in taxation also had their part in the platform, with +an idea of obtaining a decrease of the high export duties. + +An analysis of the platform of the Union Constitutionalists shows +surprisingly little difference from that of the Liberals. It also +provided for the right of petition, asked for an improvement in the +methods of administration of the laws--that is the abatement of the +perversion of those laws by unscrupulous Spanish officials, so that they +might be used as a club for protesting Creoles. The platform of the +Union Constitutionalists further stood for the enactment of special laws +for Cuba, which would be peculiarly suited to her needs, including +protection for the various industries and activities, the planters and +the tobacco raisers, and the removal of excessive export duties. It also +sought a commercial treaty with the United States, and the abolition of +slavery in accordance with the Moret law, with modifications which +seemed proper in the light of conditions in Cuba. + +A third platform was formulated, but it was never completely adopted, +and the party which drafted it died at birth, without a name. It took +the bull by the horns, and flaunted its conviction in the face of Spain. +It is a matter of conjecture whether if the leaders of this movement had +prolonged the life of the potential party, it would have long survived +active Spanish opposition. This platform provided for free trade, free +banks, free shipping, free labor, none but municipal taxes, the prompt +and complete abolition of slavery, the formation of a provincial militia +and universal suffrage. Its terms must have been a severe shock to the +Spaniards. + +No fewer than thirty representatives in the Spanish Cortes were allotted +to Cuba; but such representation was a farce, for pains were taken by +those who held the balance of power to see that so small a number of +Creoles were sent as representatives, and that the Spaniards so greatly +outnumbered them, that the Cuban vote counted for nothing, and Spain +still held complete power. This was the more regrettable and +exasperating, since the Cubans so far as they were permitted to do so +sent men of the highest type to the Cortes. Among them, preeminently, +was Dr. Rafael Montoro, one of the ablest scholars and statesmen in +Cuban history, who was destined subsequently to play a great part in the +administration of the free and independent Republic of Cuba. + +It is self-evident that such conditions and the failure of Spain to live +up to her promises would be provocative of much dissatisfaction, and it +followed as a matter of course that those who had learned to rebel now +took that means of expressing their dissatisfaction. In fact the war had +never ceased, for soon after the signing of the treaty, as soon as Spain +had shown her hand, Calixto Garcia assembled a small band of rebels, and +continued to harass the Spanish in guerrilla warfare, taking up his +position in mountain fastnesses which were inaccessible except to those +who held the key to their labyrinthine paths, and biding his time in the +most annoying fashion possible until he felt matters were ripe for +another widespread armed rebellion. + +In August, 1879, in the districts of Holguin and Santiago there was a +serious renewal of hostilities. The rebels, so termed by the Spanish, +consisted mainly of freed blacks, and were under the leadership of three +mulattoes, Maceo, Brombet and Guilleamon. This movement thoroughly +frightened the authorities, and two thousand Spanish troops were +promptly sent to repress it. The insurgents were reinforced by large +numbers of runaway slaves--those who had demanded their liberty and had +had their request denied. The insurgents took advantage of the disturbed +condition of the country and sought to turn the general situation to +their advantage. They hid in the mountains, in dense woods, and in wild +places, and descended wherever and whenever they could pillage and +burn without intervention from Spanish troops. So thoroughly did the +Spanish authorities dread a renewal of hostilities that the +Captain-General declared the province of Santiago to be in a state of +siege. Meanwhile the insurgents drew up a constitution for themselves, +and continued their activities for over six months, terrorizing the +people, destroying property and taking prisoners for ransom. + +[Illustration: JOSÉ SILVERIO JORRIN + +José Silverio Jorrin y Bramosio, a distinguished advocate, man of +letters and publicist, was born in Havana on June 20, 1816, and was one +of the pupils of José de la Luz at his famous school. After travelling +in the United States and Europe he became one of the leaders of the +Cuban bar and filled several judicial and other public offices. He was +at one time a Senator in the Spanish Cortes, from Camaguey. His chief +interest was in the advancement of the educational and economic welfare +of the island, and on subjects relating thereto he wrote a number of +important works. He wrote a Biography of Christopher Columbus and other +historical works, and had much repute as an orator. For some years he +was a leader of the Autonomist party, but later identified himself +actively with the cause of independence. He lived to see independence +assured if not actually yet achieved, dying in New York in 1897.] + +Meantime General Garcia conducted a campaign in the neighborhood of +Santiago, which further complicated matters for the government. He had +planned a general uprising for December 15, with the expectation that +his small band would be largely reinforced by the arrival of +filibustering expeditions from the United States, with men and arms and +ammunitions. But he was disappointed, and the government retaliated by +making wholesale arrests of all persons, particularly blacks, who were +under the slightest suspicion of sympathy with the rebellion. Three +hundred and fifty blacks were arrested in Santiago alone. The rebels in +spite of their small numbers had been able to do so much damage to +property in this vicinity, that the government voted a hundred thousand +dollars for the relief of Santiago, and half that amount for the same +purpose in Puerto Principe. + +The general feeling of unrest, uncertainty and suspicion among the +Creoles was enhanced by the action of the government at Madrid in +publishing a manifesto, on April 6, 1880, demanding that the Cuban +government be assimilated with that of Spain, and promising in return +enactments which would greatly increase the material prosperity of the +colony. If Spain did not keep her promises with Cuba in a position to +protest, it was a foregone conclusion that the action contemplated by +the manifesto would not be productive of leniency in the government of +the island, and it is not difficult to imagine with what wrath and +consternation the knowledge that such a plan could ever be formulated +filled the hearts of those who had struggled so long and so valiantly +and at so great personal sacrifice for the freedom of Cuba. The result +was a renewal of sporadic rebellions, and a seething turmoil of anger +and resentment on the part of the Creoles. + +In April, 1881, an attempt was made by the Spanish government by +concessions to allay the storm which it had raised, and on April 7, the +constitution of 1876 was again proclaimed. This granted to the Cubans +full rights of citizenship, and the rights of free speech, free press +and assembly, and representation. This was promptly modified on the very +day of its enactment by the promulgation of the order of January 7, +1879, which had the effect of muzzling the press which had only a few +hours before been freed. The other rights granted were of course +existent only in name, and thus Spain continued her old program of +stupid treachery. + +In 1882 an event occurred which for a time seemed likely to draw England +into the controversy. Three Cuban patriots, Maceo, Rodriguez, and a +third whose name is not of record, escaped from custody while they were +being transferred from one penal colony in Spain to another. They +hastened to gain English territory, and fled to Gibraltar. One of the +rights sacred to the English government was the right of asylum. This +the Spanish government proceeded to ignore. The Spanish consul notified +the English authorities that the fugitives must be returned to Spain, +and suggested as a method which would be productive of the least trouble +that at a time and place agreed upon they be sent across the border, +whereupon the Spanish authorities could apprehend them without +difficulty and the controversy would be happily ended. Through some +misapprehension on the part of the British officials, this was done. But +the end was not yet. The British government, when it learned of the +occurrence, promptly demanded the return of the men to British soil, +under the right of asylum. The Spanish government exhausted all its +arguments in vain. Great Britain stood firm, but when Spain had +surrendered two of the fugitives, the matter was finally dropped and the +fate of the third one was left to the mercies of Spain. + +The history of Cuba was from this time on, until rebellion finally +flamed into the war in which, with the aid of the United States, she +gained her independence, one of petty persecutions, and retaliation by +continuous uprisings, small in character but indicative of the +smouldering fire. These were frequently aided by filibustering +expeditions sent by the Cuban Junta in New York. + +In 1885 a revolt took place in the provinces of Santa Clara and +Santiago, always the hotbed of rebellion. The rebellion was quickly +suppressed, but its leaders, and a large number of other Cubans, who +were merely under suspicion of complicity, were executed without trial. +One of the leaders, General Vidal, was banished from Cuba, but, when he +was about to leave for Jamaica, under an arrangement made with the +Spanish authorities, he was brutally murdered by hired assassins. + +Meanwhile the administration of justice in Cuba would have been almost +ludicrous if it had not been tragic. The Spaniards openly practiced the +most egregious frauds at the polls, and by all the chicanery known to +corrupt politics kept the Creoles from the participation in the +government which Spain had so glibly promised them. One of the +interesting methods to prevent the voting of the poor in Cuba was the +prohibition under a law passed on December 12, 1892, of bona fide +citizens from exercising the right of suffrage unless they paid the sum +of five dollars in taxes. This law applied to black and white alike, and +was prohibitive so far as the greater number of the former were +concerned. + +Meanwhile those Cubans who desired better things for their children than +the nightmare in which they themselves lived were eager for education +for their families, but for the most part education was a privilege +which belonged only to the wealthy. It was not until 1883 that there +existed schools of learning similar to high schools. It was not Spain's +game to educate the masses, for if an autocracy is to survive, too much +learning is a dangerous thing to be allowed to spread among the common +people. + +In 1887 the Spanish authorities decided, justly, that the treasury of +Spain was being deprived of revenues by the evasion of taxes, and that +this was being done by the connivance of the custom house officials. The +Governor-General therefore ordered the seizure of the custom house by +Spanish troops, and the wharfs and warehouses were placed under heavy +guard. After an investigation had been started a number of merchants +whose business was importing confessed that they had been doing business +in a way which deprived the government of certain revenues and asked +permission to change their entries. They were granted three days to do +this. The result was an enormous increase in revenue from the custom +house. The Governor-General proceeded from that time forth to keep a +strict watch on custom house matters, with the result that evasions of +the law were the exception. + +By 1887 the country was in such condition that it was unsafe for any man +to proceed unguarded for a mile or two into the country. Neither the +person of any well-to-do planter, nor his property was safe. Outlaw +bands overran the highways, and took cover in woods and hills, from +whence they pounced on travelers, robbed and beat them, and took them +captive for ransom. The brigands were so daring and their depredations +assumed such proportions that martial law was declared in over a hundred +towns and villages. Incendiarism was rife, not only were planters robbed +and murdered, but their possessions were pillaged, their fields were +laid waste and their buildings were burned. Sanitary conditions on the +island were so bad that in the months of December, 1887, and of January +and February, 1880, two thousand cases of smallpox were reported. This, +of course, covered only a small portion of the cases actually existent, +and those who did not fall victim to smallpox were in danger of yellow +fever. Even Nature seemed to have entered into a conspiracy against the +unhappy island, for in 1887 there was an earthquake, and the following +year a violent cyclone, which went the whole length of the island, but +did its principal damage in the province of Santa Clara. Not less than a +thousand lives were lost. + +For a time, indeed, there was a measure of relief. That was when under +the McKinley tariff of 1890, Cuban products, particularly sugar, gained +freer access to American markets. While this system lasted, there was an +accession of material prosperity in Cuba. But upon its repeal, due to a +change of politics in the United States government, prosperity in Cuba +waned, while discontent, dissatisfaction and disaffection waxed apace, +and undismayed and resolute patriots began preparing for another general +insurrection. + +During the period between the Ten Years' War and the final War of +Independence there was a succession of Governors-General, varying +chiefly in the degree of their unacceptability to the Cuban people and +of the ineptitude with which they maladministered the affairs of the +island and thus contributed to the ultimate and inevitable catastrophe. +Martinez Campos served, with the best of intentions, until the late +summer of 1883. Then on September 28 he was succeeded by Ignacio Maria +del Castillo. His administration endured for three years, and was +replaced in 1886 by that of General Emilio Calleja y Isasi, who gave +place the next year to Saba Marin. Another change occurred on March 13, +1889, when Manuel de Salamanca y Negrete took office. He served for less +than a year, being succeeded on February 7, 1890, by General J. +Chinchilla. To the latter must be accorded the distinction of having the +shortest term of all, for on June 10 following his place was taken by +General Polavieja. He served for two years and was succeeded on May 31, +1892, by General A. R. Arias, who in turn, on August 10, 1894, was +replaced by General Emilio Calleja, who thus entered upon his second +term, in which he was to suffer the penalty of the misdeeds of a long +line of predecessors, and was to begin reaping the whirlwind harvest of +the evil wind which for four centuries Spain had been sowing with a +perverse and ruthless hand. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + + +"New occasions," sang a great American poet of freedom and of progress, +"new occasions teach new duties"; and splendidly was the truth +exemplified in Cuba in the era of which we have been writing in this +volume. There befell the island at the beginning of the Nineteenth +Century a new occasion, the greatest thus far in all its history since +the landfall of Columbus. It was perhaps only partially realized at +first, and it took many years for the complete realization to dawn upon +the universal popular mind. But even before the realization came, the +Cuban people, not yet cognizant of the tremendous force which was +working within them, began to rise to meet the new occasion, the new +opportunity which was opening before them, with a triumphant spiritual +puissance which has not often been rivalled in the annals of the +nations. + +[Illustration: FELIPE POEY] + + FELIPE POEY + + One of Cuba's greatest natural scientists, Felipe Poey, was born in + Havana on May 26, 1799, and was educated at the San Carlos Seminary + and in France. He became a lawyer in Madrid, but in 1822 left that + city because of political conditions and returned to Cuba to devote + himself to ichthyology and entomology. He published a monumental + work on "Cuban Ichthyology," and others on "Cuban Lepidopteres," + "Cuban Mineralogy," the "Geography of Cuba," and the "Natural + History of Cuba." He was for many years professor of zoology at the + University of Havana and Dean of the Faculty of Sciences. He died + in 1891. + +Writing of that very period, in his essay on Jean Paul Richter, and +referring to the British domination of the sea which Nelson had +achieved, to the mastery of the lands of Europe which Napoleon had won, +and to the intellectual primacy which Germany--though beaten to the dust +in war--was then enjoying, Carlyle observed that "Providence has given +to the French the empire of the land, to the English that of the sea, to +the Germans that of--the air!" It was a fine conception, as true then as +it would be untrue to-day. In a significant sense the same shrewd +observation is apt to the situation of Cuba a hundred years ago. Spain +held control of the material interests of the island, on sea and on +land, but she could not restrain the Cubans from self-control, which +meant immeasurable progress, in the air--that is, in the intellectual +life. It was thus intellectually, in the only way as yet within their +power, that the people of the island met the new and transcendent +occasion. + +It was, as we have seen, a period of revolution and of +counter-revolution, a time of flux, throughout the greater part of the +world. The mighty liberal impulse of the French Revolution, following in +the wake of the American revolution, was by no means annihilated by the +infatuated imperialism of Napoleon or by the reactionary movement which +prevailed for a time after his fall. It was felt, and it prevailed, in +North and Central and South America, from the Golden Gate to the Strait +of Magellan; and in the islands of the Caribbean and the Gulf. In Cuba, +as we have seen, there seemed to be at first no response, for reasons +which also we have hitherto considered. But all unconsciously the Cuban +people received and felt the impulse, and answered it. + +Periods of revolution are usually periods of intellectual activity, and +such was the case in Cuba. While there was in the first quarter of the +century little thought of a revolt against Spain, or of independence, +the revolutionary spirit which was in the air inspired the minds of +Cubans, not only with activity but also, largely, with thoughts and +aspirations of freedom. There was indeed in particular a striking +likeness between Cuba and the Thirteen Colonies in North America just +before the Revolution in that country. It will be recalled that down to +a few months, perhaps even weeks, before the Declaration of Independence +in 1776, very few American leaders contemplated independence. The war +which they had begun at Lexington and Concord and Bunker Hill was not a +war of secession, but a civil war intended merely to secure for British +subjects in the colonies the same rights and privileges that British +subjects in the British Isles enjoyed. But a little later it was seen +that this would not suffice, and that complete separation and +independence must be achieved. Precisely so did some of the foremost +Cuban minds at the time of which we are writing, and indeed in much +later years, incline toward reforms and autonomous freedom under the +Spanish crown. + +[Illustration: ANTONIO BACHILLER] + + ANTONIO BACHILLER + + Patriot, economist and man of letters, Antonio Bachiller y Morales + was born in Havana on June 7, 1812, and was educated for the bar. + He wrote several volumes of poems and plays, but gave his best + attention to valuable treatises on Cuban history, industry, + agriculture, economics, administration, and law. He was one of the + foremost authorities and writers on Cuban and Antillean + archaeology. He was professor of philosophy in the University of + Havana, held various public offices, and was a patriotic orator of + great power. He died on January 10, 1889. + +These men saw with exultation the enkindling of a spirit of liberty in +the Iberian Peninsula. They saw the revolt of Spain against Joseph +Bonaparte. They saw the Spanish people dictate to their Bourbon king +that Constitution of 1812 which had it been triumphantly enforced would +have marked an epoch in the history of the rights of man. They +sympathized with and exulted in these things, and hoped for their +extension in Cuba. It was only when they sadly realized that these +things, even if gained for Spain, were not for Cuba, and that Liberal +Spain was as illiberal toward Cuba as ever despotic Spain had been, that +they turned from autonomy to independence. Then the intellectual +activities which had been directed to the achievements of the Peninsula, +were turned to the interests of the island. + +[Illustration: JOSÉ MARÍA HEREDIA + +The bearer of one of the greatest names in the literature of Cuba and of +Spain, José María Heredia, was born at Santiago de Cuba on December 31, +1803, and died at Toluca, Mexico, on May 7, 1839. Because of his early +identification with the cause of Cuban freedom in the "Soles y Rayos de +Bolivar" he was compelled to flee to the United States, whence he +presently went to Mexico and there spent the remainder of his life, +holding places of high rank and importance. He was at once advocate, +soldier, traveller, linguist, diplomat, journalist, magistrate, +historian, poet. His "Ode to Niagara" has made him illustrious in +American literature. His general writings have given him conspicuous +rank among the world's great lyric poets of the Nineteenth Century.] + +The most striking exemplar of the pro-Spanish attitude of which we have +been speaking, as well as perhaps the greatest of all Cuban poets, was +José Maria Heredia; of whom the world too often thinks as a Spanish +rather than as a Cuban genius. He was born in Cuba in 1803, the son of +parents who had fled from Santo Domingo to escape the fury of the +revolution of Toussaint l'Ouverture. His father had formerly been a +Chief Justice of the Venezuelan court at Caracas, under the Spanish +government, and was loyal to Spain, though he detested and protested +against her tyrannies and corruption and imbued his son with a +passionate love of liberty. The younger Heredia established himself in +the city of Matanzas, as a successful lawyer. But already he had written +many poems, chiefly of freedom. They were in praise of Spain, and of the +Spanish aspirations for liberty which were manifested in the +Constitution of 1812. Indeed, never did Heredia commit himself against +Spain, harshly as he was treated by her. But the poems which he had +written in glorification of the Peninsular struggles for liberty +against Napoleon and against the Bourbons were recognized by his +countrymen to be equally applicable to the Cuban struggle against Spain, +which was already impending, and they were consequently taken up +throughout the island in that sense and for that purpose. This +circumstance, though unintended by him, subjected him to grave +suspicion; and he was presently charged with complicity in an +insurrectionary movement in 1823, and was banished from Cuba for life. +After a brief visit to the United States he went to Mexico, became a +government official, married, and spent the rest of his life there, with +the exception of a few weeks in 1836, when the Spanish authorities +permitted him to revisit Cuba, though their espionage made his visit +anything but pleasant. He died in 1839. + +Heredia, who has been called the Byron of Spanish literature, and who is +claimed by Spain as one of the glories of her letters, is known in Cuba +largely by his patriotic poems, and his poems on nature. In the United +States, where because of his exile from Cuba his poems were first +printed, he is chiefly known by three great compositions, two of which +were translated into English by William Cullen Bryant. These are his +"Ode to Niagara," Which ranks among the greatest poems ever written by +any poet on that theme; his "Ode to the Hurricane"; and a sonnet +addressed to his wife. It is with his political and patriotic poems, +however, that we are now most concerned, and of them it may be said that +seldom have the aspirations of a people for freedom been expressed with +more passionate eloquence. His first important poem, "The Star of Cuba," +written while he was yet in his teens, expressed a readiness to die, if +need be, for Cuba, leaving his head upon the scaffold as a token of the +brutality of Spain. Years afterward, in exile, he apostrophized Cuba as +the "land of light and beauty," and then thus prophesied: + + My Cuba! Thou shalt one day rise + From 'neath the despot's hand, + Free as the air beneath thy skies + Or waves which kiss thy strand. + In vain the traitor's noxious plots, + The tyrant's wrath is vain; + Since roll the surges of the sea + Between thy shores and Spain! + +[Illustration: FELIX VARELA] + + FELIX VARELA + + One of Cuba's greatest philosophers and churchmen, Felix Varela, + was born in Havana on November 20, 1788, was educated at San + Carlos, and became a priest and teacher. After several years of + service at San Carlos as Professor of Philosophy, in 1823 he was + compelled to flee to New York as a political exile. In that city he + spent the rest of his life, editing several periodicals, + translating many works, and writing much on religious and + philosophical subjects. He became rector of the Church of the + Transfiguration, and in 1845 was chosen Vicar-General of New York. + A few years later he went to Florida on account of his health, and + died at St. Augustine in 1853. + +Though Heredia took little active part in the physical revolt of Cuba +against Spain, his poems exerted during his lifetime a potent influence +in aid of revolution, and that influence steadily increased until, +nearly three score years after his death, his prophecy of Cuban freedom +was splendidly fulfilled. He was the first great voice of Cuban freedom, +the first great pioneer in that extraordinary intellectual development +which made Cuban history memorable in the Nineteenth Century. Truly did +the Spanish critic Menendez say of him that if his political activity +did not equal that of other conspirators against Spain, and though he +took no part in armed struggles, his intellectual influence was constant +and supremely effective, since he surpassed in talents all his +countrymen. + +[Illustration: JOSÉ AGUSTIN CABALLERO] + +But men might fall a little short--if indeed they did so--of Heredia's +singular genius, and yet be noteworthy figures in the intellectual +world. Well comparable with Heredia in influence, though exerted far +differently, was the brilliant Professor of Latin, philosophy and +science in the University of Havana, Felix Varela y Morales. It used to +be said, and not without reason, that it was he who first taught the +Cuban people to think as Cubans. He was sent to Spain as a Cuban Deputy +to that historic Cortes which met at Cadiz in 1823 and was dispersed by +Ferdinand VII because of its Liberalism. Varela was among its most +conspicuous members, and was among those whose arrest was ordered by the +reactionary Bourbons. He fortunately found asylum under the British flag +at Gibraltar, whence he made his way to the United States. There, at +Philadelphia, he published during the remainder of his life, a weekly +journal, _El Habanero_, which had a large though chiefly surreptitious +circulation in Cuba, and which exerted an inestimable influence for the +encouragement of patriotic endeavors. He died in Florida in 1853, and +his remains rested there for nearly half a century, when, after the +achievement of Cuban independence, they were transferred to his native +land. + + JOSÉ AGUSTIN CABALLERO + + One of the greatest ecclesiastics of Cuba, Father José Agustin + Caballero, uncle and preceptor of José de la Luz, was born in + Havana in February, 1771, and for many years was Director of the + San Carlos Seminary. He was a leading member of the Patriotic + Society, wrote much for the press, was the author of a number of + educational and historical works, and preached a memorable sermon + over the remains of Columbus when they were placed in the Cathedral + at Havana. He died in 1835. + +A name which we are not inclined to rank below any other in intellectual +significance and influence in Nineteenth Century Cuba is that of the +illustrious José de la Luz y Caballero, who was born in 1800 and died in +1862, too soon to see the beginning of that Ten Years' War to which his +teachings had powerfully contributed. "The Father of the Cuban +Revolution" the Spaniards called him, and more perhaps than any other +man did he deserve that honorable distinction. It was as an educator of +youth that this great man's great work was done. In the world-shaking +revolution year of 1848, after O'Donnell has drowned the Cuban slave +revolts in blood, and when Narciso Lopez was just preparing for his +descents upon the island, Luz y Caballero opened in Cuba a high school +for boys. It was not a political school; certainly not seditious, unless +truth and virtue were seditious. Hundreds of Cuban patriots, including +many of the leaders in the Ten Years' War and the War of Independence, +have testified that it was his teaching that made them the aggressive, +resolute, militant patriots that they were. Yet they have all been +equally insistent that "Don Pepe" as they called him was never a +political propagandist. He never incited them to revolt, never +prejudiced them against Spain. Yet, said his Spanish critics and +enemies, he prepared his pupils to conspire and to be garrotted! + +Both accounts of his teaching were true, and together they formed the +severest possible indictment of the Spanish régime. The burden of his +teaching was manhood. He and his assistants gave much attention to the +ordinary academic studies, in science and the humanities. But constantly +he impressed upon them the duty of being manly. That meant that they +were to be true, pure, resolute against injustice, respecting themselves +and respecting others as themselves, and ready if need should be to +sacrifice themselves for the sake of duty. It was the highest and best +form of practical ethical teaching. He might, it is true, have added at +the end of each of his weekly discourses to his boys the words of +Patrick Henry, "If this be treason, make the most of it." The Spaniards +did regard it as treason, and it did certainly incite and foment +insurrection against Spain. But so much the worse for Spain, if such +teaching was incompatible with her rule in Cuba. + +[Illustration: DOMINGO DEL MONTE] + + DOMINGO DEL MONTE + + One of the greatest patrons of Cuban letters, Domingo del Monte, + was born in Venezuela on August 4, 1804, was brought to Cuba in + 1810, and was educated at the University of Havana. He travelled + much in America and Europe, and then settled in Havana, where he + was secretary of the Royal Economic Society. He edited a dictionary + of Cuban provincialisms, and published a volume of "American + Rhymes." He made his house the rendezvous of Cuban men of letters + and gave to many of them invaluable encouragement and aid; and was + also active in promoting public education throughout the island. He + died at Madrid, Spain, in 1853. + +An important literary influence was exerted in Cuba, beginning in the +latter part of the Eighteenth century, and reaching its height in the +first third of the Nineteenth, by the society called "Friends of Peace," +of which Domingo del Monte was the leading spirit. It was this +organization which gave Varela his professorship in the University of +Havana. It was it that gave a prize for the best poem on the birth of +the princess who was to become Isabella II of Spain; a prize which was +won by a lad of sixteen. This was Jose Antonio Echeverria, who afterward +edited a literary journal called _El Plantel_, and still later became +one of the leaders of the strife for independence. Another protégé of +Del Monte's--for he was a wealthy patron of letters, at Havana--was +Ramon Velez y Herrera, who was born in 1808 and died in 1886. He devoted +his attention chiefly to depicting in poetry the life, manners and +customs of the common people of Cuba, and particularly of the peasantry. +Still another was José Jacinto Milanes, who was born in 1814 and died in +1863. He was preeminently the poet of "local color" in nature. No other +has quite so richly and so perfectly embodied Cuban landscapes in verse. +But both these poets also wrote in behalf of Cuban freedom. + +[Illustration: JOSÉ JACINTO MILANES] + +Domingo del Monte himself wrote some poetry, but much more in prose, and +he had the distinction of being practically the founder of political +tract and pamphlet writing, an art which was largely practised with +powerful results. He wrote in 1836 a notable criticism of the despotic +administration of Tacon, and an analysis of the condition in which Cuba +found herself under such government. This opened the way for a veritable +flood of political tracts. + + JOSÉ JACINTO MILANES + + Born in Matanzas on August 16, 1814, and because of poverty chiefly + self-educated, José Jacinto Milanes became a noted linguist and + graceful poet. Most of his writings were translated into German, + and some into English and French, and he gained international + repute as a man of letters. Mental derangement and failing physical + health afflicted him in 1843, and he died in 1863. + +Conspicuous among them were the writings of José Antonio Saco, who was +born in 1797 and died in 1879. He was both a rival and a friend of +Varela, and was the latter's successor in his professorship when Varela +went to Cadiz and then fled to America. After Varela's arrival in the +United States, Saco formed a literary and patriotic partnership with +him, and together they edited the _Cuban Review_, a literary and +critical journal of high rank, which commanded international attention. +The American historian and literary critic, George Ticknor, said of it +that perusal of it greatly impressed him with the amount of literary +talent that existed in Cuba. The _Review_, he declared, far surpassed +anything of the kind in any other of the Spanish or former Spanish +colonies, and indeed "a review of such spirit, variety and power has +never been attempted even in Madrid." Of course, Saco was exiled by +Tacon, the immediate cause of offense being a pamphlet exposing and +denouncing some of the more flagrant evils of the slave trade. The +result was, however, that in exile Saco wrote one of the most elaborate +and exhaustive histories of slavery in existence in any language, beside +continuing his occasional political tracts. Nor did his influence end +with his death and the laying down of his pen, for portions of his +writings figured conspicuously and effectively in the literary +propaganda which formed the prelude to the War of Independence. + +Gabriel de la Conception Valdes was another of the protégés of Del +Monte. He was born in 1809 and died in 1844. His father was a mulatto +barber and his mother was a Spanish dancer, and he himself was permitted +to remain illiterate in boyhood. While working as a maker of tortoise +shell combs he was taught to read, and soon developed a passion for +books. From reading he proceeded to the writing of poetry, adopting the +pen name of "Placido" from the name of Placido Puentes, a druggist of +Havana who encouraged his literary efforts to the extent of giving him +pen and ink and paper, and a desk in his shop at which to sit and write +whenever he felt inclined. Valdes was a voluminous writer, above most of +his contemporaries, and while much that he wrote was mediocre, many of +his poems were of high merit, and some of them deserve to rank among the +best in Cuban literature; indeed, they would be noteworthy in the +literature of any land. Especially meritorious are his poems about the +slave trade and his apostrophes to Liberty. Because of these he was +accused of complicity in an attempted negro uprising. He was hurried +through a farcical trial, in which no real proof of his guilt was +presented. Indeed, there is good reason for believing that he was +entirely innocent. But he was found guilty, and was put to death; +repeating aloud, as he walked to the place of execution, one of his +poems on liberty. + +[Illustration: JOSÉ MANUEL MESTRE] + + JOSÉ MANUEL MESTRE + + Advocate, philosopher, journalist and revolutionist, José Manuel + Mestre was born in Havana in 1832. He was a professor of both law + and philosophy in the University until he resigned because of + governmental injustice to a colleague. For a time he taught on La + Luz's school of El Salvador, and as a lawyer he defended Abad + Torres who was charged with trying to murder the Archbishop of + Santiago. During the Ten Years' War he was in New York, a member of + the Cuban Junta, a diplomatic agent at Washington, and one of the + editors of "El Nuevo Mundo." After the Treaty of Zanjon he returned + to Cuba, and died in Havana in 1886. + +Three more writers of note and of real merit must be mentioned as +members of the company gathered about him by Domingo del Monte. These +were Anselmo Suarez y Romero, who lived from 1818 to 1878, and who as a +delineator of Cuban life and customs in fiction and essays ranks among +the best Cuban writers of prose; Cirillo Villaverde, who lived from 1812 +to 1894, and who also depicted in romances the life and manners of his +countrymen, dealing much, moreover, with African slavery; and Ramon de +Palma y Romay, who dates from 1812 to 1860, who assisted Echeverria in +the editing of "El Plantel," and who was an accomplished writer of verse +and of dramas, and who is said to have been the first native Cuban +dramatist to have a play of his produced upon the stage. The work of his +thus honored was "La Prueba o la Vuelta del Cruzado," in 1837. Palma +also wrote some strongly patriotic poems, which excited the suspicion +and enmity of the Spanish authorities, and in consequence in 1852 he was +arrested and imprisoned for a time on charge of complicity in the +revolutionary movements of that time. We may reckon him to have been the +last of the earlier school of Cuban writers, who had been more or less +unconsciously inspired by the revolutionary era of the beginning of the +century. Next came a new school, of the writers of the final and +triumphant revolution. + +We may indeed regard José Antonio Saco, to whom we have already +referred, as one of the writers and intellectual leaders of the final +revolution. In his earlier years he was an advocate of reforms in the +Spanish administration of the island which would make continued union +acceptable. In 1848 he had written a strong pamphlet against +incorporation of Cuba in the United States, largely on the ground that +thus Cuban nationality and the individuality of the Cuban people would +be extinguished. Three years later he wrote again on "The Cuban +Situation and Its Remedy," in which he pointed out the necessity of +Spain's granting fully the just demands of the Cuban people, the +alternative being separation and independence; and he indicated pretty +clearly that he regarded the latter course as all but inevitable. + +Thereafter for some years there was comparatively little political +literature put forth in Cuba, but other departments of letters greatly +flourished. A noteworthy volume of poems by four authors was published +in 1853 under the title of "Cuatro Laudes." One of the authors was Dr. +Ramon Zambrana, a physician and scientist of high attainments, whose +poems were chiefly metaphysical, speculative and imaginative. He was +married to Dona Luisa Perez, perhaps the foremost of the women poets of +Cuba; to whom he was attracted by the reading of her poems. Many critics +rate her verses more highly than his, and they were certainly more +popular. + +[Illustration: LUISA PEREZ DE ZAMBRANA] + + LUISA PEREZ DE ZAMBRANA + + One of Cuba's greatest poets, Luisa Perez, was born near El Cobre + in 1837, and was married in 1858 to Dr. Ramon Zambrana, an eminent + man of letters of Havana. She wrote much in youth, and published a + volume of poems in 1856. In addition to her poems she wrote + "Angelica and Estrella" and other novels, and translated much from + the French and Italian. When Gertrudis Avellanda returned to Cuba, + Luisa Perez was chosen to place upon her brow a golden laurel + wreath. + +The second of the four authors was José Gonzalo Roldan, whose best work +was in poems of tender sentiment. The third, Rafael Maria de Mendive, +devoted himself almost exclusively to poems of melancholy or at least +pensive sentiment. He was a passionate admirer and to some extent a +disciple if not an imitator of Byron and Moore, many of whose poems he +translated into Spanish with much success. Beside his poetical work +however, he cooperated with Quintiliano Garcia in founding and +conducting _The Havana Review_, a meritorious fortnightly literary +journal. His career in Cuba was cut short early in the Ten Years' War by +banishment for treason. He was at that time the head of a boys' school, +in Havana, and was suspected by the authorities of inculcating in his +pupils forbidden ideas of freedom and democracy. One night in January, +1869, when there was much popular indignation against the Spanish +government on account of a very drastic proclamation which had been +issued against the insurgent patriots, a number of Cuban women marched +to a theatre in Havana, wearing dresses of red, blue and white adorned +with stars, obviously representing the colors of the revolutionary Cuban +flag. Some of Mendive's boys were present, and they applauded and +cheered the women so vigorously that a riot arose, in which the +notorious Volunteers caused some bloodshed. For this Mendive was held +responsible, and he was arrested and exiled to Spain for a term of four +years. The influence of the American poet Longfellow and other literary +men, however, procured his release, on condition that he would not +reenter Cuba. He accordingly went to New York and there lived until the +general amnesty after the Ten Years' War permitted his return to Cuba. +While in New York he wrote much in behalf of the insurrection, and he +cheerfully sent his son as a member of the ill-fated _Virginius_ +expedition; writing a touching poem on that occasion: + + "'Tis well that thou hast done, + Most noble and most right, + To answer honor's call, my son, + For Fatherland to fight." + +The fourth of the four poets of "Cuatro Laudes" was Felipe Lopez de +Brinas, who drew his best themes from nature, and who addressed his best +poems to his wife. + +One of the most popular poets in the period just preceding and during +the Ten Years' War was José Fornaris, who in his "Cantos de Siboney" +related many legends of the Cuban aborigines, some of them actual +traditions but most of them invented by himself. A contemporary who +essayed similar themes with almost equal success was Juan Cristobal +Napoles Fajardo. Another, Miguel Teurbe de Tolon, devoted himself to +legends and ballads not of the aborigines but of the Cuban people of +European ancestry. Tolon was an intense patriot, and for that cause +suffered exile. For some years he lived in New York, where he was +efficiently active as the secretary of the Cuban Revolutionary Junta in +that city. + +[Illustration: JOAQUIN LORENZO LUACES] + +But perhaps above all others the poet--we might say, the Tyrtaeus--of +the revolution was Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces, though he did not live to see +the beginning of the war which he did so much to provoke. Luaces, who +was born in 1826 and died in 1867, was a devoted Greek scholar, and took +Greek poetry for his model. For that reason many have thought that his +writings were somewhat academic and artificial. There is however in his +poems an exquisite finish surpassed by no other Cuban writer, while many +of them reach a height of inspiration which few others have equalled. +There was in them, moreover, an irresistible call to Cuban patriotism, +which had vast effect in rousing the nation for the Ten Years' War. One +of his most stirring lyrics was on the Greek War of Independence, +entitled "The Fall of Missolonghi": + + To arms, ye Greeks! Missolonghi falls! + And Ibrahim conquers her soldiers brave. + But the Moslem finds within those walls + Corpses of Greeks, but never one slave! + + JOAQUIN LORENZO LUACES + + Lyric, dramatic and patriotic poet, Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces was born + in Havana in 1826, and was educated at the University of that city. + His themes as a poet were largely those of the great events of the + day, or of history, such as the Fall of Missolonghi, the Death of + Lincoln, and the Laying of the Atlantic Cable. Many of his poems + were patriotic appeals disguised in classic forms. He died in 1867. + +This passionate call to patriots to do battle to the death against +tyrants was addressed to the Greeks, thousands of miles away, and the +tyrants against whom it raged were Moslem Turks, hated by all true +Spaniards; wherefore the Spanish censor permitted it to be published +freely in Cuba. But every Cuban patriot read in it "Cubans" for "Greeks" +and "Spaniards" for "Moslems." Luaces was the author of a number of +meritorious dramas. + +We have spoken of Doña Louisa Perez as probably the foremost of Cuba's +women poets. Her chief rival for that distinction was Doña Gertrudis +Gomez de Avellanda, a woman of real genius. But she, although born in +Camaguey, was for practically all her life so identified with Spain that +she is commonly regarded as a Spaniard rather than a Cuban. Born in +1814, she went to Spain with her mother in 1836, and there remained +until 1860. By that time she had gained world-wide reputation as a poet +and dramatist, and also as a writer of prose fiction, and on her return +to Cuba she was publicly greeted as though she were a queen or an +empress. A few months later she hastened back to Spain and there spent +the remainder of her life. Only a few of her writings were on Cuban +themes, but they indicated that she retained in her voluntary exile a +deep love for and sympathy with her native land. + +The successor of Domingo Del Monte as a patron of Cuban letters was +Nicolas Azcarate, a very wealthy lawyer of Havana, himself a writer and +orator of great power, and an ardent patriot, though generally inclined +toward reforms and autonomy rather than independence. He was the leader +of that "Committee of Information" which went to Spain in 1865 to lay +before the Spanish Minister for the Colonies, Canovas del Castillo, the +grievances and the demands of Cuba; a mission which was quite fruitless, +for it was quickly followed by the outbreak of the Ten Years' War. +Azcarate also founded and conducted at his own cost a newspaper at +Havana, _La Voz del Siglo_, to advocate reforms and autonomy. But he +lost popularity with the Cubans, who were by this time almost unanimous +for independence, while he could not command the favor of the Spaniards; +and in consequence he lost his influence, his fortune and his place in +society, and ended his life in obscurity and poverty. + +[Illustration: GERTRUDIS GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA + +Although most of her life was spent abroad, the name of Gertrudis Gomez +de Avellaneda y Arteaga must always be enrolled among the glories of +Cuban literature and Cuban womanhood. She was born in Camaguey on March +23, 1814, and almost literally "lisped in numbers," since she wrote an +elegy on the death of her father at the age of six, and two years later +wrote a fairy tale, "The Hundred-Headed Giant." In 1836 she bade +farewell to Cuba in a memorable sonnet, and went to France, and thence +to Spain. There she wrote poems and dramas which placed her in the +foremost rank of the world's literary artists; her poetical drama of +"Baltasar" in 1853 being one of the greatest triumphs of that +generation. In 1860 she revisited Cuba and was publicly crowned in the +Tacon Theatre before a great assemblage of the foremost men and women of +the nation. She returned to Spain a few years later and died at Seville +on February 2, 1873.] + +Prominent among the poets of the Revolution was Juan Clemente Zenea, who +was a martyr as well as a poet. He was born at Bayamo in 1832, his +mother being the sister of the poet Fornaris already mentioned. He was +one of the pupils of José de la Luz y Caballero, and before leaving +school began to write patriotic poems and other articles. At the age of +twenty he had to flee from Cuba to escape arrest and prosecution for his +complicity in some revolutionary publications; whereupon he went to New +York and there continued his revolutionary writings. So extreme +were some of these that in December, 1853, a court martial at Havana +condemned him to death. Under the amnesty of 1855 he returned to Cuba +and became a teacher of modern languages and a writer for the press, and +a few years later published a volume of charming poems. After ten years +he left Cuba for New York and then for Mexico, and upon the outbreak of +the Ten Years' War he joined the Cuban Junta in New York and became +editor of its organ, _La Revolucion_. In 1870 the Spanish Minister at +Washington, wishing to negotiate secretly with Cespedes, the leader of +the Cuban revolutionists, gave Zenea a safe conduct to pass through the +Spanish lines and convey a message to Cespedes. This errand was +undertaken against the advice of his friends. It was accomplished in +safety, however, until when, on his return trip, he was just about to +pass beyond the limits of Spanish jurisdiction. Then he was seized by +order of the Volunteers and imprisoned. The Spanish government at Madrid +telegraphed orders to the Captain-General to honor the safe conduct and +to release him at once. But that officer, the notorious Count Valmaseda, +ignored these orders, kept Zenea in prison until there was a change of +Ministry at Madrid, and then, on August 25, 1871, put him to death. The +Spanish government disavowed this monstrous crime, and paid Zenea's +widow an indemnity of $25,000, though it failed to punish Valmaseda +according to his deserts. + +Another pupil of Luz y Caballero, and a close friend of Zenea, was +Enrique Piñeyro, a journalist, historian, essayist and lecturer, who, +born in 1839, had the good fortune to survive until 1911 and thus to see +the work of Cuban independence triumphantly completed. José Morales +Lemus, born in 1808, established in Havana in 1863 the paper _El +Siglo_, a powerful advocate of reforms and autonomy. He went with Saco +and Azcarate on the Committee of Information to Madrid, and on his +return from that bootless errand he went to Washington as the first +Cuban Minister. He was the envoy of the Provisional Government of the +Cubans in the Ten Years' War, and as such, though the Cuban Republic did +not receive official recognition, he participated in formulating the +plan of Cuban settlement which General Daniel E. Sickles, as a special +American envoy, carried to Madrid to propose to the Spanish government. +This plan provided that Spain should grant Cuban independence in return +for a large indemnity to be paid by Cuba under the guarantee of the +United States. It was not certain that the Cuban people would have +approved that plan. Indeed, it is probable that they would not have done +so. The Spanish government would not listen to it, however, and it was +abandoned. A little later, in June, 1870, Lemus died. + +[Illustration: ENRIQUE PIÑEYRO] + + ENRIQUE PIÑEYRO + + The son of a University professor of literature and history, + Enrique Piñeyro was born in Havana in 1839 and was educated at La + Luz's school of El Salvador. He became a successful journalist, + writer and teacher, and when the Ten Years' War began he went to + New York and there edited "La Revolucion" and "El Nuevo Mundo," and + wrote several notable histories and biographies. After the war he + returned to Cuba for a short time, then went to Paris and remained + there until his death in 1910. + +[Illustration: JOSÉ MORALES LEMUS + +A veteran of the Lopez insurrection and of the Ten Years' War was José +Morales Lemus, who was born at Gibara on May 2, 1808, and became a +successful advocate. Convinced of the wrong of slavery, he liberated his +own slaves, who however insisted upon voluntarily remaining in his +service. He participated in the Lopez invasion in 1851 and in the Pinto +conspiracy in 1855, on which account he was exiled to the United States. +In 1866 he returned to Cuba and became President of the Junta of +Information. At the outbreak of the Ten Years' War he went to New York +to become head of the Cuban Junta there, in consequence of which all his +property in Cuba was confiscated. At Washington he strove earnestly +though in vain to secure the recognition of Cuban belligerence. His +efficient patriotic labors were continued in New York to the day of his +death, which occurred on June 23, 1870.] + +One more Cuban writer demands attention, prior to the War of +Independence; though there were indeed many others of merit whose names +might well be recalled if a bibliography of the island were to be +compiled. Rafael Merchan was born in 1844, and was thus a mere +youth when the Ten Years' War began to be planned; yet we must reckon +him to have been perhaps the foremost patriotic journalist of that +struggle. It was he who suggested the name "Laborers" which was at first +commonly applied to the Cuban revolutionists. It will be recalled that +in Cuba affairs were directed by a "Labor Committee," that in the United +States societies of "Cuban Laborers" were formed in many cities, and +that periodicals called _El Laborante_ were published. Proscribed and +sentenced to death by the Spanish authorities, he found asylum in New +York, and there edited the Cuban revolutionary journal, _La Revolucion_. +Thence a few years later he went to Bogota, Colombia, to engage in +business and also to continue his literary career. It was his good +fortune to be able to resume his patriotic writings in 1890, when the +War of Independence began to loom upon the horizon, and to write in 1895 +and later several pamphlets in support of that struggle, some of which +had much influence in both America and Great Britain. He lived to see +the Cuban Republic securely established, and to go abroad as its +Minister to France and Spain in 1902. His service was brief, however, +because of ill health, which soon brought him home to die. + +It would be pleasant, and not lacking in profit, to dwell at greater +length upon these and other intellectual leaders of the Cuban people. +What we have said is, however, sufficient to show how greatly and how +masterfully the intellectual side of Cuban life was developed during the +century of political stress and fitful military strife which served as +the stormy prelude to Cuba's achievement of her independent rank among +the nations of the world. It was a development admirably comparable +with any ever recorded of any other people, and one which splendidly +vindicated the claim of the Cuban people to worth as a sovereign nation. +Moreover, it was an unmistakable earnest of approaching independence. +While for a century Cuba was purely a Spanish colony, her intellectual +life was embryotic and inert. During the two centuries while she was +more or less an object of international contention, she showed little +activity. But in her fourth century, the era of revolution and of +aspirations for independence, she showed the stuff that was in her sons +and daughters. Her soldiers were valiant in battle. Her statesmen were +wise in council. Her scholars and literati commanded distinguished +attention in the most brilliant intellectual era of human history, and +demonstrated that the Cuba that was about to be would be in the culture +of the higher life a worthy member of the community of nations. + + +THE END OF VOLUME THREE + + * * * * * + + +INDEX to Volumes 1 thru 4 + + + Abarzuza, Sr. proposes reforms for Cuba, IV, 6. + + Abreu. Marta and Rosalie, patriotism of, IV, 25. + + Academy of Sciences, Havana, picture of, IV, 364. + + Adams, John Quincy, enunciates American policy toward Cuba, II, 258; + portrait, 259; + on Cuban annexation, 327. + + Aglona, Prince de. Governor, II, 363. + + Agramonte, Aristide, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172. + + Agramonte, Enrique, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12. + + Agramonte, Eugenio Sanchez, sketch and portrait, IV, 362. + + Agramonte, Francisco, IV, 41. + + Agramonte, Ignacio, portrait, facing. III, 258. + + Agriculture, early attention to, I, 173, 224; + progress, 234; + II, 213; + absentee landlords, 214; + statistics, 223; + discussed in periodicals, 250; + rehabilitation of after War of Independence, IV, 147. + + Aguayo, Geronimo de, I, 161. + + Aguero, Joaquin de, organizes revolution, III, 72; + final defeat, 87. + + Aguiar, Luis de, II, 60. + + Aguiera, Jose, I, 295. + + Aguila, Negra, II, 346. + + Aguilera, Francisco V., sketch and portrait, III, 173. + + Aguirre, Jose Maria, filibuster, IV, 55; + death, 85. + + Albemarle, Earl of, expedition against Havana, II, 46; + occupies Havana, 78; + controversy with Bishop Morell, 83. + + Alcala, Marcos, I, 310. + + Aldama, Miguel de, sketch and portrait, III, 204. + + Aleman, Manuel, French emissary, II, 305. + + Algonquins, I, 7. + + Allen, Robert, on "Importance of Havana," II, 81. + + Almendares River, tapped for water supply, I, 266; + view on, IV, 167. + + Almendariz, Alfonso Enrique, Bishop, I, 277. + + Alquiza, Sancho de, Governor, I, 277. + + Altamarino, Governor, I, 105; + post mortem trial of Velasquez, 107; + attacked by the Guzmans, 109; + removed, 110. + + Altamirano, Juan C., Bishop, I, 273; + seized by brigands, 274. + + Alvarado, Luis de, I, 147. + + Alvarado, Pedro de, in Mexico, I, 86. + + Amadeus, King of Spain, III, 260. + + America, relation of Cuba to, I, 1; + II, 254. See UNITED STATES. + + American Revolution, effect of upon Spain and her colonies, II, 138. + + American Treaty, between Great Britain and Spain, I, 303. + + Andrea, Juan de, II, 9. + + Angulo, Francisco de, exiled, I, 193. + + Angulo, Gonzales Perez de, Governor, I, 161; + emancipation proclamation, 163; + quarrel with Havana Council, 181; + flight from Sores, 186; + end of administration, 192. + + Anners, Jean de Laet de, quoted, I, 353. + + Annexation of Cuba to United States, first suggested, II, 257, 326; + campaign for, 380; + sought by United States, III, 132, 135; + Marcy's policy, 141; + Ostend Manifesto, 142; + Buchanan's efforts, 143; + not considered in War of Independence, IV, 19. + + Antonelli, Juan Bautista, engineering works in Cuba, I, 261; + creates water supply for Havana, 266. + + Apezteguia. Marquis de, Autonomist leader, IV, 94. + + Apodaca, Juan Ruiz, Governor, II, 311. + + Arana, Martin de, warns Prado of British approach, II, 53. + + Arana, Melchior Sarto de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 237. + + Arana, Pedro de, royal accountant, I, 238. + + Aranda, Esquival, I, 279. + + Arango, Augustin, murder of, III, 188. + + Arango, Napoleon, treason of, III, 226. + + Arango y Pareño, Francisco, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. II; + organizes Society of Progress, II, 178; + leadership in Cuba, 191; + attitude toward slavery, 208; + his illustrious career, 305 et seq. + + Aranguren, Nestor, revolutionist, IV, 85; + death, 92. + + Araoz, Juan, II, 181. + + Arias, A. R., Governor, III, 314. + + Arias, Gomez, I, 145. + + Arignon, Villiet, quoted, II, 26, 94. + + Armona, José de, II, 108. + + Army, Cuban, organization of, III, 178; + reorganized, 263; + under Jose Miguel Gomez, IV, 301. + + Army, Spanish, in Cuba, III, 181, 295. + + Aroztegui, Martin de, II, 20. + + Arrate, José Martin Felix, historian, II, 17, 179. + + Arredondo, Nicolas, Governor at Santiago, II, 165. + + Asbert, Gen. Ernesto, amnesty case, IV, 326. + + "Assiento" compact on slavery, II, 2. + + Assumption, Our Lady of the, I, 61. + + Astor, John Jacob, aids War of Independence, IV, 14. + + Asylums for Insane, II, 317. + + Atares fortress, picture, II, 103. + + Atkins, John, book on West Indies, II, 36. + + Atrocities, committed by Spanish, III, 250; + Cespedes's protest against, 254; + "Book of Blood," 284; + Spanish confession of, 286; + war of destruction, + 295; + Weyler's "concentration" policy, IV, 85. + + Attwood's Cay. See GUANAHANI. + + Autonomist party, III, 305; + IV, 34; + attitude toward Campos in War of Independence, 59; + Cabinet under Blanco, 94; + earnest efforts for peace, 101; + record of its government, 102. + + Avellanda, Gertrudis Gomez de, III, 331; + portrait, facing, 332. + + Avila, Alfonso de, I, 154. + + Avila, Juan de, Governor, I, 151; + marries rich widow, 154; + charges against him, 157; + convicted and imprisoned, 158. + + Avila. See DAVILA. + + Aviles, Pedro Menendez de, See MENENDEZ. + + Ayala, Francisco P. de, I, 291. + + Ayilon, Lucas V. de, strives to make peace between Velasquez + and Cortez, I, 98. + + Azcarata, José Luis, Secretary of Justice, sketch and portrait, + IV, 341. + + Azcarate, Nicolas, sketch and portrait, III, 251, 332. + + Azcarraga, Gen., Spanish Premier, IV, 88. + + + "Barbeque" sought by Columbus, I, 18. + + Bachiller, Antonio, sketch and portrait, III, 317. + + Bacon, Robert, Assistant Secretary of State of U. S., intervenes + in revolution, IV, 272. + + Bahia Honda, selected as U. S. naval station, IV, 256. + + Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, I, 55, 91. + + Bancroft, George, quoted, I, 269; + II, 1, 24, 41, 117, 120, 159. + + Banderas, Quintin, revolutionist, IV, 34; + raid, 57; + death, 84. + + Baracoa, Columbus at, I, 18; + Velasquez at, 60; + picture, 60; + first capital of Cuba, 61, 168. + + Barreda, Baltazar, I, 201. + + Barreiro, Juan Bautista, Secretary of Education, IV, 160. + + Barrieres, Manuel Garcia, II, 165. + + Barrionuevo, Juan Maldonado, Governor, I, 263. + + Barsicourt, Juan Procopio. See SANTA CLARA, Conde. + + Bayamo, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168; + Cuban Republic organized there, III, 157. + + Bayoa, Pedro de, I, 300. + + Bay of Cortez, reached by Columbus, I, 25. + + Bees, introduced by Bishop Morell, II, 104; + increase of industry, 132. + + "Beggars of the Sea," raid Cuban coasts, I, 208. + + Bells, church, controversy over, II, 82. + + Bembrilla, Alonzo, I, 111. + + Benavides, Juan de, I, 280. + + Berrea, Esteban S. de, II, 6. + + Betancourt, Pedro, Civil Governor of Matanzas, IV, 179; + loyal to Palma, 271. + + Betancourt. See CISNEROS. + + "Bimini," Island of, I, 139. + + Bishops of Roman Catholic Church in Cuba, I, 122. + + "Black Eagle," II, 346. + + _Black Warrior_ affair, III, 138. + + Blanchet, Emilio, historian, quoted, II, 9, 15, 24; + on siege of Havana, 57, 87. + + Blanco, Ramon, Governor, IV, 88; + undertakes reforms, 89; + plans Cuban autonomy, 93; + on destruction of _Maine_, 99; + resigns, 121. + + Blue, Victor, observations at Santiago, IV, 110. + + Bobadilla, F. de, I, 54. + + Boca de la Yana, I, 18. + + "Bohio" sought by Columbus, I, 18. + + Bolivar, Simon, II, 333; + portrait, 334; + "Liberator," 334 et seq.; + influence on Cuba, 341; + "Soles de Bolivar," 341. + + Bonel, Juan Bautista, II, 133. + + "Book of Blood," III, 284. + + Bourne, Edward Gaylord, quoted, on slavery, II, 209; + on Spanish in America, 226. + + Brinas, Felipe, III, 330. + + British policy toward Spain and Cuba, I, 270; + aggressions in West Indies, 293; + slave trade, II, 2; + war of 1639, 22; + designs upon Cuba, 41; + expedition against Havana, 1762, 46; + conquest of Cuba, 78; + relinquishment to Spain, 92. See GREAT BRITAIN. + + Broa Bay, I, 22. + + Brooke, Gen. John R., receives Spanish surrender of Cuba, IV, 122; + proclamation to Cuban people, 145; + retired, 157. + + Brooks, Henry, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Buccaneers, origin of, I, 269. + + Buccarelli, Antonio Maria, Governor, II, 110; + retires, 115. + + Buchanan, James, on U. S. relations to Cuba, II, 263; + III, 135; + Minister to Great Britain, 142; + as President seeks annexation of Cuba to U. S., 143. + + Bull-fighting, II, 233. + + Burgos, Juan de, Bishop, I, 225. + + Burtnett, Spanish spy against Lopez, III, 65. + + Bustamente, Antonio Sanchez de, jurist, sketch and portrait, IV, 165. + + + Caballero, José Agustin, sketch and portrait, III, 321. + + Caballo, Domingo, II, 173. + + Cabanas, defences constructed, II, 58; + Laurel Ditch, view, facing, 58. + + Caballero, Diego de, I, 111. + + Cabezas, Bishop, I, 277. + + Cabrera, Diego de, I, 206. + + Cabrera, Luis, I, 198. + + Cabrera, Lorenzo de, Governor, I, 279; + removed, 282. + + Cabrera, Rafael, filibuster, IV, 70. + + Cabrera, Raimundo, conspirator in New York, IV, 334; + warned, 339. + + Cadreyta, Marquis de, I, 279. + + Cagigal, Juan Manuel de, Governor, II, 154; + defence of Havana, 155; + removed and imprisoned, 157. + + Cagigal, Juan Manuel, Governor, II, 313; + successful administration, 315. + + Cagigal de la Vega, Francisco, defends Santiago, II, 29; + Governor, 32; + Viceroy of Mexico, 34. + + Caguax, Cuban chief, I, 63. + + Calderon, Gabriel, Bishop, I, 315. + + Calderon, Garcia, quoted, II, 164, 172. + + Calderon de la Barca, Spanish Minister, + on _La Verdad_, III, 19; + on colonial status, 21; + negotiations with Soulé, 140. + + Calhoun, John C., on Cuba, III, 132. + + Calleja y Isisi, Emilio, Governor, III, 313; + proclaims martial law, IV, 30; + resigns, 35. + + Camaguey. See PUERTO PRINCIPE, I, 168. + + Campbell, John, description of Havana, II, 14. + + Campillo, Jose de, II, 19. + + Campos, Martinez de, Governor, III, 296; + proclamations to Cuba, 297, 299; + makes Treaty of Zanjon and ends Ten Years War, 299; + in Spanish crisis, IV, 36; + Governor again, 37; + establishes Trocha, 44; + defeated by Maceo, 46; + conferences with party leaders, 59, 63; + removed, 63. + + Cancio, Leopoldo, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 161, 320. + + Canizares, Santiago J., Minister of Interior, IV, 48. + + Canning, George, policy toward Cuba, II, 257; + portrait, 258. + + Canoe, of Cuban origin, I, 10. + + Canon, Rodrigo, I, 111. + + Canovas del Castillo, Spanish Premier, IV, 36; + assassinated, 88. + + Cape Cruz, Columbus at, I, 20. + + Cape Maysi, I, 4. + + Cape of Palms, I, 17. + + Capote, Domingo Menendez. Vice-President, IV, 90; + Secretary of State, 146; + President of Constitutional Convention. 189. + + Carajaval, Lucas, defies Dutch, I, 290. + + Cardenas, Lopez lands at, III, 49. + + Caribs, I, 8. + + Carillo, Francisco, filibuster, IV, 55. + + Carleton, Sir Guy, at Havana, II, 47. + + Carranza, Domingo Gonzales, book on West Indies, II, 37. + + Carrascesa, Alfonso, II, 6. + + Carreño, Francisco, Governor, I, 219; + conditions at his accession, 228; + dies in office, 229; + work in rebuilding Havana, 231. + + Carroll, James, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172. + + Casa de Beneficienca, founded, I, 335; + II, 177. + + Casa de Resorgiamento, founded, II, 31. + + Casares, Alfonso, codifies municipal ordinances, I, 207. + + Castellanos, Jovellar, last Spanish Governor of Cuba, IV, 121; + surrenders Spanish sovereignty, 123. + + Castillo, Demetrio, Civil Governor of Oriente, IV, 180. + + Castillo, Ignacio Maria del, Governor, III, 314. + + Castillo, Loinaz, revolutionist. IV, 269. + + Castillo, Pedro del, Bishop, I, 226. + + Castro, Hernando de, royal treasurer, I, 115. + + Cathcart Lord, expedition to West Indies, II, 28. + + Cathedral of Havana, picture, facing I, 36; + begun, I, 310. + + Cat Island. See GUANAHANI. + + Cayo, San Juan de los Remedios del, removal of, I, 319. + + Cazones, Gulf of, I, 21. + + Cemi, Cuban worship of, I, 55. + + Census, of Cuba, first taken, by Torre, II, 131; + by Las Casas, 176; + of slaves, 205; + of 1775, 276; + of 1791, 277; + Humboldt on, 277; + of 1811, 280; + of 1817, 281; + of 1827, 283; + of 1846, 283; + of 1899, IV, 154; + of 1907, 287. + + Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, III, 157; + portrait, facing 158; + in Spain, 158; + leads Cuban revolution, 158; + President of Republic, 158; + proclamation, 168; + negotiations with Spain, 187; + removed from office, 275. + + Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, filibuster, IV, 55. + + Cespedes, Enrique, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Cervera, Admiral, brings Spanish fleet to Cuba, IV, 110; + portrait, 110; + surrenders, 114. + + Chacon, José Bayoma, II, 13. + + Chacon, Luis, I, 331, 333. + + Chalons, Sr., Secretary of Public Works, IV, 297. + + Chamber of Commerce founded, II, 307. + + Charles I, King, I, 74; + denounces oppression of Indians, 128. + + Chaves, Antonio, Governor, I, 157; + prosecutes Avila, 157; + ruthless policy toward natives, 159; + controversy with King, 160; + dismissed from office, 161. + + Chaves, Juan Baton de, I, 331. + + Chilton, John, describes Havana, I, 349. + + Chinchilla, José, Governor, III, 314. + + Chinese, colonies in America, I, 7; + laborers imported into Cuba, II, 295. + + Chorrera, expected to be Drake's landing place, I, 248. + + Chorrera River, dam built by Antonelli, I, 262. + + Christianity, introduced into Cuba by Ojeda, I, 55; + urged by King Ferdinand, 73. + + Church, Roman Catholic, organized and influential in Cuba, I, 122; + cathedral removed from Baracoa to Santiago, 123; + conflict with civil power, 227; + controversy with British during British occupation, II, 84; + division of island into two dioceses, 173; + attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 26; + controversy over property, 294. + + Cienfuegos, José, Governor, II, 311. + + Cimmarones, "wild Indians," I, 126; + revolt against De Soto, 148. + + Cipango, Cuba identified with, by Columbus, I, 5. + + Cisneros, Gaspar Betancourt, sketch and portrait, II, 379. + + Cisneros, Pascal Jiminez de, II, 110, 127. + + Cisneros, Salvador, III, 167; + sketch and portrait, 276; + President of Cuban Republic, 277; + President of Council of Ministers, IV, 48; + in Constitutional Convention, 190. + + Civil Service, law, IV, 325; + respected by President Menocal, 325. + + Clay, Henry, policy toward Cuba, II, 261. + + Clayton, John M., U. S. Secretary of State, issues proclamation + against filibustering, III, 42. + + Cleaveland, Samuel, controversy over church bells, II, 83. + + Cleveland, Grover. President of United States, issues warning against + breaches of neutrality, IV, 70; + reference to Cuba + in message of 1896, 79; + its significance, 80. + + Coat of Arms of Cuba, picture, IV, 251; + significance, 251. + + Cobre, copper mines, I, 173, 259. + + "Cockfighting and Idleness" campaign, IV, 291. + + Coffee, cultivation begun, II, 33, 113. + + Coinage, reformed, II, 142; + statistics of, 158. + + Collazo, Enrique, filibuster, IV, 55. + + Coloma, Antonio Lopez, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Colombia, designs upon Cuba, II, 262; + III, 134; + attitude toward Cuban revolution, 223. + + Columbus, Bartholomew, recalled to Spain, I, 57. + + Columbus, Christopher, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. I; + discoverer of America, I; + i; + first landing in America, 2; + monument on Watling's Island, picture, 3; + arrival in Cuba, 11; + question as to first landing place, 12; + first impressions of Cuba and intercourse with natives, 14; + exploration of north coast, 16; + end of first visit, 18; + second visit, 19; + exploration of south coast, 21; + at Bay of Cortez, 25; + turns back from circumnavigation, 26; + at Isle of Pines, 26; + final departure from Cuba, 27; + diary and narrative, 28 et seq.; + death and burial, 33; + tomb in Havana cathedral, 34; + removal to Seville, 36; + removal from Santo Domingo to Havana, II, 181; + epitaph, 182. + + Columbus, Diego, plans exploration and colonization of Cuba, I, 57; + attempts mediation between Velasquez and Cortez, 97; + replaces Velasquez with Zuazo, 100; + rebuked by King, 100. + + Comendador, Cacique, I, 55. + + Commerce, begun by Velasquez, I, 68; + rise of corporations, II, 19; + after British occupation, 98; + under Torre, 132; + reduction of duties, 141; + extension of trade, 163; + Tribunal of Commerce founded, 177; + Real Compania de Havana, 199; + restrictive measures, 200; + Chamber of Commerce founded, 307; + commerce with United States, III, 2; + during American occupation, IV, 184; + present, 358. + + Compostela, Diego E. de, Bishop, I, 318; + death, 332. + + Concepcion, Columbus's landing place, I, 3. + + Concessions, forbidden under American occupation, IV, 153. + + Concha, José Gutierrez de la, Governor, III, 62, 290. + + Conchillos, royal secretary, I, 59. + + Congress, Cuban, welcomed by Gen. Wood, IV, 246; + turns against Palma, 269; + friendly to Gomez, 303; + hostile to Menocal, 323; + protects the lottery, 324. + + Constitution: Cuban Republic of 1868, III, 157; + of 1895, IV, 47; + call for Constitutional Convention, 185; + meeting of Convention, 187; + draft completed, 192; + salient provisions, 193; + Elihu Root's comments, 194; + Convention discusses relations with United States, 197; + Platt + Amendment, 199; + amendment adopted, 203; + text of Constitution, 304 et seq.; + The Nation, 205; + Cubans, 205; + Foreigners, 207; + Individual Rights, 208; + Suffrage, 211; + Suspension of Guarantees, 212; + Sovereignty, 213; + Legislative Bodies, 214; + Senate, 214; + House of Representatives, 216; + Congress, 218; + Legislation, 221; + Executive, 222; + President, 222; + Vice-President, 225; + Secretaries of State, 226; + Judiciary, 227; + Supreme Court, 227; + Administration of Justice, 228; + Provincial Governments, 229; + Provincial Councils, 230; + Provincial Governors, 231; + Municipal Government, 233; + Municipal Councils, 233; + Mayors, 235; + National Treasury, 235; + Amendments, 236; + Transient Provisions, 237; + Appendix (Platt Amendment), 238. + + "Constitutional Army," IV, 268. + + Contreras, Andres Manso de, I, 288. + + Contreras, Damien, I, 278. + + Convents, founded, I, 276; + Nuns of Santa Clara, 286. + + Conyedo, Juan de, Bishop, II, 35. + + Copper, discovered near Santiago, I, 173; + wealth of mines, 259; + reopened, II, 13; + exports, III, 3. + + Corbalon, Francisco R., I, 286. + + Cordova de Vega, Diego de, Governor, I, 239. + + Cordova, Francisco H., expedition to Yucatan, I, 84. + + Cordova Ponce de Leon, José Fernandez, Governor, I, 316. + + Coreal, Francois, account of West Indies, quoted, I, 355. + + Coronado, Manuel, gift for air planes, IV, 352. + + Cortes, Spanish, Cuban representation in, II, 308; + excluded, 351; + lack of representation, III, 3; + after Ten Years' War, 307. + + Cortez, Hernando, Alcalde of Santiago de Cuba, I, 72; + sent to Mexico by King, 74; + agent of Velasquez, 86; + early career, 90; + portrait, 90; + quarrel with Velasquez, 91; + marriage, 92; + commissioned by Velasquez to explore Mexico, 92; + sails for Mexico, 94; + final breach with Velasquez, 96; + denounced as rebel, 97; + escapes murder, 99. + + Cosa, Juan de la, geographer, I, 6, 53. + + Councillors, appointed for life, I, 111; + conflict with Procurators, 113. + + Creoles, origin of name, II, 204. + + Crittenden, J. J., protests against European intervention in Cuba, + III, 129. + + Crittenden, William S., with Lopez, III, 96; + captured, 101; + death, 105. + + Crombet, Flor, revolutionist, IV, 41, 42. + + Crooked Island. See ISABELLA. + + Crowder, Gen. Enoch H., head of Consulting Board, IV, 284. + + Cuba: Relation to America, I, 1; + Columbus's first landing, 3; + identified with Mangi or Cathay, 4; + with Cipango, 5; + earliest maps, 6; + physical history, 7, 37 et seq.; + Columbus's discovery, 11 et seq.; + named Juana, 13; + other names, 14; + Columbus's account of, 28; + geological history, 37-42; + topography, 42-51; + climate, 51-52; + first circumnavigation, 54; + colonization, 54; + Velasquez at Baracoa, 60; + commerce begun, 68; + government organized, 69; + named Ferdinandina, 73; + policy of Spain toward, 175; + slow economic progress, 215; + land legislation, 232; + Spanish discrimination against, 266; + divided into two districts, 275; + British description in 1665, 306; + various accounts, 346; + turning point in history, 363; + close of first era, 366; + British conquest, II, 78; + relinquished to Spain, 92; + great changes effected, 94; + economic condition, 98; + reoccupied by Spain, 102; + untouched by early revolutions, 165; + effect of revolution in Santo Domingo, 190; + first suggestion of annexation to United States, 257; + "Ever Faithful Isle," 268; + rise of independence, 268; + censuses, 276 et seq.; + representation in Cortes, 308; + "Soles de Bolivar," 341; + representatives rejected from Cortes, 351; + transformation of popular spirit, 383; + independence proclaimed, III, 145; + Republic organized, 157; + War of Independence, IV, 15; + Spanish elections held during war, 67; + Blanco's plan of autonomy, 93; + sovereignty surrendered by Spain, 123; + list of Spanish Governors, 123. See REPUBLIC OF CUBA. + + Cuban Aborigines; + I, 8; + manners, customs and religion, 8 et seq.; + Columbus's first intercourse, 15, 24; + priest's address to Columbus, 26; + Columbus's observations of them, 29; + hostilities begun by Velasquez, 61; + subjected to Repartimiento system, 70; + practical slavery, 71; + Key Indians, 125; + Cimmarones, 126; + new laws in their favor, 129; + Rojas's endeavor to save them, 130; + final doom, 133; + efforts at reform, 153; + oppression by Chaves, 159; + Angulo's emancipation proclamation, 163. + + "Cuba-nacan," I, 5. + + "Cuba and the Cubans," quoted, II, 313. + + "Cuba y Su Gobierno," quoted, II, 354. + + Cuellar, Cristobal de, royal accountant, I, 59. + + Cushing, Caleb, Minister to Spain, III, 291. + + Custom House, first at Havana, I, 231. + + + Dady, Michael J., & Co., contract dispute, IV, 169. + + Davila, Pedrarias, I, 140. + + Davis, Jefferson, declines to join Lopez, III, 38. + + Del Casal, Julian, sketch and portrait, IV, 6. + + Del Cueta, José A., President of Supreme Court, portrait, IV, 359. + + Delgado, Moru, Liberal leader, IV, 267. + + Del Monte, Domingo, sketch, portrait, and work, II, 323. + + Del Monte, Ricardo, sketch and portrait, IV, 2. + + Demobilization of Cuban army, IV, 135. + + Desvernine, Pablo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 146. + + Diaz, Bernal, at Sancti Spiritus, I, 72; + in Mexico, 86. + + Diaz, Manuel, I, 239. + + Diaz, Manuel Luciano, Secretary of Public Works, IV, 254. + + Diaz, Modeste, III, 263. + + Divino, Sr., Secretary of Justice, IV, 297. + + Dockyard at Havana, established, II, 8. + + Dolz, Eduardo, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 96. + + Dominguez, Fermin V., Assistant Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 50. + + Dorst, J. H., mission to Pinar del Rio, IV, 107. + + "Dragado" deal, IV, 310. + + Drake, Sir Francis, menaces Havana, I, 243; + in Hispaniola, 246; + leaves Havana unassailed, 252; + departs for Virginia, 255. + + Duany, Joaquin Castillo, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12; + Assistant Secretary of Treasury, 50; + filibuster, 70. + + Dubois, Carlos, Assistant Secretary of Interior, IV, 50. + + Duero, Andres de, I, 93, 115. + + Dulce y Garay, Domingo, Governor, III, 190, 194; + decree of confiscation, 209; + recalled, 213. + + Dupuy de Lome, Sr., Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 40; + writes offensive letter, 98; + recalled, 98. + + Duque, Sr., Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, IV, 297. + + Durango, Bishop, I, 225. + + Dutch hostilities, I, 208, 279; + activities in West Indies, 283 et seq. + + + Earthquakes, in 1765, I, 315; + II, 114. + + Echeverria, Esteban B., Superintendent of Schools, IV, 162. + + Echeverria, José, Bishop, II, 113. + + Echeverria, José Antonio, III, 324. + + Echeverria, Juan Maria, Governor, II, 312. + + Education, backward state of, II, 244; + progress under American occupation, IV, 156; + A. E. Frye, Superintendent, 156; + reorganization of system, 162; + Harvard University's entertainment of teachers, 163; + achievements under President Menocal, 357. + + Elections: for municipal officers under American occupation, IV, 180; + law for regulation of, 180; + result, 181; + for Constitutional Convention, 186; + for general officers, 240; + result, 244; + Presidential, 1906, 265; + new law, 287; + local elections under Second Intervention, 289; + Presidential, 290; + for Congress in 1908, 303; + Presidential, 1912, 309; + Presidential, 1916, disputed, 330, result confirmed, 341. + + Enciso, Martin F. de, first Spanish writer about America, I, 54. + + Epidemics: putrid fever, 1649, I, 290; + vaccination introduced, II, 192; + small pox and yellow fever, III, 313; + at Santiago, IV, 142; + Gen. Wood applies Dr. Finlay's theory of yellow fever, 171; + success, 176; + malaria, 177. + + Escudero, Antonio, de, II, 10. + + Espada, Juan José Diaz, portrait, facing II, 272. + + Espagnola. See HISPANIOLA. + + Espeleta, Joaquin de, Governor, II, 362. + + Espinosa, Alonzo de Campos, Governor, I, 316. + + Espoleto, José de, Governor, II, 169. + + Estenoz, Negro insurgent, IV, 307. + + Estevez, Luis, Secretary of Justice, IV, 160; + Vice-President, 245. + + Evangelista. See ISLE OF PINES. + + Everett, Edward, policy toward Cuba, III, 130. + + "Ever Faithful Isle," II, 268, 304. + + Exquemeling, Alexander, author and pirate, I, 302. + + + "Family Pact," of Bourbons, effect upon Cuba, II, 42. + + Felin, Antonio, Bishop, II, 172. + + Fels, Cornelius, defeated by Spanish, I, 288. + + Ferdinand, King, policy toward Cuba, I, 56; + esteem for Velasquez, 73. + + Ferdinandina, Columbus's landing place, I, 3; + name for Cuba, 73. + + Ferrara, Orestes, Liberal leader, IV, 260; + revolutionist, 269; + deprecates factional strife, 306; + revolutionary conspirator in New York, 334; + warned by U. S. Government, I, 239. + + Ferrer, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 239. + + Figueroa, Vasco Porcallo de, I, 72; + De Soto's lieutenant, 142; + returns from Florida in disgust, 145. + + Figuerosa, Rojas de, captures Tortuga, I, 292. + + Filarmonia, riot at ball, III, 119. + + Filibustering, proclamation of United States against, III, 42; + after Ten Years' War, 311, in War of Independence, IV, 20; + expeditions intercepted, 52; + many successful expeditions, 69; + warnings, 70. + + Fine Arts, II, 240. + + Finlay, Carlos G., theory of yellow fever successfully applied + under General Wood, IV, 171; + portrait, facing, 172. + + Fish, Hamilton, U. S. Secretary of State, prevents premature + recognition of Cuban Republic, III, 203; + protests against Rodas's decree, 216; + on losses in Ten Years' War, 290; + seeks British support, 292; + states terms of proposed mediation, 293. + + Fish market at Havana, founder for pirate, II, 357. + + Fiske, John, historian, quoted, I, 270. + + Flag, Cuban, first raised, III, 31; + replaces American, IV, 249; + picture, 250; + history and significance, 250. + + Flores y Aldama, Rodrigo de, Governor, I, 301. + + Florida, attempted colonization by Ponce de Leon, I, 139; + De Soto's expedition, 145. See MENENDEZ. + + Fonseca, Juan Rodriguez de, Bishop of Seville, I, 59. + + Fonts-Sterling, Ernesto, Secretary of Finance, IV, 90; + urges resistance to revolution, 270. + + Fornaris, José, III, 230. + + Forestry, attention paid by Montalvo, I, 223; + efforts to check waste, II, 166. + + Foyo, Sr., Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, IV, 297. + + France, first foe of Spanish in Cuba, I, 177; + "Family Pact," II, 42; + interest in Cuban revolution, III, 126. + + Franquinay, pirate, at Santiago, I, 310. + + French refugees, in Cuba, II, 189; + expelled, 302. + + French Revolution, effects of, II, 184. + + Freyre y Andrade, Fernando, filibuster, + IV, 70; + negotiations with Pino Guerra, 267. + + Frye, Alexis, Superintendent of Schools, IV, 156; + controversy with General Wood, 162. + + Fuerza, La: picture, facing I, 146; + building begun by De Soto, I, 147; + scene of Lady Isabel's tragic vigil, 147, 179; + planned and built by Sanchez, 194; + work by Menendez, and Ribera, 209; + slave labor sought, 211; + bad construction, 222; + Montalvo's recommendations, 223; + Luzan-Arana quarrel, 237; + practical completion, 240; + decorated by Cagigal, II, 33. + + + Galvano, Antony, historian, quoted, I, 4. + + Galvez, Bernardo, seeks Cuban aid for Pensacola, II, 146; + Governor, 168; + death, 170. + + Galvez, José Maria, head of Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95. + + Garaondo, José, I, 317. + + Garay, Francisco de, Governor of Jamaica, I, 102. + + Garcia, Calixto, portrait, facing III, 268; + President of Cuban Republic, III, 301; + joins War of Independence, IV, 69; + his notable career, 76 et seq.; + joins with Shafter at Santiago, 111; + death, 241. + + Garcia, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 269. + + Garcia, Esequiel, Secretary of Education, IV, 320. + + Garcia, Marcos, IV, 44. + + Garcia, Quintiliano, III, 329. + + Garvey, José N. P., II, 222. + + Gastaneta, Antonio, II, 9. + + Gelder, Francisco, Governor, I, 292. + + Gener y Rincon, Miguel, Secretary of Justice, IV, 161. + + Geraldini, Felipe, I, 310. + + Germany, malicious course of in 1898, IV, 104; + Cuba declares war against, 348; + property in Cuba seized, 349; + aid to Gomez, 350. + + Gibson. Hugh S., U. S. Chargé d'Affaires, assaulted, IV, 308. + + Giron. Garcia, Governor, I, 279. + + Godoy, Captain, arrested at Santiago, and put to death, I, 203. + + Godoy, Manuel, II, 172. + + Goicouria, Domingo, sketch and portrait, III, 234. + + Gold, Columbus's quest for, I, 19; + Velasquez's search, 61; + the "Spaniards' God," 62; + early mining, 81; + value of mines, 173. + + Gomez, José Antonio, II, 18. + + Gomez, José Miguel, Civil Governor of Santa Clara, IV, 179; + aspires to Presidency, 260, 264; + turns from Conservative to Liberal party, 265; + compact with Zayas, 265; + starts revolution, 269; + elected President, 290; + becomes President, 297; + Cabinet, 297; + sketch and portrait, 298; + acts of his administration, 301; + charged with corruption, 304; + conflict with Veterans' Association, 304; + quarrel with Zayas, 306; + suppresses Negro revolt, 307; + amnesty bill, 309; + National Lottery, 310; + "Dragado" deal, 310; + railroad deal, 310; + estimate of his administration, 311; + double treason in 1916, 332; + defeated and captured, 337; + his orders for devastation, 337; + aided by Germany, 350. + + Gomez, Juan Gualberto, revolutionist, IV, 30; + captured and imprisoned, 52; + insurgent, 269. + + Gomez, Maximo, III, 264; + succeeds Gen. Agramonte, 275; + makes Treaty of Zanjon with Campos, 299; + in War of Independence, IV, 15; + commander in chief, 16, 43; + portrait, facing 44; + plans great campaign of war, 53; + controversy with Lacret, 84; + opposed to American invasion, 109; + appeals to Cubans to accept American occupation, 136; + impeachment by National Assembly ignored, 137; + influence during Government of Intervention, 149; + considered by Constitutional Convention, 191; + proposed for Presidency, 240; + declines, 241. + + Gonzalez, Aurelia Castillo de, author, sketch and portrait, IV, 192. + + Gonzales, William E., U. S. Minister to Cuba, IV, 335; + watches Gomez's insurrection, 336. + + Gorgas, William C., work for sanitation, IV, 175. + + Government of Cuba: organized by Velasquez, I, 69; + developed at Santiago, 81; + radical changes made, 111; + revolution in political status of island, 138; + codification of ordinances, 207; + Ordinances of 1542, 317; + land tenure, II, 12; + reforms by Governor Guemez, 17; + reorganization after British occupation, 104; + great reforms by Torre, 132; + budget and tax reforms, 197; + authority of Captain-General, III, 11; + administrative and judicial functions, 13 et seq.; + military and naval command, 16; + attempted reforms, 63; + concessions after Ten Years' War, 310. + + Governors of Cuba, Spanish, list of, IV, 123. + + Govin, Antonio, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95; + sketch and portrait, 95. + + Grammont, buccaneer, I, 311. + + Gran Caico, I, 4. + + Grand Turk Island. See GUANAHANI. + + Grant, U. S., President of United States, III, 200; + inclined to recognize Cuban Republic, 202; + prevented by his Secretary of State, 203; + comments in messages, 205, 292. + + Great Britain, interest in Cuban revolution, III, 125; + protection sought by Spain, 129; + declines cooperation with United States, 294; + requires return of fugitives, 310. + + Great Exuma. See FERDINANDINA. + + Great Inagua, I, 4. + + Great War, Cuba enters, IV, 348; + offers 10,000 troops, 348; + German intrigues and propaganda, 349; + attitude of Roman Catholic clergy, 349; + ships seized, 350; + cooperation with Food Commission, 351; + military activities, 352; + liberal subscriptions to loans, 352; + Red Cross work, 352; + Señora Menocal's inspiring leadership, 353. + + Grijalva, Juan de, I, 65; + expedition to Mexico, 66; + names Mexico New Spain, 97; + unjustly recalled and discredited, 88. + + Guajaba Island, I, 18. + + Guama, Cimmarron chief, I, 127. + + Guanabacoa founded, II, 21. + + Guanahani, Columbus's landing place, I, 2. + + Guanajes Islands, source of slave trade, I, 83. + + Guantanamo, Columbus at, I, 19; + U. S. Naval Station, IV, 256. + + Guardia, Cristobal de la, Secretary of Justice, IV, 320. + + Guazo, Gregorio, de la Vega, Governor, I, 340; + stops tobacco war, 341; + warnings to Great Britain and France, 342; + military activity and efficiency, II, 5. + + Guemez y Horcasitas, Juan F., Governor, II, 17; + reforms, 17; + close of administration, 26. + + Guerra, Amador, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Guerra, Benjamin, treasurer of Junta, IV, 3. + + Guerro, Pino, starts insurrection, IV, 267, 269; + commander of Cuban army, 301; + attempt to assassinate him, 303. + + Guevara, Francisco, III, 265. + + Guiteras, Juan, physician and scientist, sketch and portrait, IV, 321. + + Guiteras, Pedro J., quoted, I, 269; + II, 6; + 42; + 207. + + Guzman, Gonzalez de, mission from Velasquez to King Charles I, I, 85; + vindicates Velasquez, 108; + Governor of Cuba, 110; + marries rich sister-in-law, 116; + litigation over estate, 117; + tremendous indictment by Vadillo, 120; + appeals to King and Council for Indies, 120; + seeks to oppress natives, 128; + second time Governor, 137; + makes more trouble, 148; + trouble with French privateers, 178. + + Guzman, Nuñez de, royal treasurer, I, 109; + death and fortune, 115. + + Guzman, Santos, spokesman of Constitutionalists, IV, 59. + + + Hammock, of Cuban origin, I, 10. + + Hanebanilla, falls of, view, facing III, 110. + + Harponville, Viscount Gustave, quoted, II, 189. + + Harvard University, entertains Cuban teachers, IV, 163. + + Hatuey, Cuban chief, leader against Spaniards, I, 62; + death, 63. + + Havana: founded by Narvaez, I, 69; + De Soto's home and capital, 144; + rise in importance, 166; + Governor's permanent residence, 180; + inadequate defences, 183; + captured by Sores, 186; + protected by Mazariegos, 194; + sea wall proposed by Osorio, 202; + fortified by Menendez, 209; + "Key of the New World," 210; + commercial metropolis of West Indies, 216; + first hospital founded, 226; + San Francisco church, picture, facing 226; + building in Carreño's time, 231; + custom house, 231; + threatened by Drake, 243; + preparations for defence, 250; + officially called "city," 262; + coat of arms, 202; + primitive conditions, 264; + first theatrical performance, 264; + capital of western district, 275; + great fire, 277; + attacked by Pit Hein, 280; + described by John Chilton, 349; + first dockyard established, II, 8; + attacked by British under Admiral + Hosier, 9; + University founded, 11; + described by John Campbell, 14; + British expedition against in 1762, 46; + journal of siege, 54; + American troops engaged, 66; + surrender, 69; + terms, 71; + British occupation, 78; + great changes, 94; + description, 94; + view from Cabanas, facing, 96; + reoccupied by Spanish, 102; + hurricane, 115; + improvements in streets and buildings, 129; + view in Old Havana, facing 130; + street cleaning, and market, 169; + slaughter house removed, 194; + shopping, 242; + cafés, 243; + Tacon's public works, 365; + view of old Presidential Palace, facing III, 14; + view of the Prado, facing IV, 16; + besieged in War of Independence, 62; + view of bay and harbor, facing, 98; + old City Wall, picture, 122; + view of old and new buildings, facing 134; + General Ludlow's administration, 146; + Police reorganized, 150; + view of University, facing 164; + view of the new capitol, facing 204; + view of the President's home, facing 268; + view of the Academy of Arts and Crafts, facing 288; + new railroad terminal, 311. + + Hay, John, epigram on revolutions, IV, 343 + + Hayti. See HISPANIOLA. + + Hein, Pit, Dutch raider, I, 279. + + Henderson, John, on Lopez's expedition, III, 64. + + _Herald_, New York, on Cuban revolution, III, 89. + + Heredia, José Maria. II, 274; + exiled, 344; + life and works, III, 318; + portrait, facing 318. + + Hernani, Domingo, II, 170. + + Herrera, historian, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12; + on Hatuey, 62; + description of West Indies, 345. + + Herrera, Geronimo Bustamente de, I, 194. + + Hevea, Aurelio, Secretary of Interior, IV, 320. + + Hispaniola, Columbus at, I, 19; + revolution in, II, 173; + 186; + effect upon Cuba, 189. + + Hobson, Richmond P., exploit at Santiago, IV, 110. + + Holleben, Dr. von, German Ambassador at Washington, intrigues of, + IV, 104. + + Home Rule, proposed by Spain, IV, 6; + adopted, 8. + + Horses introduced into Cuba, I, 63. + + Hosier, Admiral, attacks Havana, I, 312; + II, 9. + + Hospital, first in Havana, I, 226; + Belen founded, 318; + San Paula and San Francisco, 195. + + "House of Fear," Governor's home, I, 156. + + Humboldt, Alexander von, on slavery, II, 206; + on census, 277; + 282; + on slave trade, 288. + + Hurricanes, II, 115, 176, 310. + + Hurtado, Lopez, royal treasurer, I, 116; + has Chaves removed, 162. + + + Ibarra, Carlos, defeats Dutch raiders, I, 288. + + Incas, I, 7. + + Independence, first conceived, II, 268; + 326; + first revolts for, 343; + sentiment fostered by slave trade, 377; + proclaimed by Aguero, III, 72; + proclaimed by Cespedes at Yara, 155; + proposed by United States to Spain, 217; + War of Independence, IV, 1; + recognized by Spain, 119. See WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. + + Intellectual life of Cuba, I, 360; + lack of productiveness in Sixteenth Century, 362; + Cuban backwardness, II, 235; + first important progress, 273; + great arising and splendid achievements, III, 317. + + Insurrections. See REVOLUTIONS, and SLAVERY. + + Intervention, Government of: First, established, IV, 132; + organized, 145; + Cuban Cabinet, 145; + saves island from famine, 146; + works of rehabilitation and reform, 148; + marriage law, 152; + concessions forbidden, 153; + census, 154; + civil governments of provinces, 179; + municipal elections ordered, 180; + electoral law 180; + final transactions, 246; + Second Government of Intervention, 281; + C. E. Magoon, Governor, 281; + Consulting Board, 284; + elections held, 289, 290; + commission for revising laws, 294; + controversy over church property, 294. + + Intervention sought by Great Britain and France, III, 128; + by United States, IV, 106. + + Iroquois, I, 7. + + Irving, Washington, on Columbus's landing place, I, 12. + + Isabella, Columbus's landing place, I, 3. + + Isabella, Queen, portrait, I, 13. + + Isidore of Seville, quoted, I, 4. + + Islas de Arena, I, 11. + + Isle of Pines, I, 26; + recognized as part of Cuba, 224; + status under Platt Amendment, IV, 255. + + Italian settlers in Cuba, I, 169. + + Ivonnet, Negro insurgent, IV, 307. + + + Jamaica, Columbus at, I, 20. + + Japan. See CIPANGO. + + Jaruco, founded, II, 131. + + Jefferson, Thomas, on Cuban annexation, II, 260; + III, 132. + + Jeronimite Order, made guardian of Indians, I, 78; + becomes their oppressor, 127. + + Jesuits, controversy over, II, 86; + expulsion of, 111. + + Jordan, Thomas, joins Cuban revolution, III, 211. + + Jorrin, José Silverio, portrait, facing III, 308. + + Jovellar, Joachim, Governor, III, 273; + proclaims state of siege, 289; + resigns, 290. + + Juana, Columbus's first name for Cuba, I, 13. + + Juan Luis Keys, I, 21. + + Judiciary, reforms in, II, 110; + under Navarro, 142; + under Unzaga, 165; + under Leonard Wood, IV, 177. + + Junta, Cuban, in United States, III, 91; + New York, IV, 2; + branches elsewhere, 3; + policy in enlisting men, 19. + + Junta de Fomento, II, 178. + + Juntas of the Laborers, III, 174. + + + Keppel, Gen. See ALBEMARLE. + + Key Indians, I, 125; + expedition against, 126. + + "Key of the New World and Bulwark of the Indies," I, 210. + + Kindelan, Sebastian de, II, 197, 315. + + + Lacoste, Perfecto, Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, + IV, 160. + + Land tenure, II, 12; + absentee landlords, 214. + + Lanuza, Gonzalez, Secretary of Justice, IV, 146; + portrait, 146. + + Lares, Amador de, I, 93. + + La Salle, in Cuba, I, 73. + + Las Casas, Bartholomew, Apostle to the Indies, arrival in Cuba, I, 63; + portrait, 64; + denounces Narvaez, 66; + begins campaign against slavery, 75; + mission to Spain, 77; + before Ximenes, 77. + + Las Casas, Luis de, Governor, II, 175; + portrait, 175; + death, 182. + + Lasso de la Vega, Juan, Bishop, II, 17. + + Lawton, Gen. Henry W., leads advance against Spanish, IV, 112; + Military Governor of Oriente, 139. + + Lazear, Camp, established, IV, 172. + + Lazear, Jesse W., hero and martyr in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172. + + Ledesma, Francisco Rodriguez, Governor, I, 310. + + Lee, Fitzhugh, Consul General at Havana, IV, 72; + reports on "concentration" policy of Weyler, 86; + asks for warship to protect Americans at Havana, 97; + _Maine_ sent, 98; + commands troops at Havana, 121. + + Lee, Robert Edward, declines to join Lopez, III, 39. + + Legrand, Pedro, invades Cuba, I, 302. + + Leiva, Lopez, Secretary of Government, IV, 297. + + Lemus, Jose Morales, III, 333. + + Lendian, Evelio Rodriguez, educator, sketch and portrait, IV, 162. + + Liberal Party, III, 306; + triumphant through revolution, IV, 285; + dissensions, 303; + conspiracy against election, 329. + + Liberty Loans, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 352. + + Lighthouse service, under Mario G. Menocal, IV, 168. + + Linares, Tomas de, first Rector of University of Havana, II, 11. + + Lindsay, Forbes, quoted, II, 217. + + Linschoten, Jan H. van, historian, quoted, I, 351. + + Liquor, intoxicating, prohibited in 1780, II, 150. + + Literary periodicals: _El Habanero_, III, 321; + _El Plantel_, 324; + _Cuban Review_, 325; + _Havana Review_, 329. + + Literature, II, 245; + early works, 252; + poets, 274; + great development of activity, III, 315 et seq. + + Little Inagua, I, 4. + + Llorente, Pedro, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188, 190. + + Lobera, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 182; + desperate defence against Sores, 185. + + Lolonois, pirate, I, 296. + + Long Island. See FERDINANDINA. + + Lopez, Narciso, sketch and portrait, III, 23; + in Venezuela, 24; + joins the Spanish + army, 26; + marries and settles in Cuba, 30; + against the Carlists in Spain, 31; + friend of Valdez, 31; + offices and honors, 33; + plans Cuban revolution, 36; + betrayed and fugitive, 37; + consults Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee, 38; + first American expedition, 39; + members of the party, 40; + activity in Southern States, 43; + expedition starts, 45; + proclamation to his men, 46; + lands at Cardenas, 49; + lack of Cuban support, 54; + reembarks, 56; + lands at Key West, 58; + arrested and tried, 60; + second expedition organized, 65; + betrayed, 67; + third expedition, 70; + final expedition organized, 91; + lands in Cuba, 98; + defeated and captured, 112; + death, 114; + results of his works, 116. + + Lorenzo, Gen., Governor at Santiago, II, 347. + + Lorraine, Sir Lambton, III, 280. + + Los Rios, J. B. A. de, I, 310. + + Lottery, National, established by José Miguel Gomez, IV, 310. + + Louisiana, Franco-Spanish contest over, II, 117; + Ulloa sent from Cuba to take possession, 118; + O'Reilly sent, 123; + Uznaga sent, 126. + + Louverture, Toussaint, II, 186. + + Luaces, Joaquin Lorenzo, sketch and portrait, III, 330. + + Ludlow, Gen. William, command and work at Havana, IV, 144. + + Lugo, Pedro Benitez de, Governor, I, 331. + + Luna y Sarmiento, Alvaro de, Governor, I, 290. + + Luz y Caballero, José de la, "Father of the Cuban Revolution," + III, 322; + great work for patriotic education, 323; + Portrait, frontispiece, Vol III. + + Luzan, Gabriel de, Governor, I, 236; + controversy over La Fuerza, 237; + feud with Quiñones, 241; + unites with Quiñones to resist Drake, 243; + energetic action, 246; + tenure of office prolonged, 250; + end of term, 260. + + + Macaca, province of, I, 20. + + Maceo, José Antonio, proclaims Provisional Government, IV, 15; + leader in War of Independence, 41; + commands Division of Oriente, 43; + defeats Campos, 46; + plans great campaign, 53; + invades Pinar del Rio, 61; + successful campaign, 73; + death, 74; + portrait, facing 74. + + Maceo, José, IV, 41; + marches through Cuba, 76. + + Machado, Eduard, treason of, III, 258. + + Machete, used in battle, IV, 57. + + Madison, James, on status of Cuba, III, 132. + + Madriaga, Juan Ignacio, II, 59. + + Magoon, Charles E., Provisional Governor, IV, 281; + his administration, 283; + promotes public works, 286; + takes census, 287; + election law, 287; + retires, 295. + + Mahy, Nicolas, Governor, II, 315. + + Mail service established, II, 107; + under American occupation, IV, 168. + + Maine sent to Havana, IV, 98; + destruction of, 98; + investigation, 100. + + Maldonado, Diego, I, 146. + + Mandeville, Sir John, I, 20. + + Mangon, identified with Mangi, I, 20. + + Manners and Customs, II, 229 et seq.; + balls, 239; + shopping, 242; + relations of black and white races, 242; + cafés, 243; + early society, 248. + + Monosca, Juan Saenz, Bishop, I, 301. + + Manrique, Diego, Governor, II, 109. + + Manzaneda y Salines, Severino de, Governor, I, 320. + + Manzanillo, Declaration of Independence issued, III, 155. + + Maraveo Ponce de Leon, Gomez de, I, 339. + + Marco Polo, I, 4, 20. + + Marcy, William L., policy toward Cuba, III, 136. + + Mar de la Nuestra Señora, I, 18. + + Mariguana. See GUANAHANI. + + Marin, Sabas, succeeds Campos in command, IV, 63. + + Markham, Sir Clements, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12. + + Marmol, Donato, III, 173, 184. + + Marquez, Pedro Menendez, I, 206. + + Marriage law, reformed under American occupation, IV, 152; + controversy over, 153. + + Marti, José, portrait, frontispiece, Vol IV; + leader of War of Independence, IV, 2; + his career, 9; + in New York, 11; + organizes Junta, 11; + goes to Cuba, 15; + death, 16; + his war manifesto, 17; + fulfilment of his ideals, 355. + + Marti, José, secretary of War, portrait, IV, 360. + + Marti, the pirate, II, 357. + + Martinez Campos. See Campos. + + Martinez, Dionisio de la Vega, Governor, II, 8; + inscription on La Punta, 14. + + Martinez, Juan, I, 192. + + Martyr, Peter, I, 53. + + Maso, Bartolome, revolutionist, IV, 34; + rebukes Spotorno, 35; + President of Cuban Republic, 43; + Vice President of Council, 48; + President of Republic, 90; + candidate for Vice President, 242; + seeks Presidency, 243. + + Mason, James M., U. S. Minister to France, III, 141. + + Masse, E. M., describes slave trade, II, 202; + rural life, 216; + on Spanish policy toward Cuba, 227; + social morals, 230. + + Matanzas, founded, I, 321; + meaning of name, 321. + + Maura, Sr., proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 5. + + McCullagh, John B., reorganizes Havana Police, IV, 150. + + McKinley, William, President of United States, message of 1897 + on Cuba, IV, 87; + declines European mediation, 103; + message for war, 104. + + Maza, Enrique, assaults Hugh S. Gibson, IV, 308. + + Mazariegos, Diego de, Governor, I, 191; + a scandalous moralist, 193; + defences against privateering, 193; + takes charge of La Fuerza, 195; + controversy with Governor of Florida, 196; + replaced by Sandoval, 197. + + Medina, Fernando de, I, 111. + + Mendez-Capote, Fernando, Secretary of Sanitation, portrait, IV, 360. + + Mendieta, Carlos, candidate for Vice President, IV, 328; + rebels, 338. + + Mendive, Rafael Maria de, III, 328. + + Mendoza, Martin de, I, 204. + + Menendez, Pedro de Aviles, I, 199; + commander of Spanish fleet, 200; + clash with Osorio, 201; + Governor of Cuba, 205; + dealing with increasing enemies, 208; + fortifies Havana, 209; + recalled to Spain, 213; + conflict with Bishop Castillo, 226. + + Menocal, Aniceto G., portrait, IV, 50. + + Menocal, Mario G., Assistant Secretary of War, IV, 49; + Chief of Police at Havana, 144, 150; + in charge of Lighthouse Service, 168; + candidate for President, 290; + slandered by Liberals, 291; + elected President, 312; + biography, 312; + portrait, facing 312; + view of birthplace, 313; + Cabinet, 320; + opinion of Cuba's needs, 321; + first message, 322; + conflict with Congress, 323; + important reforms, 324; + suppresses rebellion, 327; + candidate for reelection, 328; + vigorous action against Gomez's rebellion, 335; + declines American aid, 337; + escapes assassination, 339; + reelection confirmed, 341; + clemency to traitors, 342; + message on entering Great War, 346; + fulfilment of Marti's ideals, 355; + estimate of his administration, 356; + achievements for education, 357; + health, 357; + industry and commerce, 358; + finance, 359; + "from Velasquez to Menocal," 365. + + Menocal, Señora, leadership of Cuban womanhood in Red Cross and + other work, IV, 354; + portrait, facing 352. + + Mercedes, Maria de las, quoted, II, 174; + on slave insurrection, 368. + + Merchan, Rafael, III, 174; + patriotic works, 335. + + Merlin, Countess de. See MERCEDES. + + _Merrimac_, sunk at Santiago, IV, 111. + + Mesa, Hernando de, first Bishop, I, 122. + + Mestre, José Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 326. + + Meza, Sr., Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, IV, 297. + + Mexico, discovered and explored from Cuba, I, 87; + designs upon Cuba, II, 262; + Cuban expedition against, 346; + warned off by United States, III, 134; + fall of Maximilian, 150. + + Milanes, José Jacinto, sketch, portrait and works, III, 324. + + Miles, Gen. Nelson A., prepares for invasion of Cuba, IV, 111. + + Miranda, Francisco, II, 156; + with Bolivar, 335. + + Miscegenation, II, 204. + + Molina, Francisco, I, 290. + + Monastic orders, I, 276. + + Monroe Doctrine, foreshadowed, II, 256; + promulgated, 328. + + Monroe, James, interest in Cuba, II, 257; + promulgates Doctrine, 328; + portrait, 329. + + Monserrate Gate, Havana, picture, II, 241. + + Montalvo, Gabriel, Governor, I, 215; + feud with Rojas family, 218; + investigated and retired, 219; + pleads for naval protection for Cuba, 220. + + Montalvo, Lorenzo, II, 89. + + Montalvo, Rafael, Secretary of Public Works, urges resistance + to revolutionists, IV, 270. + + Montanes, Pedro Garcia, I, 292. + + Montano See VELASQUEZ, J. M. + + Montes, Garcia, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 254. + + Montesino, Antonio, I, 78. + + Montiel, Vasquez de, naval commander, I, 278. + + Montoro, Rafael, Representative in Cortes, III, 308; + spokesman of Autonomists, IV, 59; + in Autonomist Cabinet, 95; + candidate for Vice President, 290; + attacked by Liberals, 291; + biography, 317; + portrait, facing 320. + + Morales case, IV, 92. + + Morales. Pedro de, commands at Santiago, I, 299. + + Morals, strangely mixed with piety and vice, II, 229. + + Morell, Pedro Augustino, Bishop, II, 53; + controversy with Albemarle, 83; + exiled, 87; + death, 113. + + Moreno, Andres, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 90. + + Moret law, abolishing slavery, III, 243. + + Morgan, Henry, plans raid on Havana, I, 297; + later career, 303. + + Morro Castle, Havana, picture, facing I, 180; + site of battery, 180; + tower built by Mazariegos, 196; + fortified against Drake, 249; + planned by Antonelli, 261; + besieged by British, II, 55. + + Morro Castle, Santiago, built, I, 289; + picture, facing 298. + + Mucaras, I, 11. + + Muenster, geographer, I, 6. + + Mugeres Islands, I, 84. + + Munive, Andres de, I, 317. + + Murgina y Mena, A. M., I, 317. + + Music, early concerts at Havana, II, 239. + + + Nabia, Juan Alfonso de, I, 207. + + Nancy Globe, I. 6. + + Napoleon's designs upon Cuba, II, 203. + + Naranjo, probable landing place of Columbus, I, 12. + + Narvaez, Panfilo de, portrait, I, 63; + arrival in Cuba, 63; + campaign against natives, 65; + explores the island, 67; + errand to Spain, 77; + sent to Mexico to oppose Cortez, 98; + secures appointment of Councillors for life, 111. + + Naval stations, U. S., in Cuba, IV, 255. + + Navarrete, quoted, I, 3, 12. + + Navarro, Diego Jose, Governor, II, 141, 150. + + Navy, Spanish, in Cuban waters, III, 182, 225. + + Negroes, imported as slaves, I, 170; + treatment of, 171; + slaves and free, increasing numbers of, 229. See SLAVERY. + + New Orleans, anti-Spanish outbreak, III, 126. + + New Spain. See MEXICO. + + Newspapers: _Gazeta_, 1780, II, 157; + _Papel Periodico_, 179; + 246; + publications in Paris, Madrid and New York, 354; + El Faro Industrial, III, 18; + Diario de la Marina, 18; + La Verdad, 18; + La Vos de Cuba, 260; + La Vos del Siglo, 232; + La Revolucion, 333; + El Siglo, 334; + El Laborante, 335. + + Norsemen, American colonists, I, 7. + + Nougaret, Jean Baptiste, quoted, II, 26. + + Nuñez, Emilio, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12; + in war, 57; + Civil Governor of Havana, 179; + head of Veterans' Association, 305; + Secretary of Agriculture, 320; + candidate for Vice President, 328; + election confirmed, 341. + + Nuñez, Enrique, Secretary of Health and Charities, IV, 320. + + + Ocampo, Sebastian de, circumnavigates Cuba, I, 54. + + O'Donnell, George Leopold, Governor, II, 365; + his wife's sordid intrigues, 365. + + Oglethorpe, Governor of Georgia, hostile to Spain, II, 24, 30. + + O'Hara, Theodore, with Lopez, III, 46. + + Ojeda, Alonzo de, I, 54; + introduces Christianity to Cuba, 55. + + Olid, Christopher de, sent to Mexico, I, 88. + + Olney, Richard. U. S. Secretary of State, attitude toward War + of Independence, IV, 71. + + Oquendo, Antonio de, I, 281. + + Orejon y Gaston, Francisco Davila de, Governor, I, 301, 310. + + O'Reilly, Alexandre, sent to occupy Louisiana, II, 123; + ruthless rule, 125. + + Orellano, Diego de, I, 86. + + Ornofay, province of, I, 20. + + Ortiz, Bartholomew, alcalde mayor, I, 146; + retires, 151. + + Osorio, Garcia de Sandoval, Governor, I, 197; + conflict with Menendez, 199, 201; + retired, 205; + tried, 206. + + Osorio, Sancho Pardo, I, 207. + + Ostend Manifesto, III, 142. + + Ovando, Alfonso de Caceres, I, 214; + revises law system, 233. + + Ovando, Nicolas de, I, 54. + + + Palma, Tomas Estrada, head of Cuban Junta in New York, IV, 3; + Provisional President of Cuban Republic, 15; + Delegate at Large, 43; + rejects anything short of independence, 71; + candidate for Presidency, 241; + his career, 241; + elected President, 245; + arrival in Cuba, 247; + portrait, facing 248; + receives transfer of government from General Wood, 248; + Cabinet, 254; + first message, 254; + prosperous administration, 259; + non-partisan at first, 264; + forced toward Conservative party, 264; + reelected, 266; + refuses to believe insurrection impending, 266; + refuses to submit to blackmail, 268; + betrayed by Congress, 269; + acts too late, 270; + seeks American aid, 271; + interview with W. H. Taft, 276; + resigns Presidency, 280; + estimate of character and work, 282; + death, 284. + + Palma y Romay, Ramon, III, 327. + + Parra, Antonio, scientist, II, 252. + + Parra, Maso, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Parties, political, in Cuba, IV, 59; + origin and characteristics of Conservative and Liberal, 181, 261. + + Pasalodos, Damaso, Secretary to President, IV, 297 + + Pasamonte, Miguel, intrigues against Columbus, I, 58. + + Paz, Doña de, marries Juan de Avila, I, 154. + + Paz, Pedro de, I, 109. + + Penalosa, Diego de, Governor, II, 31. + + Penalver. See PENALOSA. + + Penalver, Luis, Bishop of New Orleans, II, 179. + + "Peninsulars," III, 152. + + Pensacola, settlement of, I, 328; + seized by French, 342; + recovered by Spanish, II, 7; + defended by Galvez, 146. + + Pereda, Gaspar Luis, Governor, I, 276. + + Perez, Diego, repels privateers, I, 179. + + Perez, Perico, revolutionist, IV, 15, 30, 78. + + Perez de Zambrana, Luisa, sketch and portrait, III, 328. + + Personal liberty restricted, III, 8. + + Peru, good wishes for Cuban revolution, III, 223. + + Philip II, King, appreciation of Cuba, I, 260. + + Pieltain, Candido, Governor, III, 275. + + Pierce, Franklin, President of United States, policy toward + Cuba, III, 136. + + Pina, Severo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 48. + + Pinar del Rio, city founded, II, 131; + Maceo invades province, IV, 61; + war in, 73. + + Pineyro, Enrique, III, 333; + sketch and portrait, 334. + + Pinto, Ramon, sketch and portrait, III, 62. + + "Pirates of America," I, 296. + + Pizarro, Francisco de, I, 54, 91. + + Platt, Orville H., Senator, on relations of United States + and Cuba, IV, 198; + Amendment to Cuban Constitution, 199; + Amendment adopted, 203; + text of Amendment, 238. + + Pococke, Sir George, expedition against Havana, II, 46. + + Poey, Felipe, sketch and portrait, III, 315. + + Point Lucrecia, I, 18. + + Polavieja, Gen., Governor, III, 314. + + Police, reorganized, II, 312; + under American occupation, IV, 150; + police courts established, 171. + + Polk, James K., President of the United States, policy toward + Cuba, III, 135. + + Polo y Bernabe, Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 98. + + Ponce de Leon, in Cuba, I, 73; + death, 139. + + Ponce de Leon, of New York, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13. + + Pope, efforts to maintain peace, between United States and + Spain, IV, 104. + + Porro, Cornelio, treason of, III, 257. + + Port Banes, I, 18. + + Port Nipe, I, 18. + + Port Nuevitas, I, 3. + + Portuguese settlers, I, 168. + + Portuondo, Rafael, Secretary for Foreign Affairs, IV, 48; + filibuster, 70. + + Prado y Portocasso, Juan, Governor, II, 49; + neglect of duty, 52; + sentenced to degradation, 108. + + Praga, Francisco de, I, 282. + + Presidency, first candidates for, IV, 240; + Tomas Estrada Palma elected, 245; + José Miguel Gomez aspires to, 260; + candidates in 1906, 265; + Palma's resignation, 280; + Jose Miguel Gomez elected, 290; + fourth campaign, 312; + Mario G. Menocal elected, 312; + fifth campaign, 328; + General Menocal reelected, 341. + + Prim, Gen., Spanish revolutionist, III, 145. + + Printing, first press in Cuba, II, 245. + + Privateers, French ravage Cuba, I, 177; + Havana and Santiago attacked, 178; + Havana looted, 179; + Jacques Sores, 183; + Havana captured, 186; + Santiago looted, 193; + French raids, 220, et seq. + + Proctor, Redfield, Senator, investigates and reports on condition + of Cuba in War of Independence, IV, 87. + + Procurators, appointment of, I, 112. + + Protectorate, tripartite, refused by United States, II, 261; + III, 130, 133. + + Provincial governments organized, IV, 179, confusion in, 292. + + Public Works, promoted by General Wood, IV, 166; + by Magoon, 286. + + Puerto Grande. See GUANTANAMO. + + Puerto Principe, I, 18, 167. + + Punta, La, first fortification, I, 203; + strengthened against Drake, 249; + fortress planned by Antonelli, 261; + picture, IV, 33. + + Punta Lucrecia, I, 3. + + Punta Serafina, I, 22. + + + Queen's Gardens, I, 20. + + Quero, Geronimo, I, 277. + + Quesada, Gonzalo de, Secretary of Cuban Junta, IV, 3; + Minister to United States, 275. + + Quesada, Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 167; + proclamation, 169; + death, 262. + + Quezo, Juan de, I, 113. + + Quilez, J. M., Civil Governor of Pinar del Rio, IV, 179. + + Quiñones, Diego Hernandez de, commander of fortifications at + Havana, I, 240; + feud with Luzan, 241; + unites with Luzan to resist Drake, 243. + + Quiñones, Doña Leonora de, I, 117. + + + Rabi, Jesus, revolutionist, IV, 34, 42. + + Railroads, first in Cuba, II, 343. + + Raja, Vicente, Governor, I, 337. + + Ramirez, Alejandro, sketch and portrait, II, 311. + + Ramirez, Miguel, Bishop, partisan of Guzman, I, 120; + political activities and greed, 124. + + Ramos, Gregorio, I, 274. + + Ranzel, Diego, I, 295. + + Recio, R. Lopez, Civil Governor of Camaguey, IV, 180. + + Recio, Serafin, III, 86. + + Reciprocity, secured by Roosevelt for Cuba, IV, 256. + + "Reconcentrados," mortality among, IV, 86. + + Red Cross, Cuban activities, IV, 353. + + Redroban, Pedro de, I, 201. + + Reed, Walter, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172. + + Reformists, Spanish, support Blanco's Autonomist policy, IV, 97. + + Reggio, Andreas, II, 32. + + Reno, George, in War of Independence, IV, 12; + running blockade, 21; + portrait, 21; + services in Great War, 351. + + Renteria, Pedro de, partner of Las Casas, I, 75; + opposes slavery, 76. + + Repartimiento, I, 70. + + Republic of Cuba: proclaimed and organized, III, 157; + first representative Assembly, 161; + Constitution of 1868, 164; + first House of Representatives, 176; + Judiciary, 177; + legislation, 177; + army, 178; + fails to secure recognition, 203; + Government reorganized, 275; + after Treaty of Zanjon, 301; + reorganized in War of Independence, IV, 15; + Maso chosen President, 43; + Conventions of Yara and Najasa, 47; + Constitution adopted, 47; + Government reorganized, Cisneros President, 48; + capital at Las Tunas, 56; + removes to Cubitas, 72; + exercises functions of government, 72; + reorganized in 1897, 90; + after Spanish evacuation of island, 134; + disbanded, 135; + Constitutional Convention called, 185; + Constitution completed, 192; + relations with United States, 195; + Platt Amendment, 203; + enters Great War, 346. + + Revolutions: Rise of spirit, II, 268; + in South America, 333; + "Soles de Bolivar," 341; + attempts to revolt, 344; + "Black Eagle," 346; + plans of Lopez, III, 36; + Lopez's first invasion, 49; + Aguero's insurrection, 72; + comments of New York _Herald_, 89; + Lopez's last expedition, 91; + results of his work, 116; + European interest, 125; + beginning of Ten Years' War. 155; + end of Ten Years' War, 299; + insurrection renewed, 308, 318; + War of Independence, IV, 1; + Sartorius Brothers, 4; + end of War of Independence, 116; + revolt against President Palma, 266; + ultimatum, 278; + government overthrown, 280; + Negro insurrection, 307; + conspiracy against President Menocal, 327; + great treason of José Miguel Gomez, 332; + Gomez captured, 337; + warnings from United States Government, 338; + revolutions denounced by United States, 343. + + Revolutionary party, Cuban, IV, 1, 11. + + Rey, Juan F. G., III, 40. + + Riano y Gamboa, Francisco, Governor, I, 287. + + Ribera, Diego de, I, 206; + work on La Fuerza, 209. + + Ricafort, Mariano, Governor, II, 347. + + Ricla, Conde de, Governor, II, 102; + retires, 109. + + Rio de la Luna, I, 16. + + Rio de Mares, I, 16. + + Riva-Martiz, I, 279. + + Rivera, Juan Ruiz, filibuster, IV, 70; + succeeds Maceo, 79. + + Rivera, Ruiz, Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, IV, 160. + + Roa, feud with Villalobos, I, 323. + + Rodas, Caballero de, Governor, III, 213; + emancipation decree, 242. + + Rodney, Sir George, expedition to West Indies, II, 153. + + Rodriguez, Alejandro, suppresses revolt, IV, 266. + + Rodriguez, Laureano, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95. + + Rojas, Alfonso de, I, 181. + + Rojas, Gomez de, banished, I, 193; + Governor of La Fuerza, 217; + rebuilds Santiago, 258. + + Rojas, Hernando de, expedition to Florida, I, 196. + + Rojas, Juan Bautista de, royal treasurer, I, 218. + + Rojas, Juan de, aid to Lady Isabel de Soto, I, 145; + commander at Havana, 183. + + Rojas, Manuel de, Governor, I, 105; + adopts policy of "Cuba for the Cubans," 106; + second Governorship, 121; + dealings with Indians, 126; + noble endeavors frustrated, 130; + resigns, 135; + the King's unique tribute to him, 135. + + Roldan, Francisco Dominguez, Secretary of Public Instruction, + sketch and portrait, IV, 357. + + Roldan, José Gonzalo, III, 328. + + Roloff, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 45; + Secretary of War, 48; + filibuster, 70. + + Romano Key, I, 18. + + Romay, Tomas, introduces vaccination, II, 192; + portrait, facing 192. + + Roncali, Federico, Governor, II, 366; + on Spanish interests in Cuba, 381. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113; + portrait, 113; + President of United States, on relations with Cuba, 245; + estimate of General Wood's work in Cuba, 251; + fight with Congress for Cuban reciprocity, 256; + seeks to aid President Palma against revolutionists, 275; + letter to Quesada, 275. + + Root, Elihu, Secretary of War, on Cuban Constitution, IV, 194; + on Cuban relations with United States, 197; + explains Platt Amendment, 201. + + Rowan, A. S., messenger to Oriente, IV. 107. + + Rubalcava, Manuel Justo, II, 274. + + Rubens, Horatio, Counsel of Cuban Junta, IV, 3. + + Rubios, Palacios, I, 78. + + Ruiz, Joaquin, spy, IV, 91; + death, 92. See ARANGUREN. + + Ruiz, Juan Fernandez, filibuster, IV, 70. + + Rum Cay. See CONCEPTION. + + Rural Guards, organized by General Wood, IV, 144; + efficiency of, 301. + + Ruysch, geographer, I, 6. + + + Saavedra, Juan Esquiro, I, 278. + + Sabinal Key, I, 18. + + Saco, José Antonio, pioneer of Independence, II, 378; + portrait, facing 378; + literary and patriotic work, III, 325, 327. + + Sagasta, Praxedes, Spanish Premier, proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 6; + resigns, 36. + + Saint Augustine, expedition against, I, 332. + + Saint Mery, M. de, search for tomb of Columbus, I, 34. + + Salamanca, Juan de, Governor, I, 295; + promotes industries, 300. + + Salamanca y Negrete, Manuel, Governor, III, 314. + + Salaries, some early, I, 263. + + Salas, Indalacio, IV, 21. + + Salazar. See SOMERUELOS. + + Salcedo, Bishop, controversy with Governor Tejada, I, 262. + + Sama Point, I, 4. + + Samana. See GUANAHANI. + + Sampson, William T., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110; + at Santiago, 114; + portrait, 115. + + Sanchez, Bartolome, makes plans for La + Fuerza, I, 194; + begins building, 195; + feud with Mazariegos, 197. + + Sanchez, Bernabe, II, 345. + + Sancti Spiritus, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168. + + Sandoval, Garcia Osorio, Governor, I, 197. See OSARIO. + + Sanitation, undertaken by Guemez, II, 18; + vaccination introduced by Dr. Romay. 192; + bad conditions, III, 313; + General Wood at Santiago, IV, 142; + achievements under President Menocal, 357. + + Sanguilly, Julio, falls in leading revolution, IV, 29, 55. + + Sanguilly, Manuel, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 190. + + San Lazaro watchtower, picture, I, 155; + fortified against Drake, 248. + + San Salvador. See GUANAHANI. + + Santa Clara, Conde de, Governor, II, 194, 300. + + Santa Crux del Sur, I, 20. + + Santa Cruz, Francisco, I, 111. + + Santiago de Cuba, Columbus at, I, 19; + founded by Velasquez, 68; + second capital of island, 69; + seat of gold refining, 80; + site of cathedral, 123; + condition in Angulo's time, 166; + looted by privateers, 193; + fortified by Menendez, 203; + raided and destroyed by French, 256; + rebuilt by Gomez de Rojas, 258; + capital of Eastern District, 275; + Morro Castle built, 289; + captured by British, 299; + attacked by Franquinay, 310; + attacked by Admiral Vernon, II, 29; + literary activities, 169; + great improvements made, 180; + battles near in War of Independence, IV, 112; + naval battle, 114; + General Wood's administration, 135; + great work for sanitation, 142. + + Santiago, battle of, IV, 114. + + Santiago, sunset scene, facing III, 280. + + Santillan, Diego, Governor, I, 205. + + Santo Domingo See HISPANIOLA. + + Sanudo, Luis, Governor, I, 336. + + Sarmiento. Diego de, Bishop, makes trouble, I, 149, 152. + + Saunders, Romulus M., sounds Spain on purchase of Cuba, III, 135. + + Sartorius, Manuel and Ricardo, revolutionists, IV, 4. + + Savine, Albert, on British designs on Cuba, II, 40. + + Schley, Winfield S., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110; + portrait, 110; + at Santiago, 114. + + Schoener's globe, I, 5. + + Schools, backward condition of, II, 174, 244, 312. See EDUCATION. + + Shafter, W. R., General, leads American army into Cuba, IV, 111. + + Shipbuilding at Havana, II, 8, 33, 113, 300. + + Sickles, Daniel E., Minister to Spain, offers mediation, III, 217. + + Silva, Manuel, Secretary of Interior, IV, 90. + + Slave Insurrection, II, 13; + III, 367, et seq. + + Slavery, begun in Repartimiento system, I, 70; + not sanctioned by King, 82; + slave trading begun, 83; + growth and regulation, 170; + oppressive policy of Spain, 266; + the "Assiento," II, 2; + great growth + of trade, 22; + gross abuses, 202; + described by Masse, 202; + census of slaves, 204; + rise of emancipation movement, 206; + rights of slaves defined by King, 210; + African trade forbidden, 285; + Negro census, 286; + early records of trade, 288; + Humboldt on, 288; + statistics of trade, 289 et seq.; + domestic relations of slaves, 292; + dangers of system denounced, 320; + official complicity in illegal trade, 366; + slave insurrection, 367; + inhuman suppression by government, 374 et seq.; + emancipation by revolution of 1868, 159; + United States urges Spain to abolish slavery, 242; + Rodas's decrees, 242; + Moret law, 243. + + Smith, Caleb. publishes book on West Indies, II, 37. + + Smuggling, II, 133. + + "Sociedad de Amigos," II, 169. + + "Sociedad Patriotica," II, 166. + + "Sociedad Patriotica y Economica," II, 178. + + Society of Progress, II, 78. + + Solano, José de, naval commander, II, 147. + + "Soles de Bolivar," II, 341; + attempts to suppress, 343. + + Solorzano, Juan del Hoya, I, 337; + II, 10. + + Someruelos, Marquis of, Governor, II, 196, 301. + + Sores, Jacques, French raider, II, 183; + attacks Havana, 184; + captures city, 186. + + Soto, Antonio de, I, 292. + + Soto, Diego de, I, 109, 217. + + Soto, Hernando de, Governor and Adelantado, I, 140; + portrait, 140; + arrival in Cuba, 141; + tour of island, 142; + makes Havana his home, 144; + chiefly interested in Florida, 144; + sails for Florida, 145; + his fate in Mississippi, 147; + trouble with Indians, 148. + + Soto, Lady Isabel de, I, 141; + her vigil at La Fuerza, 147; + death, 149. + + Soto, Luis de, I, 141. + + Soulé, Pierre, Minister to Spain, III, 137; + Indiscretions, 138; + Ostend Manifesto, 142. + + South Sea Company, II, 21, 201. + + Spain: Fiscal policy toward Cuba, I, 175; + wars with France, 177; + discriminations against Cuba, 266, 267; + protests against South Sea Company, II, 22; + course in American Revolution, 143; + war with Great Britain, 151; + attitude toward America, 159; + peace with Great Britain, 162; + restrictive laws, 224; + policy under Godoy, 265; + decline of power, 273; + seeks to pawn Cuba to Great Britain for loan, 330; + protests to United States against Lopez's expedition, III, 59; + seeks British protection, 129; + refuses to sell Cuba, 135; + revolution against Bourbon dynasty, 145 et seq.; + rejects suggestion of American mediation in Cuba, 219; + seeks American mediation, 293; + strives to placate Cuba, IV, 5; + crisis over Cuban affairs, 35; + attitude toward War of Independence, 40; + considers Autonomy, 71; + Cabinet crisis of 1897, 88; + proposes joint investigation of Maine disaster, 100; + at war with United States, 106; + makes Treaty of Paris, relinquishing Cuba, 118. + + Spanish-American War: causes of, IV, 105; + declared, 106; + blockade of Cuban coast, 110; + landing of American army in Cuba, 111; + fighting near Santiago, 112; + fort at El Caney, picture, 112; + San Juan Hill, battle, 113; + San Juan Hill, picture of monument, 114; + naval battle of Santiago, 115; + peace negotiations, 116; + "Peace Tree," picture, 116; + treaty of peace, 118. + + Spanish literature in XVI century, I, 360. + + Spotorno, Juan Bautista, seeks peace, rebuked by Maso, IV, 35. + + Steinhart, Frank, American consul, advises President Palma to + ask for American aid, IV, 271; + correspondence with State Department, 272. + + Stock raising, early attention to, I, 173, 224; + development of, 220. + + Stokes, W. E. D., aids War of Independence, IV, 14. + + Students, murder of by Volunteers, III, 260. + + Suarez y Romero, Anselmo, III, 326. + + Sugar, Industry begun under Velasquez, I, 175, 224; + growth of industry, 265; + primitive methods, II, 222; + growth, III, 3; + great development under President Menocal, IV, 358. + + "Suma de Geografia," of Enciso, I, 54. + + Sumana, Diego de, I, 111. + + + Tacon, Miguel, Governor, II, 347; + despotic fury, 348; + conflict with Lorenzo, 349; + public works, 355; + fish market, 357; + melodramatic administration of justice, 359. + + Taft, William H., Secretary of War of United States, intervenes + in revolution, IV, 272; + arrives at Havana, 275; + negotiates with President Palma and the revolutionists, 276; + portrait, 276; + conveys ultimatum of revolutionists to President Palma, 279; + accepts President Palma's resignation, 280; + pardons revolutionists, 280; + unfortunate policy, 283. + + Tainan, Antillan stock, I, 8. + + Tamayo, Diego, Secretary of State, IV, 159; + Secretary of Government, 254. + + Tamayo, Rodrigo de, I, 126. + + Tariff, after British occupation, II, 106; + reduction, 141; + oppressive duties. III, 5; + under American occupation, IV, 183. + + Taxation, revolt against, II, 197; + "reforms," 342; + oppressive burdens, III, 6; + increase in Ten Years' War, 207; + evasion of, 312; + under American intervention, IV, 151. + + Taylor, Hannis, American Minister at Madrid, IV, 33. + + Tejada, Juan de, Governor, I, 261; + great works for Cuba, 262; + resigns, 263. + + Teneza, Dr. Francisco, Protomedico, I, 336. + + Ten Years' War, III, 155 et seq.; + first battles, 184; + aid from United States, 211; + offers of American mediation, 217; + rejected, 219; + campaigns of destruction, 222; + losses reported, 290; + end in Treaty of Zanjon, 299; + losses, 304. + + Terry, Emilio, Secretary of Agriculture, IV, 254. + + Theatres, first performance in Cuba, I, 264; + first theatre built, II, 130, 236. + + Thrasher, J. S., on census, II, 283. + + Tines y Fuertes, Juan Antonio, Governor, II, 31. + + Tobacco, early use, I, 9; + culture promoted, 300; + monopoly, 334; + "Tobacco War," 338; + effects of monopoly, II, 221. + + Tobar, Nuñez, I, 141, 143. + + Tolon, Miguel de, III, 330. + + Toltecs, I, 7. + + Tomayo, Esteban, revolutionist, IV, 34. + + Torquemada, Garcia de, I, 239; + investigates Luzan, 241. + + Torre, Marquis de la, Governor, II, 127; + work for Havana, 129; + death, 133. + + Torres Ayala, Laureano de, Governor, I, 334; + reappointed, 337. + + Torres, Gaspar de, Governor, I, 234; + conflict with Rojas family, 235; + absconds, 235. + + Torres, Rodrigo de, naval commander, II, 34. + + Torriente, Cosimo de la, Secretary of Government, IV, 320. + + Toscanelli, I, 4. + + Treaty of Paris, IV, 118. + + Tres Palacios, Felipe Jose de, Bishop, II, 174. + + Tribune, New York, describes revolutionary leaders, III, 173. + + Trinidad, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168; + great fire, II, 177. + + Trocha, begun by Campos, IV, 44; + Weyler's, 73. + + Troncoso, Bernardo, Governor, II, 168. + + Turnbull, David, British consul, II, 364; + complicity in slave insurrection, 372. + + + Ubite, Juan de, Bishop, I, 123. + + Ulloa, Antonio de, sent to take possession of Louisiana, II, 118; + arbitrary conduct, 120. + + Union Constitutionalists, III, 306. + + United States, early relations with Cuba, II, 254; + first suggestion of annexation, 257; + John Quincy Adams's policy, 258; + Jefferson's policy, 260; + Clay's policy, 261; + representations to Colombia and Mexico, 262; + Buchanan's policy, 263; + Monroe Doctrine, 328; + consuls not admitted to Cuba, 330; + Van Buren's policy, 331; + growth of commerce with Cuba, III, 22; + President Taylor's proclamation against filibustering, 41; + course toward Lopez, 60; + attitude toward Cuban revolutionists, 123; + division of sentiment between North and South, 124; + policy of Edward Everett, 130; + overtures for purchase of Cuba, 135; + end of Civil War, 151; + new policy toward Cuba, 151; + recognition denied to revolution, 172; + aid and sympathy given secretly, 195; + Cuban appeals for recognition, 200; + recognition denied, 203; + protests against Rodas's decrees, 216; + offers of mediation, 217; + rejected by Spain, 219; + increasing interest and sympathy with revolutionists, 273; + warning to Spanish Government, 291; + effect of reciprocity upon Cuba, 313; + attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 27, 70; + Congress favors recognition, 70; + tender of good + offices, 71; + President Cleveland's message of 1896, 79; + appropriation for relief of victims of "concentration" policy, 86; + President McKinley's message of 1897, 87; + sensation at destruction of _Maine_, 99; + declaration of war against Spain, 106; + Treaty of Paris, 118; + establishment of first Government of Intervention, 132; + relations with Republic of Cuba, 195; + protectorate to be retained, 196; + Platt Amendment, 199; + mischief-making intrigues, 200; + naval stations in Cuba, 255; + reciprocity, 256; + second Intervention, 281; + warning to José Miguel Gomez, 305; + asks settlement of claims, 308; + Chargé d'Affaires assaulted, 308; + supervision of Cuban legislation, 326; + warning to revolutionists, 339; + attitude toward Gomez revolution, 343. + + University of Havana, founded, II, 11. + + Unzaga, Luis de, Governor, II, 157. + + Urrutia, historian, quoted, I, 300. + + Urrutia, Sancho de, I, 111. + + Utrecht, Treaty of, I, 326; + begins new era, II, 1. + + Uznaga, Luis de, sent to rule Louisiana, II, 126; + reforms, 165. + + + Vaca, Cabeza de, I, 140. + + Vadillo, Juan, declines to investigate Guzman, I, 118; + temporary Governor, 119; + tremendous indictment of Guzman, 120; + retires after good work, 121; + clash with Bishop Ramirez, 124. + + Valdes, historian, quoted, II, 175. + + Valdes, Gabriel de la Conception, III, 325. + + Valdes, Jeronimo, Bishop, I, 335. + + Valdes, Pedro de, Governor, I, 202, 272; + retires, 276. + + Valdes, Geronimo, Governor, II, 364. + + Valdueza, Marquis de, I, 281. + + Valiente, José Pablo, II, 170, 180. + + Valiente, Juan Bautista, Governor of Santiago, II, 180. + + Vallizo, Diego, I, 277. + + Valmaseda, Count, Governor, proclamation against revolution, III, + 171, 270; + recalled for barbarities, 273. + + Van Buren, Martin, on United States and Cuba, II, 331. + + Vandeval, Nicolas C., I, 331, 333. + + Varela, Felix, sketch and portrait, III, 320; + works, 321. + + Varnhagen, F. A. de, quoted, I, 2. + + Varona, Bernabe de, sketch and portrait, III, 178. + + Varona, José Enrique, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 159; + Vice President, 312; + biography, 316; + portrait, facing 316. + + Varona, Pepe Jerez, chief of secret service, IV, 268. + + Vasquez, Juan, I, 330. + + Vedado, view in, IV, 176. + + Vega, Pedro Guerra de la, I, 243; + asks fugitives to aid in defence against Drake, 248. + + Velasco, Francisco de Aguero, II, 345. + + Velasco, Luis Vicente, defender of Morro against British, II, 58; + signal valor, 61; + death, 67. + + Velasquez, Antonio, errand to Spain, I, 77 + + Velasquez, Bernardino, I, 115. + + Velasquez, Diego, first Governor of Cuba, I, 59; + portrait, 59; + colonizes Cuba, 60; + hostilities with natives, 61, explores the island, 67; + marriage and bereavement, 68; + founds various towns, 68; + begins Cuban commerce, 68; + organizes government, 69; + favored by King Ferdinand, 73; + appointed Adelantado, 74; + seeks to rule Yucatan and Mexico, 85; + recalls Grijalva, 88; + quarrels with Cortez, 91; + sends Cortez to explore Mexico, 92, 94; + seeks to intercept and recall Cortez, 97; + sends Narvaez to Mexico, 98; + removed from office by Diego Columbus, 100; + restored by King, 102; + death and epitaph, 103; + posthumous arraignment by Altamarino, 107; + convicted and condemned, 108. + + Velasquez, Juan Montano, Governor, I, 293. + + Velez Garcia, Secretary of State, IV, 297. + + Velez y Herrera, Ramon, III, 324. + + Venegas, Francisco, Governor, I, 278. + + Vernon, Edward, Admiral, expedition to Darien, II 27; + Invasion of Cuba, 29. + + Viamonte, Bitrian, Governor, I, 286. + + Viana y Hinojosa, Diego de, Governor, I, 317. + + Victory loan, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 353. + + Villa Clara, founded, I, 321. + + Villafana, attempts to assassinate Cortez, I, 99. + + Villafana, Angelo de, Governor of Florida, controversy with + Mazariegos, I, 196. + + Villalba y Toledo, Diego de, Governor, I, 290. + + Villalobos, Governor, feud with Roa, I, 323. + + Villalon, José Ramon, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13; + Secretary of Public Works, 160, 330. + + Villalon Park, scene in, IV, 247. + + Villanueva, Count de, II, 342. + + Villapando, Bernardino de, Bishop, I, 225. + + Villarin, Pedro Alvarez de, Governor, I, 333. + + Villaverde, Cirillo, III, 327. + + Villaverde, Juan de, Governor of Santiago, I, 276. + + Villegas, Diaz de, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 297; + resigns, 302. + + Villuendas, Enrique, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188; + secretary, 189. + + Virginius, capture of, III, 277; + butchery of officers and crew, 278 et seq.; + British intervention, 280; + list of passengers, 281; + diplomatic negotiations over, 283. + + Vives, Francisco, Governor, II, 317; + despotism, 317; + expedition against Mexico, 346. + + Viyuri, Luis, II, 197. + + Volunteers, organized, III, 152; + murder Arango, 188; + have Dulce recalled, 213; + cause murder of Zenea, 252; + increased activities, 260; + murder of students, 261. + + + War of Independence, IV, i, 8; + circumstances of beginning, 9; + finances, 14; + Republic of Cuba proclaimed, 15; + attitude of Cuban people, 22; + actual outbreak, 29; + martial law proclaimed, 30; + Spanish forces in Cuba, 31; + arrival and policy of Martinez Campos, 38; + Gomez and Maceo begin great campaign, 53; + Spanish defeated, and reenforced, 55; + campaign of devastation, 60; + entire island involved, 61; + fall of Campos, 63; + Weyler in command, 66; + destruction by both sides, 68; + losses, 90; + entry of United States, 107; + attitude of Cubans toward American intervention, 108; + end of war, 116. + + Watling's Island. See GUANAHANI. + + Wax, development of Industry, II, 132. + + Webster, Daniel, negotiations with Spain, III, 126. + + Weyler y Nicolau, Valeriano, Governor, IV, 65; + portrait, 66; + harsh decree, 66; + conquers Pinar del Rio. 83; + "concentration" policy, 85; + recalled, 88. + + Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, at Santiago, IV, 113, 115. + + White, Col. G. W., with Lopez, III, 40. + + Whitney, Henry, messenger to Gomez, IV, 107. + + Williams, Ramon O., United States consul at Havana, IV, 32; + acts in behalf of Americans in Cuba, 72; + opposes sending _Maine_ to Havana, 100. + + Wittemeyer, Major, reports on Gomez revolution to Washington + government, IV, 336; + offers President Menocal aid of United States, 337. + + Wood, General Leonard, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113; + Military Governor of Santiago, 135; + his previous career, 140; + unique responsibility and power, 141; + dealing with pestilence, 142; + organizes Rural Guards, 144; + portrait, facing 158; + Military Governor of Cuba, 158; + well received by Cubans, 158; + estimate of _La Lucha_, 158; + his Cabinet, 159; + comments on his appointments, 160; + reorganization of school system, 161; + promotes public works, 166; + Dady contract dispute, 171; + applies Finlay's yellow fever theory with great success, 171; + reform of jurisprudence, 177; + organizes Provincial governments, 179; + holds municipal elections, 180; + promulgates election law, 181; + calls Constitutional Convention, 185; + calls for general election, 240; + his comments on election, 245; + announces end of American occupation, 246; + surrenders government of Cuba to + Cubans, 249; + President Roosevelt's estimate of his work, 251; + view of one of his mountain roads, facing 358. + + Woodford, Stewart L., United States Minister to Spain, IV, 103; + presents ultimatum and departs, 106. + + + Xagua, Gulf of, I, 21. + + Ximenes, Cardinal and Regent, gives Las Casas hearing on Cuba, I, 77. + + + Yanez, Adolfo Saenz, Secretary of Agriculture and Public Works, + IV, 146. + + Yellow Fever, first invasion, II, 51; + Dr. Finlay's theory applied by General Wood, IV, 171; + disease eliminated from island, 176. + + Yero, Eduardo, Secretary of Public Instruction, IV, 254. + + Ynestrosa, Juan de, I, 207. + + Yniguez, Bernardino, I, 111. + + Yucatan, islands source of slave trade, I, 83; + explored by Cordova, 84. + + Yznaga, Jose Sanchez, III, 37. + + + Zaldo, Carlos, Secretary of State, IV, 254. + + Zambrana, Ramon, III, 328. + + Zanjon, Treaty of, III, 299. + + Zapata, Peninsula of, visited by Columbus, I, 22. + + Zarraga, Julian, filibuster, IV, 70. + + Zayas, Alfredo, secretary of Constitutional Convention, IV, 189; + compact with José Miguel Gomez, 265; + spokesman of revolutionists against President Palma, 277; + elected Vice President, 290; + becomes Vice President, 297; + sketch and portrait, 300; + quarrel with Gomez, 306; + candidate for President, 328; + hints at revolution, 330. + + Zayas, Francisco, Lieutenant Governor, I, 205; + resigns, 206. + + Zayas, Francisco, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95. + + Zayas, Juan B., killed in battle, IV, 78. + + Zayas, Lincoln de, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12; + Superintendent of Schools, 162. + + Zenea, Juan Clemente, sketch and portrait, III, 252; + murdered, 253; + his works, 332. + + Zequiera y Arango, Manuel, II, 274. + + Zipangu. See CIPANOO. + + Zuazo, Alfonso de, appointed second Governor of Cuba, I, 100; + dismissed by King, 102. + + + * * * * * + +The following typographical errors were corrected by the etext +transcriber: + +whereupon Castanada=>whereupon Castenada + +General Caballere de Rodas=>General Caballero de Rodas + +He had taken an active part in the revolution upon its inception=>He had +taken an active part in the resolution upon its inception + +wtih which to support their movement=>with which to support their +movement + +deserted and, approaching the Spanish=>deserted, and approaching the +Spanish + +their govermnents and to have interviews=>their governments and to have +interviews + +Talon was an intense patriot=>Tolon was an intense patriot + +quantiy of provisions=>quantity of provisions + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Cuba, vol. 3, by +Willis Fletcher Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 3 *** + +***** This file should be named 38139-8.txt or 38139-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/1/3/38139/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif, Broward County Library and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of Cuba, vol. 3 + +Author: Willis Fletcher Johnson + +Release Date: November 26, 2011 [EBook #38139] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif, Broward County Library and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table summary="note" style="background-color: rgb(222, 230, 201); max-width: 90%; font-size: 85%;" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> +<tbody><tr><td>Etext transcriber's note: + +<p>Many of the images may be seen at an enlarged size by clicking on them.</p> + +<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected; the original +orthography, including variation in the spelling of names, has been +retained.</p> + +<p>The Index included at the end of this etext (which includes volumes 1 thru 4) appears at the end +of volume four of <i>The History of Cuba</i>. It is provided here for the convenience +of the reader.</p></td></tr> +</tbody></table> + +<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_001x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_001x_sml.jpg" width="370" height="550" alt="JOSÉ CIPRIANO DE LA LUZ" title="JOSÉ CIPRIANO DE LA LUZ" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">JOSÉ CIPRIANO DE LA LUZ</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Socrates of Cuban youth," as he has often been called, José +Cipriano de la Luz y Caballero was born in Havana on July 11, 1799, and +was educated at the Convent of San Francisco, the University of Havana, +and the San Carlos Seminary where he was a pupil of his uncle, José +Agustin Caballero, and of Felix Varela. Later he travelled and studied +in the United States and Europe. In Germany he became intimately +associated with Baron Humboldt. Returning to Cuba in 1831, he gave +himself to the task of improving and promoting the educational interests +of his country. In 1843 he revisited Europe, but was recalled the +following year to answer an absurdly false charge of being implicated in +the Negro Conspiracy. He then founded and until his death conducted his +famous school of El Salvador, in which for a generation many of the +foremost Cubans were educated, and in which manhood and patriotism were +ever the foremost items of the curriculum. He was the author of a number +of standard educational works. He died on June 22, 1862.</p></div> + +<h1> +<span class="red">THE<br /> +HISTORY OF CUBA</span></h1> + +<p class="cb">BY<br /> +WILLIS FLETCHER JOHNSON<br /> +A.M., L.H.D.<br /> +<small>Author of "A Century of Expansion," "Four Centuries of<br /> +the Panama Canal," "America's Foreign Relations"<br /> +Honorary Professor of the History of American Foreign<br /> +Relations in New York University</small><br /> +<br /><br /><br /> +<i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS</i><br /> +<br /><br /><br /> +V<small>OLUME</small> T<small>HREE</small></p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_colphon_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_colphon.png" width="200" height="114" alt="colophon" title="colophon" /></a> +</p> + +<p class="cb"><small>NEW YORK</small><br /> +<span class="red">B. F. BUCK & COMPANY, I<small>NC</small>.</span><br /> +<small>156 F<small>IFTH</small> A<small>VENUE</small><br /> +1920</small></p> + +<p class="cb"><br /> <br /> +Copyright, 1920,<br /> +<span class="smcap">By CENTURY HISTORY CO.</span><br /> +———<br /> +<i>All rights reserved</i><br /> <br /></p> + +<p class="cb"><br /> <br /> +<span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers Hall</span><br /> +London, England.<br /> +<br /> +<small>PRINTED IN U. S. A.</small><br /> <br /></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS" +style="width:80%;font-size:90%;"> + +<tr><th colspan="3" align="center"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a><big>CONTENTS</big></th></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_I">C<small>HAPTER</small> I—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Conditions at the Beginning of the Era of Revolution—Cuba's +Commercial Backwardness—Resources Unappreciated—Statistics +of Imports and Exports—The Sugar Trade—Burdensome Taxes +and Tariffs—Restrictions on Personal Liberty—Obstacles to +Travel—Titles of Nobility—The Intendent and His Powers—Authority +and Functions of the Captain-General—District Governments—Municipal +Organization—The Courts—Control of the +Navy—Censorship of the Press—Adversion to Foreigners, Particularly +to Americans.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_II">C<small>HAPTER</small> II—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_023">23</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Narciso Lopez and His Career—His Valor in the Venezuelan +Wars—A Soldier of Spain—Some Daring Exploits—With the +Spanish Army in Cuba—His Distinguished Career in Spain—A +Leader Against the Carlists—General and Senator—Important +Office in Cuba—Alienation from Spain—First Plans for Cuban +Revolution.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_III">C<small>HAPTER</small> III—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_037">37</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Betrayal of Lopez's First Revolutionary Venture—His Flight +to New York—Cuban Juntas in the United States—Lopez's Negotiations +with Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee—Unofficial +American Aid—Strained American Relations with Spain—Official +Warnings Against Filibustering—An Elaborate Expedition +Prepared by Lopez in the United States for the Freeing of Cuba—His +Proclamation to His Followers—The Voyage to Cuba.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">C<small>HAPTER</small> IV—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_049">49</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>The Landing of Lopez at Cardenas—The Flag of Cuba Libre +for the First Time Unfurled on Cuban Soil—Parleying and Fighting +at Cardenas—Spanish Treachery—Failure of the Cuban People +to Rally to the Support of Lopez—Retreat and Reembarcation +of the Expedition—Mutiny of the Crew—Landing at Key +West—Spanish Wrath Against the United States—Arrest of Lopez +and His Comrades—Their Release.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_V">C<small>HAPTER</small> V—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Administration of Concha and His Recall—Second Expedition +of Lopez Recruited in the United States—Men and Money Provided +in the South—Betrayal of the Scheme—Proclamation of +the Captain-General—Disturbances in Cuba—Third Expedition +of Lopez Organized—Aguero's Attempt at Revolution at Puerto +Principe—His Proclamation—Initial Victories Over the Spaniards—A +Fatal Mistake—Suppression of the Revolution by Overwhelming +Numbers—Execution of the Leaders—Suppression of +Other Uprisings.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">C<small>HAPTER</small> VI—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_091">91</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Another Expedition Organized by Lopez—Its Roster—Departure +from New Orleans—Colonel Crittenden—Arrival at Key West—The +Landing in Cuba—Lack of Cuban Support—Fatal Division +of Forces—Desperate Fighting with Spaniards—Crittenden's +Mistake—Capture of the Revolutionists by the Spaniards—Indignities +and Tortures—Fifty-Two Put to Death—Heroism of Crittenden—Ill +Fortune of Lopez—Betrayal and Capture of Lopez +and His Comrades—His Death on the Scaffold.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">C<small>HAPTER</small> VII—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Failure and Success of Lopez—Irrepressible Determination of +Cuba to Be Free—Crisis in the Affairs of Spain—Animosity +Between Creoles and Spaniards—Expressions of Cuban Sentiment +and Determination—Profound Impression Produced in the +United States—Opposing Views of Pro-Slavery and Anti-Slavery +Men—Attitude of Great Britain and France—Anti-Spanish Outbreak +in New Orleans—Webster's Diplomacy—England and +France Warned Not to Meddle in Cuba—Spain's Appeal to England +Against America—Tripartite Pact Refused.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">C<small>HAPTER</small> VIII—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>American Overtures for the Purchase of Cuba—Some Early +Diplomacy—Change of Policy Under President Polk—Spain's +Refusal to Consider Sale—Pierre Soule's Extraordinary Negotiations—The +Black Warrior Controversy—Soule's Humiliation—The +Ostend Manifesto—Marcy's Shrewd Disposition of It—Buchanan's +Futile Persistence.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">C<small>HAPTER</small> IX—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_145">145</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Revolution in Peninsular Spain—General Prim's Proclamations—General +Response Throughout the Kingdom—Serrano's Entry +Into Madrid—Flight of the Queen—Republican Government +Established—Downfall of Maximilian in Mexico—Change in +American Attitude Toward Cuba Because of the Civil War and +Abolition of Slavery—Organization of the Spanish "Volunteers" +in Cuba—The Moret Anti-Slavery Law—Cuban Interest in the +Spanish Revolution.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_X">C<small>HAPTER</small> X—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Cuban Independence Proclaimed at the Outbreak of the Ten +Years' War—Provisional Government Organized—Carlos Manuel +Cespedes—Proclamation of Emancipation—Representative Government +Formed—Cespedes's Address—The First Cuban Constitution—The +House of Representatives—Presidential Proclamation—Proclamation +of General Quesada—Proclamation of Count +Valmaseda—Request for Recognition—The "Juntas of the Laborers"—Cuban +Government and Laws—Organization of the +Cuban Army.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">C<small>HAPTER</small> XI—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_180">180</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Beginning of Hostilities—Comparative Strengths of the Cuban +and Spanish Armies—The Spanish Navy—Pacific Measures First +Tried by Captain-General Dulce—Their Rejection by the Cubans—The +First Engagements—Cuban Victories—Destruction of +Bayamo—Revolts in Many Places—Murder of Cespedes's Messenger +by Volunteers—Guerilla Warfare—Havana in a State of +Siege—Progress of the Insurrection Throughout the Island—Dulce's +Change of Policy—Sympathy and Aid for the Revolution +from the United States.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">C<small>HAPTER</small> XII—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_200">200</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>An Appeal to the United States for Recognition—President +Grant Overruled by His Secretary of State—Americans Stirred +by News of Spanish Cruelties—Cuban Disappointment at Non-Recognition—Progress +of the War—Spanish Reenforcements—Liberation +of Slaves—Spanish Successes—Controversies with the +United States—Destruction of Property—Arrival of General Jordan +with Supplies—Dulce Forced Out of Office by the Volunteers—Accession +of Rodas and His Decrees—The "Butcher of +Cadiz"—American Protests Against Interference with Commerce—Proposals +of Mediation—More Aid from the United States.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">C<small>HAPTER</small> XIII—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Great Increase of Revolutionary Strength—Spain's Enormous +Force—The Case of Napoleon Arango—His Extraordinary +Manifesto—An Elaborate Appeal for Betrayal of the Revolution—Designing +Decrees of Rodas—Emancipation Decree of the +Spanish Government—Its Practical Effects—Atrocities Practised +by the Spanish—Downfall of Rodas and Appointment of Valmaseda +as Captain-General—Spanish Overtures to the United +States—Murder of Zenea by the Volunteers—Address by +Cespedes—Treachery +in the Ranks.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">C<small>HAPTER</small> XIV—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_259">259</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Counter-Revolution in Spain—Amadeus Made King—Increased +Malignity of the Volunteers—The Massacre of the Cuban Students—Death +of General Quesada—Reorganization of the Cuban +Army—Campaign of Maximo Gomez—Progress of the War with +Varying Fortunes—Calixto Garcia at Jiguani—Gradual Reduction +of Cuban Strength—Valmaseda's Savage Threats.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">C<small>HAPTER</small> XV—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_271">271</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Spain's Desperate Efforts to Suppress the Revolution—Stubborn +Resistance of the Cubans—Valmaseda Opposed and Overthrown +by the Volunteers—Accession of Jovellar—Increasing Interest +in Cuban Affairs in the United States—Spain a Republic Again—Retirement +of Cespedes—The Seizure of the <i>Virginius</i>—Massacre +of Many of Her Passengers and Crew—Strenuous Intervention—Settlement +of the Affair—"The Book of Blood"—Spanish +Confessions of Brutality.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">C<small>HAPTER</small> XVI—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_289">289</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Renewed Cuban Successes—The Island in a State of Siege—Concha +Again Captain-General—Record of the Cost of the War—The +United States Threatens Intervention—Spanish Anger—A +Protest to England Against America—American Peace Proposals—Strength +of the Spanish Army—A War of Extermination—Martinez +Campos Becomes Captain-General—His Conciliatory +Decrees—Surrender of Cuban Leaders—The Treaty of Zanjon—End +of the War—Campos's Explanation of His Course.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">C<small>HAPTER</small> XVII—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_305">305</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Results of the Ten Years' War—Political Parties in Cuba—The +Liberals, Who Were Conservative—The Union Constitutionalists—A +Third Party Platform—Cubans in the Cortes—Failure +to Fulfill the Treaty of Zanjon—The Little War—Calixto +Garcia's Campaign—Cuban Fugitives Protected by England—Revolt +of 1885—Custom House Frauds at Havana—A Reign of +Lawlessness—Tariff Troubles—The Roster of Rulers.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">C<small>HAPTER</small> XVIII—</a></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_315">315</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>The Intellectual and Spiritual Development of Cuba—Some +Famous Cuban Authors—José Maria Heredia—Felix Varela y +Morales—José de la Luz y Caballero, "The Father of the Cuban +Revolution"—Domingo del Monte and the "Friends of Peace"—José +Antonio Saco—Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces—Dona Luisa +Perez—Dona Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda—Nicolas Azcarate—Juan +Clemente Zenea—Rafael Merchan—The Distinguished Intellectual +Status of Cuba Among the Nations.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="left"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a> for Volumes 1 thru 4</td></tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="ILLUSTRATIONS" +style="margin-top:8%;font-size:90%;"> + +<tr><th colspan="2" align="center"><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a><big>ILLUSTRATIONS</big></th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">FULL PAGE PLATES</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>José</i> Cipriano de la Luz y Caballero</td><td><a href="#front"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="right"><small>FACING +PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td>The Old Presidential Palace</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_014">14</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Falls of the Hanebanilla</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Carlos Manuel de Cespedes</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Ignacio Agramonte</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_258">258</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Calixto Garcia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_268">268</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>A Santiago Sunset</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_280">280</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>José Silverio Jorrin</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_308">308</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>José Maria Heredia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_318">318</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_332">332</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">TEXT EMBELLISHMENTS</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Narciso Lopez</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_023">23</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Ramon Pinto</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Manuel Quesada</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Francisco V. Aguilera</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_173">173</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Bernabe de Varona</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_178">178</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Miguel de Aldama</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_204">204</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Domingo Goicouria</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_234">234</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Nicolas Azcarate</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Juan Clemente Zenea</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_252">252</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Salvador Cisneros Betancourt</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_276">276</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Felipe Poey</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_315">315</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Antonio Bachiller</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_317">317</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Felix Varela</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_320">320</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>José Agustin Caballero</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_321">321</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Domingo del Monte</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_323">323</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>José Jacinto Milanes</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_324">324</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>José Manuel Mestre</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_326">326</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Luisa Perez de Zambrana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_328">328</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_330">330</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Enrique Piñeyro</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_334">334</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a></p> + +<h1>THE HISTORY OF CUBA</h1> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> revolutionary era in Cuban history had its rise amid circumstances +of both political and commercial dissatisfaction and protest, and it is +by no means impossible nor even improbable that the latter form of +discontent was the more potent of the two. The commercial and industrial +development of the island, despite its almost incredibly opulent +resources, had been very slow, because handicapped by selfish and sordid +misgovernment. The typical attitude of the Peninsular government and its +agents in Cuba had been to use and to exploit the island for the sole +benefit of Spain, and not to permit other nations to enter in +competition. Other countries, in fact, so great was the secrecy +maintained with regard to Cuba, knew but little of the vast wealth +contained in this small space of land. Consequently the island was +developed in accordance with the wishes, needs, and potentialities of +Spain and with one other point of view. Cuba was never exploited by +Spain for all its worth, and indeed there seems to be doubt as to +whether Spain ever grasped in full the future possibilities of the +island. Certain it is that she never actually realized them. And the +loss was in consequence as great to Spain as it was to Cuba. For had +Spain allowed herself to lose sight of the richness of present +extortions and aided Cuba to develop her resources for the future, the +whole story would have been far different. But the people of the<a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a> United +States were beginning to recognize Cuba's possibilities. American +merchants began to flock thither. American money and American +resourcefulness opened new doors for Cuba's rich products. American +trade and enterprise contributed a great deal which made for Cuban +expansion and industrial development. In proof of this there is the fact +that the island towns on the north side, which is nearest the United +States, increased both in population and commercially, in striking +contrast to the slow growth of the towns on the south side of the +island. In 1850 these latter towns, with Santiago de Cuba as the chief +city, did not maintain more than twenty-five per cent. of the trade of +the island.</p> + +<p>In further proof of America's hand in the development of Cuba, we may +cite the following tables, in every one of which it is easy to see that +Cuba's trade was largely with the United States. Taking the records of +Cuban trade in 1828 as typical of the commerce of the early part of the +century, we get the following contrasts with the figures of the years +immediately preceding 1850:</p> + +<p>Cuban imports in 1828, $19,534,922; exports, $13,414,362; revenue, +$9,086,406.</p> + +<p>Cuban imports in 1847, $32,389,117; exports, $27,998,770; revenues, +$12,808,713.</p> + +<p>Cuban imports in 1848, $20,346,516; exports, $20,461,934; revenue, +$11,635,052.</p> + +<p>These statistics of the imports and exports of Cuba are divided +according to the chief countries concerned:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>1847</td><td align="center">Imports</td><td align="center">Exports</td></tr> +<tr><td>United States </td><td align="right">$10,892,335</td><td align="right">$8,880,040</td></tr> +<tr><td>Spain</td><td align="right">7,088,750</td><td align="right">6,780,058</td></tr> +<tr><td>England</td><td align="right">6,389,936</td><td align="right">7,240,880</td></tr> +<tr><td>France</td><td align="right">1,349,683</td><td align="right">1,940,535</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3">1848</td></tr> +<tr><td>United States</td><td align="right">$6,933,538</td><td align="right">$8,285,928</td></tr> +<tr><td>Spain</td><td align="right">7,088,750</td><td align="right">3,927,007</td></tr> +<tr><td>England</td><td align="right">4,974,545</td><td align="right">1,184,201</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a></p> + +<p>Entries and clearings of vessels from Cuba were as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td align="center" colspan="2" >1847</td> +<td colspan="2" align="center">1848</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> </td> +<td align="center"> Entries</td> +<td align="center"> Clearances</td> +<td align="center"> Entries</td> +<td align="right"> Clearances</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">United States</td><td align="right">2,012</td><td align="right">1722</td><td align="right">1733</td><td align="right">1611</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">Spain</td><td align="right">819</td><td align="right">751</td><td align="right">875</td><td align="right">747</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">England</td><td align="right">563</td><td align="right">489</td><td align="right">670</td><td align="right">348</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">France</td><td align="right">99</td><td align="right">81</td><td align="right">85</td><td align="right">63</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Copper was at this time greatly exported from Cuba. Since its discovery +in 1530 comparatively little had been done until three centuries later. +In 1830 an English company commenced operating the copper mines and from +that time to 1870 had extracted this ore to the value of $50,000,000.</p> + +<p>Sugar had long been the greatest source of Cuban wealth. It was always +the sugar planter who had social as well as financial prestige on the +island. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century even the poorest and +smallest of sugar plantations had yielded a profit of $100,000 a year +while the larger and more prosperous ones had cleared even as high as +$200,000 annually. And all this had been accomplished with a minimum of +effort. Vast areas of Cuba at this period were given over to these +plantations. Some estates devoted themselves exclusively to raising the +cane, while others ran mills which ground the cane and prepared the +product for sale as sugar. Particularly with the soil as it was then, +unravished by revolution, with its original fertility unimpaired, it was +rarely necessary to replant the sugar cane. The old sprouts came up year +after year, yielding at least two crops a year without any necessity for +disturbing or enriching the soil. In 1800 Cuba exported 41,000 tons of +sugar; and in 1850 no less than 223,000 tons.</p> + +<p>From 1836 Cuba had no representation in the Cortes. Although Spain had +promised Cuba "special laws," these were not enacted, and such laws as +were put on the books<a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a> were inimical to Cuban interests. Without +representation, Cubans were also denied free speech. To speak one's mind +against Spain meant to be thrown into a dungeon. If two or more persons +signed a petition to secure some slight betterment in conditions, it was +termed treason, and they were promptly apprehended. Business was under +control of the Captain-General. It had to pay him large sums to be +allowed to live, and it was compelled to conduct its affairs in +accordance with his ideas. The "Junta de Fomento" established by Arango +was no longer a factor in the improvement of Cuban affairs, but was +packed with creatures of the Captain-General, with favorites of the +court, and was used as a means of obtaining information and extorting +money from Cubans who were suspected of disloyalty to Spain. The public +offices were used to support additional taxation, and to strengthen the +despotic rule of the Captain-General.</p> + +<p>Under the decree of 1825 the Captains-General had taken unto themselves +the most autocratic power. Creoles were not allowed to serve in the +army, or in the treasury, customs or judicial departments. From these +last three they were excluded because such positions were lucrative, and +were desired by court favorites. The Captains-General financed and +fostered all kinds of nefarious schemes for extracting wealth from the +Cubans to pour it into their own pockets. The poor people were obliged +to police the rural districts, and to give up their own occupations to +work on the roads making repairs. The control of education in Cuba was +given—it hardly seems credible—into the hands of the military +functionaries to administer. The Spanish military authorities had a +well-organized system of blackmailing well to do citizens by threatening +to denounce them for sedition<a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a> unless they paid hush money, which was +put at as large a sum as possible. Of course it did not matter whether +the victim was guilty or innocent. If the latter he would have no +opportunity of clearing himself. The only thing which the robbers took +into consideration was how much he could pay. Money was the open sesame +for prison doors, and the barrier which prevented their closing on the +unfortunate Cuban.</p> + +<p>Yet one would think he would have little left for bribery when he had +paid his taxes, for the subject of taxation was after all the most +grievous one, and was a direct cause of the various filibustering +expeditions which attempted to gain freedom for Cuba, and finally led to +the war of independence.</p> + +<p>The revenues from all sources, including export and import duties, +license fees, and the government lottery, for the year 1851 were +$12,248,712.06, which amounted to a tax of $20 for each free citizen. +The excess duties had a very deleterious effect on the commerce of Cuba. +The duty on goods shipped direct from Spain to Cuba was so much less +than the duty on goods shipped from other countries that it became the +custom to ship materials from the United States to Spain and from Spain +back to Cuba, since this cost less than a direct shipment. The direct +shipments of flour from the United States to Cuba decreased from 113,245 +barrels in 1826 to 100 barrels in 1852, while the imports of flour from +Spain, who could hardly produce enough for her own needs, increased from +31,749 barrels to 257,451 barrels in the same time. Of course, this was +the golden opportunity for the smuggler, who could slip across from +Florida and run his boat into one of the hundreds of little coves with +which the coast of Cuba is lined.</p> + +<p>Cubans might have more cheerfully rendered their<a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a> tribute in taxes, but +unfortunately the huge sums were not expended for the good of their +country. An extravagant government had to be supported. In 1850 the cost +of maintaining the army and all expenses in connection with it were over +$5,000,000 and the navy cost more than $2,000,000, while the Spanish +legation in the United States was maintained from Cuban coffers. Writing +of such a state of affairs, José Antonio Saco said in 1835:</p> + +<p>"Enormous is the load of taxation which weighs upon us—perhaps there is +no people in the world which in proportion to its resources and +population pays as much as the island of Cuba, nor a country, perhaps, +where less care is taken to use on its own soil some part of its great +sacrifices."</p> + +<p>In 1851 the duty on sugar was raised from 50 cents a box to 87½ +cents. Flour and hogs were more heavily taxed than any other imports. +Hogs carried a duty of six dollars each, while the tax on flour was so +enormous as to prevent its use by any but the very wealthiest +inhabitants. Foreign flour was discriminated against in favor of Spanish +flour; on the former the duty was $10 a barrel while on the latter it +was increased from $2.50 to $6 a barrel. The records show there +importations of flour to Cuba:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td align="center">1847</td><td align="center">1848</td></tr> +<tr><td>From Spain</td><td align="right">175,870 bbls.</td><td align="right">212,944 bbls.</td></tr> +<tr><td>From America</td><td align="right">59,373 bbls.</td><td align="right">18,175 bbls.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Total</td><td +style="border-top:1px solid black;" align="right">235,243 bbls.</td><td +style="border-top:1px solid black;" align="right">231,119 bbls.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Spain was favored in other ways in these taxes. Spanish vessels were +taxed only one-seventh of one per cent. on imports, while foreign +vessels were taxed 1.1 per cent, on the same goods. Nor were these taxes +the only ones which the people had to undergo. One of the most +pernicious<a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a> of all taxes was the 1/10 of all farm produce which was +given to the church. The result of this tax was indirectly bad as well +as unjust, for it fostered a kind of priest in Cuba who could do little +for the moral and spiritual welfare of the people.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the revenue of the island in 1849-51:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr valign="bottom"><td align="right"> </td><td align="center">Import<br /> +Duties</td><td align="center">Export<br /> +Duties</td> +<td align="center">Other<br /> +Revenues</td><td align="center">Total</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1849</td><td align="right">$5,844,783</td><td align="right">$584,477</td><td align="right">$4,782,226</td><td align="right">$11,211,526</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1850</td><td align="right">5,639,225</td><td align="right">757,071</td><td align="right">3,655,149</td><td align="right">10,051,443</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1851</td><td align="right">6,364,825</td><td align="right">1,793,992</td><td align="right">4,821,195</td><td align="right">12,180,012</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The currency of Cuba was gold and silver; and in 1842 she had a total +amount in her treasury of $12,000,000 in coin.</p> + +<p>An official statement compiled in 1844 lists a few of the taxes, and +gives some interesting figures as to the amounts collected. The Cubans +were taxed six per cent. of the selling price, on all sales of real +estate, or slaves, and on sales at auction and in shop. They were also +taxed on Papal Bulls, and there were brokers' taxes, cattle taxes, +shopkeepers' taxes, tax on mortgages, tax on donations, tax on +cockfighting, taxes on grants of crosses, insignia or use of uniforms; +taxes on promissory notes or bills of exchange, taxes on municipal +taxes, taxes on the death of all non-insolvent persons, taxes on +investments in favor of the clergy; the church did not escape, for there +were taxes on the property of the Jesuits. There were also taxes on +sales of public lands, taxes on the establishments of auctioneers, and +taxes on everything sold, water canal taxes, and customhouse duties on +imports and exports and the tonnage of vessels. Cubans were not only +taxed on the sale of lands, but of course on the land itself, and there +were state and municipal taxes, and they were taxed on their cattle and +all animals whether<a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a> they kept them or sold them. Passports were taxed, +and as Cuba had a large transient population this tax brought in a +goodly sum. Public offices were privately sold to the highest bidder. +There were taxes on the sale of archives to notaries for the recording +of deeds. Small fines were being constantly imposed by grafting +officials, and the Captain-General's tribunal exacted a special fee, +which brought in large sums. Fees were demanded for marriages, both by +the church and the state. There was an inheritance tax; there were tolls +imposed on bridges; and large amounts were extorted for the nomination +to office of captains of districts, city ward commissaries, and +watchmen; gambling was licensed; and there were the taxes on sugar, on +pastures, on coffee and tobacco, and on minerals exported. The tax on +all crops, except sugar, when gathered was ten per cent. There was a tax +of $1.25 on every hundred weight of salt. Government documents were +required to be written on special paper, furnished by the government at +a high price.</p> + +<p>Worse than all this were the restrictions placed on personal liberty. No +private individual of a hospitable nature was allowed to give an +entertainment to his friends, even a small evening gathering, without +obtaining a license, for which he paid. If he neglected to do this he +was fined, and sometimes the license was declared invalid on some +pretext and he was fined anyway.</p> + +<p>No Cuban could move from place to place, or go on even a short journey, +without obtaining a license. If a man wanted to make an evening call on +a friend, he could not do so unless he carried a lantern, and obtained +from each watchman whom he passed permission to proceed. If he failed to +comply, he was arrested and fined $8. He could not entertain a guest in +his house over<a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a> night, not even a neighbor, without informing the +authorities, under penalty of a heavy fine. The household goods of a +Cuban could not be moved from one house to another in the same town +without the consent of the authorities, and the penalty for failure in +this case was a fine.</p> + +<p>The cost of a passport, which was necessary before a foreigner could +enter any port in Cuba, and the proceeds of which went into the +treasury, was $2. The traveller was also obliged to give security for +good conduct, and his baggage was thoroughly searched. Particular care +was taken to see that he did not have any incendiary literature, and if +he had a Bible, which must have been considered a dangerous book, and +which, at any rate, came under the ban of both the church and the +government, it was promptly separated from his other effects and seized. +Unless he desired to remain in the seaport where he entered, he was +required to pay twenty-five cents more for a passport permitting him to +visit the interior. It seems to have been difficult enough to get into +Cuba, but like the proverbial church fair, it was even more expensive to +get out, for the privilege cost $7.50.</p> + +<p>Some authorities estimate that the taxes of Cuba averaged in 1850 $38 a +head, while in the United States, a republic and the nearest neighbor, +they amounted to only about $2. But then the people of the United States +were free, and were not paying tribute for the privilege of being +governed by royalty. The greater part of these taxes were exacted from +the Creoles, for the Spaniards made up only about 35,000 of the +population and there were estimated to be 520,000 Creoles at this +period.</p> + +<p>A large number of families came to Cuba from the Spanish colonies of +South America and Mexico, which had gained their independence from +Spain, and from Florida and Louisiana when they came into the +possession<a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a> of the United States. These families were, of course, all +intensely loyal to Spain, and of the arrogant disposition which +naturally prevailed among men of such tendencies as led them to prefer +the autocracy of Spain to American democracy. In spite of this increase +in their number, the native white or Creole population of Cuba +outnumbered the Spanish by more than 10 to 1.</p> + +<p>In 1850 among the Cubans themselves there were 50 marquises and 30 +counts. These men were in the main wealthy planters who had bought their +titles from Spain for sums varying between twenty and fifty thousand +dollars. The fundamental reason for this expenditure on their part was +not wholly for social prestige but rather to enjoy the greater personal +freedom accorded to nobles. These latter could never be tried by +ordinary courts but only by tribunals, and they could not be arrested +for debt.</p> + +<p>Those Cubans who were hoping for better days for Cuba were eager that +their children should have opportunities not accorded them. They desired +to send them to the United States for education, in the hope perhaps +that they might imbibe some of the principles of liberty. But this did +not find favor with the Spanish authorities, and it was only by swearing +that the children were ill, that the climate did not agree with them, +and that they were being sent away for their health, that passports +could be obtained to get them out of the country.</p> + +<p>Many Cubans were persecuted by officials, high and low, falsely accused, +condemned without a hearing; shut up in fortresses without adequate +food, without the ordinary comforts of life, in solitary confinement, +often in dungeons; and frequently their own people were denied knowledge +of their whereabouts. They simply dropped out of sight and were gone. No +man knew when he<a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a> opened his eyes in the morning whether that day might +be his last as a free human being—free so far as he might be with the +thousand and one restrictions imposed upon him. He was not sure that +some enemy, unwittingly made, might not inform upon him for some +imaginary action of disloyalty, or that he might not be falsely +denounced by hired spies. It was then no wonder that those who loved +their country, who had self-respect and affection for their families, +longed for freedom from Spain, and lived in the hope of emancipation +from what was virtual slavery.</p> + +<p>Under the Spanish rule the chief officer of government in Cuba was the +Captain-General, who after the promulgation of the decree of May 25, +1825, had absolute authority. Even prior to that time, because of the +long distance between Cuba and the mother country, the time consumed for +information and instructions to travel back and forth, and the fact that +Spain was more or less concerned with her own none too quiet domestic +affairs, the Captain-General was very powerful.</p> + +<p>There was another office under the crown which was much sought after, +that of Intendant. He controlled the financial affairs of the island, +and received his orders not from the Captain-General but direct from the +crown. In his own realm his power was equal to that of the +Captain-General, but he had no authority outside his own particular +domain. The title of Intendant was changed to Superintendent, in 1812, +at which time the financial business of Cuba had become so important +that it was impossible for it to be handled from one place, and +subordinate officers were placed in command at Santiago and Puerto +Principe, subject of course to the direction of the Superintendent.</p> + +<p>It is needless to say that the arrogant Spanish Captains<a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>-General did +not relish having anyone on the island who equalled them in rank, and +after much controversy at home and abroad the Captain-General in 1844 +was declared to be the superior officer, and later on, in 1853, the two +offices were united, under the title of Captain-General. The +Superintendent was head or chief of a "Tribunal de Cuentas" which had +judicial control over the treasury and its officers, was auditor in +chief of all accounts, and voted on all expenditures. Its rulings were +reviewed only by the Minister of Finance in Madrid, to whose direction +it was subject.</p> + +<p>The Captain-General was the presiding officer of the City Council which +had charge of the civic administration of Havana, but he had only one +vote, exactly as had every other member, and officially he had no power +except to carry out the resolutions of the juntas. Unofficially, he +controlled the city affairs absolutely. If occasion demanded he could +act as the presiding officer of any city council. This power was +exercised whenever he felt that the councils were growing too liberal in +their ideas and actions, and enabled him to exercise a despotic power +and coerce public opinion.</p> + +<p>Cuban leaders had no conception of the democratic form of government +which in the United States gave separate powers to the national, state +or province and city administrations. The national government was +closely linked with the provincial and with the city, and the functions +were so intertwined that it was hard to say where one left off and the +other began. The Captain-General always encouraged this close +amalgamation of governmental functions because it enabled him to keep in +close touch with all the branches of the government and to discover and +put down any movements which would tend to diminish the power of the +supreme officer.<a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a> The Captain-General's power was civic, provincial, +national and indeed international. This enabled him very easily to line +his coffers, for he spent a great deal of time in signing papers of no +especial significance, except that to obtain his signature it was +necessary that he be paid a big fee. It was said that any +Captain-General who remained four years in Cuba, and did not take away +from the island with him when he departed at least a million dollars, +was a poor manager.</p> + +<p>The Captain-General had all prisons under his control; and the fate of +all prisoners, either those imprisoned for petty or state offenses, lay +in his hands. This did not mean that he personally supervised the +prisons, but that his creatures and officers were subject to his orders, +and the offices were within his gift. Thus he was able to extort fees +for various functions, as well as to demand largess for leniency +extended to state prisoners. Under Tacon's administration this power was +exercised to such an extent that it became a public scandal.</p> + +<p>The postal service also fell under the supervision of the +Captain-General, and there were many ways in which he could make this +office line his pockets. He acted as a police magistrate in the city of +Havana, another fruitful source of revenue, particularly as the office +was connected with that of president of the city council.</p> + +<p>Cuba was divided into three districts, the western, central and eastern. +Havana was the capital of the western district, Santiago de Cuba of the +eastern and Puerto Principe of the central district. Each district had +its governor who was directly under the Captain-General, and under the +governor, in charge of the affairs of the larger towns and their +out-lying districts, was a lieutenant-governor, who was president of the +local council and had control of military affairs for his district. +Under<a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a> the lieutenant-governors were captains, who were located in +regions which were not very thickly settled, and who had absolute +military power—subject of course to commands emanating higher up—over +the affairs, lives and property of the people under their jurisdiction. +Each of these officers received his appointment from the Spanish crown, +but he was obliged to receive his nomination from the Captain-General, +so that these offices too were a source of revenue to that gentleman, +and his nominees, when appointed, were subject to his control. The +functions of the governors and lieutenant-governors were supposed to be +primarily military, and they received the salary which would naturally +attach to their rank, but since they also presided in civil and criminal +cases in their jurisdictions, as did the Captain-General in Havana, the +fees from these proceedings made very fat picking. Now the captains had +no salary at all, and the style in which they were able to live depended +on the number of fines they were able to impose, and therefore it is not +difficult to imagine that they were not easy on any Cubans who came +under suspicion of any offense. They received one-third of all fines +imposed by them.</p> + +<p>Each city in Cuba had its Ayuntamiento or council. In Puerto Principe +there seem to have been elections for membership to this body, but in +most cases seats were bought at enormous prices, and the receipts from +such sale went into the Spanish treasury, although the Captain-General +received his perquisite for allowing the transfer to be made. He also +seems to have had some power of appointment, which was seldom made +without pecuniary consideration, and there were some cases where members +had hereditary rights to their seats. Not every town had its +Ayuntamiento, but in most of the older towns they<a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a> existed. The +Ayuntamiento elected its own mayor from among its members, but they were +all subject to the control of the Governor or Lieutenant Governor, who +was in line of course subject to the Captain-General.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_002x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_002x_sml.jpg" width="550" height="351" alt="THE OLD PRESIDENTIAL PALACE" title="THE OLD PRESIDENTIAL PALACE" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">THE OLD PRESIDENTIAL PALACE</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The official residence of a long line of Spanish Governors and +Captains-General is a large and handsome building of stone, tinted white +and yellow, facing the Plaza de Armas from the east, and standing on the +site of the original parish church of Havana. Within its walls occurred +the memorable scene of the final abdication of Spanish sovereignty in +Cuba. It has now been replaced by the new Presidential Palace.</p></div> + +<p>Early in the reign of the Spaniards in Cuba, courts called Audiencias +with both judicial and administrative functions had been established. +They were not at all pleasing to the more arbitrary of the +Captains-General for while they were subordinate to him, and their only +restriction on his power was in a kind of advisory capacity, yet they +often reflected public opinion, and too, if their conclusions differed +from that of the Captain-General, they were a moral curb upon his +actions which he resented. The most ancient and honorable of these +Audiencias was the one at Puerto Principe. It was the oldest in the +island, and it strove to uphold its dignity by conducting its +proceedings in the most formal and impressive manner, by adhering to the +most ancient customs. It was greatly reverenced by the people of the +district, and the Captain-General felt that somehow it detracted from +his glory, and from the respect which he felt should be accorded the +commands of his inferior officers. Various Captains-General strove to +abolish this court, and to turn its revenues into their own pockets.</p> + +<p>The judicial functions in criminal and civil suits were divided among +many bodies, and there must have been great confusion, overlapping of +authority, and consequent wrangling. Judicial powers were accorded to +the Alcaldes Mayors, to the Captains, Lieutenant Governors, Governors, +Captains-General, Audiencias, in some cases to juntas, and even to naval +officers. Judges could condemn, but they could not themselves be +condemned. There was no way of curbing a wrongful exercise of their<a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a> +power, and even when their offenses were heinous they could not be +disciplined through any democratic measures. Civil prisoners were often +taken from the jurisdiction of the civil courts and tried by military +tribunals. In the last resort, the Captain-General could always +interfere, when he chose.</p> + +<p>The courts in Cuba at the middle of the nineteenth century were +notoriously corrupt, and while the people feared them, in their +gatherings in their homes they did not hesitate to condemn them. Justice +was almost a dead letter. When a well known offender against the laws +had influence with the Captain-General, or with some subordinate +official, the prosecuting attorneys would refuse to try him. The very +source of the pay of the captains made it impossible for them to make a +living without corruption, and an honest one would have been hard to +find, while the governors and lieutenant-governors were of opinion that +the only way to keep the people in subjection was to oppress and terrify +them, and the only way for governors and lieutenant-governors to return +to Spain with the proper amount of spoil was to exact it from the +unfortunate Cubans.</p> + +<p>While the Captain-General was the supreme military authority, he was not +the supreme commander of the naval forces, the latter being a separate +office. This was due principally at least to the fact that all the naval +forces of Spain in America were commanded from Havana, and all naval +expeditions for the defense of Spain in South America were commanded and +directed from that port. Therefore, it was necessary not only that the +naval officer should be a person of importance and ability, but also +that he should not be subordinate to the chief officer of any one of the +Spanish colonies. When Spain lost her large possessions in America, and +only Cuba remained<a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a> to her, then the office of naval commander was +greatly curtailed in scope, and it was a matter of much irritation to +the Captain-General that there should be stationed in Cuba, or in Cuban +waters, an official of equal rank with himself.</p> + +<p>Over the army the Captain-General held undisputed sway. There were +quartered in Cuba in 1825 three regular army battalions, a brigade of +artillery and one cavalry regiment. This army was supposed to be +augmented by the local militia. In 1850 there were in the regular army +sixteen battalions, two picked companies of veterans, twelve squadrons +of cavalry, two brigades of artillery, and two light batteries.</p> + +<p>Cuba had reason to fear the success of an attack made from the southern +coast of Florida, from Hayti or from Yucatan. The island lies in the +midst of the gulf waters, long and narrow in outline, and with miles of +sea coast all out of proportion to its area. It was almost impossible +adequately to patrol the coast and it would have been easy for an enemy +to make a landing, provided the leader of an expedition was familiar +with the coasts. Means of communication were slow in those days, and +particularly slow in Cuba because of her geographical formation. If the +attackers once entrenched themselves in the mountains, they were in a +position to carry on an interminable guerrilla warfare. For these +reasons, Spain would have felt that Cuba should be heavily garrisoned, +even were it not also for the fact that the Cubans were growing so +restless and crying so vociferously for liberty that Spain had reason to +fear dangers both from within and without.</p> + +<p>People did not lightly express their opinions publicly in Cuba, +particularly if those opinions were unfavorable to the government. +Expressions unfavorable to the government<a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a> were never allowed to leak +into print, for except for a short period in 1812, and another from 1820 +to 1823, the press was securely censored. The Captains-General who +reigned during the nineteenth century were particularly careful that +this censorship should be rigid and unbending. An American editor, Mr. +Thrasher, was more daring than the native Cubans and his paper, <i>El Faro +Industrial</i>, frequently contained matter which provoked the displeasure +of the Captain-General. He had powerful connections and he was therefore +unmolested until it was deemed that his comment on the death of General +Ena, during the Lopez uprising, was too offensive, and the paper was +suppressed. The Spanish interests conducted the largest newspaper in +Havana, <i>El Diario de la Marina</i>, which had a list of 6,000 subscribers. +Although this paper was avowedly Spanish in its sympathies and was +conducted with Spanish money, it too was carefully watched by the +censor. One day, it unguardedly, or through a misjudgment, accepted for +publication an article implying that the interests of Cuba and the +interests of Spain were not one and identical, and the entire edition +was promptly suppressed by the censor.</p> + +<p>Not only was the local press carefully muzzled, but a watch was kept +lest anything creep in from the United States, or from any other source, +which might put notions in the heads of the Cubans that would divert +their allegiance from Spain. The work of the censor was not an +acceptable one for the United States, and the American residents in Cuba +did not take pleasantly to the suppression of the American papers, and +friction on this score was constant.</p> + +<p>A paper called <i>La Verdad</i>, published in New York by Cuban sympathizers, +came under the especial displeasure of the Captain-General and of the +Spanish government<a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a> in Madrid. Regarding it, the Spanish Secretary of +Foreign Affairs wrote as follows to Calderon de la Barca, the Spanish +minister at Washington, on January 2, 1848:</p> + +<p>"Your excellency knows that the paper called <i>La Verdad</i>, published in +New York, is printed with the specific object of awakening among the +inhabitants of Cuba and Porto Rico the sentiment of rebellion, and to +propagate the idea of annexation to the United States. The +Captain-General of the island, in fulfilment of his duty, prohibited the +entrance and circulation of this newspaper in the island, and tried to +investigate the ramifications in the island of this conspiracy against +the rights of Spain, and against the peace of the country. As a result +of the efforts made with this object, it was discovered that although +not numerous, there were in Havana some wicked Spaniards charged with +the task of collecting money to sustain the subversive publication, and +to distribute its copies to those who should care to read them."</p> + +<p>The Spanish government in Cuba did not look with favor upon foreigners. +It thought that other countries, especially those adjacent to Cuba, were +too tainted with liberal notions to render their inhabitants safe +associates for the already restless Cubans. It therefore preferred that +persons wishing to visit Cuba either remain quietly at home, or become +Spanish citizens, subject to Spanish rule, if they insisted on remaining +on the island. On October 21, 1817, a Royal Order was issued dividing +foreigners into three classes. First, transients, composed of those who +were merely enjoying the unwilling hospitality of Spain in Cuba. A +person could be regarded as a transient for a period of only five years. +After that he must either declare his intention of remaining in Cuba +permanently or depart. Second, domiciled foreigners, who must declare +their intention of remaining<a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a> permanently in Cuba, must embrace the +church by becoming Roman Catholics, must forswear allegiance to their +native country in favor of allegiance to Spain, and must agree to be +subject to Spanish law exactly as native Cubans and Spaniards were +subject to it. Third, citizens by naturalization, who were regarded as +Spanish citizens in every sense of the word, and could be sure of the +same unjust treatment which Spain accorded all subjects in her +possessions.</p> + +<p>Now this subject of foreigners in Cuba was a complex one, because, +beside the tendency among Americans to settle on the island, now that +its rich resources were becoming recognized, there were, in the middle +of the nineteenth century, many Americans rushing to California to seek +their fortunes in the gold fields. The favorite route was via Havana and +Panama, and they naturally left their mark on the thought of the people +with whom they came in contact. Beside this each year during the sugar +harvest skilled mechanics came to work on the plantations. This did not +meet with the approval of those in command of the finances of the +island, because each of these visitors carried home with him every year +from $1,000 to $1,500 on which he had paid no taxes. Such conduct was +reprehensible, and it was entirely foreign to the policy or intent of +any Captain-General that anyone should get away with any money without +being either taxed or fined for it. Besides, these adventurers, as they +were contemptuously termed, were regular mouthpieces of treason, and +were said to talk of nothing else but freedom from Spain by annexation. +Naturally their coming was unpleasant to the high powers in Cuba. Now +under the treaty of 1795, between Spain and the United States, provision +was made that "in all cases of seizure, detention or arrest, for debts +contracted,<a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a> or offenses committed by any citizen or subject of the one +party, within the jurisdiction of the other, the same shall be made and +prosecuted by order of the law only, and according to the regular course +of proceedings in such cases. The citizens and subjects of both parties +shall be allowed to employ such advocates, solicitors, notaries, agents +and factors as they may judge proper in all their affairs and in all +their trials at law in which they may be concerned before the tribunals +of the other party, and such agents shall have free access to be present +at the proceedings in such cases and at the taking of all examinations +and evidence which may be exhibited in the said trials."</p> + +<p>Americans charged with offenses against the Spanish government should +have had the benefits of the rights given them under this treaty, but +the government took refuge behind the fact that the Captain-General had +no diplomatic functions, and Americans were frequently thrust into +prison and allowed to remain there subject to much discomfort and to +financial loss until Washington and Madrid got the facts, and took the +time to arrange the matter. The Spanish Secretary for Foreign Affairs +wrote to Calderon de la Barca, on this matter, as follows:</p> + +<p>"Your Excellency knows that the government of Her Majesty has always +maintained the position with all foreign powers that its colonies are +outside of all the promises and obligations undertaken by Spain in +international agreements. With regard to Cuba, the discussions with +England to this effect are well known, in which the Spanish Government +has declared that the treaties which form the positive law of Spain had +been adjusted in times when the Spanish colonies were closed to all +foreign trade and commerce, and that when in<a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a> 1824, these colonies were +opened to commerce of all other nations, they were not placed on equal +footing with the home country, but were kept in the exceptional position +of colonies. Of this exceptional position of that part of the Spanish +dominions, no one has more proof than the foreign consuls, since it is +evident to them that the Spanish government has only endured their +presence on the condition that they should not exercise other functions +than those of mere commercial agents. Thus in 1845 the English +government accepted formally the agreement that its consul should not +demand the fulfillment of treaties, not even of those which refer to the +slave trade."</p> + +<p>The natural inference to be drawn from this was that Spain considered +that foreigners who desired to live in Cuba must do so at their own +peril, and that the Captain-General was above the trammeling bonds of +international agreements in his dealing with interlopers who came to the +island. But it must be borne in mind that the government of Cuba was +administered not for the development of the island or the best good of +its inhabitants, but according to the short sighted and stupid policies +which seemed to Spain best calculated to prevent Cuba from slipping from +her grasp as had her other colonies. Therefore, the main solicitude of +each of the Captains-General was the subduing of the inhabitants by +force, if necessary, the defense of the island from an enemy who might +come by sea, and the lining of his own pockets while opportunity +offered.<a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p>V<small>ENEZUELA</small> gave the struggling Spanish American colonies Bolivar, who was +their liberator and their savior. In the same country was born, at the +end of the eighteenth century, in 1798 or 1799, a child who fifty years +later was to lay down his life on the altar of freedom for Cuba. This +boy, like Bolivar, was of a wealthy and respected family. His father was +the proprietor of a large estate which was stocked with cattle and +horses and live stock of every kind. His mother had gentle and even +aristocratic blood in her veins and she endeavored to bring up her +children with high ideals of truth and honor. Narciso Lopez, who was to +fight so valiantly for enslaved Cuba, is reported to have been a boy who +was born to command. He roamed the plains with the men from his father's +ranch and they recognised him as a leader. He was a fine shot, a +fearless rider, brave, energetic, resolute and tireless.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> +<a href="images/ill_23pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_23pg_sml.png" width="151" height="221" alt="NARCISO LOPEZ" title="NARCISO LOPEZ" /></a> +</div> + +<p>When he was a boy of fourteen or fifteen his family moved to Caracas. +His father had been stripped of his property by the wars by which +Venezuela was torn at that time, and consequently entered into +commercial life, and soon established a business with many nourishing +branches. Narciso must have been a lad of exceptional perspicuity and +judgment, for his father placed him in<a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a> charge of a branch establishment +at Valencia. But a quiet commercial life, as quiet as the times would +permit, did not please a boy who had the instincts and tastes of a +soldier. Besides it probably would have been difficult for anyone with +any spirit to keep out of the turmoil which was threatening to engulf +Valencia at that time. For the place was armed and garrisoned against +the Spaniards, who under General Boves were advancing to attempt to take +it. The natural leader of the Venezuelans was Bolivar, and although he +had been routed, and had retired to reorganize his forces, he succeeded +in getting word through to Valencia to hold the town at any cost. The +Valencians were only too eager to obey these instructions, because they +well knew the devastation that inevitably followed in the wake of the +Spanish army. They could not view with equanimity the picture of their +town destroyed, their women ravished, little children killed, and men +massacred or led away into captivity, and so they laid plans for a brave +resistance. All of the valuable property was collected from the houses +into the public square. The town had no walls, so that the best that +could be done was to barricade the approaches to this square and strive +to defend it.</p> + +<p>The house where Lopez lived was situated in one corner of the square, +and he soon found himself not only in the centre of the preparations, +but, because of his resourcefulness and initiative, a recognized leader +in the defensive operations. The elder Lopez was in town at the time, +but while he did his part in preparing for the siege, it was the son who +took command and who issued the orders to the father. For three weeks +the little band of patriots held off the Spanish forces, sending runners +through, whenever this could be done, with messages asking Bolivar to +hasten to their aid, and each day praying<a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a> that help might reach them. +But Bolivar was unable to do anything for them. Indeed his army was in +such straits that it was a relief to him to have the Spanish leader turn +his attention to the attack on Valencia and give an opportunity to rally +his own forces. At the end of the third week the victorious Spaniards +entered the town in triumph. The men were separated from the women, and +were marked for a general slaughter that night while the decree went +forth that the women were to be allowed to remain alive a little longer +so that they might serve the pleasure of their conquerors. Narciso was +not taken prisoner, because he was clever enough to hide himself with +some negroes, who it was expected would be taken away into captivity by +the Spaniards. Narciso was separated from his father, and was much +concerned for the latter's safety, for the son readily pictured the +horrible fate that might befall him; and finally his fears grew so +unbearable that he felt that anything rather than uncertainty would be +welcome. He therefore stole forth to reconnoiter and to see what he +could discover. With him he took two old colored men who had been family +servants. All night he searched, crawling from house to house, under +cover of the darkness, taking advantage of every bit of cover, lying +close to some friendly shelter to listen to the conversation of passing +soldiers in the hope that he might gather some news. He was later to +learn that his father had effected his escape, and that his own +fruitless search through the dark watches of that interminable night was +after all his own salvation. The next morning, when, worn out with +exhaustion and half dead with fatigue, he and his companions dragged +themselves back to the place where the slaves had been huddled, a +ghastly sight met their eyes. The Spaniards for once had been false to +their traditions.<a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a> Perhaps they knew that these slaves had imbibed from +their masters too much of the spirit of liberty to make good Spanish +servants. At any rate there they lay upon the ground, eighty-seven of +them, each with his throat slit from ear to ear.</p> + +<p>Now we come to a period of Lopez's career which it is difficult to +harmonize with the whole story of his after life. The only plausible +explanation seems to be that he was only a boy, and that Bolivar's army +was suffering such reverses that the only way in which Lopez could save +his own life was by joining forces with the Spaniards, which he did. One +would have thought that after the valiant part he played in the defense +of Valencia, he would cast his lot with the insurgents. No writer of the +period gives us any real explanation of his course. But whatever the +motive, Lopez became a Spanish soldier, a fact which later was to be of +tremendous value to him, because it enabled him to visit Spain, to rise +high in the service, to hold exalted positions in the Spanish court, and +to obtain an insight into the cruelties and injustices perpetrated by +the men who were the oppressors of the country which he was to adopt as +his own, and the salvation of which he was to make his life work, which +he could have gained in no other way. His action may have been +precipitated by the fact that the people of Valencia did not understand +the straits in which Bolivar found himself, but felt that he had +deliberately deserted them.</p> + +<p>Through the long struggle which ended in the evacuation of Caracas by +Spain in 1823, Lopez fought with the Spaniards. So brilliant was his +service that he was at the age of twenty-three given the rank of major. +The story is told that early in the war, when he was a mere private, in +an attack against a position which was defended<a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a> by field works, the +Spanish forces were divided, in an effort to take two bastions upon the +capture of which victory depended. But there was not sufficient +ammunition, and that of one of the divisions became exhausted, so that +it was necessary to obtain a fresh supply from the other division. This +information was signaled, and the leader of that portion of the +attackers which must now supply the other, called for volunteers. In +order to get the relief through it was necessary to lead three mules, +which were tied together Spanish fashion, the head of the second mule to +the tail of the first one, and the head of the third to the tail of the +second, past a position where they were exposed to the hot fire of the +opposing army. Lopez volunteered. When he reached the most dangerous +part of his course, the mule in the center was struck by the enemy's +fire and fell dead. Lopez did not hesitate, but with the bullets singing +about him—the insurgents in that party must have been singularly bad +marksmen, or perhaps their guns were not of an efficient pattern—he cut +out the dead animal and, tying the two remaining mules together, safely +reached his destination and delivered the ammunition to the commander. +He was not injured, but his gun had been broken by a chance shot, his +clothes were riddled with bullets, one of which had passed through his +hat within an inch of his head, and both of his mules were so severely +wounded that they had to be shot. His action gave the victory to the +Spanish. This exploit won for Lopez the offer of an officer's +commission, but he was modest in his estimate of his own ability, and he +felt that he was too young for the honor, and so he refused, with the +request that he might be taken from the infantry and placed in the +cavalry. So, in spite of his disposition to make light of his own +achievements, and almost against his own will, he found himself<a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a> at +nineteen the commander of a squadron of horsemen. It was a force of +picked men, most of them older than Lopez, and it had the reputation of +never having shown its back to the enemy. From the command of this +company, Lopez was elevated to the rank of major.</p> + +<p>Now Lopez had made many friends in the Spanish army. All through his +career he had the ability to make men believe in him, love him and be +ready to follow wherever he led. The high honors which had fallen to his +lot seemed not to have incited jealousy among his companions; indeed on +the other hand he was urged by his friends to apply for the cross of San +Fernando, to which they believed he was entitled. Again that curious +quality in Lopez which did not make him shrink from deeds of bravery, +but which did make him draw back from demanding their reward, asserted +itself. The cross of San Fernando was a very great honor, and it was not +bestowed as a free gift, but when a man performed some action of unusual +courage he might publicly demand it, and anyone in the army who cared to +do so was free to enter their opposition, by proving, or trying to +prove, that the deed for which the cross was demanded was not of such a +character as to merit such a reward. In the whole Spanish army in Cuba +at that time, only one individual had succeeded in obtaining the cross +of San Fernando. While Lopez hesitated, his commander in chief, General +Morillo, had the application drawn up and personally insisted that Lopez +sign it. After a rigid inquiry into the merits of this petition, which +was backed up by the endorsement of his comrades and of Morillo himself, +the cross was granted.</p> + +<p>But it was no more than common justice that Morillo should take this +stand, for far better than anyone else<a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a> had he cause to be grateful for +the bravery of this twenty-three year old boy. The larger part of the +Spanish army at this time was infantry, while the army of the insurgents +was largely cavalry. The natives knew the country, and were able to +carry on a successful guerrilla warfare, without allowing the Spaniards +to engage them in open battle. This harassed the Spaniards, wore down +their morale, and slowly but surely decimated their forces. Morillo, +well knowing this, was pursuing the insurgents, in a vain attempt to +join them in conflict. Lopez at this time was in charge of his cavalry +company, which had been almost exterminated in a conflict that morning. +Only a little band of thirty-eight men remained. Morillo was not aware +of the catastrophe which had overtaken Lopez's command, and did not know +how greatly it had been reduced in numbers. He therefore issued orders +that it gallop forward to attack the enemy in the rear, with an idea of +forcing them to face about and give battle. The engagement took place on +the plains, and the handful of men could be plainly discerned by the +enemy as they rode to obey their commanding officer. General Paez, who +was in command of the Venezuelans, sent a corps of 300 men to repel the +thirty-eight cavalrymen. Neither Lopez nor his men faltered, for they +must live up to their traditions. Lopez ordered them to dismount and +engage the advancing enemy on foot, using lances and carbines in the +attack. Morillo soon discovered what was in progress and sent +reinforcements, and Lopez's men held their position until aid reached +them.</p> + +<p>When this war was over and freedom had been won an extraordinary thing +happened. The patriot government invited this young man, who had fought +against them, to enter their service with the same rank which he<a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a> had +held in the Spanish army. This he declined, and when evacuation took +place he retired with the Spanish army to Cuba, in 1823.</p> + +<p>Lopez married a very charming Cuban, adopted Cuba as his native land, +and gave up his position in the army. Perhaps the cruelty of the Spanish +government in Cuba may have awakened him to the nature of the +organization which he was serving. He was at heart a man who loved +freedom, who was impatient of unjust restraint, who loved his fellow men +and could not bear to see them suffer injustice. Spain was afraid that +her officers might be led away by the spirit of democracy which was +creating such havoc in her possessions in America. When absolutism was +again restored in Spain, and the constitution of 1812 was for the second +time overthrown, she required her officers in Cuba publicly to adjure +liberalism, and to take an oath to stand by the Spanish rule in the +colony. This Lopez could not bring himself to do, and so he remained in +retirement.</p> + +<p>Affairs in Spain underwent a change, for King Ferdinand died and +immediately a contest for the control of the government was on between +his widow, Maria Cristina, as regent for her infant daughter, Isabel, +and Don Carlos, who was the brother of the deceased king, and who +declared that under the Salic law the crown belonged to him. War between +the two factions seemed imminent, and the Spanish people were war weary, +when the Queen regent conceived a brilliant plan. She felt sure that the +will of the people was with her, since she represented the liberal party +as against Don Carlos who was at the head of the absolutists and whose +accession of power would mean new oppressions. Maria Cristina therefore +issued a proclamation calling on the people, if they loved their country +and wished to save her from civil war, to join in<a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a> disarming the +absolutists. This movement was well organized and a day was set for the +disarmament to take place all over the kingdom. It seems almost +incredible, but it was successful, and from one end of Spain to the +other there were over six hundred thousand stacks of arms taken from the +Carlists by the people of the liberal party.</p> + +<p>Now while this action was being planned and executed, Lopez happened to +be in Spain. He had gone to the court at Madrid with his wife to +endeavor to have restitution made to her of large sums of money which +the government of Cuba had unjustly taken from her family. Unfortunately +there are no records which disclose whether his diplomacy was great +enough to persuade Spain to return any money which had once gotten into +her coffers. However, Lopez had grown to understand Cuban affairs by +this time well enough to know that if the liberals were successful it +might mean the reestablishment of the constitution of 1812, and the dawn +of better days for Cuba; but on the other hand, should the Carlists +triumph, Cuba was bound to be more fiercely ground beneath the heel of +tyranny and oppressions. Lopez loved his adopted country, and so he at +once took command of a body of liberals who were being hard pressed by a +company of the national guard, part of which had sided with Don Carlos. +He rallied the little band, filled them with new courage and enthusiasm, +and all day he worked with them, sometimes in company with other men and +often alone, driving before him companies of Carlists, forcing them to +go to the guardhouse of the liberals and surrender their weapons. When +news of this conduct reached royal ears, Lopez was made first +aide-de-camp to General Valdez, who was commander in chief of the +liberal forces, that same Valdez who was destined later to become +Captain-General<a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a> of Cuba. A strong friendship sprang up between the two +men, a bond which was never broken, and which Lopez respected so much +that he later deferred action against the Spanish government in Cuba +until after Valdez had relinquished the office of Captain-General. +Indeed, it was through the influence of Lopez at the court of Spain that +Valdez became Captain-General.</p> + +<p>Valdez had many reasons for being grateful to Lopez, for during the war +which followed between the forces of the queen and those of Carlos, at +one crisis—a surprise attack when the troops were about to flee—Lopez +placed himself in command and led them to victory. On another occasion +Valdez, who had his headquarters in the little village of Durango, had +dispatched the main portion of his army against the forces of the enemy, +retaining with him only a few picked men. Suddenly he found himself +almost surrounded by the Carlists, who had seized the hills by which the +village was enclosed. It was necessary that someone carry news of the +situation to the main army and obtain relief. Lopez, who was then a +colonel, signified his willingness to undertake the task, and indeed +claimed that it was his right as first aide-de-camp to command the +rescuing party which he intended to bring back with him. Valdez was +loath to let him go, for he felt that success was problematic, and that +the expedition meant almost certain death for his friend. But there was +no alternative, and so at last he consented. Lopez set forth on +horseback with one servant attending him. When they approached the +enemy, they signalled that they were deserters, with valuable +information to impart. They were allowed to approach without being fired +on, and when they came abreast of the opposing forces, they set spurs to +their horses, ran the gauntlet of a shower of<a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a> bullets, and escaped +unhurt, bearing the news of Valdez's perilous position to his main army.</p> + +<p>So great was Lopez's valor and fearlessness, and so high a reputation +had he for honor and fair dealing, that he was respected by the Carlists +as well as by his own party. At the end of this struggle he was accorded +the rank of General in the Spanish army, and was loaded with honors, +having the crosses of Isabella Catolica and St. Hermengilda bestowed +upon him, and being appointed commander in chief of the National Guard +of Spain. He stood high in the regard of the Queen Regent, but he grew +to know her as she was, a cold, selfish plotter, and when she was +finally expelled from the regency Lopez regarded it as a cause for +rejoicing, even though his own career might be expected to suffer. But +the regard in which he was held was too great for this to come to pass, +and after the insurrection which deposed Maria Cristina he was offered +and accepted the post of Governor of Madrid.</p> + +<p>Lopez also served Spain as a senator from the city of Seville. He was +present in the Cortes when the Cuban delegates who were elected during +the conflict of wills between General Lorenzo and Captain-General Tacon, +and who escaped to Spain and attempted to claim their seats in the +Cortes, were rejected. Perhaps more than anything else in his career, +Lopez's service as senator opened his eyes to the vile condition of +Spanish politics, and the methods which were used in ruling the +colonies. He was always on the side of the oppressed, he hated +injustice, and so, then and there, the love of liberty which had always +been a part of his character took concrete form in a resolve to be the +liberator of Cuba.</p> + +<p>When Valdez set forth to take over the command in<a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a> Cuba, he had +earnestly requested that Lopez be allowed to accompany him, but on the +plea that there was important work for him to do in Spain, Lopez was not +allowed to depart. It may be that in spite of the fight which he had +made to maintain the unity of the Spanish kingdom, the astute and crafty +Spanish statesmen suspected his loyalty, for it was reported that during +Tacon's administration in Cuba, Lopez had entered into a conspiracy to +obtain freedom for the island, and had publicly toasted "free Cuba" at a +banquet. This seems more like a story which might have been born of +Tacon's mean jealousy and fear for his own power, and nurtured by his +vivid imagination when he sought to harm an enemy. It does not seem +credible that Lopez, who had not yet openly thrown in his fortunes with +the liberals in Cuba, would have been so foolish as to expose himself to +the vengeance of a Captain-General who he had good reason to know would +let nothing stand in his way when he sought to tear a rival in court +favor from a high place. Be this as it may, the story was current in +Spain, and while it seems not to have harmed Lopez's popularity with the +people or with the court, it did prevent his accompanying Valdez to Cuba +at this time. Lopez's ability to make friends, however, a little later +stood him in good stead. He had won the liking and indeed the warm +affection of Espartero, the leader at this time of the liberal party in +Spain, and the influence of Espartero finally made it possible for Lopez +to return to Havana, in 1839.</p> + +<p>The friendship between Valdez and Lopez remained warm, and Valdez +appointed Lopez President of the Military Commission, Governor of +Trinidad, and Commander-in-chief of the Central Department of the +Island. Now rumors that a revolution was imminent began to be<a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a> generally +circulated. No one could tell the source from which they sprang, but +they seemed to be in the atmosphere, and were the constant subject of +whispered conversations in the cafés and restaurants and in the houses +of the liberals.</p> + +<p>When Valdez relinquished the Captain-Generalship, and O'Donnell began +his infamous rule, Lopez felt himself released from all obligations to +the government. Every particle of Spanish sympathy had long since been +purged from his heart, and his honors from such a source had become +irksome. He had refrained from actively plotting against Spain while +Valdez was ruling over Cuba, his friendship for Valdez making him +unwilling to embarrass him. This curb removed, Lopez gladly relinquished +his offices and retired to his own estates. He was not nearly so +successful as a business man as he was as a soldier, and the business +enterprises which he undertook proved to be failures. But he took over +the management of some copper mines and these were used as bases for the +organization of the attempt to free Cuba which was now beginning to take +form and shape in his mind. He mingled with the people quietly and +endeavored, successfully, to win their esteem and liking. The district +in which the mines were located was settled mainly by men who were +always in the saddle. Now Lopez was a fine horseman. There were no deeds +of horsemanship which they might perform which he could not duplicate or +improve upon. He thus soon won a popular following, and this curiously +enough without attracting the particular attention of the +Captain-General or his spies, and became a hero to the men among whom he +dwelt. They were all indebted to him for deeds of kindness, for no man +in difficulties ever appealed to Lopez's purse in vain.<a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a> Thus he +acquired an influence which made him confident that should he speak the +word the countryside would rally with him under the banner of revolt +against Spain.</p> + +<p>Now Lopez was not particularly interested in the emancipation of the +slaves. He thought that they were necessary for the successful +cultivation of the island, and he could not successfully visualize a +free black population. He felt that a Cuba unbound by any ties to any +other nation meant free blacks. He therefore favored annexation to the +United States. He took the American Consul at Havana, Robert Campbell, +into his confidence, and asked his advice. Campbell was in favor of +annexation by the United States and expressed his opinion that the +majority of the American people, especially those in the southern +states, were heartily in favor of the United States taking over Cuba; +but he also called Lopez's attention to the numerous treaty obligations +binding the United States and Spain together, and assured him that +whatever secret support he might hope to gain from that country, he +(Campbell) certainly would not officially come out and sanction any +movement to free Cuba from Spain. He felt that if Lopez by revolution +could perform the operation and sever the bonds which bound Cuba to +Spain, the United States might reasonably be expected not to refuse the +gift of the island were it offered to her.</p> + +<p>Lopez at once began actively to outline his plans for a revolution, and +secret headquarters were established at Cienfuegos, while the +organization was extended to other parts of the island.<a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p>L<small>OPEZ</small> planned to begin the uprising for the freedom of Cuba on June 24, +1848. He had enlisted the sympathy and secret cooperation of many men in +the United States, chiefly in the southern part of that country, and +looked to them to provide him with the needed arms and ammunition. There +was no lack of readiness on their part to respond to his needs in this +respect, but there was much difficulty in transporting such supplies +from the United States to Cuba. Whatever the personal sentiments of the +officers of the American government, they were required publicly to do +all in their power to prevent illicit traffic; while of course the +Spanish officials in Cuba were vigilant to prevent the landing of any +such cargoes. The result was that sufficient supplies did not reach Cuba +in time for an uprising on the appointed date.</p> + +<p>The delay was fatal. It afforded opportunity for betrayal. Among the +followers of Lopez in Cuba was one José Sanchez Yznaga, a mere lad of +tender years. He could not resist the temptation to boast to his mother +of the great enterprise in which he was to take part, and she, drawing +from him all the details of the conspiracy, repeated the story to her +husband. Forthwith he gave information of it to the authorities; +reputedly in order to prevent his son from getting into mischief. Lopez, +unconscious of what had happened, was "invited" by the Governor of +Cienfuegos to call upon him, on a matter of important business, and was +actually on his way to keep the engagement when he learned of the +betrayal. Instantly he changed his course, and instead of going to<a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a> +Cienfuegos he took train for Cardenas and thence a coasting vessel for +Matanzas. At the latter port he was so fortunate as to find the steamer +<i>Neptune</i> just starting for New York. She had room for another passenger +and he got aboard without detection by the Spanish officers who were in +quest of him. The boy Yznaga also escaped arrest. Apparently the names +of the other conspirators were not disclosed, or else there was no +convincing evidence against them. At any rate, none of them were +imprisoned or punished in any way. But Lopez himself was tried <i>in +absentia</i> and was condemned to death, on March 2, 1849; and Yznaga, also +absent, was condemned to six years' imprisonment.</p> + +<p>It was in July, 1848, that Narciso Lopez reached New York, a fugitive +from Spanish wrath. There he found that various Cuban Juntas had been +formed in the United States, and that a well-organized campaign for the +annexation of Cuba was being pushed. This movement was not, of course, +approved officially by the United States government; but neither were +any extraordinary efforts made to suppress or to discourage it. Several +Senators of the United States did not hesitate to make speeches in the +Senate in favor of annexation; some of them advocating its forcible +achievement if Spain declined to make the cession peacefully. Several of +the foremost newspapers also openly espoused the cause. Improving the +opportunity presented to him by these circumstances, Lopez sought some +prominent American, politician or soldier, who would identify himself +with the Cuban revolution and would place himself at its head. Some of +his first and strongest efforts were directed toward getting Jefferson +Davis, then a Senator and afterward President of the Confederate States, +to take command of the expedition which he purposed to fit out; and he +offered to place<a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a> the sum of $100,000 in a New York bank to the credit +of Mrs. Davis as an inducement. Davis considered the offer and then +declined it; sending Lopez, however, to Major Robert Edward Lee, of the +United States army, afterward of the Confederate army, as a more likely +candidate. Lee, however, also refused the invitation, for reasons which +Jefferson Davis afterward set forth as follows:</p> + +<p>"He came from Mexico crowned with honors, covered by brevets and +recognized, young as he was, as one of the ablest of his country's +soldiers, and to prove that he was estimated then as such, I may mention +that when he was a Captain of engineers, stationed at Baltimore, the +Cuban Junta in New York selected him to be their leader in the +revolutionary effort on that island. They were anxious to secure his +services, and offered him every temptation that ambition could desire, +and pecuniary emoluments far beyond any which he could hope otherwise to +acquire. He thought the matter over, and, I remember, came to Washington +to consult me as to what he should do. After a brief discussion of the +complex character of the military problem which was presented he turned +from the consideration of that view of the question by stating that the +point on which he wished particularly to consult me, was as to the +propriety of entertaining the proposition which had been made to him. He +had been educated in the service of the United States, and felt it wrong +to accept place in the army of a foreign power while he held a +commission."</p> + +<p>Contributions to the amount of $70,000 were made in the United States to +help to finance the expedition, and $30,000 more was sent from Cuba. +Lopez had long interviews with many men who stood high in American +affairs, and he was assured by them that if the semblance of a real +revolution was created, the United States might<a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a> be expected to +intervene and to annex the island. Recruiting was quietly going on in +several parts of the United States. There was little concealment about +the methods or plans, and Spanish spies who were closely following the +leaders in the movement were able to report very accurately to the +Captain-General in Cuba and to the Spanish minister at Washington, Señor +Calderon de la Barca, exactly what was going on. These two gentlemen +organized a small counter movement and expended large sums of money +extracted from the Cuban treasury to balk the plans of the +revolutionists. Promises of generous pay, however, lured large numbers +of adventurers into the ranks of Lopez's party. Those who enlisted were +promised $1,000, and five acres of land, if the expedition was +triumphant, and pay equal to that of a private in the United States army +in any event.</p> + +<p>Headquarters for the recruits were established at Cat Island, but the +little army was dispersed by the United States authorities, and then the +gathering place was changed to Round Island, near the city of New +Orleans, where Col. G. W. White, a veteran of the Mexican war, was in +charge. The number of men who were assembled under Col. White, ready to +sail for Cuba, was reported to be from 550 to 800.</p> + +<p>While all these preparations were going on, there was an incident in +Havana which threatened seriously to embroil Spain with the United +States. The prison at Havana was holding two men, Villaverde, who was +under arrest for sedition against Spain, and Fernandez, who had been +condemned to imprisonment for fraudulent acts in connection with a +bankruptcy proceeding. One of the jailors was Juan Francisco Garcia Rey, +an American citizen, and he aided these prisoners to escape, Villaverde +going to Savannah, while Fernandez went with Rey to<a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a> New Orleans. Rey +was soon trailed by Spanish spies and he was either tricked into going +on board a Spanish sailing vessel or else he was forced to do so, and +hurried off to Cuba with no property but the clothes which he wore. When +the vessel reached Cuba, the United States consul went on board, but the +men who were guarding Rey forced him to state that he had arrived in +Cuba voluntarily. The vessel was held in quarantine for some time, and +immediately after it was released, Rey was placed in solitary +confinement; from which however he managed to get a letter through to +the American consul, which read as follows:</p> + +<p>"My name is Juan Garcia Rey; I was forced by the Spanish consul to leave +New Orleans. I demand the protection of the American flag and I desire +to return to the United States.</p> + +<p>"P.S. I came here by force, the Spanish consul having seized me under a +supposed order of the Second Municipality and having had me carried by +main force on board a ship at nine in the evening.</p> + +<p>"P.S.—I did not speak frankly to you because the Captain of the port +was present."</p> + +<p>The request which the American consul promptly made for an interview +with Rey was denied, and at this point the United States government +interested itself in the case and made an official demand for the return +of Rey. Relations between the United States and Spain were growing very +much strained and it looked as if the United States were soon to have an +excuse to fight Spain and to annex Cuba, when the Spanish government +suddenly suffered a change of heart, and Rey was pardoned and released.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the plans for the invasion of Cuba were being carried out so +openly that the Spanish minister protested, and Zachary Taylor, then +President of the<a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a> United States, being unwilling openly to affront +Spain, through his Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, issued on August +11, 1849, a proclamation which ran as follows:</p> + +<p>"There is reason to believe that an armed expedition is about to be +fitted out in the United States with an intention to invade the Island +of Cuba, or some of the provinces of Mexico. The best information which +the executive has been able to obtain, points to the Island of Cuba as +the object of this expedition. It is the duty of this government to +observe the faith of treaties, and to prevent any aggression by our +citizens upon the territories of friendly nations. I have, therefore, +thought it necessary and proper to issue this proclamation, to warn all +citizens of the United States who shall connect themselves with an +enterprise so grossly in violation of our laws and treaty obligations, +that they will thereby subject themselves to the heavy penalties +denounced against them by our Acts of Congress, and will forfeit their +claim to the protection of their country. No such persons must expect +the interference of this government in any form on their behalf, no +matter to what extremities they may be reduced in consequence of their +conduct. An enterprise to invade the territories of a friendly nation, +set on foot and prosecuted within the limits of the United States, is in +the highest degree criminal, as tending to endanger the peace and +compromise the honor of this nation, and therefore I exhort all good +citizens, as they regard our national reputation, as they respect their +own laws and the laws of nations, as they value the blessings of peace +and the welfare of their country, to discountenance and prevent, by all +lawful means, any such enterprise; and I call upon every officer of this +government, civil or military, to use all efforts in his power to arrest +for trial and punishment every such offender against the laws providing +for the<a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a> performance of our sacred obligations to friendly powers."</p> + +<p>This proclamation did not find favor in the Southern States, where +sentiment was strongly in favor of the annexation of Cuba as a bar +against the freeing of the slaves. All the while the United States +government was officially discountenancing the expedition, private +citizens were aiding it, and again Spain protested and the American +government dispatched the steamer <i>Albany</i> with officers to investigate +the state of matters at Round Island, to see that no supplies reached +the island, and to prevent the expedition from starting. Two ships, the +<i>Sea Gull</i> and the <i>New Orleans</i>, had been purchased in New York to take +the expedition to Cuba, and these were promptly seized, but the fifty +men on one of them were not prosecuted, and while warrants were issued +for the five leaders they were never apprehended, and the ships were +simply returned to their owners. Public opinion was too much in favor of +aid for Cuba to make it feasible for the United States government to +place itself in the position of being inimical to Cuban interests, while +on the other hand that Government felt that it could not afford openly +to antagonize Spain.</p> + +<p>The Cuban organization in New York presently showed signs of +discouragement and disintegration, and Lopez in consequence transferred +his operations to the south, principally to New Orleans, where sentiment +was warmly in favor of his plans. There the next year he renewed his +efforts to organize an expedition to Cuba. Even more generous offers of +bounty were made than in the previous case. Recruits were promised +$4,000, and when they had served a year they were to be rewarded by a +grant of land in Cuba; this in addition to their regular pay. Those who +should attain the rank of officers were promised up to $10,000, and also +high rank in the new government<a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a> which the revolutionists were to +organize in Cuba. Lopez was always conscious of the advantage of having +men of prominence connected with his enterprises, and he endeavored to +persuade Governor Quitman of Mississippi to take command, but that +gentleman expressed himself as believing that only an internal +revolution could be effective in Cuba and that any invasion from without +must fail, and, accordingly, he declined the invitation.</p> + +<p>Numerous recruits were obtained in various parts of the United States. +While interest in it was strongest in the South, many men in the North +and West were ready, for one reason or another, to cast in their lot +with Lopez. An important rallying point was Cincinnati, Ohio, and from +that city a party of 120 men started southward on April 4, 1850, on the +river steamer <i>Martha Washington</i>, which had been chartered for the +purpose. A stop was made at a point on the Kentucky shore, and more men +were there taken aboard. The trip down to New Orleans consumed a week, +which time was spent by the men in card-playing, carousing and indeed +almost everything save serious reflection upon the momentous undertaking +before them. There were a few among them of earnest purpose; and when +the expedition was completed at New Orleans it comprised a number of men +of high character and standing, members of some of the foremost families +of that part of the United States. But the majority of the recruits were +adventurers of the type familiar in most such undertakings. To them the +enterprise meant not so much the freeing of Cuba from Spanish oppression +as it meant getting "easy money," the fun of seeing a new country, good +food, and if the worst happened ... it was on the knees of the gods.</p> + +<p>It was April 11 when the boat reached Freeport, a<a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a> town a few miles up +the river from New Orleans, where the men were hidden; or supposed to be +hidden, for little secrecy was attained, Spanish spies and United States +citizens being equally aware of their presence. There were two hundred +and fifty men in the party, and on April 25 they set sail for Cuba on +the Steamer <i>Georgiana</i>, with a supply of muskets and 10,000 rounds of +ammunition, which however did not come on board until after the mouth of +the Mississippi was passed. Lopez himself was not with this company, for +his work of organization was not completed, and he remained behind to +join them later.</p> + +<p>A second company of about 160 men was organized in New Orleans, and set +sail on May 2, on the <i>Susan Loud</i>, and a third company was to follow on +the <i>Creole</i>. On May 6 the <i>Susan Loud</i> reached the place where she was +to meet the <i>Creole</i>, and she raised the new flag of Cuba for the first +time on the Gulf of Mexico. Here she was joined the next day by the +<i>Creole</i> and another day was taken up in transferring the men from one +vessel to the other, the <i>Creole</i> being much the faster of the two; the +idea being that the slower boat could follow at leisure. On the <i>Creole</i> +there were only 130, making 290 men in this portion of the expedition. +The newcomers on the <i>Creole</i> were for the first time introduced to +their commander, Lopez, and it is recorded that he promptly won all +hearts by his pleasing personality.</p> + +<p>A light-hearted spirit of adventure at first prevailed among the crews +and the men, until a storm arose on May 12, and the company began to be +less cheerful; many were sick, and the wind and clouds had a depressing +effect on the others. To add to the general dismay and discomfort, a gun +was accidentally discharged, and one of the company was killed. An +unpleasant foreboding<a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a> began to cast a blight over the gay company. Evil +days had also attended the <i>Georgiana</i>. She met with foul weather, and +had great difficulty in reaching the island of Contoy, about ten miles +off the coast of Yucatan. This island was uninhabited and without +vegetation, a blank waste of sand, with no water for drinking purposes. +The men were discontented and mutiny seemed imminent. An unsuccessful +attempt was made to reach Mujeres, and then mutiny in earnest broke out, +led by Captain Benson, one of the leaders of the company. He instigated +the circulation of a petition for a return to New Orleans, and between +fifty and sixty signatures were obtained. Fortunately Lopez had one +faithful follower in the company, an eloquent and brave man. This was +Colonel Theodore O'Hara, a veteran of the Mexican War and author of the +classic poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead." He assembled the men and asked +them to agree to wait eight days longer, and spoke so feelingly that +finally the promise was given with cheers for Lopez, for Cuba, and for +the annexation of the island. Before further trouble could come to pass, +the <i>Creole</i> was sighted. When she reached the island it was thought +best that she should proceed to Mujeres, obtain water, and return the +next day. This was done, and when he returned, Lopez issued the +following proclamation to his men:</p> + +<p>"Soldiers of the liberating expedition of Cuba! Our first act on +arriving shall be the establishment of a provisional constitution, +founded on American principles, and adopted to the emergencies of the +occasion. This constitution you will unite with your brethren of Cuba in +swearing to support in its principles as well as on the field of battle. +You have been chosen by your officers as men individually worthy of so +honorable an undertaking. I rely implicitly on your presenting Cuba to +the<a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a> world, a signal example of all the virtues, as well as the valor of +the American citizen soldiers; and I cannot be deceived in my confidence +that by our discipline, good order, moderation in victory, and sacred +respect for all private rights, you will put to shame every insolent +calumny of your enemies. And when the hour arrives for repose on the +laurels which await your grasp, you will all, I trust, establish +permanent and happy homes in the beautiful soil of the island you go to +free, and there long enjoy the gratitude which Cuba will never fail +generously to bestow on those to whom she will owe the sacred and +immeasurable debt of her liberty."</p> + +<p>Now the <i>Creole</i> was not a new vessel, and was sadly in need of repairs. +When the nearly six hundred men from the three boats were all on board +her—for the plan was that only one ship should be actively engaged in +the invasion—she took water, and some of the men were afraid. There +were desertions at Mujeres and Contoy which reduced the force to five +hundred and twenty-one. The men were packed in all parts of the ship, on +deck, in the cabin, in the hold, in every available corner. It was +impossible to keep discipline, to say nothing of holding drill practice. +The <i>Creole</i> was fortunate enough to be driven by adverse winds far +north of the course which she had planned, because she thus escaped two +Spanish war ships which had been sent out to apprehend and sink her. +Thus from near the shore of Yucatan the adventurers sailed over +practically the same course which in the days of Cortez had been +traversed by the Spanish treasure ships from Mexico to Cuba and to +Spain. The plan was to land at Cardenas, and march at once to Matanzas, +thirty miles distant, which it was believed could be reached in 24 hours +and where the railroad was to be seized. It was here that it was +expected that the recruiting would be<a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a> heaviest, for Lopez believed that +the Cubans would recognize them as liberators, welcome them with +rejoicing, and at once enlist under the new banner of freedom. One +hundred picked men would promptly be despatched to blow up an important +bridge, nine miles from Havana, and meanwhile Lopez expected his force +of five hundred to be swelled to five thousand. Indeed he dreamed of +attacking the city of Havana with an armed force of 30,000. He had +plenty of ammunition and guns and he anticipated no difficulty in +enlisting an army from among the Cubans who desired freedom from Spain.<a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p>C<small>ARDENAS</small> was chosen as the place of landing probably for two reasons. +First, because the Cubans of this district were supposed to be +exceedingly dissatisfied with Spanish rule—more disgruntled than the +inhabitants of the other parts of the island, because the people of +Cardenas had been given their own particular grievances by the Spanish +garrison; and in the second place, the garrison at this point was +exceedingly small, and the town was situated on a bay the entrance to +which, like the coast for many miles, was undefended by fortifications. +Lopez therefore believed that he could penetrate the harbor with little +difficulty and no opposition.</p> + +<p>It was half past two in the morning when the <i>Creole</i> entered the bay of +Cardenas, and her progress was not altogether free from difficulties. +The captain of the <i>Creole</i> was unfamiliar with the waters of the bay, +and found it difficult to steer a safe course. As a matter of fact, the +vessel was grounded, and delayed for nearly an hour, during which time +her presence was observed by Spanish patrols, and the alarm given. Dawn +was breaking in the east when the landing was made. It bade fair to be a +beautiful morning. The air was soft and clear, and the first rays of +sunshine, brightening the roofs of the houses, sent a note of cheer into +the hearts of the little army of those who were seeking to deliver Cuba, +and seemed an omen of good fortune.</p> + +<p>Reports differ as to their reception. One account tells of a large +Spanish force drawn up on the shore, through which they had to fight +their way, but which they quickly<a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a> dispersed. It is more in accord with +the events which followed to give credence to another story, which has +it that the Spanish troops took refuge in the barracks, while a smaller +number were quartered in the Governor's palace.</p> + +<p>The Kentuckians, soldiers of fortune, descendants of pioneers, whose +valor had been tested and not found wanting in the warfare which had +taken place from time to time in their own state, were the first to +land. There were sixty of them, under the command of Lieut. Col. +Pickett, and their instructions were to proceed at once to the railroad +station. Lopez knew that large bodies of Spanish troops were quartered +at Matanzas, which was connected by railroad with Cardenas, and his +purpose was to destroy the station, and if possible the line of the +railroad for some distance, to prevent the arrival of reinforcements to +the Spaniards, should the news of the coming of the filibusters be sent +to Matanzas. This action would also necessitate communications by +courier, which, of course, would be productive of a delay which would be +advantageous to Lopez's plan.</p> + +<p>The station was captured without any difficulty, indeed without +opposition, and the little body of Kentucky soldiers began their work of +destruction. That because of lack of numbers, or lack of equipment, they +did not accomplish this efficiently enough to prevent the arrival of +Spanish troops at Cardenas, we shall see later. But at any rate, they +proceeded with zeal and enthusiasm to the work which was allotted to +them, and held the station against the few Spanish troops from the +Cardenas garrison which later attempted to wrest it from them, and when +they relinquished it they did so voluntarily, to join their comrades in +retreating to the <i>Creole</i>. Indeed they manfully held their positions, +long after many of the other<a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a> regiments had been withdrawn, in order to +cover the retreat.</p> + +<p>The moment Lieutenant Colonel Pickett and his Kentuckians were clear of +the vessel, General Lopez and his staff, and Colonel O'Hara, with the +remainder of the Kentucky regiment, disembarked, and with great +ceremony, for the first time, the flag of Cuba Libre was unfurled on +Cuban soil. General Lopez remained with his ship, to oversee the landing +of the remainder of his little army, while Colonel O'Hara, under orders, +advanced to take the barracks where four hundred Spanish troops were +garrisoned. The Kentuckians under Colonel O'Hara numbered one hundred +and eighty, and in addition he was reinforced by the Louisiana regiment +of one hundred and thirty, and the Mississippi regiment of one hundred +and forty-five, so that he had in all, for the business in hand, four +hundred and fifty-five men, thus outnumbering the Spanish force which +they were to oppose, by about fifty-five men. They advanced rapidly and +charged the garrison, which promptly opened fire, and Colonel O'Hara was +wounded, not seriously, but sufficiently so that he was obliged to +surrender his command to Major Hawkins. The engagement was resumed, but +only for a short time, when General Lopez came up and at once directed +the firing to cease. He then proceeded to do a thing which plainly +showed the spirit of the man, his resourcefulness and his undaunted +courage. He marched up to the barracks and demanded its unconditional +surrender.</p> + +<p>The Spanish soldiers evidently were not altogether whole hearted in +their defence, but their leaders were crafty. A long parley ensued, +during which the Spanish troops were hastily and quietly withdrawn +through a side door, with the intention of making their escape to the +Governor's palace. When the barracks had been in this<a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a> manner all but +abandoned, the Spanish commander agreed to surrender, and it can be +imagined that he enjoyed the chagrin of Lopez when he discovered that +his prize was an almost empty building.</p> + +<p>But the Spanish troops were not destined to escape so easily. Colonel +Wheat, with the Louisiana regiment, had been the last to leave the +<i>Creole</i>. As he approached the barracks he heard the firing, but +supposing that Lopez had only to put in an appearance to be greeted with +loud acclaim as a deliverer, he decided that the Spanish troops had laid +down their arms to join the revolutionists and that the sound of guns +marked a salute to Lopez. He went around the barracks, toward the +square, and was just in time to intercept the flying Spaniards. +Instantly he grasped the situation, and a skirmish ensued. The Spaniards +at length made good their retreat to the Governor's palace, but not +without leaving some dead and wounded behind them.</p> + +<p>Lopez and his men at once advanced on the palace, where the Governor had +taken refuge with his forces, now reinforced by those who had made good +their escape from the barracks. Soon Lopez distinguished a white flag of +truce floating from one of the windows, and as he approached nearer +received word that the Governor was ready to surrender. Overjoyed, the +revolutionists rushed up to the palace only to be greeted in a manner +quite in keeping with Spanish treachery, for they were promptly fired +upon by the Spaniards, and before they could rally several of the +attacking party were wounded, including General Gonzales. Lopez's anger +at this violation of the rules of decent fighting was at white heat. +While the main division of his troops were returning the fire from the +palace, he took a small body of men to reconnoiter, and finding an +unguarded portion of the building,<a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a> he set fire to it; indeed, with his +own hand he applied the torch. All this had taken much more time than +does its relating, and the forces in the palace were enabled to hold out +until between eight and nine o'clock in the morning, when they +surrendered, driven out by the flames and smoke, and the Governor and +the commander of the garrison were taken prisoners, while such troops as +had not found refuge in the palace fled to the outlying country, and +couriers hurried to carry the news of the Spanish disaster to Matanzas.</p> + +<p>Lopez was now in possession of the town. There was the work of caring +for the dead and wounded to be done, and besides this he wished to make +an appeal to Cuban residents who sympathized with the cause of freedom +to aid him. This was not so easy as it seemed. Lopez to his chagrin +found that reports which had reached him in the United States of the +willingness of the Cubans to join a revolution had been grossly +exaggerated. That there were a great many who sympathized with Lopez's +purpose there can be no doubt. But they had to deter them the memory of +other uprisings, in which the attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke had +utterly failed. They had also before them the courage-shaking memories +of the horrors which had befallen those who had participated in the +rebellions. It is ever a fact that while oppression always creates +leaders whose valor and daring will not stop at any obstacles, it also +makes the masses of the people timid, afraid of the punishment which is +bound to follow defeat. Spain had long held the Cubans in bondage. She +had meted out to them the most cruel injustices, and had taken +unspeakable revenge not only on those who had opposed her, but even on +those who were under suspicion of such opposition. Besides this, on this +May morning, things had been happening very<a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a> fast. Lopez's little +victories had been won in whirlwind succession. This should have +inspired sympathizers with confidence, but there were in that town some +private persons who were in sympathy and in league with the Spanish +rulers. They now resorted to propaganda. They spread the report that +Lopez's band had no real intention of trying to free Cuba, that their +real object was plunder, that when they had subdued the garrison, they +intended to put the patriotic Cubans to new sufferings for their own +aggrandisement. Long years of injustice had made the Creoles wary of +asserting themselves openly against their Spanish tyrants. While those +who had been leaders in the town in the organization on Cuban soil of +the revolution tried to reassure the frightened people, they were far +from successful. A mob spirit of fear is not easily conquered.</p> + +<p>Aside from this Lopez's force, worn out with their efforts, tired and +hungry, and for the time idle, while the leaders were planning the next +move, dispersed through the town. It seemed necessary and expedient in +any event that they should be quartered on the citizens, and now they +sought the homes of the Creoles in search of food. They were met by a +frightened hospitality. Food and wine were set before them, with the +result that those of them who were merely adventurers lost sight of +their purpose and seized the opportunity to court intoxication. This +conduct did not increase the confidence of the Creoles, and so hopes of +support from the native Cubans proved delusive.</p> + +<p>To make matters worse, disquieting rumors were circulated that in spite +of the efforts of Pickett's men to disable the railroad, a large body of +Spanish troops was on its way from Matanzas. There seemed to be no doubt +as to the truth of these reports; indeed a message reached Lopez<a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a> late +in the afternoon, containing unmistakable confirmation to the effect +that couriers had carried the news to Matanzas and that three thousand +Spanish troops were on their way to Cardenas. Lopez was now in a triple +quandary. He could advance against this huge force, which would of +course be joined by those of the Cardenas garrison who had escaped into +the country, and give battle against frightful odds. His own forces had +been depleted by losses and had failed to be swelled by the enlistment +of sympathizing Creoles. He would leave behind him a frightened and +almost hostile city, and a port unguarded against the landing of Spanish +troops from ships cruising in nearby waters, in the event of which he +would be subject to attack from both front and rear, and would be not +only in great danger, but almost in certainty of being surrounded. He +might remain where he was and entrench himself against the impending +attack, but this offered no better possibilities than the former plan, +for he had not enough men to defend both the town and the harbor and he +was in constant danger of betrayal by Spanish sympathizers, who were of +course cognizant of his every move. He had been told that at Mantua +large bodies of Creoles stood ready to revolt and join him. Of course, +he had no more accurate confirmation of the truth of this rumor than he +had had of the verity of the assurances which, before he had set out on +his expedition, he had received of the willingness of the inhabitants of +Cardenas to join him; and yet this plan last outlined seemed to hold +better possibilities than either of the others. He decided, therefore, +to adopt it, and while making a show of resistance, he began quietly to +assemble his baggage and equipment on board the <i>Creole</i>, and to make +ready for the re-embarkation of his men.</p> + +<p>Although the forces at the station, and indeed other<a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a> small bodies of +his troops who had not been demoralized by the delights of the table, +sought to cover his retreat, and the former did render effective service +against the Spaniards, yet his movements did not escape observation, and +were hailed with delight and with renewed aggressions by the Spanish +troops. The retreat was not easy to effect, and when he had assembled +his scattered forces, his movements were halted from time to time by the +necessity of erecting temporary barricades, from which to cover the safe +return to the <i>Creole</i>. This was finally effected, and at nine in the +evening the vessel once more set out to sea. On board her, besides Lopez +and his men, were the Spanish governor and the commander of the +garrison, and they were retained as hostages until the ship cleared the +harbor. This was not accomplished without mishap, for the captain, again +hampered by navigating in what to him were uncharted waters, once more +grounded the ship, which caused some delay. At length they were on the +high seas, and just before they quit the shores of Cuba, they landed the +discomfited governor and the garrison chief. What would have happened, +had Lopez been in the governor's predicament, indeed what did happen, +when Lopez and his men finally fell into the hands of the Spaniards, is +another story. But Lopez was too high a type of gentleman to mete out to +the Spanish high commanders the fate to which they would too gladly have +consigned him.</p> + +<p>Lopez has in many quarters been most severely censured for his quick +abandonment of his plans and his hasty retreat from Cuba, but in the +cold light of reason, we hardly see how he could have pursued any other +course. Had his expectation of aid from the Creoles been realized, he +might then, as he had planned, have left Cardenas in their hands, and +with his little band strengthened by a<a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a> large body of revolutionary +sympathizers he might have advanced against the Spanish army at Matanzas +with some hope of success. As it was, he could only make the best of a +bad situation, and depart, with the faint hope of better fortune at +Mantua, and at least with the nucleus of an organization which later +might be more effective in another expedition of greater scope for the +freeing of Cuba. Thus, when we review his action, after the passage of +many years, he seems to have taken the only sane course that lay open to +him. Any other would have meant even greater disaster. Lopez had lost, +in this short time, of his Louisiana regiment, twenty killed and +wounded, including those basely slaughtered through the Spanish +treachery before the Governor's palace; of his Kentucky regiment, forty +killed and wounded, including such men of high standing as Captain John +A. Logan, Lieutenant James J. Garrett, the Rev. Louis McCann and +Sergeant Harry Cruse, besides ten privates; while his Mississippi +regiment suffered five or six killed. The Spanish losses were greater +than those of the revolutionists and numbered over one hundred.</p> + +<p>But an even greater misfortune had overtaken Lopez. When the <i>Creole</i> +had grounded, near the entrance to the harbor, while he was making his +hasty departure from Cardenas, it had been impossible to float her free +without lightening her, and to do this not only were provisions thrown +overboard, but large quantities of precious arms and ammunitions, and so +his men now found themselves insufficiently armed for any stubborn +resistance to Spanish troops, particularly should the odds be heavy. +Lopez was still bent on his purpose of making a landing at Mantua, but +while his gallant officers in the main supported him, he found himself +surrounded by a dissatisfied, angry, mutinous crew, who were for +abandoning the<a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a> whole matter, and steaming for the United States with +all possible speed. Lopez addressed them, and tried to stir within them +a realization of what such action meant, and how fatal it might be to +the cause of Cuban liberty to abandon so easily an expedition so +propitiously and even gaily undertaken, but they were deaf to his +entreaties. At the suggestion of one of his officers the matter was put +to vote, and to his dismay Lopez found that only fifteen stood with him +on the Mantua project. He would not consent to abandon it, however, even +against such odds, and declared that he would himself make the landing, +taking with him the loyal few who were willing to stay with him. This, +however, he was prevented from doing by the fact that the majority saw +to it that the captain did not approach Mantua, but steered a course +which had as its object the port of Key West, Florida.</p> + +<p>Evidence soon was not lacking that theirs had been the part of wisdom if +not of valor, and indeed that there were some odds against their +reaching any port at all, for news of the expedition had not only been +carried to Matanzas, but it had somehow reached the Spanish ship +<i>Pizarro</i>, and she was soon in hot pursuit of the <i>Creole</i>. This soon +became a most serious situation; again and again it seemed as if the +<i>Creole</i> were about to be overhauled, with the probable result that her +men would be taken prisoners and executed, and she would be sunk, or +taken to port a prize of war. Fate, however, intervened in favor of +Lopez, for the pilot on board the Spanish vessel was in sympathy with +the filibusters, and when, on nearing Key West, the <i>Pizarro</i> seemed +about to overtake the <i>Creole</i>, at the peril of his own life he steered +such an eccentric course that the <i>Creole</i> escaped, and made a landing +at Key West, while the Spanish ship put out to sea once more.<a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a></p> + +<p>Lopez and his men were welcomed at Key West with shouts of applause. +Sympathizers with his expedition refused to consider it a failure. They +declared that it had served to open the eyes of the Cubans to the fact +that their deliverance was near, and that when Lopez once more set out +with a larger force—as they assured him, with the assistance of the +people of the south in the United States, he would—victory would be +certain to spread her wings over his banner. So great was the popular +clamor in favor of Lopez, that the United States authorities did not +deem it prudent to arouse the ire of the mob, and therefore no attempts +at arrest were then made. Indeed, little chance was given before +debarkation, because in hardly more than ten minutes after the vessel +had docked, the work of removing the wounded had been completed, and her +decks were cleared of all men but seamen. The vessel was, however, +seized by the authorities.</p> + +<p>When news of Lopez's exploits reached Madrid, the government was thrown +into a great state of indignation, and promptly urged upon the United +States the punishment of the offenders, stating:</p> + +<p>"If contrary to our expectations the authors of this last expedition +should go unpunished, as did those who last year planned the Round +Island expedition, the government of Her Majesty will find itself +obliged to appeal to the sentiments of morality and good faith of the +nations of Europe to oppose the entrance of a system of politics and of +doctrines which would put an end to the foundations on which rests the +peace of the civilized world. If Europe should sanction by her silence +and acquiescence the scandalous state of affairs by which the citizens +of the United States (or those of any power whatever) might freely make +war from their territory against<a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a> Spain, when the latter is at perfect +peace officially with the Union; if it should be tolerated or looked on +with indifference that the solemn stipulations which bind the two states +should be with impunity made hollow by mobs and that the laws of nations +and public morality should be violated without other motive than the +selfishness of the aggressors, and with no other reliance than force, +then civilized nations ought to renounce that peace which is based on +the laws of nations and the terms of treaties and make ready for a new +era in which might will be right, and in which popular passions of the +worst kind will be substituted for the reason of states."</p> + +<p>Even with the government in Washington practically controlled by the +pro-slavery interests, and with feeling in that quarter running high in +favor of the filibusters, the United States, for the sake of +preservation of peaceable relations with Spain, could hardly afford to +ignore this protest. Hence, Lopez was arrested at Savannah, whence he +had gone immediately upon his arrival on American soil, and a number of +the leaders of his expedition were apprehended.</p> + +<p>Indictments were returned against Lopez, Theodore O'Hara, John F. +Pickett, R. Hayden, Chatham R. Wheat, Thomas T. Hawkins, W. H. Bell, N. +J. Bunce, Peter Smith, A. J. Gonzales, L. J. Sigur, Donahen Augusten, +John Quitman, Cotesworth Pinckney Smith (a Judge of the Supreme Court of +Mississippi), John Henderson (a former United States Senator), and J. L. +O'Sullivan (a former editor of the <i>Democratic Review</i>, which had been +loud in its support of the filibustering expeditions). But great +difficulty was experienced in obtaining evidence against the prisoners. +This might seem extraordinary, in the light of the fact that there could +be no denial that the expedition had taken place, and that these men +had<a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a> been prominent in its organization. But at the trial all the +witnesses by common agreement refused to answer any but the simplest and +least important questions, on the ground that they might thus +incriminate themselves. Three men were tried and three juries disagreed. +The matter seemed so hopeless of solution that the indictments were +allowed to languish without prosecution, and were finally dismissed and +the prisoners released. Everywhere the filibusters were received with +acclamations, and all the South joined in declaring Lopez a hero.</p> + +<p>The New Orleans <i>Bee</i> at this time thus described Lopez:</p> + +<p>"General Lopez has an exceedingly prepossessing appearance. He is +apparently about fifty years of age. His figure is compact and well set. +His face which is dark olive, and of the Spanish cast, is strikingly +handsome, expressive of both intelligence and energy. His full dark +eyes, firm, well-formed mouth, and erect head, crowned with iron grey +hair, fix the attention and convince you that he is no ordinary man. +Unless we are greatly mistaken in the impression we have formed of him, +he will again be heard of in some new attempt to revolutionize Cuba. He +certainly does not look like a man easily disheartened."</p> + +<p>The <i>Bee</i> was a true prophet; it was far from being "greatly mistaken" +about Lopez. The after events proved that it had judged him justly. No +sooner was he released than he began to lay his plans for a new +expedition, and since New Orleans had long been the stronghold of his +sympathizers, he went to that place to complete his organization.<a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 237px;"> +<a href="images/ill_62pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_62pg_sml.png" width="237" height="297" alt="Ramon Pinto" title="Ramon Pinto" /></a> +</div> + +<p>Spain was now thoroughly alive to the danger which threatened her future +retention of Cuba, and in the face of an emergency she vacillated. Her +high officials began to wonder if after all their policy of extreme +oppression and suppression had not been in a measure the wrong one to +pursue with the Cubans. Roncali, who had been so pleasing to the +Peninsulars, or Spanish party in Cuba, and so unpopular with the +patriots, was recalled and Don José Gutierrez de la Concha was +dispatched to take his place as Captain-General. He took over the +affairs of the island on November 10, 1850. Concha was as unwelcome to +the Peninsulars as his predecessor had been to their liking. He was a +man who had at least some regard for justice, and who, if given a free +hand, might have governed Cuba with a degree of wisdom and fairness. He +was not a believer in liberty for the Cubans, but at least he had some +conception of what constituted<a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a> equity. He publicly stated his ideal of +his office, as "a government of justice" and might have worked out +something like a solution of Spain's problems in Cuba, unless, as we +think it fair to believe, it was now much too late to quell the +revolutionary spirit which had grown to such great proportions; with "a +government of force," no matter what its purpose, the Cubans were all +too familiar, and they had plainly shown how much they hated it and +despised its administrators.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">RAMON PINTO</p> + +<p>An early martyr to the cause of Cuban freedom, Ramon Pinto, was +born in Cataluna, Spain, in 1802, and engaged in the revolution of +1820-23 in that country. Then he fled to Cuba and became a +brilliant writer in behalf of philanthropic works. In 1853 he +became director of the Havana Lyceum, and later was a close friend +and adviser of Captain-General Concha. In 1855 he was charged with +being engaged in a revolutionary conspiracy, was convicted on +dubious testimony, and died on the scaffold in March of that year.</p></div> + +<p>One evil this new Captain-General did earnestly try to overcome. He +endeavored to do away with the fee system which had caused so much +unjust imprisonment and suffering. He made an effort to obtain fixed +salaries for all government officials instead of fees, but at every turn +he was balked by the Peninsulars. There is some reason to believe that +he was not altogether sincere; that he was a fair spokesman, but an evil +performer; that he did not allow his right hand to know the injustice he +was planning to do with his left. At any rate, at the very time when he +was offering such cheering words of hope to the Cubans, he was putting +into operation a regular line of vessels from Cadiz, Spain, to Havana. +He offered various excuses—of course, expansion, and many others—for +this action, but thinking Cubans well knew that his real purpose was +that communications might be more easy and frequent with the Spanish +court, and that news of uprisings, and the dispatching of troops to +suppress them, might be less delayed. He also—but, of course, this was +done under orders of the Spanish government, induced, we are told, by +his recommendations—increased and strengthened the fortifications of +the island, and asked for and received a greater number of troops to man +them.</p> + +<p>However, there must have been some ground for the belief that Concha in +some ways favored the Cubans for<a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a> in no other manner could he have +raised such a storm of dislike among the Peninsulars as constantly +whistled about his head, and finally resulted in his recall.</p> + +<p>While these events were taking place in Cuba, Lopez, in the United +States, was far from idle, and he was not lacking in friends who sought +to aid him. Singularly enough those in the South who were numbered among +his supporters seemed not to be disheartened by the failure of the +Cardenas expedition, and, of course, the juntas were active in stirring +up popular opinion in favor of filibustering, and in obtaining both +moral and financial support for another enterprise. But with it all +money was woefully lacking.</p> + +<p>General Henderson, who had been a member of the first expedition, and +had been one of those indicted and tried, at this time wrote to a +friend:</p> + +<p>"I need not tell you how much I desire to see him (Lopez) move again, +and it is more useless to tell you how wholly unable I am to assist him +to make this move. With my limited means, I am under the extremest +burdens from my endeavors on the former occasion. Indeed I find my cash +advanced for the first experience were over half the cash advanced to +the enterprise, and all my present means and energies are exhausted in +bringing up the arrearages. Yet I still believe in the importance, the +morality and the probability of the enterprise; and I believe it is one +the South should steadfastly cherish and promote. I feel it is more +especially incumbent on us who have once failed to retrieve ourselves +from so much of the opprobrium and reproach as the defeat has cast upon +us. For we know that, could we succeed, we should win all those triumphs +which success in such enterprises never fails to command. And would not +such triumph be glorious! I believe you yield equal consideration to<a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a> +the importance of this subject as I do; and as a Southern question, I do +not think, when properly viewed, its magnitude can be overestimated."</p> + +<p>When a leader is able to enlist the sympathies, and drain the purse, of +a man so intelligent and of such high standing as John Henderson, former +Senator of the United States, and when he can bind such a man to him by +even stronger ties in defeat than in victory, the personality of that +leader must be one of extraordinary strength, courage and probity. It +speaks well for Lopez that all through his career he gathered around him +men of the finest families in the South, and indeed some of equally high +standing from the North which was not particularly in favor of his +venture, and those men fought for him and with him, and remained loyal +until the greater portion of them paid the penalty of their lives for +their devotion.</p> + +<p>Now recruiting began in earnest. Everywhere in the South agents of Lopez +were busy, but the headquarters of this new movement seem to have been +at Savannah. Spain, of course, was not unaware of what was taking place +and was on the alert. Spanish spies were everywhere watching the +plotters against Spanish dominion in Cuba, and reporting their findings +to the Spanish legation at Washington. The Spanish minister had in his +employ a man who called himself at times Burtnett. (He had many +aliases.) He was more clever than the rank and file of the Spanish +agents, and by associating himself with the filibusters, he was able to +learn their plans. Lopez's followers were not rash; they tried very hard +to cover their activities; but in any undertaking in which a number of +people are concerned, anything like complete secrecy is absolutely out +of the question. Burtnett represented himself as a sympathizer; he +joined the filibusters and wormed himself into the confidence of the +leaders.<a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a> He learned that the plan was to assemble on the coast of +Florida, and from there to set sail for Cuba. The filibusters would +themselves circulate rumors that the attack would be made on the south +coast of Cuba, but Burtnett discovered that in reality the forces would +be divided, and while the Spanish troops were mustered to repel an +attack in the south, several small bands would land, organize the +friendly Cubans, and give battle if necessary to what depleted Spanish +forces might be located on the north coast. This would preclude the +chance of such a disaster as the Cardenas expedition, and the Cubans, +uncowed by the presence of large bodies of governmental soldiery, would +hasten to the aid of Lopez. Even the Spanish troops, some of whom were +supposed to be in sympathy with the revolution, might be hoped to mutiny +and join the Cubans. Thus this time there could be no thought of +failure.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Southern gentlemen of wealth and family were eagerly supplying +funds to the enterprise. It is even said that some planters mortgaged +their estates to obtain funds to give to the expedition, in the +expectation that when rich Cuba was once acquired for the United States, +they would receive back a reward far greater than the amount which they +were contributing. Bonds of the proposed revolutionary government were +printed, and sold; arms and ammunition were purchased and stored in +readiness for the expedition. It was planned that the first consignment +of arms was to be conveyed to the steamer <i>Cleopatra</i>, which had been +purchased to carry the filibusters, by means of two small vessels, the +sloop <i>William Roe</i>, and the steamer <i>Nahantee</i>, which were to steal +respectively from the ports of New York and South Amboy, New Jersey, and +meet the <i>Cleopatra</i> just beyond quarantine. When the details were +completed, Burtnett<a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a> revealed the whole plan to the Spanish minister, +who lost no time in laying it before the United States government at +Washington. Now no matter what the sympathies of this government might +be, it could not be placed under the odium of giving its official +sanction to such an enterprise; indeed that would probably have resulted +in war with Spain. Its action was slightly delayed, and the expedition +might even yet have gotten off without interference had it not been that +the <i>William Roe</i> was detained on account of a flaw in her papers, and +the <i>Cleopatra</i>, on which provisions were already stored, was delayed in +putting to sea to wait for the <i>William Roe</i> and the <i>Nahantee</i> because +at the last moment some of her crew went on shore and became +intoxicated. This slight postponement of her sailing gave an opportunity +for her attachment—at whose instigation it is not clear—for a writ for +$3,000, to cover repairs made by a former owner, and for which the +filibusters could hardly be held responsible. Nevertheless, they raised +the money, but before its transfer could be completed and the +<i>Cleopatra</i> cleared on April 26, 1851, the leaders were arrested.</p> + +<p>Things looked black for Lopez and his followers, but they still had the +influence of the South behind them, and for this reason or some equally +effective one, again the courts failed to convict them, and to add to +their good fortune the government did not confiscate the <i>Cleopatra</i> and +the provisions with which she was loaded, and she was afterward sold and +the proceeds used as a nest-egg toward financing another expedition.</p> + +<p>Spain was now thoroughly aroused to her danger, and determined to put +down the threatened revolution at any cost. Through her mouthpiece, the +Captain-General of Cuba, she issued a proclamation to the Governors and +Lieutenant Governors on the island:<a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a></p> + +<p>"It has come to the knowledge of the Government that a new incursion of +pirates is preparing, similar to the one which took place at Cardenas +during the past year. It is proposed, without doubt, as it was then, to +sack defenseless towns and to disturb the order which reigns in this +beautiful part of the Spanish monarchy. But the loyalty of its +inhabitants, the valor and discipline of the troops, and the measures +taken by the government, are the surest guaranty that its destruction +will follow immediately the news of its disembarkation. You must, then, +above all else see to it that the news of this invasion produces no +alarm in the district which you command.</p> + +<p>"To exterminate the pirates, whatever be their number, it is not +necessary to have recourse to extraordinary means; the ordinary means on +which the government can count are enough and even more than enough. Any +act, on the other hand, which is unusual would produce anxiety and +uneasiness among the peaceful inhabitants; it might cause, perhaps, an +interruption of business, and would thus occasion a real and important +loss for public and private interests. It is necessary, therefore, to +avoid any measures which may remove from the towns of that district the +confidence and sense of security which the government inspires. The +actual situation, however, imposes on the authorities the double duty to +cause order to reign, and not to appear to obtain it by unaccustomed +means which are only expedient when circumstances are really dangerous. +And this double object will be achieved if that vigilance, activity and +prudence are in evidence on which I should be able to count from you. +But you must not forget that in these circumstances, one of the most +important duties of the authorities is to quiet minds, and hush +suspicions, to take care, finally, that in not a single instance there +should be disturbed that harmony<a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a> which now more than ever ought to +reign among the inhabitants of the island. Working to this end, I have +the most confidence that this event will end fortunately, making certain +the peace which the island needs to continue on the path of prosperity +which it has so far followed."</p> + +<p>The foregoing gives a very adequate idea, cleverly cloaked under soft +and reassuring words, of the panic under which the authorities were +laboring. Only too well they knew the danger of "any unusual +disturbance," and of the exciting of the populace, for in it dwelt the +menace that that same excited mob might turn and rend their masters.</p> + +<p>The Captain-General soon had another circumstance brought to his +attention which was a tremendous shock to his sensibilities, seeming as +it were a bomb placed at the very bulwarks of his authority. Puerto +Principe had been more or less a danger point, and harsh measures had +been used to put down the incipient rebellion there. The people had an +inkling that it was the intention of the Captain-General to deprive them +of their Audiencia. This would eliminate the cost of its maintenance, +and also keep the legislative or advisory power more closely +concentrated in Havana, where the Captain-General could keep a watchful +eye on proceedings. A petition was received by Concha requesting that +they be not deprived of their Audiencia, but when he examined it closely +he was shocked to observe that it was dated a month previous, and that +it had evidently been sent directly to the Spanish government at Madrid, +without the official sanction and endorsement of the Captain-General, +and this circumstance was aggravated by the fact that the Petition bore +the signature of the Commanding General. Things were coming to a pretty +pass if the Captain-General,<a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a> the highest official in the land, was to +be ignored by his subjects. Concha made a great to-do about the matter, +and obtained the dismissal from office of the offending Commanding +General, at the same time securing the appointment of a close friend, +Don José Lemery, on whom he could depend to do his bidding. Lemery began +his tenure of office by using the most harsh and unwarranted methods of +suppressing what he termed an impending uprising, and by ordering the +arrest of a large number of the members of old Creole families—persons +who were known to have revolutionary sympathies—on suspicion of being +about to incite a rebellion. Among these were many members of the city +council under the old Commanding General, and one of the number, Don +Joaquin de Aguero, was later to figure as the leader of the most +successful revolution which Cuba had yet known.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Lopez, not disheartened, was once more planning an invasion of +Cuba, with belief unshaken, in spite of his discouraging experiences, in +the real desire of the Cubans for liberty and in their purpose to join +the revolutionary movement, if they could only be brought to emerge from +the deadening stupor of acquiescence into which fear of Spanish +vengeance seemed to have plunged them. This belief was strengthened by +the correspondence, which by an underground method he was carrying on +with Cuban patriots—men who he expected would be leaders in future +revolutions. They all assured him that if he could only start a real +movement for revolt, which promised actual deliverance, the Cubans would +no longer hesitate but would rush to his support. The fact that a price +had now been set on his head, should he set his foot on Cuban soil, and +be so unfortunate as to fall into the hands of the Spaniards, had no +deterring power on Lopez's purposes. He was above suspicion of a +personal<a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a> axe to grind, and there was never any question of his courage +and perseverance.</p> + +<p>Lopez was emboldened by the support which the Cuban juntas promised him, +but he did not find all of the men who had accompanied him on the +Cardenas expedition as confident as he was himself. Some of the less +daring spirits prepared a statement to their leader, setting forth their +viewpoint, in substantially the following language:</p> + +<p>"The people of Cuba charge us with endeavoring to create a revolution +for the sake of pillage; they state that the Cubans do not desire +freedom; if they did they would strike for themselves. We will not waste +any more time, nor take another step until we see something more on the +part of the Creoles besides promises. We took the first step at +Cardenas, and gave them an opportunity to show their hands, which they +did not. They must take the next, and then we will go to their +assistance; otherwise we shall not budge an inch."</p> + +<p>Naturally enough, upon consideration, this impressed Lopez and his more +loyal followers as embodying some pretty sound common sense. It seemed +to be logical that the Cubans themselves should make the next move, and +back up their assertions by action. This ultimatum was conveyed to them, +by the same devious ways in which their promises had gotten by the +Spanish spies, and the effect was miraculous. They rose to the +situation, and announced that they would bring about a revolution, and +that the first steps would be taken sometime between July 1 and 4. That +Lopez and his friends were astonished at this show of spirit in those +who had so sadly demonstrated their lack of grit at Cardenas a short +time before, is not beyond the realm of belief, nor is it necessary to +relate how delighted they were that at last the Cubans were about to +move in their own behalf. The time was then so<a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a> near, and Lopez's own +preparations had made so little practical progress, that there was not a +sufficient period between the date on which he received this information +and the day set for the revolutionary movement to enable him to send any +aid, except cheering words.</p> + +<p>On the morning of July 3, 1851, Don Joaquin de Aguero led a small band +of patriots to the public square at Puerto Principe, all of them +shouting in loud tones: "Liberty! Freedom for Cuba! Death to the +Spaniards!" Now Aguero had been promised that at least four hundred +patriots would join him on this occasion, at the place appointed, and +give battle to the Spanish troops, which they well knew would be called +upon to put down the demonstration. But the Cubans had not yet found +themselves; it was still difficult for them to shake off the spell which +the Spaniards seemed to have cast upon them, and to come out into the +open and fight for their freedom. The promised four hundred were +represented by a pitiful fifteen, and the little band naturally had +small chance against the overwhelming forces which were sent against +them immediately the alarm was given. They fought bravely, but there +could be only one result, against such odds. They were routed and their +leader was captured. Aguero succeeded, however, in escaping from the +Spaniards, and went into hiding until the next day, when the patriots +again made a demonstration for freedom at Najassa. Here, for the second +time, the flag of Cuba Libre was flung to the breeze, and with shouts +and cheers, the following Declaration of Independence for Cuba was read +to a great multitude which had assembled in the square:</p> + +<p>"To the inhabitants of the Island of Cuba, Manifesto and Proclamation of +their independence by the Liberating Society of Puerto Principe.<a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a></p> + +<p>"Human reason revolts against the idea that the social and political +condition of a people can be indefinitely prolonged, in which man, +stripped of all rights and guarantees, with no security of person or +property, no enjoyment in the present, no hope in the future, lives only +by the will, and under the conditions imposed by the pleasure of his +tyrants; where a vile calumny, a prisoner's denunciation, a despot's +suspicion, a word caught up by surprise in the sanctuary of home, or +from the violated privacy of a letter, furnishes ample grounds for +tearing a man from his hearth, and casting him forth to die of +destitution or despair in a foreign soil, if he escapes being subjected +to the insulting forms of a barbarous and arbitrary tribunal, where his +persecutors are themselves the judges who condemn him, and where, +instead of their proving his offence, he is required to prove his +innocence.</p> + +<p>"A situation so violent as this, Cuba has been for many years enduring; +and, far from any promise of remedy appearing, every day adds new proof +that the policy of the mother-country and the ferocity of her rulers +will grant neither truce nor rest till she is reduced to the condition +of an immense prison, where every Cuban will be watched by a guard, and +will have to pay that guard for watching him. In vain have this people +exhibited a mildness, a prudence, and even a submission and loyalty, +which have been proverbial.</p> + +<p>"When the iniquity of the government has not been able to find any +ostensible grounds for persecution, it has had recourse to cowardly arts +and snares to tempt its victims into some offence. Thus were various +individuals of Matanzas entrapped into an ambuscade of the soldiery, by +the pretext of selling them some arms, under circumstances which made +them believe those arms were necessary for self-defence, against +threatened attacks from the<a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a> Peninsulars. Thus have sergeants and even +officers been seen to mingle among the country people, and pass +themselves off as enemies of the government, for the purpose of +betraying them into avowals of their sentiments to the ruin of many +persons so informed against as well as to the disgrace of military honor +on the part of those who have lent themselves to so villainous a +service.</p> + +<p>"If the sons of Cuba, moved by the dread of greater evils, have ever +determined to employ legitimate means of imposing some law, or some +restraint upon the unbridled excesses of their rulers, these latter have +always found the way to distort such acts into attempts at rebellion.</p> + +<p>"For having dared to give utterances to principles and opinions, which, +to other nations, constitute the foundation of their moral progress and +glory, the Cubans most distinguished for their virtues and talents have +found themselves wanderers and exiles. For the offence of having +exhibited their opposition to the unlawful and perilous slave trade, +from which the avarice of General O'Donnell promised itself so rich a +harvest of lucre, the latter satiated his resentment with the monstrous +vengeance of involving them in a charge of conspiracy with the free +colored people and the slaves of the estates; endeavoring, as the last +outrage that an immoral government could offer to law, to reason, or to +nature, to prove the object of that conspiracy, in which they implicated +whites of the most eminent virtue, knowledge, and patriotism, to have +been no other than the destruction of their own race.</p> + +<p>"All the laws of society and nature trampled under foot—all races and +conditions confounded together—the island of Cuba then presented to the +civilized world a spectacle worthy of the rejoicings of hell. The +wretched slaves saw their flesh torn from them under the lash, and<a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a> +bespattered with blood the faces of their executioners, who did not +cease exacting from their tortures denunciation against accomplices. +Others were shot in platoons without form of trial, and without even +coming to understand the pretext under which they were massacred. The +free colored people, after having been first lacerated by the lash, were +then hurried to the scaffold and those only escaped with life who had +gold enough to appease the fury of their executioners. And nevertheless, +when the government or its followers has come to fear some rising of the +Cubans their first threat has been that of arming the colored people +against them for their extermination. We abstain for very shame from +repeating the senseless pretences to which they have had recourse to +terrify the timid wretches! How have they been able to image that the +victims of their fury, with whom the whites of Cuba had shared in common +the horrors of misery and persecution, will turn against their own +friends at the call of the very tyrant who has torn them in pieces? If +the free colored people, who know their interests as well as the whites, +take any part in the movement of Cuba, it certainly will not be to the +injury of the mother who shelters them in her bosom, nor of those other +sons of hers who have never made them feel the difference of their race +and condition, and who, far from plundering them, have taken pride in +being their defenders and in meriting the title of their benefactors.</p> + +<p>"The world would refuse to believe the history of the horrid crimes +which have been perpetrated in Cuba, and would reasonably consider that +if there have been monsters to commit, it is inconceivable that there +could so long have been men to endure them. But if there are few able to +penetrate to the truth of particular facts,<a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a> through all the means +employed by the government to obscure and distort them, no one will +resist the evidence of public and official facts.</p> + +<p>"Publicly and with arms in his hands, did General Tacon despoil Cuba of +the constitution of Spain, proclaimed by all the powers of the monarchy, +and sent to be sworn to in Cuba, as the fundamental law of the whole +kingdom.</p> + +<p>"Publicly and by legislative act, was Cuba declared to be deprived of +all the rights enjoyed by all Spaniards, and conceded by nature and the +laws of nations the least advanced in civilization.</p> + +<p>"Publicly have the sons of Cuba been cut off from all admission to the +commands and lucrative employments of the State.</p> + +<p>"Publicly are unlimited powers of every description granted to the +Captains-General of Cuba who can refuse to those whom they condemn even +the right of a trial and the privilege of being sentenced by a tribunal.</p> + +<p>"Public and permanent in the island of Cuba, are those courts martial +which the laws permit only in extraordinary cases of war, for offences +against the State.</p> + +<p>"Publicly has the Spanish press hurled against Cuba the threat +converting the island into ruin and ashes by liberating the slaves and +unchaining against her the hordes of barbarian Africans.</p> + +<p>"Publicly are impediments and difficulties imposed upon every +individual, to restrain him from moving from place to place, and from +exercising any branch of industry—no one being safe from arrest and +fine, for some deficiency of authority or license, at every step he may +take.</p> + +<p>"Public are the taxes which have wasted away the substance of the island +and the project of other new ones, which threaten to abolish all the +products of its riches—<a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a>nothing being left for the opinions and +interests of the country.</p> + +<p>"Outrages so great and so frequent, reasons so many and so strong, +suffice not merely to justify, but to sanctify, in the eyes of the whole +world, the cause of the independence of Cuba, and any effort of her +people, by their own exertions, or with friendly aid from abroad, to put +an end to the evils they suffer, and secure the rights with which God +and nature have invested man.</p> + +<p>"Who will in Cuba oppose this indefeasible instinct, this imperative +necessity of defending our property, and of seeking in the institutions +of a just, free and regulated government conditions on which alone +civilized society can exist?</p> + +<p>"The Peninsulars (natives of Spain) perhaps, who have come to Cuba to +marry our daughters, who have here their children, their affections and +their property, will they disregard the laws of nature to range +themselves on the side of a government which oppresses them as it +oppresses us, and which will neither thank them for the service nor be +able, with all their help, to prevent the triumph of the independence of +Cuba?</p> + +<p>"Are not they as intimately bound up with happiness and interest of Cuba +as those blood-natives of her soil, who will never be able to deny the +name of their fathers, and who, in rising up today against the despotism +of the government would wish to count upon their co-operation as the +best guaranty of their new social organization and the strongest proof +of the justice of their cause?</p> + +<p>"Have they not fought in the Peninsula itself, for their national +independence, for the support of the same principles for which we, the +sons of Cuba proclaim, and which, being the same for men in all +countries, cannot be admitted in one and rejected in another without +doing<a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a> treason to nature and to the light of reason, from which they +spring?</p> + +<p>"No, no—it cannot be that they should carry submissiveness to the point +of preferring their own ruin, and the spilling of the blood of their +sons and brothers, to be triumph of the holiest cause ever embraced by +man—a cause which aims to promote their own happiness and to protect +their rights and properties. The Peninsulars who adorn and enrich our +soil, and to whom the title of labor gives as high a right as our own to +its preservation, know very well that the sons of Cuba regard them with +personal affection—have never failed to recognize the interest and +reciprocal wants which unite the two—nor have ever held them +responsible for the perversenesses of the few, and for the iniquities of +a government whose infernal policy alone has labored to separate them, +on the tyrant's familiar maxim—to divide and conquer.</p> + +<p>"We, who proceed in good faith and with the noble ambition of earning +the applause of the world for the justice of our acts—we surely cannot +aim at the destruction of our brothers, nor at the usurpation of their +properties; and far from meriting that vile calumny which the government +will endeavor to fasten upon us, we do not hesitate to swear in the +sight of God and of man that nothing would better accord with the wishes +of our hearts, or with the glory and happiness of our country, than the +co-operation of the Peninsulars, in the sacred work of liberation. +United with them, we could realize that idea of entire independence +which is a pleasing one to our minds; but if they present themselves in +our way as enemies, we shall not be able to answer for the security of +their persons and properties, nor when adventuring all for the main +object of the liberty of Cuba, shall we be able to renounce any means of +effecting it.<a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a></p> + +<p>"But if we have all these reasons to expect that the Peninsulars, who +are in nowise dependent on the government and who are so bound up with +the fate of Cuba, will at least remain neutral, it will not be supposed +that we can promise ourselves the same conduct on the part of the army, +the individuals composing which, without ties or affections, know no +other law nor consideration than the will of their commander. We pity +the lot of those unfortunate men, subject to a tyranny as hard as our +own, who, torn from their homes in the flower of their youth, have been +brought to Cuba to oppress us on condition of themselves renouncing the +dignity of men and all the enjoyments and hopes of life. If they shall +appreciate the difference between a free and happy citizen and a +dependent and hireling soldier, and choose to accept the benefits of +liberty and prosperity, which we tender them, we will admit them into +our ranks as brethren. But if they shall disregard the dictates of +reason and of their own interests and allow themselves to be controlled +by the insidious representations of their tyrants, so as to regard it as +their duty to oppose themselves to us on the field of battle as enemies, +we will then accept the combat, alike without hate and without fear and +always willing, whenever they may lay down their arms, to welcome them +to our embrace.</p> + +<p>"To employ the language of moderation and justice—to seek for means of +peace and conciliation—to invoke the sentiments of love and +brotherhood—befits a cultivated and Christian people, which finds +itself forced to appeal to the violent recourse of arms, not for the +purpose of attacking the social order and the loves of fellow beings, +but to recover the condition and the rights of man, usurped from them by +an unjust and tyrannical power. But let not the expression of our +progress and wishes encourage in<a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a> our opponents the idea that we are +ignorant of our resources, or distrustful of our strength. All the means +united, at the disposal of the Peninsulars in Cuba against us, could +only make the struggle more protracted and disastrous; but the issue in +our favor could not be any the less sure and decisive.</p> + +<p>"In the ranks of independence we have to count all the free sons of +Cuba, whatever may be the color of their race—the brave nations of +South America, who inhabit our soil and who have already made trial of +the strength and conduct of our tyrants—the sturdy islanders of the +Canaries, who love Cuba as their country, and who have already had an +Hernandez and a Monies de Oca, to seal with the proof of martyrdom, the +heroic decision of their compatriots for our cause.</p> + +<p>"The ranks of the government would find themselves constantly thinned by +desertion, by the climate, by death, which from all quarters would +spring up among them in a thousand forms. Cut short of means to pay and +maintain their army, dependent on recruits from Spain to fill up their +vacancies without an inch of friendly ground on which to plant their +feet, or an individual on whom to rely with security, war in the field +would be for them one of extermination; while, if they shut themselves +within the defences of their fortresses, hunger and want would soon +compel them to abandon them, if they were not carried by force of arms. +The example of the whole continent of Spanish America, under +circumstances more favorable for them, when they had Cuba as their +arsenal, the benefit of her coffers, and native aid in those countries +themselves, ought to serve them as a lesson not to undertake an +exterminating and fratricidal struggle, which could not fail to be +attended with the same or worse results.<a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a></p> + +<p>"We, on the other hand, besides our own resources, have in the +neighboring States of the Union, and in all the republics of America, +the encampments of our troops, the depots of our supplies, and the +arsenals of our arms. All the sons of this vast New World, whose bosom +shelters the island of Cuba, and who have had, like us, to shake off by +force the yoke of tyranny, will enthusiastically applaud our resolve, +will fly by hundreds to place themselves beneath the flag of liberty in +our ranks, and there trained to experienced valor will aid us in +annihilating, once and for always, the last badge of ignominy that still +disgraces the free and independent soil of America.</p> + +<p>"If we have hitherto hoped, with patience and resignation, that justice +and their own interests would change the mind of our tyrants; if we have +trusted to external efforts to bring the mother country to a negotiation +which should avoid the disasters of war, we are resolved to prove by +deeds that inaction and endurance have not been the results of impotence +and cowardice. Let the government undeceive itself in regard to the +power of its bayonets and the efficiency of all the means it has +invented to oppress and watch us. In the face of its very +authorities—in the sight of the spies at our side—on the day when we +have resolved to demand back our rights, the cry of liberty and +independence will rise from the Cape of San Antonio to the Point of +Maysi.</p> + +<p>"We, then, as provisional representatives of the people of Cuba, and in +exercise of the rights which God and Nature have bestowed upon every +freeman, to secure his welfare and establish himself under the form of +government that suits him do solemnly declare, taking God to witness the +ends we propose, and invoking the favor of the people of America, who +have preceded us with their example, that the Island of Cuba is, and, by +the laws of nature<a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a> ought to be, independent of Spain; and that +henceforth the inhabitants of Cuba are free from all obedience or +subjection to the Spanish government and the individuals composing it; +owing submission only to the authority and direction of those who, while +awaiting the action of the general suffrage of the people, are charged, +or may provisionally charge themselves with the command and government +of each locality, and of the military forces.</p> + +<p>"By virtue of this declaration, the free sons of Cuba, and the +inhabitants of the Island who adhere to her cause, are authorized to +take up arms, to unite into corps, to name officers and juntas of +government, for their organization and direction, for the purpose of +putting themselves in communication with the juntas constituted for the +proclamation of the independence of Cuba, and which have given the +initiative to this movement. Placed in the imposing attitude of making +themselves respected, our compatriots will prefer all the means of +persuasion to those of force; they will protect the property of +neutrals, whatever may be their origin; they will welcome the +Peninsulars into their ranks as brothers and will respect all property.</p> + +<p>"If, notwithstanding our purposes and fraternal intentions, the Spanish +government should find partizan obstruction bent upon sustaining it, and +we have to owe our liberty to the force of arms, sons of Cuba, let us +prove to the republics of America, which are contemplating us, that we +having been the last to follow their example does not make us unworthy +of them, nor incapable of receiving our liberty and achieving our +independence.</p> + +<div class="signs"> +<p class="nind"> +<span class="smcap">Joaquin de Aguero Agnew</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">Francisco Agnero Estrada</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">Waldo Areteaca Pina</span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>"July 4, 1851."<a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a></p> + +<p>Immediately upon the reading of this the wildest excitement ensued. The +Cubans began to believe that at last deliverance was near. They flung +their hats into the air, while tears streamed down their faces, and they +shouted "Cuba Libre! Down with the Spaniards!" until hoarseness +compelled them to stop. Then an ominous noise, low at first, but growing +nearer and nearer, broke in upon their rapturous demonstrations. Well +they knew that sound, for they had heard it only too often. The Spanish +soldiers were approaching, and turning, those on the outskirts of the +crowd beheld column after column of infantry advancing from one +direction, while a troop of cavalry was apparently about to charge the +crowd from the opposite side of the square. Aguero knew that a crisis +had been reached and that on the work done in the next few moments +depended victory or defeat. He called upon those closest in his +confidence to organize the crowd. Plans for this action had previously +been completed, and the assembled people were quickly grouped into +divisions each containing one hundred men. By this time the Spanish +troops were only about a hundred yards distant, and they at once opened +fire on the revolutionists. Aguero's company was armed, and they had +brought with them extra equipment, which had been distributed among the +people. The revolutionists were by no means poor marksmen; they had long +been practicing in private for this very hour. They proved that they +were more skilled than the picked troops of Spain, and for a time they +showed astonishing efficiency in thinning the ranks of the Spanish +infantry. But the cavalry now charged the crowd, and this was more +serious than an infantry attack because the revolutionists were not +prepared to return it in kind. They stood their ground bravely, firing +at the horses, thus seeking to dismount<a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a> and confuse the enemy, and +strange as it may seem they were successful. The cavalry commander +ordered a retreat, which was accomplished in great disorder, and under a +withering fire from the revolutionists, while the infantry, amazed and +alarmed to find themselves no longer able to rely on the support of the +cavalry, broke and fled toward Puerto Principe, from which place they +had come. The little army at Najassa well knew that no help could be +expected from their comrades at Puerto Principe, and therefore it seemed +the part of discretion to allow the Spanish army to retreat unmolested, +and for the revolutionists to take refuge in the interior of the island, +where it would be more difficult to apprehend them, and where they hoped +to find sympathy and support. They made their way to Guanamaquilla, +where they decided to make a stand, and where, after effecting a better +organization, they entrenched themselves.</p> + +<p>On July 6 at this place they were attacked by six hundred Spaniards +under General Lemery, and the Spanish troops were again routed, again +retired in disorder, and once more the revolutionists celebrated a +victory. Not only did the Spanish troops beat a hasty retreat, but they +left behind them, on the field of battle, forty dead and dying.</p> + +<p>It can be imagined with what elation the patriots celebrated this second +victory. They could hardly believe in their good fortune. It was +incredible that they should have prevailed against the trained forces of +Spain. It was not for them, at such close contact with events, to +realize that while they were fighting for their homes, for freedom, for +their families, for their very lives,—for capture meant as sure death +as any bullet of the enemy could bring,—after all the Spanish troops +were only hirelings, fighting for pay and not for a principle, and that +it has<a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a> been the history of the world, since its beginning, that when +the home is at stake sooner or later victory comes to its defenders.</p> + +<p>Now the little bands of one hundred separated, and the mistake was made +which proved fatal to the cause for which they had already sacrificed so +much, and which seemed about to triumph. They should have waited until +news of their triumph penetrated to other patriots, and until their +forces had been greatly swelled in volume, before any division was made.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, immediately after their first victory, they had sent a +courier to bear word to Lopez, through their mysterious channels of +communication, of their success, urging him to communicate the good news +to the junta in New York, and to hasten to their aid with a new +expedition, and promising that meanwhile they would spread the +revolution to all parts of the island, so that when he came again he +would have no cause to complain of lack of support.</p> + +<p>The companies of one hundred each went in a separate direction, each +bent on conquest and propaganda among timid sympathizers. One party, +which was led by Aguero himself, made its way to Las Tunas, and arrived +there late in the evening. Aguero divided his little band into two parts +and approached the town from opposite directions, sounding the cry of +the revolution, "Cuba Libre!" and calling upon all good patriots to join +their forces. But Spanish spies, always active, had preceded them and +the garrison of five hundred soldiers was already alert. Then a +catastrophe happened. The two bands of patriots, in the midst of the +great confusion which their arrival occasioned, met in a dark, unpaved +street, and not recognizing one another, each believed the other to be +the Spaniards, and each opened fire upon the<a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a> other. Too late the error +was rectified. Some of the patriots had been injured by their own +comrades, and the organization was in confusion; before order could be +educed from this chaos, the Spanish troops were upon them, and this time +it was the patriots who were put to rout.</p> + +<p>Another of the bands of one hundred had proceeded, meanwhile, to the +plains of Santa Isabel. Large numbers of patriots rallied to their +assistance, but the attacking Spanish force, nearly a thousand strong, +and consisting of both cavalry and infantry, cast far too great odds +against them. The patriots again suffered defeat, and their losses were +twenty killed and forty captured by the enemy, while the Spanish +casualties were one hundred and thirty, fifty of whom were killed +outright.</p> + +<p>A third band of one hundred, which had as its commander Don Serapin +Recio, made its way to Santa Cruz. They were more fortunate than had +been their comrades, for when they were attacked by four companies of +Spanish infantry, under Colonel Conti, they not only were victorious, +but they took Colonel Conti prisoner. This triumph, however, was short +lived, for Spanish reinforcements, consisting of four hundred +cavalrymen, were rushed to the scene of battle, and the tide turned +against the patriots. Recio was captured, fifty six revolutionists soon +lay dead or dying, and as the others sought to escape a large proportion +of them were taken captive.</p> + +<p>Still a fourth band, advancing on Punta de Grandao, met with disaster, +as did the fifth division which had gone toward La Siguanea in the hope +of taking that place.</p> + +<p>Only one little division of patriots, one hundred strong, remained +unconquered. Aguero, who had made his escape after the defeat at Las +Tunas, took command of this company. The city of Nuevitas was entered in +triumph,<a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a> amid shouts of welcome from the people, who in large numbers +threw in their fortunes with the revolution. Don Carlos Comus led the +Spanish forces against the city, and a desperate battle which raged for +over three hours was fought. The ammunition of the patriots was +exhausted, and fighting against frightful odds, they were almost +exterminated; fewer than the original one hundred remained alive. They +fled, and were speedily captured by the pursuing Spaniards.</p> + +<p>Complete defeat had now overtaken the revolutionists, who so boldly on +July 3 had declared their independence of Spain, and thrown a defiant +gauntlet before the Spanish power. By the end of July not a single one +of the original army remained at large to tell the story; they had all +been killed, captured, or frightened into cowed and silent obedience to +Spanish rule. Of those who had fallen into the hands of the Spaniards, +every one was tried by military tribunal, and sentence passed upon them. +Two courts sat in judgment on the offenders, one at Puerto Principe and +the other at Trinidad, at which latter the Captain-General, José de la +Concha, presided. Under his dictation sentence of death was pronounced +upon José Isidore Armenteros, Fernando Hernandez and Rafael Arcis, all +recognized as prime movers in the revolution. Ignacio Belen Perez, +Nestor Cadalso, Juan O'Bourke, Abeja Iznaga Miranda and Jose Maria +Rodriguez were sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, which was to be +suffered abroad, and they were forever banished from Cuba, while the +same terms were imposed on Juan Hevia and Avelind Porada, whose +sentences, however, were shortened to eight years each, and Pedro José +Pomarcz, Foribio Garcia, Cruz Birba and Fernando Medinilla were also +banished, and condemned to two years' imprisonment. All sentences went +into effect on<a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a> August 18. It is interesting to note in passing a fact +which seems quite in keeping with the Spanish character as demonstrated +by the administration of the island; the men who were condemned to death +were led out into a field by the name of Del Negro, near the city of +Trinidad, and <i>shot in the back</i>.</p> + +<p>The court which sat in judgment at Puerto Principe tried the leader of +the revolutionists, and brave Joaquin Aguero was condemned to die by the +garrote. The same sentence was imposed on José Thomas Betancourt, +Fernando de Zayas and Miguel Benavides; while Miguel Castellanos and +Adolfo Pierre Aguero were sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, which +sentences were all decreed to take effect on August 12.</p> + +<p>It was impossible, even with the strict censorship which the Spanish +Captain-General maintained over the island, to keep reports of the +stirring events which were taking place from leaking forth into the +outer world. Of course, Lopez and the junta at New York learned of them +through the channels known only to themselves, and the news, spreading +to all parts of the United States, caused tremendous excitement. Great +interest was manifested, particularly in the southern states, and in New +York City, where the members of the Cuban junta had begun to stir up a +considerable amount of interest in and sympathy for the Cubans. The New +York papers dispatched correspondents to obtain the true story of the +rebellion, but the reporters had difficulty in getting into the country, +and encountered still greater obstacles in dispatching what news they +could gather to their respective sheets. They were hampered in their +efforts by Spanish officials and Spanish spies were always at their +heels.</p> + +<p>While the main uprising had been in the vicinity of Puerto Principe, +incipient rebellions and sympathetic insurrections<a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a> occurred in other +parts of the island, which were quickly quelled by overwhelming forces +of Spaniards, and the news of which was confined as much as possible to +the immediate vicinity of the uprisings. At Trinidad a mob assembled on +horseback, crying vengeance on the Spanish oppressors, but they were +soon driven from the city and obliged to take to cover on a densely +wooded hill, where their movements were so hampered by underbrush that +they were perforce compelled to abandon their mounts, and soon +surrendered to superior numbers. It was suspected that the inhabitants +of Havana, or rather the revolutionary sympathizers in that place, were +about to revolt, but the guard was redoubled, the crowd was overawed by +numbers of well armed troops, and the movement, if it ever had been +contemplated, never materialized. However, many of the wealthy +inhabitants, fearing that they might be seized on suspicion of +complicity with the revolutionists, hastily fled to their estates in the +country.</p> + +<p>The New York <i>Herald</i>, which for a long time had been sympathetically +inclined toward the revolutionary party in Cuba, on July 16, 1851, +printed the following report, which was based on facts gathered by its +correspondent:</p> + +<p>"I consider that, in a political point of view, this island was never in +a more critical state than it is at this present moment. The Creoles of +Cuba have at length thrown down the gauntlet of defiance to the +authority of Spain."</p> + +<p>This statement was followed by a long account of the engagements between +the revolutionists and the forces of Spain. On July 22 the same paper, +under the guise of reporting conditions, issued what was really a call +of "The United States to the rescue," which in part read as follows:</p> + +<p>"The revolution of Cuba has changed from chrysalis<a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a> to full grown fly. +The first blood has been spilled. Cuba, some seem to think, has had her +Lexington.... The revolution having begun, it cannot go backward and it +is more than probable that the days of Spain's rule are at least to be +much embarrassed. The government counts 14,000 troops, and no more, in +all the island, and may, perhaps, be able to raise as many more from the +Spanish population; but their fleet is a good one, comprising some +twenty vessels, of which six are steamers. <i>Whether the struggle be a +long one or a short one, will depend on the 'aid and comfort' the Cubans +receive from the United States, in the shape of guns, pistols, powder, +ball and men that can teach them to organize and manoeuvre.</i>"<a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p>I<small>T</small> will be recalled that the Cubans, in the first flush of victory, had +dispatched the good tidings to the Cuban Junta in New York City. These +reports were so sanguine of victory that even though later rumors of +defeat at the hands of the Spaniards did reach that body, they were +regarded as Spanish propaganda and suppressed. These adverse rumors were +vague, and unsupported by confirming data, and Spanish spies had been +for some time active in dispensing unreliable news favorable to their +country, so it is not strange that little credence was given to such +advices as came to the Junta from Spanish sources. Lopez himself was +overjoyed at the tidings from the patriots and began eagerly to organize +another expedition. The greatest enthusiasm prevailed among Cuban +sympathizers in the United States. In some places, particularly in the +south, public meetings were held, and proclamations of the liberty of +Cuba were read to the assembled crowds. Men crowded to enlist and +$50,000 was quickly raised to finance the expedition. The new recruits +to the ranks were of by far the best character yet enlisted. They seem +to have been, for the most part, actuated by the highest motives, and +aflame with zeal for the cause of Cuban liberty. Garibaldi, who was then +in the United States, is reported to have been approached to be the +leader of the new expedition, but because he had his own Italian matters +to attend to, he declined with regret.</p> + +<p>The United States Government, of course, gave no official sanction to +the project, but it was deterred by the preponderance of favorable +public opinion from putting<a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a> more than nominal obstacles in its way; +avoiding on the one hand the storm of protest which was bound to be +raised by Cuban sympathizers at any marked interference with their +plans, and on the other the anger of Spain and thus an international +complication. Spanish spies were as heretofore dogging the steps of the +conspirators and reporting their findings to the Spanish minister at +Washington, so that the United States Government found itself in an +exceedingly difficult position. However, preparations went on apace. A +steamer, the <i>Pampero</i>, was purchased by the Junta, and well stocked +with provisions. Arms and ammunitions were also procured, but these +were, as was usual, to be delivered to the steamer on the high seas.</p> + +<p>At daybreak, on the morning of April 3, the <i>Pampero</i> slipped from its +dock at the foot of Lafayette Street in New Orleans, and made its way +down the river. At the mouth of the harbor the difficulties of the +filibusters began. The vessel was overloaded, and Captain Lewis in the +interests of safety declined to proceed further until some of the party +had been sent ashore. A landing was made that night, and one hundred men +were detailed to be left behind. They protested vigorously against this +action. The plan was that the <i>Pampero</i> was to be only one of many +vessels to be sent within the next month to the relief of the Cubans, +and that she was to return, immediately her company had been landed in +Cuba, for reinforcements which would be assembled and be in waiting to +sail. However, none of the company on the <i>Pampero</i> desired to await +another sailing, and when she once more put out to sea it was discovered +that the number on board her had not been perceptibly lessened, since +many of those put on shore had, in the confusion, and under the cover of +darkness, stolen back on<a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a> board and hidden themselves securely until she +was once more on her way.</p> + +<p>The expedition thus auspiciously started was made up of the following +men and officers:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">6</td> +<td colspan="4"> Companies of Infantry, including officers</td> +<td align="left">—219 men</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">3</td> +<td align="center">"</td> +<td align="center">"</td> +<td align="left">Artillery, " </td> +<td align="center">"</td> +<td align="left">—114 men</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">1</td> +<td valign="top"> Company</td><td align="center">"</td> +<td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Cuban patriots<br />(domiciled in the United States)</td> +<td align="left" valign="bottom">— 49 men</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">1</td> +<td align="center">"</td> +<td align="center">"</td> +<td align="left">Hungarian recruits</td> + +<td align="left">—</td> +<td align="left">9 men</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">1</td> +<td align="center">"</td> +<td align="center">"</td> +<td align="left">German recruits</td> + +<td align="left">—</td> +<td align="left">9 men</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The command of this little army was distributed as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="margin-left:2%;"> +<tr><td align="left">General-in-Chief</td><td align="left">Narciso Lopez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Second-in-Command and Chief-of-Staff </td><td align="left">John Pragay</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="nind"> +<i>Officers of Staff</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain Emmerich Radwitch.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">" Ludwig Schlessinger.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lieutenant Joseph Lewohl.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">" Jigys Rodendorf.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">" Ludwig.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">" Miller.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adjutant Colengen.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">" Blumenthal.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Surgeon Hega Lemmgue.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Commissary G. A. Cook.</span><br /> +<i>Staff of the Regiment of Infantry</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonel R. L. Dorman.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lieutenant Colonel W. Scott Harkness.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adjutant George A. Graham.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Commissary Joseph Bell.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adjutant of Regiment George Parr.</span><br /> +<i>Company A.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain Robert Ellis.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lieutenant E. McDonald.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sub-Lieutenant J. L. LaHascan.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">" R. H. Breckinridge.</span><br /> +<i>Company B.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain John Johnson.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant James Dunn.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " J. F. Williams.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third " James O'Reilly.</span><br /> +<i>Company C.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain J. C. Bridgham.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant Richard Vowden.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " J. A. Gray.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third " J. N. Baker.</span><br /> +<i>Company D.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain Philip Golday.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant David Rassan.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " James H. Landingham.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third " James H. Vowden.</span><br /> +<i>Company E.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain Henry Jackson.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant William Hobbs.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " J. A. Simpson.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third " James Crangh.</span><br /> +<i>Company F.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain William Stewart.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant James L. Down.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " John L. Bass.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third " Thomas Hudwall.</span><br /> +<i>Regiment of Artillery—Officers of Staff.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chief—William S. Crittenden.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adjutant R. L. Stanford.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second Master of Commissariat Felix Hustin.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Surgeon Ludovic Vinks.</span><br /> +<i>Company A.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain W. A. Kelly.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant N. O. James.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " James A. Nowens.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third " J. O. Bryce.</span><br /> +<i>Company B.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain James Saunders.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant Philip VanVechten.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " Beverly A. Hunter.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third " William H. Craft.</span><br /> +<i>Company C.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain Victor Kerr.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant James Brandt.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " William T. Vienne.</span><br /> +<i>Regiment of Cuban Patriots.</i> +<i>Company A.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain Ilde Foussee Overto.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First Lieutenant De Jiga Hernandez.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second " Miguel Lopez.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third " José A. Plands.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fourth " Henry Lopez.</span><br /> +<i>Regiment of Hungarians.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Major George Botilla.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain Ladislaus Polank.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lieutenant Semerby.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">" Johan Petroce.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">" Adambert Kerskes.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">" Conrad Richner.</span><br /> +<i>German Regiment.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captain Pietra Muller.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">" Hugo Schlyct.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lieutenant Paul Michael.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">" Biro Cambeas.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">" Giovana Placasee.</span></p> + +<p>This seems perhaps an elaborate organization for so small a force, but +it must be borne in mind that Lopez<a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a> and his followers firmly believed +that this time there was to be no repetition of the former lack of +enthusiasm on the part of the Cubans, but that they had only to land to +be greeted with rejoicing, and to have flock to their assistance a great +number of Cuban patriots. This impression was increased by forged +letters—which Lopez, however, accepted as genuine—which were waiting +for them at Key West and which are now believed to have been written by +a follower of Lopez in Havana, under duress and intimidating threats of +Captain-General Concha, for the latter having learned of the expedition +resorted to treachery to thwart the plans of the filibusters. These +letters intimated that Pinar del Rio and many cities in that vicinity +were in open revolt against Spanish rule, and prayed that Lopez come +quickly to the aid of the rebels, who were eager to join him.</p> + +<p>Colonel Crittenden, in command of the artillery regiment, was a man of +the highest connections in the United States. He was a seasoned soldier, +being a veteran of the Mexican war, and having received his training at +West Point. In Lopez's band were also several officers from the United +States Custom House at New Orleans, and many men from the best families +of the South.</p> + +<p>On April 7 the smoke of a steamer was seen in the distance, and it soon +seemed to indicate that the <i>Pampero</i> was being pursued. Her course was +changed, and she either succeeded in outdistancing her pursuer, or the +latter decided that a mistake had been made in the identity of the +vessel, and abandoned the chase. The expedition neared Key West, and +they expected to find there United States vessels of war, and a strong +garrison. Therefore an attempt was made to disguise the character of the +<i>Pampero</i> and her purpose, and the men were all ordered below. Lopez was +delighted to find that his anticipations<a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a> were wrong, for there were no +men of war in the harbor and the barracks were empty. As the <i>Pampero</i> +docked, and the men came on deck, they were greeted by a shouting mob of +enthusiastic people. They were welcomed as heroes, and the inhabitants +came on board bearing food of the most tempting variety and cases of +champagne. A feast followed, at which the health of the filibusters and +the success of the expedition was drunk with shouts of approval.</p> + +<p>Now the expectation had been to go up the St. John's River, where a +quantity of artillery for Colonel Crittenden's regiment had been hidden, +but the false reports in the forged letters made Lopez anxious to be on +his way to Cuba, and it was argued that the artillery would be +ineffective in the first engagements, for the roads were very bad, and +Lopez hoped to take to the mountains and conduct a sort of guerrilla +warfare. The St. John's River was some distance away, and there was +always fear of interference from the United States Government; and +besides, since this was merely a vanguard for a much greater invasion of +Cuba, and was intended to pave the way for the coming forces, why not +proceed to the rescue of the Cuban insurgents and let those who would +follow bring the artillery? Consequently, after consultation with his +officers, Lopez decided to sail for Cuba by the shortest route.</p> + +<p>On nine o'clock of the morning of August 11, the filibusters found +themselves about ten miles from the harbor of Havana. Off Bahia Honda +they took on a pilot. Meanwhile, two vessels were sighted, and were +believed to be Spanish ships lying in wait for the expedition. A contest +of wits ensued, in which Lopez was victorious, and the <i>Pampero</i> +successfully evaded her pursuers. At eight o'clock that night they +neared Morillo, and Lopez<a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a> decided there to make his landing. At eleven +o'clock this was accomplished, and while the provisions, arms and +ammunition were being brought ashore, the men were given permission to +lie down on their arms and rest for two hours. It can be imagined that +they were in the highest state of excitement and in no condition to +sleep, even if the attacks of mosquitoes had not made this impossible.</p> + +<p>Now the information which Captain-General Concha had received concerning +the expedition had led him to believe that the landing would be made at +Mantua, and he was delighted when information reached him, as it +speedily did, that the filibusters had gone ashore at Morillo. He +quickly dispatched Colonel Morales by rail to Guanajay, where he +collected a Spanish force of about four hundred men, who were instructed +to attack from the front; while General Ena from Bahia Honda and Colonel +Elezalde from Pinar del Rio were to join forces to cut off retreat, if +the filibusters attempted to escape by sea, and thus Concha hoped to +surround and destroy the army of invasion.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the <i>Pampero</i> had been cleared, and under orders from Lopez +set out on a return trip to Key West to bring reinforcements, and Lopez +decided to march his forces to Las Pozas, ten miles away. Contrary to +their expectations, the filibusters had found the town of Morillo +practically deserted, and there were no enthusiastic patriots to welcome +their would-be deliverers. Now difficulty arose as to transportation of +the provisions, and the main portions of the military supplies. There +was no practical means of conveying them to Las Pozas, and in +consequence Lopez made a mistake which afterward proved his undoing. He +concluded to divide his forces, leaving Crittenden, with a hundred and +twenty men, to<a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a> guard the supplies, and himself, with the remainder of +his army, to push on to Las Pozas.</p> + +<p>He reached this objective without mishap, but again found conditions +very different from what he had been led to expect. This town, too, was +almost deserted, and there was the same disheartening lack of support, +and failure of the Cubans to join his expedition. Lopez determined that +on this occasion there should be no occasion to bring against his army +the accusations which the Spaniards had made at Matanzas. He therefore +ordered his men to accept nothing in the way of food for which they did +not pay, and he stationed guards at places where liquor was sold to +prevent any drunkenness on the part of his men. In consequence the best +of order prevailed.</p> + +<p>An attack from the Spaniards was momentarily expected, and Lopez +maintained a careful watch for the approach of the enemy. This was +delayed until the next morning, when, in spite of his precautions, he +was taken virtually by surprise. A portion of his forces were eating +their breakfast, while others were bathing in a nearby stream, when word +came that the Spanish had overpowered the outposts, were then within two +hundred yards of the village, and that the attacking force was estimated +to be twelve hundred strong. Lopez hastily issued the call to arms, and +his men were arrayed to meet the on-coming Spaniards. A hot battle +ensued, in which, in spite of the fact that they were so largely +outnumbered, the filibusters were victorious and forced the Spaniards to +retire. However, Lopez suffered a very great blow in the death of +Colonel Dorman, who was the best disciplinarian and most efficient +organizer and drill-master in the army, while Colonel Pragay, Lopez's +chief adviser—who, however, had been responsible for persuading Lopez<a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a> +to make the mistake of leaving Crittenden behind—was also killed, as +was Captain Overto. The other casualties amounted to fifty killed and +wounded. Even the fact that the Spanish losses were far heavier did not +compensate for the loss to Lopez of his three brave commanders.</p> + +<p>Lopez's army had been increased by only a few stray Cubans, whom they +had encountered on their march to Las Pozas, and who had joined fortunes +with them. He now had fifty-three less men that at first, and besides he +was separated from his stores. Unless they were promptly brought +forward, or unless he returned to Morillo and Crittenden, he would be in +a serious situation, since help from the natives was not materializing. +While he was contemplating this situation, a messenger arrived from +Crittenden, asking permission to join Lopez, and the messenger was +promptly ordered to return with orders to Crittenden to march his forces +to Pinar del Rio to join Lopez there, and Lopez headed his men toward +the mountains, with the intention of pushing on to Pinar del Rio.</p> + +<p>Promptly on receipt of the desired permission from Lopez, Crittenden, +with his one hundred and twenty men, set out to join him. They had +proceeded only three miles when the little band was attacked by a body +of five hundred Spaniards. Crittenden's men quickly took to cover, and +fought so desperately that in spite of the fact that they were so +greatly outnumbered, they killed a large number of the Spanish forces, +and put the others to rout. But Crittenden, it would seem, had not +learned the proper lesson from the earlier division of Lopez's forces, +and his own plight in consequence, for he now decided to make the +mistake a second time. The little band had made slow progress, because +of the necessity for transporting<a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a> the supplies in carts, and Crittenden +made up his mind to leave Captain Kelly for the time with forty men to +defend the supplies, and with the remaining eighty himself to lead an +attack against the Spaniards who were now rallying. But the Spanish +soldiers were better trained than were Crittenden's men, and the Spanish +leader was cleverer in manoeuvres and had a greater knowledge of the +country. He had no difficulty in effecting a separation between the two +bodies of Crittenden's men, and he forced those under Crittenden to flee +for their lives. They took refuge in a wooded ravine, where they +remained for two days and nights without food and without water, in +constant terror of a Spanish attack. Realizing that if they stayed where +they were they faced no better fate than slow starvation, they finally, +under cover of the night, emerged from their hiding-place and made their +way to the coast, where they took possession of four small boats and set +out to sea, in the hope of reaching Key West, or of being picked up by +some other expedition, since they had no doubt that several were already +on their way from the United States. Two days later, starving, and +almost mad for want of fresh water, driven by the tides back to the +shore and aground on the rocks, they were captured and taken to Havana.</p> + +<p>The Spanish General Bustillos, gives the following account of their +apprehension:</p> + +<p>"Your Excellency: I started yesterday from Bahia Honda, in the steamer +<i>Habanera</i>, with a view to reconnoiter the coast of Playitas and +Morillo, in order to remove all the means by which the pirates could +possibly escape; or in case of more expeditions to these points, to +remove the means of disembarkation. At seven o'clock in the morning, I +communicated with the inhabitants of Morillo, and was informed by the +inhabitants that, at 10<a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a> o'clock on the preceding night, one part of +them embarked in four boats. Having calculated the hour of their sailing +and distance probably made in 10 hours and supposing they had taken the +direction of New Orleans—I proceeded in that direction 18 miles, with +full steam, but after having accomplished that distance, I could not +discover any of those I pursued. Believing the road they had followed +was within the rocks, I directed my steamer to that point, and made the +greatest exertions to encounter the fugitive pirates. At 10 o'clock I +detected the 4 boats navigating along the coast and I could only seize +one. Two others were upon the rocks of the island, the fourth upon the +rocks of Cargo Levisa. When I seized the men of the first boat, I armed +the boats of the ship in order to pursue the second and third, which +were on the rocks, but the officers of the army who were in the boats, +as well as the troops and sailors, the commander of the boat, Don +Ignacio de Arrellano and the captain of the steamer <i>Cardenas</i>, Don +Francisco Estolt threw themselves in the water to pursue the pirates of +whom two only escaped. Having left their arms we did not pursue them in +order to occupy ourselves with the boat in Cargo Levisa, for it was one +of the largest and contained more men. These, twenty-four in number, +were hidden within a small neck, having the boat drawn up among the +rocks; and here the pirates were seized. The number of prisoners was +fifty well armed men, headed by a chief and five officers."</p> + +<p>When the captives reached Havana, they were brought up on deck, stripped +except for their undershirts and trousers, and before the people who had +assembled at the dock they were made to undergo the greatest +indignities. Not only were they grossly insulted by word of mouth; they +were spit upon, and railed at, kicked and<a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a> assaulted; nothing seemed too +harsh or vile for their captors to do in venting their spleen.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, when the Captain-General was apprised of their arrival, he +sent spies to them to take down their statements and farewell messages, +promising to transmit these to their families, but in reality his agents +were instructed to use every effort to influence each man to inform on +the others. In this, however, they were entirely unsuccessful. Concha +announced his intention of dealing summarily with the offenders, as a +warning to others who might contemplate an invasion of Cuba. Therefore, +without even the pretense of a trial, the following decree was issued +against them:</p> + +<p>"It having been decreed by the general order of April 20 last, and +subsequently reproduced, what was to be the fate of the pirates who +should dare to profane the soil of this island, and in view of the +declarations of the fifty individuals who have been taken by his +Excellency the Commander-General of this naval station, and placed at my +disposal, which declarations establish the identity of their persons, as +pertaining to the horde commanded by the traitor Lopez, I have resolved +in accordance with the provisions of the Royal Ordinances, General Laws +of the Kingdom, and particularly in the Royal Order of the 12th of June +of the past year, issued for this particular case, that the said +individuals, whose names and designations are set forth in the following +statement, suffer this day the pain of death, by being shot, the +execution being committed to the Señor Teniente de Rey, Brigadier of the +Plaza.</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Jose de la Concha</span>."</p> + +<p>Attached to this document was the following list of names. Since it is +known that fifty-two men were shot, the list is accordingly incomplete:<a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a></p> + +<p>"Colonel W. S. Crittenden; Captains F. S. Sewer, Victor Kerr, and T. B. +Veacey; Lieutenants James Brandt, J. O. Bryce, Thomas C. James, and M. +H. Homes; Doctors John Fisher and R. A. Tourniquet; Sergeants J. +Whiterous and A. M. Cotchett; Adjutant B. C. Stanford; Privates Samuel +Mills, Edward Bulman, George A. Arnold, B. J. Wregy, William Niseman, +Anselmo Torres, Hernandez, Robert Cantley, John G. Sanka, James Stanton, +Thomas Harnett, Alexander McIllger, Patrick Dillon, Thomas Hearsey, +Samuel Reed, H. T. Vinne, M. Philips, James L. Manville, G. M. Green, J. +Salmon, Napoleon Collins, N. H. Fisher, William Chilling, G. A. Cook, S. +O. Jones, M. H. Ball, James Buxet, Robert Caldwell, C. C. William Smith, +A. Ross, P. Brouke, John Christides, William B. Little, John Stibbs, +James Ellis, William Hogan, Charles A. Robinson."</p> + +<p>On August 16, early in the morning, the prisoners were taken from the +vessel and brought to the Castle of Atares for execution. An appeal was +made to the American Consul at Havana, F. A. Owens, to use his influence +with the Captain-General to obtain some clemency for the condemned men, +but he not only declined on the ground that they had been declared +outlaws by the American Government, but he seemed to be utterly lacking +in kindness of heart or compassion, for he refused to see the men, or to +make any attempt to transmit their last messages to their friends and +families.</p> + +<p>An eye witness thus describes the execution:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="r"> +"Havana, August 16, 4½ <span class="smcap">P. M.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>"I have this day been witness to one of the most brutal acts of +wanton inhumanity ever perpetrated in the annals of history. Not +content was this government in revenging themselves in the death of +those unfortunate and perhaps misguided men, and which, it may even +be said, was<a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a> brought upon themselves; but these Spanish +authorities deserve to be most severely chastised for their +exceedingly reprehensible conduct in permitting the desecration, as +they have done, of the senseless clay of our brave countrymen. This +morning forty Americans, four Irish, one Scotch, one Italian, one +Philippine Islander, two Habaneros and two Germans or Hungarians, +were shot at 11 o'clock; after which the troops were ordered to +retire and some hundreds of the violent rabble, hired for the +purpose commenced mutilating the dead bodies. Oh! the very +remembrance of the sight is frightful.</p> + +<p>"I never saw men—and could scarcely have supposed it +possible—conduct themselves at such an awful moment with the +fortitude these men displayed under such trying circumstances. They +were shot, six at a time, i.e., twelve men were brought to the +place of execution, six made to kneel down and receive the fire of +the soldiers, after which the remaining six were made to walk +around their dead comrades and kneel opposite to them, when they +were also shot. They died bravely, those gallant and unfortunate +young gentlemen. When the moment of execution came, many, Colonel +Crittenden and Captain Victor Kerr among them, refused to kneel +with their backs to the executioners. 'No,' said the chivalrous +Crittenden, 'an American kneels only to his God, and always faces +his enemy!' They stood up, faced their executioners, were shot down +and their brains then knocked out by clubbed muskets. After being +stripped and their bodies mutilated, they were shoved, six or seven +together, bound as they were, into hearses, which were used last +year for cholera cases. No coffins were allowed them.</p> + +<p>"A finer looking set of young men I never saw; they made not a +single complaint, not a murmur, against their<a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a> sentence, and +decency should have been shown their dead bodies in admiration for +the heroism they displayed when brought out for execution. Not a +muscle was seen to move, and they proved to the miserable rabble +congregated to witness the horrible spectacle that it being the +fortunes of war that they fell into the power of this government, +they were not afraid to die. It would have been a great consolation +to these poor fellows, as they repeatedly asked, to see their +consul, and through him to have sent their last adieus, and such +little remembrances as they had, to their beloved relations in the +States. But Mr. Owens, the American Consul, did not even make +application to the Captain-General to see these unfortunate +countrymen in their distress, and their sacred wishes in their last +moments have been unattended to. Lastly, at the very hour of +triumph, when the people of the Spanish steamer <i>Habanero</i> knew +that the execution of the American prisoners, whom they had taken +to Havana, had taken place, two shots were fired across or at the +steamer <i>Falcon</i> off Bahia Honda; and notwithstanding that this +vessel was well known to them, having as she had the American flag +hoisted, etc., she was detained and overhauled by these Spanish +officers."</p></div> + +<p>Another reliable source, the report of an American naval officer, +furnished the information, that after the prisoners had been shot, their +bodies were mutilated; they were dragged by the heels, and outraged in a +manner which would make the most unenlightened savage shudder; their +ears and fingers were cut off, and portions of these, together with +pieces of skull, were distributed to the Spanish officers as souvenirs, +while some of these grim relics were afterward nailed up in public +places as a warning against attempts to revolt against the Spanish<a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a> +Government. Ten of the bodies were placed in coffins, and the rest were +merely thrown into a pit.</p> + +<p>When Captain Kelly and his forty followers had been separated from +Crittenden, they managed in some manner—the details of which have not +come down to us—to evade the Spaniards and to escape with such supplies +as they could carry. They took to the cover of the woods, and being +unfamiliar with the country wandered around, until they fell in with a +loyal negro who undertook to act as guide for them. He led them to a +dense wood, in sight of Las Pozas, and they sent him on ahead to report +conditions. He returned, stating that Lopez was in possession of the +town, and so they joined him, just as he was about to lead his men into +the mountains. Captain Kelly's men had been so engrossed with their own +predicament that they had remained in ignorance of the fate of +Crittenden's force, and they were therefore unable to give Lopez any +definite information concerning them, and he treasured the hope that +they too had escaped the Spaniards, and would be able to join him at +Pinar del Rio, in accordance with the original plan.</p> + +<p>Lopez's forces were now reduced to about three hundred men, and they +found themselves obliged to leave their wounded behind them. They pushed +forward all night, and until about nine in the morning, covering a +distance of twelve miles. They shot a cow, and roasting the meat on the +points of their bayonets, ate it without bread or salt. They then +continued their march until eight in the evening, when, utterly worn +out, they lay down and slept on their arms until midnight.</p> + +<p>The moon was now shining brightly, and Lopez awakened his tired army, +and again they were on their way. Shortly after dawn, they reached a +plantation, where they<a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a> were received with kindness by the owner, who +was in sympathy with the cause of Cuban freedom. Two cows were killed, +and some corn roasted, and once more the little band was refreshed. But +now Lopez discovered that in the absence of a guide or a compass they +had been traveling almost in a circle, and instead of going southwest +toward San Cristobal and Pinar del Rio, they were within only three +miles of their original landing place, where there was a large Spanish +force. He immediately assembled his footsore companions, who were now +almost barefoot because the rough and stony passes had worn the shoes +from their feet, and led them on a forced march. Many had already +dropped out by fatigue, and the others were almost exhausted, but Lopez +realized that safety could only be assured by putting many miles between +his men and the Spanish garrison, and reaching, before they were +overtaken, some place of strong vantage.</p> + +<p>The Spaniards seem, however, to have been thoroughly puzzled by Lopez's +circuitous course, and they sent word to the Captain-General that since +they despaired of capturing him, they felt the best measure to take was +an effort to induce his men to desert him. Concha, therefore, issued the +following proclamation, which was posted in conspicuous places all over +the vicinity where Lopez was supposed to be hiding:</p> + +<p>"Proclamation!</p> + +<p>"The Most Excellent Señor, the Captain-General, has seen proper to +direct, under this date, to the chiefs of columns in the field and to +the Lieutenant-Governors of Bahia Honda, Mariel, San Cristobal and Pinar +del Rio, the following circular:</p> + +<p>"The greater part of the pirates who dared to invade the island have +been destroyed by the valiant troops of<a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a> that army to whom the lot fell +of being destined to pursue them, as well as by the not less decided and +active cooperation of all the loyal inhabitants of the district they had +sought to make their den. Considering, at once, the unanimous confession +of all those who have been taken and executed, that they had been +brought here into a foreign territory through a complete deception, +having been made to believe that the country called them, that the army +would make common cause with them, and that triumph would be as easy as +it was certain, such being the promise of the traitor who led them; and +that the directors of such a foolish and disorderly enterprise could not +in any other way have got together the multitude connected herewith, and +also that public vengeance has already been satisfied by the severe +chastisement inflicted on those individuals hitherto captured, as well +as those that have perished by the balls or the bayonets of our gallant +troops; and that finally, the time has arrived to make use of clemency, +according to the dictates of humanity, I have determined:</p> + +<p>"I. That quarter shall be given to every individual belonging to the +band under command of the traitor Lopez who shall surrender or be taken +by the troops of His Majesty within four days from the publication of +this resolution in the respective districts; it being well understood +that after the expiration of that period the general army order of April +20 last will remain in full force as it has up to now.</p> + +<p>"II. The individual or individuals belonging to said band who shall +surrender said leader, Lopez, shall be free from all punishment, and if +he be a foreigner, shall be restored to his own country.</p> + +<p>"This I communicate to you for your exact observance,<a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a> ordering that it +be immediately published in all the district under your command. God +guard your Excellency many years!</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Jose de la Concha.</span></p> + +<p>"Havana, Aug. 24, 1851."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile stragglers who fell by the wayside, and afterward fell into +the hands of the Spaniards, were brutally treated, and murdered in the +most revolting manner, their bowels being ripped open by bayonets after +they had been practically flogged to death.</p> + +<p>A native guide who offered his services to Lopez, now led him to a +coffee plantation near Las Frias. He represented to Lopez that the owner +was a sympathizer, and that the wanderers would be given rest and +shelter, and a place to hide until the arrival of reinforcements from +the United States. This guide is believed to have been a Spanish spy, +for while Lopez and his men were received with the greatest courtesy, +and entertained for two days by the planter, their host secretly +dispatched a courier to the Spanish leaders, and presently a Spanish +army arrived to attack the filibusters. Lopez dispersed his men, who hid +themselves behind the trunks of mango trees, and picked off the Spanish +soldiers, with the result that the Spaniards were put to flight, and +when word presently came that General Eno was advancing to the rescue of +his compatriots with a force of two thousand men Lopez retreated to a +high hill, with the remainder of his army, now reduced to two hundred +and twenty men, many of these disabled by wounds. Lopez was in a +position of vantage, and small parties of his men fired on the advancing +Spaniards, wounding their commander, and several of their number.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_003x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_003x_sml.jpg" width="345" height="550" alt="FALLS OF THE HANEBANILLA" title="FALLS OF THE HANEBANILLA" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">FALLS OF THE HANEBANILLA</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Each of the Provinces of Cuba has its own characteristic charms of +scenery; among which it would be rash to attempt to choose. Santa Clara +boasts the great falls of the Hanebanilla River, a scene of majestic +splendor. This is one of numerous cataracts on the rivers of Cuba, +enriching the scenic attractions of the island, and at the same time +suggesting immense value as sources of industrial power.</p></div> + +<p>Lopez now endeavored to reach a plain near San Cristobal, but his men +were worn out, their clothes torn,<a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a> their flesh bruised and +bleeding, and their feet lacerated so that they could hardly walk. +Dissatisfaction and dismay was rife among them, and presently they sent +a committee to Lopez, asking him to advise them just what he intended to +do, and what he expected to accomplish, and stating that unless he had +some good plan, they were unwilling to proceed further. Lopez listened +to them attentively, and asked for suggestions. They were all for hiding +in the mountains, until relief should be sent to them from the country +which they all now sorely regretted leaving. While putting this project +into execution, they were again attacked by the Spaniards, three or four +of them were killed, and a number taken prisoners, and immediately +executed. One hundred and forty men escaped with Lopez through the +woods. Many of them had lost their arms; only sixty-nine guns remained, +while on most of these the bayonets were broken. They had no food and +they killed Lopez's horse and ate it. Open dissension broke out among +them. Lopez was, as will be recalled, under sentence of death, having +been condemned, after the betrayal of the first plans to free Cuba, to +be killed should he ever again be apprehended on the island. A price had +been set on his head, and now, with characteristic self-abnegation, he +besought his men to deliver him up to the enemy, securing clemency for +themselves in return for such action. To do them justice, they were +heartily ashamed, and repudiated the suggestion. Finally after a long +discussion it was decided to stake all on one attempt against the +Spaniards, and consequently they made their way again to the plain near +San Cristobal and there attacked a force of five hundred Spanish troops. +They were charged by the Spanish cavalry, and all but six were taken +prisoners. Lopez and his remaining six followers took refuge upon a +plantation.<a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a> They were received with cordiality and assured of the +sympathy of their owner, Señor Castenada, who offered to hide them until +their friends, whom they believed to be even then on the ocean, or +perhaps making a landing on the island, should rescue them. He gave them +good food and drugged wine, and took them to the upper part of the +house, to his bedrooms, that they might sleep. They were utterly +exhausted, and soon fell into deep slumber, whereupon Castenada notified +the Spanish authorities, who at once sent troops to take the little +company prisoners. So profound was their sleep that they were securely +bound before they realized what had happened. They were at once taken to +Havana, where the Captain-General was so delighted at the turn events +had taken that he issued a proclamation complimenting his brave officers +on their capture "of this dangerous traitor."</p> + +<p>Concha did not accord Lopez a trial, but at once issued a proclamation +ordering his execution. It was dated October 31, 1851, and ran as +follows:</p> + +<p>"By a superior decree of the Most Excellent Señor, the Governor and +Captain-General, Don Narciso Lopez, who commanded the band of pirates +that disembarked at the place called Playitas, to the leeward of the +capital on the morning of the 12th instant, has been condemned to the +infamous punishment of the garrote. The execution is to take place at +seven o'clock in the morning of September 1st. The troops of all arms +composing the garrison of the town, and the forces from elsewhere, will +assemble at sufficient time beforehand, at the camp of the Punta, where +the scaffold is placed, around which they will form a square. The +regiment of Galicia will take its station in front with a banner +displayed. The other corps will<a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a> be present with all their disposable +force. The artillery will take the right, with the engineers next them; +the other forces without distinction will occupy the places assigned to +them. The cavalry will be stationed according to the direction of the +Brigadier, the Royal Lieutenant commanding the town, who will command +the troops, having under his orders the staff officers of the army, and +an equal number of town adjustants. A true copy.</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Zurita.</span>"</p> + +<p>The Spanish archives contain the following names of members of the Lopez +expedition who were taken prisoners about this time and who witnessed +the execution of their leader. Most of these men after a long +imprisonment were finally pardoned, through the intervention of powerful +friends, and returned to their homes:</p> + +<p>Elias Otis, Michael O'Keenan, John Danton, First Lieutenant P. S. +VanVechten, M. L. Hefren, Captain Robert Ellis, W. Wilson, W. Miller, P. +Lacoste, M. Lieger, P. Coleman, Henry Smith, Thomas Hilton, First +Lieutenant E. H. McDonald, D. D. Waif, H. D. Thomason, Charles A. +Conunea, Emanuel R. Wier, First Lieutenant J. G. Bush, Conrad Taylor, +Thomas Denton, C. A. McMurray, J. Patan, Conrad Arghalir, Jose Chiceri, +G. Richardson, John B. Brown, Thomas S. Lee, Captain James Aquelli, +Franklin Boyd, Thomas Little, Commissary J. A. Simpson, George Wilson, +First Lieutenant D. D. Rousseau, First Lieutenant Robert McGrier, J. D. +Hughes, William H. Vaugale, Francis B. Holmes, Malbone H. Scott, First +Lieutenant W. H. Craft, J. D. Prenit, Julio Chasagne, John Cline, George +Forster, C. Knoll, Nicholas Port, Patrick McGrath, Charles S. Daily, +James Fiddes, S. H. Prenell, W. L. Wilkinson, C. Cook, James Chapman, +James Brady, Henry B. Hart, Jacob<a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a> Fonts, Preston Esces, William +Cameron, Thomas Mourou, Isaac Fresborn, Cornelius Derby, Peter Falbos, +Benjamin Harrer;</p> + +<p><i>From England</i>: William Caussans, John Nowes;</p> + +<p><i>From Ireland</i>: Henry B. Metcalfe, George Metcalfe, James Porter, Thomas +McDellans;</p> + +<p><i>From Cuba</i>: Bernardo Allen, Francisco Curbiay Garcia, Ramon J. Arnau, +José Dovren, Manuel Martinez, Antonio Hernandez, Martin Milesimo;</p> + +<p><i>From Germany</i>: Johannes Sucit, Edward Wisse, Wilhelm Losner, Robert +Seelust, Ciriac Senelpi;</p> + +<p><i>From Matanzas</i>: Ramon Ignacio Amaso;</p> + +<p><i>From Hungary</i>: George Baptista;</p> + +<p><i>From New Granada</i>: Andres Gonzales;</p> + +<p><i>From Alquizar</i>: Francisco A. Leve;</p> + +<p><i>From Bayamo</i>: Manuel Diaz;</p> + +<p><i>From Navarre</i>: Antonio Romero;</p> + +<p><i>From Spain</i>: Francisco J. Zamaro;</p> + +<p><i>Nationality not Stated</i>: Antonio L. Alfonso, Manuel Aragon, Jose +Bojanoti y Rubina, Joaquin Casanova, Miguel Guerra, William MacKinney, +Dandrig Seay, Leonardo Sugliorti, J. D. Baker and Luis Bander.</p> + +<p>In accordance with the Captain-General's proclamation, the execution of +Lopez took place on the morning of September 1. The scaffold was erected +on a platform ten feet high, in a flat space opposite Morro. The garrote +consists of a post, and a stool on which sits the prisoner, while a +metal collar is passed around his neck and fastens him securely to the +post. A screw having long arms is attached to the post, by means of +which, at one turn, metal points are thrust into the victim's neck, +causing dislocation and death.</p> + +<p>There were present on this occasion, three thousand infantry, two +hundred cavalry and twenty thousand witnesses.<a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a> Lopez presented a calm +and dignified appearance. With his hands tightly bound he walked to the +front of the platform and said in a strong, clear voice:</p> + +<p>"I pray the persons who have compromised me to pardon me, as I pardon +them. My death will not change the destinies of Cuba."</p> + +<p>Then as the executioner bade him be quick, he exclaimed:</p> + +<p>"Adieu, my comrades! Adieu, my beloved Cuba, adieu!"</p> + +<p>Thus died a man, as brave in his last hours as he had been during all +the strange fortunes and vicissitudes of his adventurous life, who had +sacrificed everything for a principle which seemed to him dearer than +all the material benefits which the world might have conferred upon him. +The Spanish leaders destroyed his body, but they could never destroy +that far more precious thing, the spirit of freedom which he had +instilled in the minds and the hearts of the Cubans, and which was to +live after him and at last lead Cuba to victory.<a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p>L<small>OPEZ</small> had failed. Such was the obvious judgment of the world. Upon the +face of the matter, his expedition had ended in disaster and utter +tragedy. The first serious attempt to achieve the separation of Cuba +from Spain had come to naught. It had been completely suppressed and its +promoters had been destroyed.</p> + +<p>In a broader, deeper and more significant sense, however, the enterprise +and sacrifice of Lopez and his comrades had splendidly succeeded. That +valiant pioneer of Cuban liberation had indeed "builded better than he +knew." For his enterprise marked an epoch in Cuban history; the most +important since Columbus's discovery of the island. The abortive +attempts at emancipation, which had been sporadically but feebly active +since the days of the emulators of Bolivar, had by Lopez's efforts been +marvelously and effectively resuscitated. The movement which had been +nurtured by the "Soles de Bolivar," but which its members had been +unable, because of smallness of numbers and lack of funds and of +leadership, to make much more than a cherished ideal—for the attempts +at revolt had been still-born, choked almost on their conception—had +under Lopez been imbued with lusty life, and was never again to +languish. A force had been set in operation which could not and did not +cease its action until, though many weary years afterward, the end which +Lopez had foreseen was attained, and Cuba was securely placed among the +independent nations of the world. We say that Lopez "builded better than +he knew." That was literally true because his plans were<a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a> merely for the +transfer of Cuban sovereignty from oppressive and reactionary Spain to +liberal and progressive America; building upon the foundation thus +outlined by him, subsequent bolder spirits constructed the triumphant +edifice of complete independence of which he had not so much as dreamed.</p> + +<p>The immediate results of the Lopez expedition were prodigious. It is not +easy, at this time and distance, to appreciate fully the tremendous +sensation which was caused, not only in Cuba and in Spain, but, to a +considerable extent, throughout the world, or at least, throughout that +most important portion of the world which had its frontage upon the +Atlantic Ocean, and which possessed more or less direct interests in the +countries of the Caribbean Sea. For a full appreciation of this, it is +necessary to take into consideration certain circumstances which are now +almost forgotten.</p> + +<p>We must remember that down to this time the world at large had been +profoundly ignorant of Cuba, save in the most general and external +manner. Spain, as we have already indicated in these pages, had long +pursued a persistent policy of secrecy and isolation. Cuba was not +allowed to know much of the outside world, and the outside world was not +allowed to know much of Cuba. A strict censorship was maintained over +information both entering and leaving the island. Marked inhospitality +was shown to travelers and visitors to discourage them from penetrating +the island or acquainting themselves with the real condition of its +affairs. Practically Cuba remained, so far as its social, economic and +political conditions were concerned, a <i>terra incognita</i>. The world knew +almost nothing of its natural wealth and its inestimable resources, its +potentialities of greatness.</p> + +<p>Now, in the baleful light of a great tragedy, the island<a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a> was suddenly +thrust forward into the world's most intense publicity. From being a +minor colonial possession of a decadent power, it was transformed into +one of the foremost international issues. The eyes of two continents +were fixed upon it, while the hands of those continents involuntarily +reached for sword hilts in preparation for a decisive conflict which +might shake the foundations of the civilized world.</p> + +<p>Let us consider first the interests and sentiments of Spain at this +great crisis in her affairs. Hitherto she had regarded Cuba as a +helpless province, politically negligible, although economically of +immense value as the "milch cow of the Peninsula." The several +insurrections which had occurred had indeed been annoying, and, at +times, costly, but they had been suppressed with little difficulty, and +there had never been a thought of their really menacing Spain's +sovereignty over the island. Nor had there been any fear of losing the +island through alien aggression or intervention. Spain's title to Cuba +had been repeatedly underwritten by the United States of America, at the +hands of John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John Forsyth; as we have +hitherto seen. For a full generation Spain had confidently depended upon +both the purpose and the power of the United States to protect her in +her ownership of Cuba. But now came a revolt which in itself was +immeasurably more formidable than all the slave insurrections put +together, and which was, most ominous of all, operated from the United +States, with the obvious sympathy, if not with the actual aid, of the +people of that country. This powerful protector of Spain in Cuba was +assuming the character of a possible conqueror. The troubles of Cuba +were, therefore, no longer merely local, nor even national; they had +risen to international proportions. They menaced not only the<a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a> domestic +tranquillity of Spain, but also her international relations with that +power from which, of all in the world, she had cause most to fear.</p> + +<p>No less marked was the effect of these events upon the Cubans. They were +made to feel that at last "the die was cast." An irrevocable step had +been taken. The dreamer had awakened; plans and conspiracies had been +transmuted into militant action. It is true that comparatively few of +the Cubans had been directly concerned or, at least, could be proved to +have been directly concerned in the undertakings of Lopez, but it was +quite certain that thereafter they would all be regarded as having +sympathized, and as being potential insurgents, with arms as well as +with ideas. Nothing thereafter could ever be as it had been before. The +Cuban people were vicariously committed to the policy of forcible +separation from Spain. War was begun and it would be war to the knife, +and the knife to the hilt.</p> + +<p>In Cuba, the Spanish authorities realized this change in Cuban +sentiment, and kept a sharp outlook for any signs of uprising. They also +"made examples" of any and everyone who came under suspicion of having +been in sympathy with Lopez, or of having any plans for starting a +similar movement. Thus some boys, who were outspoken in their +expressions of sympathy with the cause of freedom from Spain, were +seized and summarily executed without trial. Feeling ran high; native +born Cubans refused to associate with those of Spanish birth, and in +many cases even to speak of them. A carnival was about to be celebrated +in Santiago de Cuba, but it was abandoned, and the city went into +mourning.</p> + +<p>To retaliate some Spaniards sent out invitations for a ball at the +Filarmonia, the famous theatre in Santiago where, years afterward, +Adelina Patti made her début.<a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a> This was resented as an insult by the +native Cubans of the city. Some hot-blooded young men forced an entrance +into the hall where the ball was being held, and rushing forward +destroyed a picture of Queen Isabella which hung at one end of the room. +Immediately everything was in an uproar, men were shouting and fighting, +and women were fainting. In the mêlée the disturbers escaped, and the +matter was hushed up, for the Spanish authorities feared that the +trouble might be made the occasion of another uprising, and so made no +attempt to secure the names of the culprits.</p> + +<p>But this was just the prelude for worse disaster. A wealthy Cuban woman, +with more money than judgment, decided to act as mediator and bring the +enraged parties together. She took a strange means for accomplishing her +object, issuing invitations for a party to both prominent Spaniards and +Cubans of the best families. When the ball took place it is difficult to +say who were the more dismayed and astonished, the Cubans when they saw +who had been invited to meet them, or the haughty Spanish grandees, who +hated the Cubans. An even wilder scene than that at the Filarmonia took +place. Women were thrown to the floor, their clothing torn, and their +bodies trampled on. The chandeliers were torn from the ceiling, many +windows were broken, men fought in hand to hand combat, and when it was +all over the injured had been removed, the hall which had been intended +for a scene of pleasure was wrecked and rent beyond description. Six +people were killed on this occasion, including one Spanish woman of high +rank, and over a hundred were more or less seriously injured. Arrests +were promptly made, but it was the Cubans who suffered, for no Spaniards +were apprehended. Several boys from the best Creole families were thrust +without trial into the<a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a> dungeons of Morro Castle, from whence they were +transported to the Spanish penal institution at Ceuta, and never again +heard of. Those who were quick enough made their escape to the United +States, and the woman who was so foolish as to give the party hastily +left the island, without heralding her going.</p> + +<p>The Cubans were thoroughly aroused against Spain, and more and more +there began to grow within them the desire not for annexation to the +United States but for complete independence, and a government of their +own making. At last the people were finding themselves, and higher +aspirations and new longings were stirring in their souls.</p> + +<p>The Captain General, fearing new uprisings, began to get the island in +better shape for defense from aggression from within. He strengthened +the fortifications, and established a more central control over the army +and navy, so that from headquarters all army posts and the movement of +all vessels might be more easily governed. To further this end he built +new roads, and improved old ones, and he took into his own hands as +Captain-General a closer control and supervision of matters military.</p> + +<p>Perhaps nothing could be more indicative of the Cuban feeling and of the +conditions on the Island at this time than are contained in the +following letter written by a prominent Cuban—a man of the highest +intelligence and from one of the best known families—to a friend:</p> + +<p>"The cause of the liberty of nations has always perished in its cradle +because its defenders have never sought to deviate from legal +paths,—because they have followed the principles sanctioned by the laws +of nations, while despots, always the first to exact obedience to them +when it suited their convenience, have been the first to infringe them +when they came into collision with their interests.<a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a></p> + +<p>"Their alliances to suppress liberty are called <i>holy</i> and the crimes +they commit by invading foreign territories and summoning foreign troops +to their aid to oppress their own vessels, are sacred duties, +compliances with secret compacts; and, if the congresses, parliaments +and Cortes of other nations, raise the cry to Heaven, they answer, the +government has protested—acts have been performed without their +sanction—there is no remedy—they are acts accomplished.</p> + +<p>"An act accomplished will shortly be the abolition of slavery in Cuba, +and the tardy intervention of the United States will only have taken +place when its brilliant constellation lights up the vast sepulchre +which will cover the bodies of her sons, sacrificed to the black race as +a regard for their sympathies with American institutions, and the vast +carnage it will cost to punish the African victors. What can be done +today, without great sacrifice, to help the Cubans, tomorrow cannot be +achieved without the effusion of rivers of blood, and when the few +surviving Cubans will curse an intervention which, deaf to their cries, +will only be produced by the cold calculations of egotism. Then the +struggle will not be with the Spaniards alone. The latter will now +accede to all the claims of the cabinet at Washington, by the advice of +the ambassadors of France and England, to advance, meanwhile, with surer +step to the end—to give time for the solution of the Eastern question, +and for France and England to send their squadrons into these waters. +Well may they deny the existence of secret treaties; this is very easy +for such beings, as it will be when the case of the present treaty comes +up, asserting that the treaty was posterior to their negative, or +refusing explanations as inconsistent with their dignity. But we witness +the realization of our fears, we see the Spanish government +imperturbably<a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a> setting on foot plans which were thought to be the +delirium of excited imaginations doing at once what promised to be +gradual work; and hear it declared, by distinguished persons who +possessed the confidence of General Pezuela, that the existence of the +treaty is certain, and that the United States will be told that they +should have accepted the offer made to become a party to it, in which +case the other two powers could not have adopted the abolition scheme. +But supposing this treaty to have no existence, the fact of the +abolition of slavery is no less certain. It is only necessary to read +the proclamation of the Captain-General, if the last acts of the +Government be not sufficiently convincing. The result to the Island of +Cuba and the United States is the same, either way. If the latter do not +hasten to avert the blow, they will soon find it impossible to remedy +the evil. In the Island there is not a reflecting man—foreigner or +native, Creole or European—who does not tremble for the future that +awaits us, at a period certainly not far remote."</p> + +<p>Thus did the Cubans look forward with hope to, and at the same time +fear, the future. And meanwhile the tragedy of Lopez was having a +wide-spread effect on the feeling of the people, and on political +conditions in other countries.</p> + +<p>In the United States a profound impression was produced of a triple +character. There was, in the first place, the international point of +view. It was realized that the United States was being brought +uncomfortably near the possibility of a serious controversy, if not of +actual war with Spain. The neutrality laws had been evaded, and there +was every prospect that such evasions would thereafter be repeated. The +whole question of American relations with Cuba was acutely reopened, and +both those who favored and those who opposed the acquisition of<a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a> that +island by the United States were made to realize that a momentous +decision might be called for at any moment.</p> + +<p>There was, in the second place, the point of view of the pro-slavery +states of the South, and their leaders, who were generally in control of +the national government at Washington. The South strongly favored Cuban +annexation, either voluntary or forcible. The island was wanted as Texas +and other Mexican territories had been wanted, to provide for the +extension of slave territory and for the addition of new slave states to +the union to counter-balance the new free states which were about to +seek admission at the north. There was also a passionate desire to avoid +the calamity of having Cuba made, as the other Spanish-American +countries had been made, free soil, thus encircling the slave states +with an unbroken ring of anti-slavery territory. Moreover, at this time +the spirit of conquest and of expansion was very much abroad in the +land. The lust for territory which had prevailed in the Mexican War was +by no means satisfied. Men still regarded it as the manifest destiny of +the United States to "lick all creation." In the geography of the +popular mind, the United States was, or was destined to be, "bounded on +the north by the aurora borealis, on the south by the precession of the +equinoxes, on the east by primeval chaos, and on the west by the day of +judgment." Under such circumstances, the attitude of the people of the +United States south of Mason and Dixon's line was unmistakable.</p> + +<p>There was also the point of view of the increasingly anti-slavery north. +During the Mexican war a strong aversion to territorial expansion by +conquest for the sake of slave soil had been manifested, and this +feeling was steadily increasing in extent and in influence. It +manifested<a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a> itself by opposition to Cuban annexation. At the same time, +the commercial instinct was strong in the great cities of the north, and +there was an earnest desire to do nothing which might interfere with the +profitable trade which already existed between this country and Cuba, +and which it was hoped greatly to expand.</p> + +<p>The interest of Great Britain in Cuban affairs was scarcely less than +that of Spain or the United States. That country had once, for a time, +possessed Cuba, and had never forgotten that fact nor ceased to +entertain the desire to renew that possession as a permanent state of +affairs. That country also had very important colonial holdings in the +West Indies, and on the adjacent mainland; being, indeed, an American +power second only to the United States itself. It owned the Bahamas, +Jamaica and other islands, and colonies on the South and Central +American coast, which latter it was at that very time seeking greatly to +extend. It was keenly desirous of enlarging its possessions and forming +a great colonial empire in tropical America, and it realized that +nothing could conduce to that end more than the acquisition of Cuba. In +the prosecution of this policy, a certain "jingo" faction actually went +so far as to pretend that upon the acquisition of Cuba depended Great +Britain's retention of Canada, if not, indeed, of her entire American +holdings. It was represented that if Great Britain did not intervene to +prevent it, the slave-holding South was certain to annex Cuba, and that +this would provoke the abolitionist North into seizing Canada, in order +to provide in that direction free soil to counter-balance the slave soil +of Cuba. Thus, with Canada gone, and Cuba in the hands of the United +States, the remainder of the British holdings in the western hemisphere +would be in deadly jeopardy. Such visions seem at this time fantastic, +and it may be that they<a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a> were then thus regarded by serious statesmen; +yet they were cherished and were not without their influence.</p> + +<p>Nor was France less deeply and directly interested in Cuba. She, too, +had colonies in the West Indies and on the South American coast. She had +never forgotten her former vast empire in North America, nor ceased to +regret its loss. She was soon to enter upon a campaign of conquest in +Mexico. She had at various times, both during and since the Napoleonic +era, entertained designs upon peninsular Spain itself, and she had +repeatedly made direct overtures for a protectorate over Cuba.</p> + +<p>These circumstances caused international relations to be ominously +strained in more than one direction, and as soon as news reached the +United States of the execution of those companions of Lopez who were +members of prominent families in the southern states, there arose a +widespread and furious storm of wrath. The center of this was, +naturally, at New Orleans, where the majority of Lopez's followers had +been recruited and where their families resided, and in that city an +infuriated mob stormed and destroyed the Spanish consulate, publicly +defaced a portrait of the Spanish queen, and, in some respects worst of +all, looted a number of shops owned by Spanish merchants. This was most +unfortunate from more than one point of view. It was not only +indefensible and inexcusable in itself, but it put the United States so +much in the wrong as to deter it from taking any action, or indeed +making any protest to Spain on account of the putting to death of the +American prisoners.</p> + +<p>The American Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, made, however, the best +of an unfortunate situation. He took a straightforward course by +immediately apologizing to the Spanish government for the New Orleans +outrages, and recommended to Congress the voting of an<a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a> adequate +indemnity for the damage which had been done. Having done this, he was +enabled to secure the release of some American members of Lopez's +expedition who had not yet suffered the death penalty.</p> + +<p>Despite this settlement, the Spanish government continued to cherish +much resentment against the United States, partly for the participation +of so many of that country's citizens in the expeditions of Lopez, and +partly because of the outrages in New Orleans, and its Cuban +administration thereafter exhibited an increasing degree of animosity +against Americans. Numerous harsh impositions were put upon American +citizens, for which no redress could be had; and this caused resentment +throughout the United States, in the commercial North as well as in the +slaveholding and expansionist South, and relations between the two +countries steadily drifted from bad to worse.</p> + +<p>Candor compels the frank statement that there was much fault on both +sides. Spain was tremendously at fault because of her misgovernment of +Cuba, and indeed her whole policy in relation to that island, which was +quite unworthy of a civilized power in an enlightened age. A generation +before Spain had practically sacrificed her right to continued +possession of Florida by her maladministration of that territory, which +had made it an intolerable nuisance to the neighboring United States. +She was now making of Cuba a scarcely less international nuisance and +scandal.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the United States, or some of its people, undoubtedly +gave Spain cause for grievance. The intentions and the conduct of the +United States government were beyond reproach. At the same time, they +were entirely insufficient for the prevention of serious wrongs to +Spain. Webster himself confessed that the<a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a> United States government had +no power to protect Spanish subjects from such outrages as those which +had just been committed in New Orleans. There was no doubt that the +intentions and conduct of a large portion of the American people were +not only hostile to Spain, but were quite lawless in the manifestation +of that feeling. Among the offenders, moreover, were some men who stood +high in official life and who exerted much political influence. Nor +could these things be so well understood in Spain as in the United +States. Spain could scarcely be expected to distinguish between the case +of a man in his private capacity as a citizen and in his public capacity +as a member of Congress or other official of the government. When she +saw public officials participating in the organization and operations of +the "Order of the Lone Star," the confessed purpose of which was to take +Cuba from Spain by force, and without compensation, she very naturally +assumed that such things were being done with the permission and +sanction of the United States government, if not at its direct +instigation.</p> + +<p>At this point, moreover, a serious complication was injected into the +problem of Spanish-American relations by the attempted intervention of +Great Britain and France. Both these powers sought to persuade Spain +that they were better friends to her, especially in relation to Cuba, +than the United States. They impressed upon her the idea that the United +States intended to take Cuba away from her, while they were willing to +respect her title to it, and to protect her in possession of it.</p> + +<p>These suggestions were followed by the menace of overt acts which, if +committed, would have had very serious results. In 1851, the British and +French governments let it be known that instructions had been given to +their naval commanders to increase their forces in the waters<a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a> adjacent +to Cuba, and to exercise guardianship over the shores of that island to +prevent the landing of any more filibustering expeditions from the +United States or elsewhere, such as those of Lopez. It does not appear +that this was done at the request of Spain. It was probably an entirely +gratuitous performance intended partly to ingratiate the Spanish +government, and partly to prevent the possibility of the seizure by the +United States of Cuba. But it was certainly a most unwarrantable +meddling in affairs which concerned only the United States and Spain. No +possible justification for it could be found in international law. In +the absence of a state of war, it was intolerable that vessels under the +United States flag should be subjected to search upon the high seas, +while, when they reached Cuban territorial waters, no other power than +Spain had any right to interfere with them.</p> + +<p>Daniel Webster was at that time ill and unable to perform the duties of +his office, but J. J. Crittenden, who was acting as Secretary of State, +made a forcible protest against any such action by Great Britain and +France, and gave warning in the plainest terms that it would not be +tolerated by the United States, and that any interference with American +shipping between the United States and Cuba would be resented in the +most vigorous manner. The result was that the British and French navies +refrained from the contemplated meddling.</p> + +<p>Following this, however, Spain made a direct appeal to the British +government for protection against American aggression. The request was +not so much for immediate military intervention as for securing treaty +guarantees. The British government was in a receptive mood, and, in +consequence, in April, 1852, it proposed to the United States that that +country should join it and France in a tripartite convention, +guaranteeing to Spain continued<a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a> and unmolested possession of Cuba, and +explicitly renouncing any designs of their own for the acquisition of +that island. It may be recalled that a similar proposal had been made by +Great Britain and France in 1825, and that its acceptance had been +favored by no less an American statesman than Thomas Jefferson, +although, under the wiser counsels of John Quincy Adams, it had been +rejected.</p> + +<p>At this renewal of the proposal, in 1852, rejection was prompt and +emphatic. Edward Everett was then the Secretary of State, under the +Presidency of Millard Fillmore, and he refused positively to enter into +any such compact. His ground was that American interests in Cuba and +American relations toward that island were radically different, in kind +as well as in degree, from those of any other power. That was of course +a perfectly logical and sincere application of the principles of the +Monroe Doctrine, and of the traditional policy of the United States in +refusing to permit European intervention in the affairs of the United +States or in affairs exclusively concerning the United States and a +single European power.</p> + +<p>It may be assumed that Everett had in mind at the time, also, the +exceedingly unsatisfactory results of an attempt to establish just such +a tripartite protectorate guarantee over the Hawaiian Islands.</p> + +<p>There was still another reason for the refusal of the United States to +enter into such a compact. That country had already and repeatedly +guaranteed the Spanish possession of Cuba as against the aggressions of +any other power, but it had not guaranteed and would not guarantee her +possession of Cuba against the self-assertion of the Cuban people. It +recognized the right of revolution. It knew that the Cubans were +dissatisfied,<a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a> and that with good reason, with Spanish rule, and that +sooner or later they would successfully revolt and establish their +independence, and it had no thought of making itself the accomplice of +Spain in repressing their aspirations for liberty.<a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> United States government, both before and immediately after the +expeditions of Lopez, exhibited an increasing desire to acquire +possession of Cuba by purchase or otherwise. We have already referred to +the historic expression of John Quincy Adams upon this subject. It is +also to be recalled that in 1823, in commenting upon the prospective +results of the Monroe Doctrine, Thomas Jefferson looked upon Cuba as the +most interesting addition that could be made to the United States. The +control which, with Florida, this island would give the United States +over the Gulf of Mexico, and all the countries bordering thereon, as +well as all those whose waters flowed into the Gulf, would well be, he +thought, the measure of American well-being. Such an end could be +attained, he added, by no other means than that of war, and that was +something to which he was reluctant to resort. He was, therefore, +willing to accept the next best thing, to wit, the independence of Cuba, +and especially its independence of England. James Madison, at the same +time, and discussing the same general subject, expressed much curiosity +to know what England's attitude toward Cuba would be, and what the +rights of the United States toward that island would be, under the +Monroe Doctrine. John C. Calhoun was willing to pledge the United States +not to take Cuba, although he had already expressed a desire for such +acquisition, and Monroe himself would have adopted Calhoun's policy, had +it not been for the resolute opposition of John Quincy Adams. That +strenuous<a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a> patriot was for reserving the plenary rights and powers of +the United States, and for permitting Europe to have nothing whatever to +do in the matter, and his counsel fortunately prevailed.</p> + +<p>A little later, after the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine and in the +course of Congressional discussion of the Panama Congress, it was +emphatically stated in the Senate that, because of the great interest in +the United States in Cuba, there ought to be no discussion with other +powers concerning the destiny of that island, particularly with Colombia +and Mexico, which were then contemplating the invasion of Cuba in order +to take her forcibly from Spain. The British government, in August, +1825, proposed to the United States government, through its minister in +London, that the United States, Great Britain and France should unite in +a treaty engagement that none of them would take Cuba for itself or +permit of the taking of it by either of the others. This proposal was +promptly rejected by the United States. One of the grounds for her +rejection of it was that such action guaranteeing Spain her possession +of Cuba would encourage her to prolong indefinitely her struggle with +her other American colonies. Another was that this country had already +declared that it did not mean to seize Cuba for itself, and that it +would not permit its seizure by any other power. The United States +apparently did not fear that Great Britain would attempt to seize the +island, since for her to do so would mean a rupture with the United +States, which was at that time the last thing that the British +government desired. There was much more cause to fear that France might +attempt to take forcible possession of Cuba, and the suspicion that she +might do so was strengthened by the fact that while, at first, she +indicated a willingness to enter into the arrangement proposed<a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a> by Great +Britain, she suddenly changed her attitude, and refused to do so. As a +result of this change of front on the part of France, the United States +government, in September, 1825, instructed its minister at Paris to +inform the French government that under no contingency, either with or +without the consent of Spain, would the United States permit France to +occupy Cuba.</p> + +<p>Scarcely less marked was the opposition of the United States to any +scheme for the acquirement of Cuba by any of the American republics. It +was notorious that both Colombia and Mexico had designs upon Cuba. These +were not so much that either of these countries should acquire the +island for itself, but that Cuba and Porto Rico should, nilly willy, be +taken away from Spain and made independent, and that thus Spain should +be deprived of her last foothold in the Western hemisphere. This purpose +was cherished, not only as a matter of sentiment, but as one of +prudence. Spain was still trying to reconquer her revolted American +provinces, and her possession of Cuba, of course, afforded her an +admirable base for such operations. But the United States government +took the ground that any such intervention in Cuba would make it much +more difficult to secure Spanish recognition of the independence of the +Central and South American States. In addition, there was +undoubtedly—indeed it was very openly, emphatically and repeatedly +expressed—the unwillingness of the slaveholding southern states of the +United States to see Cuba made free soil, as the other Spanish colonies +had been. It was because of the former consideration, however, that the +American Secretary of State, Henry Clay, immediately after the rejection +of the British proposal for a tripartite guarantee, addressed a note to +the governments of Colombia and Mexico, urging them to refrain from +sending the expeditions which<a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a> they were fitting out against the Spanish +power in Cuba. To this request, the Colombian government promptly +acceded, and so informed not only the United States, but also the +government of Russia, which was, at that time, endeavoring to mediate +between Spain and her late American colonies. The Mexican government did +not receive the request so favorably, though it did withhold the +threatened expedition.</p> + +<p>With such antecedents set forth, we can more perfectly understand the +attitude of the United States toward Cuba at the time of which we are +now writing. In 1848 a change of policy occurred, and the United States +entered upon a new attitude. At that time James K. Polk was President of +the United States, and James Buchanan was his Secretary of State; both +men of southern, proslavery and expansionist proclivities. The American +minister to Spain was Romulus M. Saunders, of North Carolina, also a +proslavery expansionist. He was instructed by Polk and Buchanan to sound +the Spanish government as to the terms on which it would sell Cuba to +the United States. The response to his overtures was immediate and left +no room for doubt as to Spain's position. It was to the effect that Cuba +was not for sale. Under no circumstances would the Spanish government so +much as consider the sale of the island at any price whatever. No +Spanish Minister of State would venture for a moment to entertain such a +proposal. Such was the feeling of the Spanish government and of the +Spanish nation, that they would rather see Cuba sunk in the depths of +the sea, if it were possible, than transferred to the sovereignty of any +other power. Cuba was the "Ever-Faithful Isle." She was the last +remnant, the priceless memento of Spain's once vast empire in America, +and as such she would be forever retained and treasured. Although not<a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a> +openly expressed, there was undoubtedly the additional feeling that +Spain had already suffered too much spoliation at the hands of the +United States. The United States, under Jefferson, had practically +compelled Spain to sacrifice her vast Louisiana territory by nominally +selling, but really giving it outright, to France. It had next taken +West Florida from her without compensation. Following this, under the +Monroe Doctrine, it had compelled her to sell it East Florida for a +pitifully inadequate sum, not one dollar of which had ever found its way +into the Spanish treasury. It had aided, abetted, and protected the +Central and South American provinces in their revolt. Certainly, after +such a record, it would be unthinkable to permit the United States to +proceed with the acquisition of the last remaining portion of the +Spanish American empire. The overtures for the United States purchase of +Cuba were, therefore, for the time being, abruptly abandoned, but it was +significant that they were promptly followed by the expeditions of Lopez +and the widespread and intense manifestations of American interest +therein.</p> + +<p>There next occurred one of the most noteworthy and it must be confessed +least creditable episodes in the whole story of the relations between +the United States, Cuba and Spain. Franklin Pierce became President of +the United States, and the active and aggressive William L. Marcy was +his Secretary of State. Because of the strained relations between Spain +and the United States, growing out of the Lopez expeditions, there was a +well defined expectation that Marcy would pursue a vigorous policy +leading to the annexation of Cuba, even at the cost of war with Spain. +Marcy was an expansionist, and would doubtless have been glad to have +annexed Cuba, but he was something more than an expansionist. He<a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a> was a +statesman. He therefore considered the subject from its various aspects +with a prudence and conservatism which were probably not at all pleasing +to the impetuous proslavery propagandists of the south, but which were +in the highest degree creditable to his good sense and to the honor of +the United States. Unfortunately not even Marcy could remain entirely +exempt from political and partizan considerations. He was practically +compelled to acquiesce in the appointment as his minister to Spain of +one of the more egregious misfits that ever disgraced American +diplomacy. This man was Pierre Soule. He was of French origin, and had +been a political conspirator and prisoner in that country. He had come +to the United States as a refugee, but had continued there his political +intrigues and revolutionary designs. Settling in New Orleans, he had +been in active sympathy with the filibustering enterprises of Lopez and +others against the Spanish rule in Cuba; he was suspected of having +incited the anti-Spanish mob in that city; and he was known to be an +ardent advocate of the annexation of Cuba by any means which might prove +effective. The choice of such a man as American minister to Spain was +certainly extraordinary. It must be assumed that Marcy agreed to it only +with great reluctance and under protest; while it is plausible, and +indeed permissible, to suspect that some ulterior influence dictated it +for the deliberate purpose of provoking trouble with Spain.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances, Marcy did his best. He instructed Soule to +repress his anti-Spanish zeal, to do nothing which would irritate +Spanish susceptibilities, and especially to be particularly cautious in +making any suggestions or overtures concerning a change of relations in +Cuba. He instructed him, however, to seek reparation for the gross +injuries which Americans had undoubtedly<a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a> suffered in Cuba, and to +suggest to the Spanish government that it would greatly facilitate the +friendly conduct of affairs for it to invest the Captain-General or +other governor of Cuba with a degree of diplomatic authority and +functions so that complaint could be addressed to him, and indeed all +such matters could be negotiated with him directly, instead of their +being referred to the government at Madrid. He did not urge Soule to +seek the purchase of Cuba, but he did authorize him to enter into +negotiations to that end, if the Spanish government should manifest a +favorable inclination.</p> + +<p>Despite these wise instructions and admonitions, Soule promptly entered +upon a career of the wildest indiscretion. He went to Spain by way of +France, where he was under political proscription, and this gave offence +to the government of that country. On arriving at Madrid, he immediately +quarreled with the French party there, and fought a duel with the French +ambassador in which the latter was crippled for life.</p> + +<p>Then word came to him that the Spanish authorities at Havana had seized +an American steamer, the <i>Black Warrior</i>. That steamer had, for a long +time, been plying regularly between the United States and Cuba in a +perfectly legitimate way. There was not the slightest proof or +suggestion that she had ever engaged in filibustering or in any +illegitimate commerce. Indeed she was not accused of it. But she was +seized and her cargo was condemned simply for alleged disregard of some +insignificant port regulation which, as a matter of fact, had not been +enforced or observed by any vessel for many years. The master of the +vessel resented and protested against the seizure and when the Spanish +authorities arbitrarily persisted in it, he abandoned the vessel +altogether, and reported the circumstances to the United States +government.<a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a> The President promptly laid the matter before Congress at +Washington, stating that a demand for redress and indemnity was being +made. Passions flamed high in Congress, and southern members made +speeches demanding war and the conquest of Cuba. Marcy, however, +retained his sanity of judgment, and contented himself with instructing +Soule at Madrid to demand an indemnity of $300,000 and to express the +hope that the Spanish government would disavow and rebuke the act which +it was confidently assumed had not been authorized and could not be +approved. This gave Soule a fine opportunity to show himself a capable +diplomat and to do a good stroke of work, for Spain was manifestly wrong +and a proper presentation of the case would doubtless have caused her to +accede pretty promptly to Marcy's reasonable demands.</p> + +<p>Soule began well. He followed Marcy's instructions closely at the +outset, and had a friendly and temperate interview with the Spanish +Minister for Foreign Affairs; but when three days thereafter had passed +without a complete settlement, he seemed altogether to lose his head. He +sent to the minister a peremptory note, demanding payment of the +indemnity, and the immediate dismissal from the Spanish service of all +persons in any way responsible for the seizure of the <i>Black Warrior</i>. +If this was not done within forty-eight hours, he added, he would +immediately demand his passports and sever diplomatic relations between +the two countries. With customary arrogance, he instructed the messenger +by whom he transmitted the note to call the attention of the Spanish +minister to the exact hour and minute at which the messenger should +deliver the note into his hands, and to remind him that an answer would +be expected, under penalty, within forty-eight hours after that precise +moment of time. Worst of all,<a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a> perhaps, this occurred during Holy Week, +when it was not customary for the Spanish government to transact any +business which could possibly be deferred.</p> + +<p>The Spanish Minister for Foreign Affairs was Calderon de la Barca, who +had formerly been Spanish minister to the United States, and with whom +Soule had personally very violently quarrelled at Washington. With +characteristic Spanish courtesy, he very promptly, within twenty-four +hours, replied to Soule that the matter would be most carefully +considered at the earliest possible moment, but that it manifestly would +not be practicable, and indeed would not be just, to dispose of so +important a matter so hastily, and upon the hearing of only one side of +it. He also added, quite properly, that the Spanish government was not +accustomed to being addressed in so harsh and imperious a manner, and +that he could not regard such a mode of procedure as calculated to +facilitate the amicable settlement which both parties undoubtedly +desired.</p> + +<p>Thus placed, through his own folly, at a hopeless disadvantage, Soule +abandoned the case. He sent to Marcy his own absurd and unauthorized +ultimatum, together with Calderon's dignified and statesmanlike reply, +possibly in the vain hope that Marcy would back him up in the impossible +attitude which he had assumed. Of course, Marcy did nothing of the sort. +As a matter of fact, it was not necessary for Marcy to pay any attention +whatever to Soule's report, since, before it reached Washington, the +Spanish authorities in Cuba had restored the <i>Black Warrior</i> to her +owners, with the amplest possible amends for their improper seizure of +her, and the whole incident was thus happily ended.</p> + +<p>The project of acquiring Cuba for the United States continued to be +cherished by the American government. It must be supposed that the +Secretary of State appreciated<a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a> the immense value of Cuba, both in its +resources and in its strategic position and so, for that reason, was +desirous of acquiring the island. It must also be believed that he was +to a degree moved by a desire to get rid of what he plainly saw would be +a perennial cause of annoyance and even of danger. Since the beginning +of the nineteenth century, Cuba had been a cause of anxiety to the +United States, and since the beginning of insurrections in that island, +and especially insurrections looking to the United States for sympathy +and aid, there was a constantly increasing danger of unpleasant and +possibly hostile complications with Spain. There is no indication, +however, that Marcy ever had any other thought than that of the peaceful +acquisition of the island through friendly negotiations. It was most +unfortunate that because of the political conditions which prevailed +during that administration, he was compelled to act through unfit and +indeed unworthy agents.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of 1854, Mr. Marcy directed the United States ministers +to Spain, France and Great Britain to confer among themselves as to the +best means, if indeed any were practicable, to persuade Spain to sell +Cuba to the United States, and at the same time to avoid or to overcome +objections which France and Great Britain might make to such a +transaction. That was a perfectly legitimate proposal, and indeed, under +the circumstances, was desirable and should have been productive of +excellent results. Its fatal defect lay in the personality of the men +who were called upon to put it into execution. The minister to Spain was +Soule, of whom we have already heard enough to indicate his very +conspicuous unfitness for the task assigned to him. The minister to +France was James M. Mason, a Virginian, and one of the most aggressive +and extreme Southern advocates of the extension<a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a> of slavery. The +minister to Great Britain was James Buchanan, who was afterward +President of the United States, a northern man with strong southern +sympathies and in complete subservience to the slaveholding interests of +the south. The result of a conference among these three was practically +a foregone conclusion.</p> + +<p>They came together at Ostend in the summer of 1854, and a little later +concluded their deliberations at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the result of +their conference was embodied in that extraordinary document known to +history as the Ostend Manifesto.</p> + +<p>That document, which was drawn up in October, 1854, and was signed by +these three ministers and sent by them to Mr. Marcy, was written chiefly +by Soule. It set forth the various reasons why, in the opinion of Soule +and his colleagues, Cuba ought to belong to the United States. A variety +of reasons was set forth, but chief among them was this, that such +acquisition of Cuba was necessary for the security and perpetuity of the +slave system in the United States. Then Soule went on to tell why Spain +ought to be willing to sell the island, and why Britain and France ought +to be willing for her to sell it to the United States. The price to be +paid for Cuba was not stated. It ought not, however, Soule said, to +exceed a certain maximum sum to be prescribed by the United States; and +there are reasons for believing that the price which Soule had in mind +was $120,000,000. All this was bad enough. It was far removed from what +Marcy had intended. But the worst was to come. With astounding +effrontery and cynicism, the manifesto proceeded to say that if Spain +should be so swayed by the voice of her own interest and actuated by a +false sense of honor as to refuse to sell Cuba, then, by every law, +human and divine, the United States would be justified<a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a> in taking Cuba +forcibly from her, on the ground that such seizure was necessary for the +protection of the domestic peace of the United States. This Manifesto +was sent by the three ministers to Marcy, with a memorandum written by +Soule, suggesting that that would be a good time to start a war with +Spain for the seizure of Cuba, because France and Great Britain were +just then engaged in fighting Russia in the Crimea, and therefore would +not be able to interfere with Spain's behalf.</p> + +<p>Marcy never for a moment, of course, thought of acting upon these +abominable recommendations. The overwhelming sentiment of this nation +would have been against it. Even in the South, the majority of +thoughtful men held that Soule and his colleagues had gone too far, +while throughout the North, the Manifesto was scathingly denounced as a +proposal of international brigandage. Not only in Spain, but almost +equally in France and Great Britain, American diplomacy and the honor of +the American government were regarded as seriously compromised. In these +circumstances Marcy, to whom the Manifesto must have been revolting, +very adroitly declined to recognize its real purport, but insisted upon +interpreting it in an entirely different way from that which its authors +had intended. The result was that the note was practically pigeonholed.</p> + +<p>Soule was so chagrined and enraged at this disposition of a favorite +child of his mind that he resigned his office as Minister to Spain, to +the unmistakable relief both of Marcy and of the Spanish government. +Buchanan, another of the signers, became President of the United States +a couple of years later, and in his second annual message, in December, +1858, sought to revive the Manifesto, referring to the possibility of +its sometime being necessary for the United States to seize Cuba under +the law of<a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a> self-preservation. He also requested Congress to appropriate +$30,000,000 for the purchase of the island, and a bill to that effect +was introduced, but it was never pressed to final passage. Again in 1859 +he referred to the subject, being still apparently obsessed with the +idea that the conquest of Cuba was necessary for the preservation of the +United States, but on this occasion his reference to the subject was +entirely ignored by Congress. Then came the Civil War in the United +States, which, for a number of years, debarred that country from paying +any attention to the affairs of its southern neighbor.<a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> years following the close of the Civil War in the United States were +marked with momentous occurrences in various other countries, +particularly in Cuba, and the two nations with which she had long been +intimately connected, Mexico and Spain.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the year 1866 in Peninsular Spain saw General Prim +heading a revolutionary body of troops at Aranjuez and at Ocana. These +operations caused great excitement, and feeling ran high throughout the +kingdom, for they were generally regarded as indicative and provocative +of a radical change of government. Martial law was, however, promptly +proclaimed at Madrid, and thus countless sympathizers with the +revolution were restrained from taking an active part in it. The army of +the government, under General Zabala, hastened to the scene of the +insurrection, and pursued the revolutionary troops with such vigor that +the latter, including General Prim himself, were compelled to retreat +across the Portuguese frontier near Barracas, since they were, in fact, +only about six hundred strong and were not prepared to make a resolute +stand. In the same month, January, 1866, other revolutionary bodies were +dispersed in Catalonia and Valencia.</p> + +<p>So confident was the royal government of its security, and of the +completeness with which the incipient revolution had been quelled, that +on March 17 it repealed the decree of martial law at the capital. It +was, however, cherishing a fool's paradise. The spirit of revolution was +at work, and was bound soon to reassert itself. Its<a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a> next manifestation +occurred in June, when two regiments of soldiers in Madrid itself +mutinied and repudiated their officers, who had refused to join them in +their action. These troops were well armed, having twenty-six cannon, +and were soon reinforced by large numbers of volunteers from the +populace, so that it was only by a supreme effort that the government +troops were able to defeat and disperse them.</p> + +<p>At the same time, a corresponding movement took place in the garrison at +Gerona, where a considerable body of troops revolted and, when attacked +by government forces, conducted a successful retreat across the French +frontier. Having crossed the boundary, they laid down their arms, but +the larger proportion of them soon found their way back into Spain to +join the impending revolution. Other outbreaks occurred at other points, +all of which were suppressed with difficulty, but with great severity, +many of the leaders being summarily shot as a deterrent example. But +this action instead of being deterrent was provocative. The next +revolutionary manifestation was the formation of a junta at Madrid, +which issued a proclamation setting forth the complaints of the +insurgents against the government, in part as follows:</p> + +<p>"Savage courts have led hundreds of victims to sacrifice, and a woman +has contemplated passively and even with complacency, the scaffold which +has been erected.</p> + +<p>"The Cortes have abjectly sold to the government the safety of the +individual, the civil rights and the well-being of the commonwealth. The +government has overthrown the press and rostrum, and has entrusted the +administration of the provinces to rapacious mandarins and sanguinary +generals; military tribunals have despoiled the rich and transported the +poor to Fernando Po and to the Philippines.<a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a></p> + +<p>"The laws of the Cortes have been replaced by decrees squandering the +resources of the country by means of obscure and ruinous laws, trampling +under foot right and virtue, violating homes, property and family; and +during all this time, Isabella II, at Zuranz, and Madrid, meditating a +plot against Italy, our sister, for the benefit of the Roman curia, +participating meanwhile in the depredations of violence of the pachas in +Cuba, who tolerating the fraudulent introduction of slaves, are +outraging public sentiment both in the Old and in the New World, and +causing an estrangement between Spain and the great and glorious +Republic of the United States."</p> + +<p>Thereafter, a reasonable degree of quiet prevailed throughout the +Kingdom, which was merely a lull before the renewal of the storm. On New +Year's day of 1867, the Junta at Madrid issued another proclamation, +announcing to the people of Spain that another revolutionary movement +was about to begin, and inviting them to join it, and share its success. +To this there was not apparently a sufficient response to seem to +warrant action, and it was not until the following August that anything +more was heard of the revolution. The revolutionists, however, were +merely outwardly quiet. Propaganda and organization were being +systematically carried on, and the way was being paved for a really +effective revolt, which would have widespread and far-reaching results +in purging Spain of a tyrannous rule and substituting in its place +republican justice. When the time seemed propitious, in August, General +Prim issued a third proclamation, calling the people to arms, the chief +result of which was an increased degree of vigilance and severity on the +part of the government. Many of the revolutionary leaders were +apprehended and expelled from Spain on suspicion of sympathy and +complicity with the revolution.<a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a> Among this number were Generals +Serrano, Cordova, Duke, Bedoya, and Zebula, and persons of no less high +standing than the Duke and Duchess of Montpensier.</p> + +<p>It is curious that all through history, movements like that which had +gained such force and impetus in Spain have been met with the high hand +of oppression. Instead of endeavoring to get at the root of the evil, to +realize that since there was so persistent a dissatisfaction there must +be real causes for grievance the removal of which would work toward a +harmonious solution, it has seemed to be impossible for those born in +the purple to understand the problems of the common people, and so when +the latter have risen in revolt, cruelty and injustice, if not actual +outrages, have marked the attempts to extinguish the trouble. The result +has ever been the same. The story of the attempts to suppress the revolt +in Spain differs not at all from the same story written on the pages of +the history of other nations. The increased oppression on the part of +the government only served to fan the smouldering fire into flame. The +popular wrath and indignation against the queen and her underlings bade +fair to burst into a huge conflagration.</p> + +<p>In consequence, when the next overt act of insurrection occurred, at +Cadiz, on September 17, there was a very general response throughout the +Kingdom. General Prim was again at the head of the movement, supported +by General Serrano and the other officers, to whom the sentence of +banishment had not proved effective, since they had found their way back +into Spain. Revolutionary Juntas were formed in almost all of the +provinces, and in a number of the most important cities, and in the +course of a few days the insurgents were in control of a considerable +part of the Kingdom.<a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a></p> + +<p>The City of Santander was seized for the revolution on September 21, but +they were obliged to relinquish it to superior forces on September 24. +However, the revolutionists were far from discouraged by this momentary +reverse, and four days later they rallied for their first important +victory, which was followed by a general revolt of the troops in and +about Madrid, and General Concha, the commander of the royal forces, was +compelled to resign. The revolution was now in full swing and gaining +impetus and strength every hour. General Serrano at the head of a +revolutionary army entered Madrid in triumph, followed four days later +by General Prim. Their reception exceeded their wildest expectations. +The city was on fire with revolt. The people greeted them with the +warmest fervor, with shouts of welcome and rejoicing. They were hailed +as the saviors of the nation, as the embodiment of Spain's hope for the +future, and hourly their forces were increased by the addition of +volunteers from all walks of life.</p> + +<p>It is evident that Queen Isabella had not found Madrid a comfortable +abiding place. There is no doubt that she entertained fears for her +personal safety long before it was actually in jeopardy. Some time +previous to these happenings she had, on some pretext, removed the court +from Madrid to San Sebastian, in the Pyrenees, near the French frontier, +and when news of the capture of the Spanish capital reached her, she +lost no time in making her escape across the frontier into France, where +she was met and welcomed by Emperor Napoleon III, at Hendye. Queen +Isabella had good reason to fear the vengeance of the Spanish mob, for +she had long been unpopular, an object of widespread hatred. She +therefore had no intention of returning to Spain while matters were in +such a<a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a> turbulent condition, and shortly after her arrival in France, +she proceeded to Paris, where she decided to make her home.</p> + +<p>The Juntas which had been established throughout the Kingdom of Spain +were amalgamated by the formation of a National Junta, on October 8, at +Madrid, and a ministry was organized with General Serrano as Prime +Minister, General Prim as Minister of War, Admiral Topete as Minister of +Marine, Señor Figueroa as Minister of Finance, Señor Lorensano as +Minister of Foreign Affairs, Señor Ortiz as Minister of Justice, Señor +Sagasta as Minister of the Interior, Señor Ayala as Minister for the +Colonies and Señor Zorilla as Minister of Public Works.</p> + +<p>The next day, the United States Minister at Madrid, Mr. Hill, notified +General Serrano that his government has given official recognition to +the new order of affairs in Spain, being the first in the world to take +this action. Such was the state of affairs in Spain at the beginning of +the great struggle in Cuba known as the Ten Years' War.</p> + +<p>Conditions in Mexico likewise deserve passing attention. For a number of +years that country had been in a greatly troubled state. Years of +successive revolutions had been followed by the military intervention of +France, and the creation, under the protection of the French army, of a +pinchbeck "empire," with the Archduke Maximilian of Austria as Emperor. +The Mexican people, under the leadership of one of their greatest +statesmen, Benito Juarez, never gave their allegiance to this usurping +government, but maintained a more or less open resistance to it, and it +was sustained for a few years only by the presence of a considerable +French army.</p> + +<p>The United States of America, at this time, was engaged in its great +Civil War, and was therefore unable to do more than to register a formal +protest against French aggressions,<a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a> which were recognized as a great +violation of the Monroe Doctrine. But when, in the spring of 1865, the +Civil War ended, the triumphant federal armies were moved toward the +Mexican frontier, and the United States Government sent to the French +Government what was practically an ultimatum, requiring it to withdraw +its forces from Mexico. Napoleon III demurred, temporized, and at length +offered to withdraw if the United States would recognize Maximilian as +the lawful emperor of Mexico. This the United States, with great +promptness, refused to do, and the French army was thereupon +unconditionally withdrawn, and the capture and military execution of +Maximilian soon followed, the final tragedy occurring on June 19, 1867. +This left the United States with its prestige immeasurably enhanced and +free to pay such attention as might be necessary to the affairs of Cuba, +the only part of the western hemisphere in which European despotism was +still maintained.</p> + +<p>The policy of the United States Government, and the sentiment of the +people of that country toward Cuba, had been materially modified by the +Civil War and its results. There was, of course, no longer any thought +of acquiring Cuba for the sake of expanding and fortifying the slave +power, but on the contrary, American influence was now exerted, so far +as it could properly be, toward prevailing upon the Spanish Government +to abolish slavery in Cuba. The Cuban revolutionists were almost without +exception in favor of such emancipation of the negroes, and that fact +caused them to be regarded with increased favor in the United States, +both officially and popularly. American influence was also exerted +toward the persuasion of Spain to give Cuba a more liberal and +beneficent government and to improve the commercial relations between +that island and the United States, for the<a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a> benefit of both parties. +There was some expectation in both Cuba and the United States—a very +plausible belief—that the revolutionary movement in Spain, liberal and +democratic in character, and aiming at the establishment of a republic +in place of the Bourbon monarchy, would be accompanied by the grant of +liberal institutions and democratic freedom to Cuba; but such was not +the case.</p> + +<p>During the Civil War, because of the suspension of the sugar industry in +the southern part of the United States, there had been a vast and +immensely profitable development of the sugar industry in Cuba, and this +seemed to be dependent for its success upon the continuance of slave +labor. These conditions strengthened the Spanish party in Cuba, which +was equally devoted to the maintenance of slavery and to Spanish +domination in the Island.</p> + +<p>The Spanish party in Cuba, at this time, as we have seen, was known as +the "Peninsulars," and it comprised a great majority of the office +holders and wealthy planters and slave-holders. It was well organized +throughout the Island for the assertion of political influence, and for +the suppression of insurgent movements. Its central authority was in a +wealthy club at Havana, called the "Casino Espagnol," and similar clubs +on a more modest scale, existed in other cities and important towns +throughout Cuba, and from these, and under their control, there arose a +body known as the "Volunteers." This was ostensibly a military +organization to whose battalions all white men in the Island were +eligible, but as a matter of fact, membership in the Volunteers was +substantially confined to conservatives, loyalists and Spanish +sympathizers. The Volunteers, except in a few special cases, did not go +into the field, but left the actual fighting with insurgents to be done +by regular Spanish troops. They gave their own attention chiefly to the +overawing of the inhabitants of the<a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a> cities and towns, and to +restraining them from joining the revolutions. They also acted as spies, +discovering and reporting to the Spanish Government the doings of Cuban +patriots. The leaders of the organization formed a "Council of +Colonels," meeting at the Casino Espagnol, and forming a sort of +<i>imperium in imperio</i>.</p> + +<p>During the progress of the Ten Years' War, however, the Volunteers were +organized and placed under the command of General Lersuno, and +thereafter exerted a much more militant power than ever before. They +were not under the direct orders of the Captain-General, but enjoyed an +independent authority, and yet they were presently entrusted with the +garrisoning of forts and cities, so that the regular Spanish troops +could go into the field. They exercised far more military, naval and +civil authority than the Captain-General and other royal officials. They +actually compelled the retirement of General Dulce from the +Captain-Generalship because they regarded him as too kindly disposed +toward the Cubans. They similarly drove Caballero de Rodas from office, +and they gave Valmaseda and Ceballos, who followed, to understand that +the success of their administration depended upon their compliance with +the demands and policies of the Volunteers.</p> + +<p>It was due to their opposition that the so-called Moret law, which +provided for the gradual abolition of slavery in Cuba, remained a dead +letter, and was not even published in the Island for several years after +the outside world had supposed it to be in force. The Volunteers were +also responsible for the numerous cases of violence against the patriot +party, the most flagrant of which was the execution of eight Cuban +students of the University of Havana.</p> + +<p>There is no reason to suppose that there was any complicity<a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a> or +cooperation between the revolution in Spain and the outbreak of the Ten +Years' War in Cuba. Nevertheless, the former practically gave the +signal, for the result of the Spanish revolution was indeed regarded by +Cuban patriots with much satisfaction and enthusiasm. Cries of "Hurrah +for Prim!" "Hurrah for Serrano!" and "Hurrah for the Spanish +Revolution!" were mingled with cries of "Viva Cuba Libre!" and it did +not take long for the disappointed realization to dawn upon Cuba that +liberalism in Spain did not necessarily imply the granting of freedom to +Cuba, but that on the contrary the "Peninsular" revolutionists were +scarcely less intent that the Bourbons had been upon retaining Cuba as +an appanage, and especially as a source of revenue for Spain.<a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<p>C<small>UBAN</small> independence was proclaimed on October 10, 1868, at the Yara +plantation. That was the natal date and that was the natal place of the +Republic of Cuba. The event was made known to the world in a Declaration +of Independence, which was issued at Manzanillo, and which was as +follows:</p> + +<p>"In arming ourselves against the tyrannical Government of Spain we must, +according to precedent in all civilized countries, proclaim before the +world the cause that impels us to take this step, which though liable to +entail considerable disturbances upon the present, will insure the +happiness of the future.</p> + +<p>"It is well known that Spain governs the Island of Cuba with an iron and +blood-stained hand. The former holds the latter deprived of political, +civil, and religious liberty. Hence, the unfortunate Cubans being +illegally prosecuted and thrown into exile or executed by military +commissions in times of peace. Hence, their being kept from public +meetings, and forbidden to speak or write on affairs of state; hence, +their remonstrances against the evils that afflict them being looked +upon as the proceedings of rebels, from the fact that they are bound to +keep silence and obey. Hence, the never-ending plague of hungry +officials from Spain to devour the product of their industry and labor. +Hence, their exclusion from public stations and want of opportunity to +skill themselves in the art of government. Hence, the restrictions to +which public instructions with them is subjected, in order to keep<a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a> them +so ignorant as not to be able to know and enforce their rights in any +shape or form whatever. Hence, the navy and standing army, which are +kept upon their country at an enormous expenditure from their own wealth +to make them bend their knees and submit their necks to the iron yoke +that disgraces them. Hence, the grinding taxation under which they +labor, and which would make them all perish in misery but for the +marvelous fertility of the soil.</p> + +<p>"On the other hand, Cuba cannot prosper as she ought to, because white +immigration that suits her best is artfully kept from her shores by the +Spanish Government, and as Spain has many a time promised us Cubans to +respect our rights without having hitherto fulfilled her promise, as she +continues to tax us heavily and by so doing is likely to destroy our +wealth; as we are in danger of losing our property, our lives, and our +honor under further Spanish domination; as we have reached a depth of +degradation utterly revolting to manhood; as great nations have sprung +from revolt against a similar disgrace, after exhausted pleadings for +relief, as we despair of justice from Spain through reasoning and cannot +longer live deprived of the rights which other people enjoy, we are +constrained to appeal to arms and to assert our rights in the +battle-field, cherishing the hope that our grievances will be a +sufficient excuse for this last resort to redress them and to secure our +future welfare.</p> + +<p>"To the God of our conscience, and to all civilized nations, we submit +the sincerity of our purpose. Vengeance does not mislead us, not is +ambition our guide. We only want to be free and to see all men with us +equally free, as the Creator intended all mankind to be. Our earnest +belief is that all men are brethren. Hence our love of toleration, order +and justice in every respect. We desire<a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a> the gradual abolition of +slavery, with indemnification; we admire universal suffrage, as it +insures the sovereignty of the people; we demand a religious regard for +the inalienable rights of men as the basis of freedom and nation +greatness."</p> + +<p>Following the Declaration of Independence, the provisional government of +the Republic of Cuba was organized at Bayamo. The most prominent figure +in the organization of the Cuban revolutionists and the first really +constructive leader of the Cuban insurrection was Carlos Manuel +Cespedes, a native of Bayamo. At this time he was in the prime of life, +being forty nine years of age, a man of brilliant intellect and of fine +culture, for he had been educated at the University of Havana, and had, +in 1842, received his degree and license in law from the University of +Barcelona, in Spain.</p> + +<p>Cespedes's openly expressed zeal for the emancipation of the oppressed +Cubans, and the earnest efforts which he had long exerted in their +behalf, had won for him such widespread recognition as a patriot that he +was, without a dissenting voice, chosen for the head of the provisional +government. By nature and training he was admirably suited for the +position, for from boyhood he had been not only enthusiastically devoted +to the cause of Cuban independence, but he had more than once, under +circumstances where his outspoken advocacy of his principles actually +placed his life in jeopardy, proved himself a worthy champion of +freedom, not only for his fellow citizens, but for Spanish subjects +wherever they were being trodden beneath the iron heel of Spanish +oppression. His love of liberty was not a mere enthusiasm, something +superficial and acquired, but it was inborn, a fundamental part of his +character, firmly knit into the very fibre of his life and its +activities.<a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a></p> + +<p>While a student in Spain, he had joined the forces of General Prim, +during the latter's first attempt to establish a republic in that +country, and because of his complicity in that revolt, Cespedes had been +banished from Spain. Returning to Cuba, in 1844, he settled at Bayamo, +and took up the practice of law, where his skill as an advocate soon won +him recognition as one of the foremost lawyers of the Island. But again +his hatred of tyranny thrust him forth from the peaceful occupation of +amassing a fortune in the pursuit of jurisprudence. He could not +tranquilly pursue his daily course when he saw injustice and misrule +rampant around him, and so, in 1852, he made a speech, fervidly +denouncing Spain, and calling on high Heaven to aid the independence of +Cuba, which was considered by the authorities to be so incendiary that +he was arrested as a dangerous character, and subsequently suffered a +five months' imprisonment in Morro Castle, at Havana.</p> + +<p>Opportunity soon came to Cespedes to give actual proof that his +principles were not abstract but concrete. The acid test was to be +applied and he was not to be found wanting, for immediately upon the +declaration by the Cuban republic of its principles of freedom and equal +rights for all men, he voluntarily exemplified their operation, so far +as lay in his individual power, by emancipating all the slaves on his +own estate.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_004x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_004x_sml.jpg" width="361" height="550" alt="CARLOS MANUEL DE CESPEDES" title="CARLOS MANUEL DE CESPEDES" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">CARLOS MANUEL DE CESPEDES</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The supreme chieftain of the Cuban patriots in the Ten Years' War was +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes y Borges, who before becoming a soldier was +eminent as an advocate, poet, and man of letters. He was born at Bayamo +on April 18, 1819, and completed his education at the University of +Barcelona, Spain. Then he settled in Madrid, became associated with +General Prim, and was implicated in his first attempt at revolution. For +that he was banished to France, and later he was imprisoned for his +Liberal utterances. Returning to Cuba, he personally started the Ten +Years' War, with the story of which as elsewhere related he was +inseparably identified as President of the Cuban Republic. On February +27, 1874, he was betrayed to the Spaniards by a servant who thus sought +to save his own life, and after desperate resistance was wounded, +captured, and put to death.</p></div> + +<p>The first decree of the provisional government was issued by General +Cespedes on December 27. It was a proclamation of emancipation, as +follows:</p> + +<p>"The revolution of Cuba, while proclaiming this independence of the +country, has proclaimed with it all the liberties, and could not well +commit the great inconsistency, to restrict them to only one part of the +population of the country. Free Cuba is incompatible with slave<a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a> +Cuba, and the abolition of the Spanish institutions must include, and by +necessity and by reason of the greatest justice does include, the +abolition of slavery as the most odious of all. Abolition of slavery +has, therefore, been maintained among the principles proclaimed in the +first manifesto issued by the revolution, and in the opinion of all +Cubans, truly liberal, its entire realization must be the first of the +acts for which the country employs its conquered rights. But as a +general measure it can only be fully effected when the country in the +full use of its conquered rights can, by means of universal suffrage, +make the most suitable provision for carrying it through to real +advantage, both for the old and the new citizens. The subject of the +present measure is not, nor can it be, the abrogation of a right which +those who are at present directing the operations of the revolution are +far from believing themselves entitled to invade; thus participating the +solution of so difficult a question. On the other hand, however, the +provisional government could not in its turn oppose the use of a right +which our slaveholders possess in virtue of our laws, and which many of +them wish to exercise, namely, to emancipate their slaves at once. It +also sees how desirable it is to employ at once in the service of the +country the freedmen, and how necessary to make haste to prevent the +evils which they and the country might receive from a failure to employ +them immediately. The government, therefore, urges the adoption of +provisional dispositions, which are to serve as a rule for the military +chiefs in the several districts of this department, in order to solve +the questions presented to them. Therefore, availing myself of the +faculties with which I am invested, I have now resolved that the +following articles be observed.</p> + +<p>"I. Free are the slaves whom their masters at once present<a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a> to the +military chief for this purpose, the owners reserving, if they choose, a +claim to the indemnification which the nation may decree.</p> + +<p>"II. The freedom shall, for the present, be employed in the service of +the country in such a manner as may be agreed upon.</p> + +<p>"III. To this end a committee shall be appointed to find for them +employment, in accordance with regulations to be issued.</p> + +<p>"IV. In other cases, the slaves of loyal Cubans and of neutral Spaniards +and foreigners shall continue to work, in accordance with the principle +of respect for property proclaimed by the revolution.</p> + +<p>"V. The slaves of those who have been convicted of being enemies of the +country and openly hostile to the revolution, shall be confiscated with +their other property and declared free without a right to indemnity, +utilizing them in the service of the country.</p> + +<p>"VI. The owners who shall place their slaves in the service of the +revolution without freeing them for the present, shall preserve their +right as long as the slaving question in general is not decided.</p> + +<p>"VII. The slaves of the Palisades, who may present themselves to the +Cuban authorities, shall at once be declared free, with a right either +to live among us or to remain among the mountaineers.</p> + +<p>"VIII. The isolated refugees who may be captured, or who may, without +the consent of their masters, present themselves to the authorities or +military chiefs, shall not be received without consulting their +masters."</p> + +<p>Now this first government, of which Cespedes was made the chief, was +merely, after all, a temporary affair, organized to provide ways and +means for creating a more permanent body. Accordingly, on October 30, +1868, less<a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a> than a month after the Declaration of Independence, Cespedes +issued a proclamation declaring that his election to office had been +only to provide for the time being an acting head of the provisional +government; that he believed that the organization should at once take +on the character of permanency; that he had no thought of imposing his +will upon Cuba; that he realized that he had not been elected to his +place by the suffrage of the Cuban people, and that he had no assurance +that, had they been given an opportunity to individually express +themselves, he would have been their choice; and that, therefore, since +it was practicable for all loyal Cubans to assemble in their respective +communities and by their suffrage constitute a permanent government, he +would gladly abide by their decision, and, if they desired, relinquish +the power with which they had entrusted him.</p> + +<p>In response to this patriotic utterance, a convention was called, on +April 10, 1869, at Guaimaro. The leaders of this first representative +body of the Cuban people were the following: Miguel Gutierrez, Eduardo +Machado, Antonio Lorda, Tranquilino Valdez and Arcadio Garcia, +representing Villa Clara; Honorato Castillo, representing Sancti +Spiritus; José Maria Izaguirre, representing Jugari; Antonio Alcada and +Jesus Rodriguez, representing Holguin; and Salvador Cisneros, Francisco +Sanchez, Ignacio Agramonte Loynaz, Miguel Betancourt Guerra and Antonio +Zambrana, representing Camaguey.</p> + +<p>At this convention, Cespedes resigned his position as provisional head +of the government and commander-in-chief of the army, in order that some +one might be regularly elected in his place, and in doing so he +addressed his colleagues in the following memorable terms:</p> + +<p>"Now that the House of Representatives, gathered from all parts of the +Island, has been happily inaugurated in<a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a> Guaimaro, it becomes from the +moment of its organization the supreme and only authority for all +Cubans, because it constitutes the depository of the people's will, +sovereign of the present and controller of the future. All temporary +power and authority ceases to have a rightful voice in Cuba from the +very moment in which the wise democratic system, laying its solid +foundations beneath the gigantic shadow of the tree of liberty, has come +to endow us—after suffering the most iniquitous rule—with the most +beautiful and magnificent of human institutions—a republican +government.</p> + +<p>"Unfeigned gratitude I owe to the destiny which afforded me the glory of +being the first in Yara to raise the standard of independence, and the +still greater though less merited satisfaction, to see crowded around me +my fellow-citizens in demand of liberty, thus sustaining my weak arm and +stimulating my poor efforts by their confidence. But another glory was +reserved for me, far more grateful by my sentiments and democratic +convictions—that of also being the first to render homage to the +popular sovereignty.</p> + +<p>"This duty fulfilled, having given an account to the fatherland of its +most genuine representation of the work which with the assistance of its +own heroic sons I had the good fortune to have commenced, it still +behooves me, fellow-citizens, to fulfill another, not less imperious to +my heart, of addressing my gratitude to you—to you, without whom my +humble, isolated efforts would not have produced other fruit than that +of adding one patriot more to the number of preceding martyrs for +independence—to you, who, recognizing in me the principle rather than +the man, came to stimulate me by your recognition of myself as chief of +the provisional government and the liberating army.<a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a></p> + +<p>"Fellow citizens of the Eastern Department, your efforts as initiators +of the struggle against tyranny, your constancy, your sufferings, your +heroic sacrifices of all descriptions, your privations, the combat +without quarters which you have sustained and continue to sustain +against an enemy far superior in armament and discipline, and who +displays, for want of the valor which a good cause inspires, all the +ferocity which is the attitude of tyranny, have been witnessed by +myself, and so will remain eternally present to my heart. You are the +vanguard of the soldiers of our liberties. I commend you to the +admiration and to the gratitude of the Cubans. Continue your abnegation +of self, your discipline, your valor, and your enthusiasm, which will +entitle you to that gratitude and that admiration.</p> + +<p>"Fellow citizens of the Western Department, if it has not been your good +fortune to be the first in grasping arms, neither were you among the +last in listening to the voice of the fatherland that cried for +revolution. Your moral aid and assistance responded from the very outset +to the call of your brethren of the Eastern and Central Departments. +Many of you hastened to the scene of revolution to share our colors. At +this moment, despite the activity displayed by the Spanish Government in +your districts, where its resources and the number of its hosts render +more difficult the current of the revolution, that same Government +trembles before your determined attitude, from the Las Villas to Havana, +and from Havana to the western boundary, and your first deeds of arms +were the presage to you and the brave and worthy sons of the Eastern and +Central Departments of new and decisive triumphs.</p> + +<p>"Fellow citizens of all the Island: The blood of the patriots who have +fallen during the first onset of the struggle has consecrated our +aspirations with a glorious<a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a> baptism. At this moment, when destiny has +been pleased to close the mission of him who was your first leader, +swear with him by that generous blood, that in order to render fruitful +that great sacrifice you will shed your own, to the very last drop, in +furtherance of the consummation of our independence, proclaimed in Yara. +Swear with me to give up our lives a thousand times over in sustaining +the republic proclaimed in Guaimaro.</p> + +<p>"Fellow citizens, long live our independence. Long live the popular +sovereignty! Long live the Cuban Republic! Patria and liberty!"</p> + +<p>The convention before proceeding to the election of officers of the +Republic, drafted and adopted the first Constitution of Free Cuba, as +follows:</p> + +<p>"Article I. The legislative power shall be vested in a House of +Representatives.</p> + +<p>"Article II. To this body shall be delegated an equal representation +from each of the four states into which the Island of Cuba shall be +divided.</p> + +<p>"Article III. These states are Oriente, Camaguey, Las Villas and +Occidente.</p> + +<p>"Article IV. No one shall be eligible as representatives of any of these +states except a citizen of the Republic, who is upward of 20 years of +age.</p> + +<p>"Article V. No representative of any state shall hold any other official +position during his representative term.</p> + +<p>"Article VI. Whenever a vacancy occurs in the representation of any +state, the executive thereof shall have power to fill such vacancy until +the ensuing election.</p> + +<p>"Article VII. The House of Representatives shall elect a President of +the Republic, a General-in-Chief of its Armies, a President of the +Congress and other executive officers. The General-in-Chief shall be +subordinate<a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a> to the Executive, and shall render him an account of the +performance of his duties.</p> + +<p>"Article VIII. The President of the Republic, the General-in-Chief and +the Members of the House of Representatives are amenable to charges +which may be made by any citizen to the House of Representatives, which +shall proceed to examine into the charges preferred; and if in their +judgment it be necessary the case of the accused shall be submitted to +the Judiciary.</p> + +<p>"Article IX. The House of Representatives shall have full power to +dismiss from office any functionary whom they have convicted.</p> + +<p>"Article X. The legislative acts and decisions of the House of +Representatives, in order to be valid and binding, must have the +sanction of the President of the Republic.</p> + +<p>"Article XI. If the President fails to approve the acts and decisions of +the House, he shall, without delay, return the same with his objections +thereto, for the reconsideration of that body.</p> + +<p>"Article XII. Within 10 days after their reception, the President shall +return all bills, resolutions and enactments which may be sent to him by +the House for his approval, with his sanction thereof, or with his +objections thereto.</p> + +<p>"Article XIII. Upon the passage of any Act, Bill or Resolution, after a +reconsideration thereof, by the House, it shall be sanctioned by the +President.</p> + +<p>"Article XIV. The House of Representatives shall legislate upon +Taxation, Public Loans, and Ratification of Treaties; and shall have +power to declare and conclude War, to authorize the President to issue +letters of marque, to raise troops and provide for their support, to +organize<a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a> and maintain a Navy, and to regulate reprisals as to the +public enemy.</p> + +<p>"Article XV. The House of Representatives shall remain in permanent +session from the time of the ratification of this fundamental law by the +People until the termination of the war with Spain.</p> + +<p>"Article XVI. The Executive Power shall be vested in the President of +the Republic.</p> + +<p>"Article XVII. No one shall be eligible to the Presidency, who is not a +native of the Republic, and over 30 years of age.</p> + +<p>"Article XVIII. All treaties made by the President may be ratified by +the House of Representatives.</p> + +<p>"Article XIX. The President shall have power to appoint Ambassadors, +Ministers-plenipotentiary, and Consuls of the Republic, to foreign +countries.</p> + +<p>"Article XX. The President shall treat with Ambassadors, and shall see +that the laws are faithfully executed. He shall also issue commissions +to all the functionaries of the Republic.</p> + +<p>"Article XXI. The President shall propose the names of the members of +his Cabinet to the House of Representatives for its approval.</p> + +<p>"Article XXII. The Judiciary shall form an independent co-ordinate +department of the Government, under the organization of a special law.</p> + +<p>"Article XXIII. Voters are required to possess the same qualifications +as to age and citizenship as the members of House of Representatives.</p> + +<p>"Article XXIV. All the inhabitants of the Republic of Cuba are +absolutely free.</p> + +<p>"Article XXV. All the citizens are considered as soldiers of the +Liberating Army.<a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a></p> + +<p>"Article XXVI. The Republic shall not bestow dignities, titles, nor +special privileges.</p> + +<p>"Article XXVII. The citizens of the Republic shall not accept honors nor +titles from foreign countries.</p> + +<p>"Article XXVIII. The House of Representatives shall not abridge the +Freedom of Religion, nor of the Press, nor of Public Meetings, nor of +Education, nor of Petition, nor any inalienable Right of the People.</p> + +<p>"Article XXIX. The Constitution can be amended only by the unanimous +concurrence of the House of Representatives."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 226px;"> +<a href="images/ill_167pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_167pg_sml.png" width="226" height="304" alt="MANUEL QUESADA" title="MANUEL QUESADA" /></a> +</div> + +<p>The next day the Convention proceeded to the election of officers of the +House of Representatives. Salvador Cisneros was elected President; +Ignacio Agramonte Loynaz and Antonio Zambrana were elected Secretaries, +and Miguel Betancourt and Eduardo Machado, Vice-Secretaries.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">MANUEL QUESADA</p> + +<p>Manuel Quesada, for a time military head of the Ten Years' War, was +born in Camaguey in 1830. He was banished for political reasons and +went to Mexico, where he fought under Benito Juarez. In 1868 he +joined the patriot army and became one of its leaders; in 1870 +being its commander in chief. Failing to carry the war into Pinar +del Rio, he went on a trip to Venezuela, and trying to return was +pursued by a Spanish cruiser and took refuge in Santo Domingo. On +his final return to Cuba he was deposed from his command for being +too ambitious and autocratic, whereupon he went to the United +States and thence to Venezuela, where he died in 1886.</p></div> + +<p>The seventh article of the Constitution was immediately put into +practice, when the convention, constituting itself a House of +Representatives, confirmed the confidence of the Cuban peoples in +Cespedes, by appointing him President of the Republic of Cuba, while +Manuel Quesada was<a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a> made Commander-in-Chief of the Army. President +Cespedes immediately assumed his office and issued this proclamation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"To the People of Cuba:</p> + +<p>"Compatriots: The establishment of a free government in Cuba, on the +basis of democratic principles, was the most fervent wish of my heart. +The effective realization of this wish was, therefore, enough to satisfy +my aspirations and amply repay the services which, jointly with you, I +may have been able to devote to the cause of Cuban independence. But the +will of my compatriots has gone far beyond this, by investing me with +the most honored of all duties, the supreme magistracy of the Republic.</p> + +<p>"I am not blind to the great labors required in the exercise of the high +functions which you have placed in my charge in these critical moments, +notwithstanding the aid that may be derived from other powers of the +state. I am not ignorant of the grave responsibility which I assume in +accepting the Presidency of our new-born Republic. I know that my weak +powers would be far from being equal to the demand if left to themselves +alone. But this will not occur and that conviction fills me with faith +in the future.</p> + +<p>"In the act of beginning the struggle with the oppressors, Cuba has +assumed the solemn duty to consummate her independence or perish in the +attempt, and in giving herself a democratic government she obligates +herself to become Republican. This double obligation, contracted in the +presence of free America, before the liberal world, and, what is more, +before our own conscience, signifies our determination to be heroic and +to be virtuous.</p> + +<p>"Cubans! On your heroism I rely for the consummation of our +independence, and on your virtue I count to<a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a> consolidate the Republic. +You may count on my abnegation of self.</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Carlos de Cespedes</span>.</p> + +<p>"Guaimaro, April 11, 1869."</p> +</div> + +<p>This was followed two days later by General Quesada's proclamation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Citizen Chiefs, Officers and Soldiers of the Liberating Army of Cuba: +When I returned to my country to place my sword at your service, +fulfilling the most sacred of duties, realizing the most intense +aspiration of my life, the vote of the Camagueyans, to my surprise, +honored me by conferring on me the command of their army. +Notwithstanding my poor merits and capacity, I accepted the post because +I expected to find and did find in the Camagueyans civic virtues well +established, and this has rendered supportable the charge of the +responsibility which I assumed.</p> + +<p>"Now the legislative power of the Republic has filled me with a greater +surprise, promoting me to the Command-in-Chief of the liberating army of +Cuba. The want of confidence in my own resources naturally moves me anew +upon stronger grounds, although it also strengthens the conviction that +the patriotism of my brethren will supply the insufficiency of my +capacity.</p> + +<p>"Camagueyans! You have given me undoubted proofs of your virtues. You +are models of subordination and enthusiasm. Preserve and extend your +discipline!</p> + +<p>"Soldiers of the East! Initiators of our sacred revolution! Veterans of +Cuba! I salute you with sincere affection, counting on your gallant +chiefs, in order that they may aid me in realizing the eminent work +which we have undertaken, and I hope that union will strengthen our +forces.<a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a></p> + +<p>"Soldiers of the Villas! You have already struggled with the despot. I +felicitate you for the efforts made and invite you to continue them. You +are patriots. You will be victors.</p> + +<p>"Soldiers of the West! I know your heroic exploits, and venerate them. I +am well aware of the disadvantage of the situation in which you find +yourselves, in contrast with our oppressors, and it is our purpose to +remedy this. Accept the homage of my admiration and the succor of my +arms.</p> + +<p>"Citizen chiefs, officers, and soldiers of the Cuban Army! Union, +discipline, and perseverance!</p> + +<p>"The rapid increase which the glorious new Cuba has taken frightens our +oppressors, who now are suffering the pangs of desperation, and carrying +on a war of vengeance, not of principles. The tyrant Valmaseda rages +with the incendiary's torch and the homicidal knife over the fields of +Cuba. He has never done otherwise, but now he adds to his crime the +still greater one of publishing it by a proclamation, which we can only +describe by pronouncing it to be a proclamation worthy of the Spanish +Government. Thereby our property is menaced by fire and pillage. This is +nothing. It threatens us with death; and this is nothing. But even our +mothers, wives, daughters, and sisters are menaced with resort to +violence.</p> + +<p>"Ferocity is the valor of cowards.</p> + +<p>"I implore you, sons of Cuba, to recollect at all hours the proclamation +of Valmaseda. That document will shorten the time necessary for the +triumph of our cause. That document is an additional proof of the +character of our enemies. Those beings appear deprived even of those +gifts which Nature has conceded to the irrationals—the instinct of +foresight and of warning. We have to struggle with tyrants, always such; +the very same ones of<a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a> the Inquisition, of the Conquest, and of Spanish +dominion in America. In birth and in death they live and succeed; the +Torquemadas, the Pizarros, the Boves, the Morillos, the Tacons, the +Conchas, and the Valmasedas. We have to combat with the assassins of old +women and of children, with the mutilators of the dead, with the +idolaters of gold!</p> + +<p>"Cubans! If you would save your honor and that of your families; if you +would conquer forever your liberty, be soldiers. War leads you to peace +and to happiness. Inertia precipitates you to misfortune and to +dishonor. Viva Cuba! Viva the President of the Republic! Viva the +Liberating Army! Patria and Liberty!</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Manuel Quesada</span>."</p> +</div> + +<p>The proclamation of Count Valmaseda, to which General Quesada referred, +had been issued at Bayamo on April 4, and was as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Inhabitants of the Country—</p> + +<p>"The forces which I expected have arrived. With them I will afford +protection to the good and summarily punish all those who still rebel +against the government of the metropolis.</p> + +<p>"Know ye that I have pardoned those who have fought against us, armed; +know ye that your wives, mothers and sisters have in me found the +protection they admired and which you rejected; know, also, that many of +the pardoned have turned against me. After all these excesses, after so +much ingratitude and so much villainy, it is impossible for me to be the +man I was heretofore. Deceptive neutrality is no longer possible. 'He +that is not with me is against me,' and in order that my soldiers may +know how to distinguish you, hearken to the orders given them:</p> + +<p>"Every man from the age of 15 upward, found beyond<a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a> his farm, will be +shot, unless a justification for his absence be proven.</p> + +<p>"Every hut that is found uninhabited will be burned by the troops.</p> + +<p>"Every hamlet where a white cloth in the shape of a flag is not hoisted +in token that its inhabitants desire peace, will be reduced to ashes.</p> + +<p>"The women who are not found in their respective dwellings, or in those +of their relatives, will return to the towns of Jiguani or Bayamo, where +they will be duly provided for. Those who fail to do so will be taken by +compulsion. These orders will be in force on and after the 14th inst.!</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Count Valmaseda</span>.</p> + +<p>"Bayamo, April 4, 1869."</p> +</div> + +<p>General Cespedes about this time sent to the Government of the United +States, in his name and in that of the Provisional Government of Cuba, a +request for recognition, as belligerents. His letter contained these +references to the strength of the movement in Cuba:</p> + +<p>"We now hold much more than fifty leagues of the interior of this Island +in the Eastern Department, among which are the people (or communities) +of Jiguani, Tunas, Baire, Yara, Barrancas, Datil, Cauto, Embarcadero, +Guisa, and Horno, besides the cities of Bayamo and Holguin, in all +numbering 107,853 inhabitants, who obey us, and have sworn to shed to +the last drop of blood in our cause.</p> + +<p>"In the mentioned city of Bayamo, we have established a provisional +government, and formed our general quarters, where we hold more than +three hundred of the enemy prisoners, taken from the Spanish Army, among +whom are generals and governors of high rank. All this has been +accomplished in ten days, without other resources<a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a> than those offered by +the country we have passed through, without other losses than three or +four killed and six or eight wounded."</p> + +<p>However this impressed the Government at Washington, and notwithstanding +the marked sympathy in the United States for the cause of the Republic, +the desired recognition was not obtained.</p> + +<p>The impression of the revolution and its leaders which was given to the +people of the United States may be judged from what was written by an +authoritative correspondent of the New York <i>Tribune</i>:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 229px;"> +<a href="images/ill_173pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_173pg_sml.png" width="229" height="299" alt="FRANCISCO V. AGUILERA" title="FRANCISCO V. AGUILERA" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">FRANCISCO V. AGUILERA</p> + +<p>One of the organizers of the Ten Years' War, Francisco V. Aguilera +was born at Bayamo in 1821, of a wealthy and distinguished family, +and was finely educated in America and Europe. Although married to +the daughter of the Spanish Governor of Santiago, General Kindelan, +he was an ardent patriot, liberating his slaves and giving his +great fortune to the cause of independence. He served in the Ten +Years' War as Secretary of War and as Commander in Chief in +Oriente; and succeeded Salvador Cisneros Betancourt as President of +the Revolutionary government. He died in New York on February 22, +1877, and though his government had not been officially recognized, +full honors as to a Chief of State were paid at his funeral.</p></div> + +<p>"General Cespedes, the hero and chief of the revolt—is a man of good +appearance, fifty years of age, and has traveled in the United States. +His second in command, Arango, the Marquis of Santa Lucia, is a native +of Puerto Principe, and at taking part in the insurrection emancipated +his slaves. General Aguilera was a man of great wealth, and had once +held under the Government the office of mayor over the town of Bayamo +just burnt by the rebels. He too released his slaves. General Donato +Marmol bears the repute of having genuine military talent, as he is<a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a> +said to have defeated his opponents in most of their encounters with +him, and signally at Bairi, in the Eastern District. He is admired for +the ready invention of a new weapon of defence in war, which is called +the horguetilla, and is a kind of hook to resist bayonet charges. The +hook, which can be made without much trouble, of wood, is held with the +left hand to catch the bayonet, while with the right the rebel brings +his rude machete, a kind of sword, down upon his Spanish foe. General +Quesada, the other mentionable Cuban leader, served with credit on the +side of Juarez during the intervention in Mexico. The soldiers of the +revolt are of the rawest kind. A good part of them have been recruited +from the emancipated slaves of Cespedes, Arango, and Aguilera. Many of +the weapons are of the poorest kind, but I have heard that a certain +number of Enfields have been furnished them, and lately some hand +grenades. It is told me that no help, or exceedingly little, has reached +them from the North. Among some other things of their own device, they +have been employing wooden cannon, good for one shot and no more."</p> + +<p>The insurrection was eagerly supported by the "Juntas of the Laborers." +These societies, formed at the suggestion of Rafael Merchan, issued a +proclamation which enumerated the wrongs and insults endured by them +under the Spanish rule of Cuba, and stated the principles for which they +were willing to fight:</p> + +<p>"The Laborers, animated by the love for their native land, aspire to the +hope of seeing Cuba happy and prosperous by virtue of her own power, and +demand the inviolability of individuals, their homes, their families, +and the fruits of their labor, which they would have guaranteed by the +liberty of conscience, of speech, of the press, and of peaceful +meetings. In fact, they demand a government<a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a> of the country for and by +the country, free from an army of parasites and soldiers that only +serves to consume it and oppress it. And, as nothing of that kind can be +obtained from Spain, they intend to fight that power with all available +means, and drive and uproot its domination from the face of Cuba. +Respecting above all and before all the dignity of man, the association +declares that it will not accept slavery as a forced inheritance of the +past. However, instead of abolishing it as an arm by which to sink the +Island into barbarity, as threatened by the government of Spain, they +view abolition as a means of improving the moral and national condition +of the working men, and thereby to place property and wealth in a more +just and safe position.</p> + +<p>"Sons of their times, baptised in the vivid stream of civilization, and, +therefore above preoccupation of nationality, the laborers will respect +the neutrality of Spaniards, but among Cubans will distinguish only +friends and foes, those that are with them or against them. To the +former they offer peace, fraternity, and concord; to the latter, +brutality and war—war and brutality that will be more implacable to the +traitors to Cuba, where they first saw the day, who turn their arms +against them, or offer any asylum or refuge to their tyrants. We, the +laborers, do not ignore the value of nationality, but at the present +moment consider it of secondary moment. Before nationality stands +liberty, the indisputable condition of existence. We must be a people +before becoming a nation. When the Cubans constitute a free people they +will receive the nationality that becomes them. Now they have none."</p> + +<p>The Captain-General replied to this in January, 1869, with a +proclamation, full of promises which, however, were never fulfilled. It +said:<a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a></p> + +<p>"I will brave every danger, accept every responsibility, for your +welfare. The revolution has swept away the Bourbon dynasty, tearing up +by the roots a plant so poisonous that it polluted the air we breathe. +To the citizen shall be returned his rights, to man his dignity. You +will receive all the reforms which you require. Cubans and Spaniards are +all brothers. From this day, Cuba will be considered a province of +Spain. Freedom of the press, the right of meeting in public, and +representation in the national Cortes, the three fundamental principles +of true liberty, are granted you.</p> + +<p>"Cubans and Spaniards! Speaking in the name of our mother, Spain, I +adjure you to forget the past, hope for the future, and establish union +and fraternity."</p> + +<p>Cuba had declared herself to be an independent state, but that was +merely the first step in establishing her independence, and a long and +bitter struggle lay before her before she could hope to accomplish in +fact that for which her loyal citizens had armed themselves and which +they were determined to achieve.</p> + +<p>The first regularly elected House of Representatives took their seats at +Guaimaro, whereupon the members of the former convention resigned their +seats to their successors. In the new House, Jorge Milanes was elected +from the District of Manzanillo, Manuel Gomez Silva from Camaguey, +Manuel Gomez Pena from Guantanamo, Tomas Estrada from Cobre, Pio Posada +from Santiago de Cuba, Fernando Fornaris from Bayamo, and Pedro Aguero +from Las Tunas. Later sessions of the House of Representatives were held +at Cascorro and at Sibanico. These towns, held sacred by Cubans as the +birthplaces of liberty, were stoutly defended during the revolution, and +in spite of repeated efforts the Spaniards were never able to effect +their capture, although they<a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a> used their most highly trained troops, and +most efficient officers in their attacks.</p> + +<p>Beginning with August 6, 1869, the Assembly began to organize the +government along the most enlightened lines, and provided for the +administration of justice by establishing a Judiciary Department with +the following branches:</p> + +<p>1. A Supreme Court.</p> + +<p>2. Criminal Judges.</p> + +<p>3. Civil Judges.</p> + +<p>4. Prefects and sub-prefects.</p> + +<p>5. Court Martial.</p> + +<p>The Supreme Court was composed of a presiding officer, two judges and a +judge-advocate. Each of the states of the Republic was divided into +districts, and a civil and criminal judge as well as an attorney for the +Commonwealth were appointed for each district.</p> + +<p>Each state was to be ruled by a Civil Governor, and each district by a +Lieutenant-Governor, while the districts were divided into prefects and +sub-prefects, each with its appropriate ruler. The officers in question +were in every case to be elected by popular suffrage.</p> + +<p>A chronological enumeration of the laws enacted by the Congress during +1869 is not only pertinent, but it divulges their evident intention to +administer the government of the island, should they obtain the power to +do so, along the most humane and enlightened lines.</p> + +<p>On May 11, 1869, an amnesty was granted to all political prisoners, who +had not already been sentenced.</p> + +<p>On June 4, much needed provisions for civil marriages, and regulations +concerning the same, were enacted.</p> + +<p>On June 7, the commerce of the Republic was declared free to all +nations.<a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 235px;"> +<a href="images/ill_178pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_178pg_sml.png" width="235" height="314" alt="BERNABE DE VARONA" title="BERNABE DE VARONA" /></a> +</div> + +<p>The enactment of June 15, while a customary proceeding, would have a +touch of irony connected with it, if it were not almost pathetic, as +revealing the sturdy belief of these officials of the young Republic in +the ultimate triumph of their cause. It was an authorization of the +issue of $2,000,700 of legal tender paper money, to be redeemed by the +Republic in coin, at par, when circumstances enabled them to do so—that +is when they had conquered the enemy and established their Republic on a +lasting basis. The bills thus issued had already reached the officers of +the Republic, having been engraved in New York, and sent to Cuba by the +New York Junta.</p> + +<p>On July 9, the army was definitely organized, and this organization +remained in force until the capture and death of General Quesada. It was +as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Commander-in-Chief</td><td align="right">General Manuel Quesada</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chief-of-Staff</td><td align="right">General Thomas Jordan</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chief of Artillery</td><td align="right">Major Beauvilliers</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Brigadier-Major of Orders</td><td align="right">Major Bernabe Varona</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sanitary Department</td><td align="right">Adolfo Varona</td></tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><i>First Division</i></td><td align="center"><i>Army of Camaguey</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left">Major General</td><td align="right">Ignacio Agramonte</td></tr> +<tr><td>Commanding</td><td align="left">1st Brigade</td><td align="right">Colonel Miguel Bosse</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">2d Brigade</td><td align="right">General Francisco Castillo</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">3d Brigade</td><td align="right">Colonel Cornelio Porro</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">4th Brigade</td><td align="right">Colonel Lope Recio</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">5th Brigade</td><td align="right">Colonel Manuel Valdes Urra</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">6th Brigade</td><td align="right">Colonel Manuel Agramonte</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1st Battalion</td><td align="right">Colonel Pedro Recio</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">2d Battalion</td><td align="right">Colonel Jose Lino Cica</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">3d Battalion</td><td align="right">Colonel Rafael Bobadilla</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><i>Second Division</i></td><td align="center"><i>Army of Oriente</i></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align="left">Major General</td><td align="right">Francisco Aguilera</td></tr> +<tr><td>Commanding</td><td align="left">1st Brigade</td><td align="right">General Donate Marmol</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">2d Brigade</td><td align="right">General Luis Marcano</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">3d Brigade</td><td align="right">General Julio Peralta</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><i>Third Division</i></td><td align="center"><i>Army of Las Villas</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Commanding</td><td align="left">1st Brigade</td><td align="right">General C. Acosta</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">2d Brigade</td><td align="right">General Salome Hernandez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">3d Brigade</td><td align="right">General Adolfo Cabada</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>A law was enacted providing that every citizen of the Republic, between +the ages of 18 and 50 years, must under compulsion take up arms for the +cause of liberty.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">BERNABE DE VARONA</p> + +<p>Bernabe de Varona, a brilliant writer and devoted patriot, was born +at Camaguey in 1845, a member of a distinguished family. He entered +the Ten Years War with much zeal and displayed exceptional military +skill. He went on various patriotic missions to New York, to France +and to Mexico, and was instrumental in securing much aid for the +patriot cause. His last expedition was on the ill-fated +<i>Virginius</i>, on which he was captured and shot to death at Santiago +de Cuba on November 4, 1873.</p></div> + +<p>On August 7, the powers of the various officers of the Government, +including the Secretaries of State, were described and fixed.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing it will be seen that the officers of the new Republic +had high aspirations for an orderly government, and for the just +administration of wise laws for the benefit of the people. +Unfortunately, in a large measure, the Republic of Cuba established at +that time was a government only in name, and was not destined to take +the reins in administering the affairs of the Island, except in a more +or less theoretical way.<a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<p>A <small>REVOLUTION</small> usually involves fighting as well as the organization of a +government. In the case of Cuba, this was especially inevitable. It was +realized by the patriots in advance that the redemption of Cuba from the +tyranny of Spain could only be accomplished by force of arms, and +consequently plans to that effect had been carefully perfected in +advance. It was highly creditable to the Cubans that they so promptly +organized a dignified and worthy government, and adopted a constitution +favorably comparable with that of any other republic in the world. It +was no less creditable to their judgment and their earnestness that they +had already prepared for extensive military operations, and that they at +once entered upon these in a vigorous and systematic manner. Plans for +the uprising had indeed been matured before the breaking out of the +revolution in Spain, but the latter event undoubtedly hastened the +execution of their designs.</p> + +<p>At the outset, before complete organization was effected, the insurgents +at Bayamo were under the leadership of Francisco V. Aguilera, Manuel A. +Aguilera and Francisco M. Osorio; at Manzanillo the leader was Carlos +Manuel Cespedes; at Holguin, Belisario Alvarez was in command; at Las +Tunas, Vincente Garcia; at Jiguani, Donato Marmol; and at Santiago, +Manuel Fernandez.</p> + +<p>When Cespedes issued his proclamation on October 10, the insurgents had +only 147 men in their ranks, armed with forty-five fowling pieces, four +rifles, and a few pistols and machetes—not enough arms to provide one<a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a> +weapon apiece. But volunteers began to flock to their standards and in +two days the army had increased to over twenty-six times its original +strength, and numbered upwards of four thousand men, while at the end of +the month it had more than doubled, and had grown to nine thousand seven +hundred. By November 8, the revolutionary army contained twelve thousand +men, and at the end of 1868, it had grown to twenty-six thousand.</p> + +<p>But even this growth did not give them anything like the strength of the +Spanish Army in Cuba. In October, 1868, Spain had in Cuba twelve +regiments of infantry, one corps of engineers, one regiment of +artillery, two regiments of cavalry, one section of civil guards, one +regiment of armed firemen, one regiment of prison guards, and five +regiments of infantry and cavalry militia, amounting to the following:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Regular troops of all kinds, including officers</td><td align="right">14,300</td></tr> +<tr><td>Civil guards</td><td align="right">640</td></tr> +<tr><td>Prison guards</td><td align="right">120</td></tr> +<tr><td>Armed firemen</td><td align="right">1,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Infantry and cavalry militia</td><td align="right">3,400</td></tr> +<tr><td>Soldiers who had served their time but had been<br /> +kept in service</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">300</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right" +style="border-top:1px solid black;">19,760</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These troops were distributed to the proportion of three-fifths of them +in the Western Department, and the remainder divided between the Central +and Eastern Departments. They were amply armed and munitioned, although +it must be admitted that not all of their armament was of the newest +pattern. It was, however, in excellent condition and they had six +thousand of the latest model Remington rifles.<a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a></p> + +<p>At the end of the year, the Spanish troops had been augmented by large +reinforcements from the mother country, so that Spain had in the field a +thoroughly organized and abundantly equipped army of about 110,000 men, +which, of course, was capable of being greatly increased. She also had +in Cuban waters the following men of war, at the beginning of October, +1868:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>2 Steam frigates</td><td align="right">91 guns</td></tr> +<tr><td>2 2d class steamers</td><td align="right">12 guns</td></tr> +<tr><td>5 3d class steamers</td><td align="right">10 guns</td></tr> +<tr><td>5 screw steamers, schooner rigged</td><td align="right">15 guns</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td +style="border-top:1px solid black;" align="right">128 guns</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Of course, she at once added to this navy, and it soon grew to +formidable proportions, while the revolutionists had no navy at all, +with which to repel Spanish attacks from the sea.</p> + +<p>Despite the great preponderance of forces in its favor, the Spanish +government did not at first depend upon military prowess for the +suppression of the insurrection and the retention of Cuba as its colony. +This was perhaps, in a measure, because of the revolution in Spain, +which was keeping the Government well occupied with its internal +affairs, and also because of the desire of some of the liberal leaders +in Spain to avoid endless strife and bloodshed. Therefore at first, +pacific measures were contemplated. It had been thought that General +Dulce, as Captain-General of the Island for his third term, would be +able to effect a compromise with the Cubans, because of his kindly +disposition, and the good feeling which prevailed between him and the +Cubans. His good offices were greatly hampered and off-set by the +arrogance of the Volunteers, who did not<a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a> hold him in high regard, since +they thought him much too gentle with the Cubans, and who were not in +sympathy with his mediations. Perhaps the flame of revolution had now +grown too hot to be quenched by soothing measures. At any rate, the hope +of the Spanish Government proved delusive. On the one hand, the patriot +leaders were outspoken in their unwillingness to accept Dulce's +proposals of an amicable settlement, based on compromise; and on the +other, the Volunteers frankly opposed making any concessions to the +Islanders, and directed all their influence against every measure which +Dulce offered as a solution. In this they had the ulterior motive of +driving Dulce from office, so that there might be placed in his position +a more arbitrary and ruthless man, one of their own kidney.</p> + +<p>In reviewing the state of affairs in Cuba at this early stage of the Ten +Years' War, and comparing the strength and composition of the contending +forces, it should be borne in mind that the Cuban army in the field was +a mere fragment of the potential strength of the Cuban people. There +were probably 150,000 Cubans, able bodied and of military age, who were +both willing and eager to enter the war, but who were restrained from so +doing for fear of what would befall their families if they identified +themselves openly with the patriot cause. If they left their homes to +take the field, their wives and children would be at the mercy of +Spanish troops or of the still more to be dreaded and pitiless +Volunteers. If we add to this the not unnatural doubt of the possibility +of succeeding in the revolt against the formidable power of Peninsular +Spain—a doubt fostered and confirmed by the failure of the former +attempts—we cannot blame the Cubans for not more generally +participating in active operations. Their absentation from so doing is +to be<a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a> charged not, certainly, to cowardice or to lack of patriotism, +but to an excess of prudence.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances, the numerical odds were at the beginning, and +remained all through the war, tremendously against the Cubans. Besides +this their army in a large measure, particularly at the beginning, +consisted of men who had had no experience in warlike manoeuvres, and +who lacked military drilling, for while preparations for uprisings had +been as constant as had been the uprisings themselves, naturally the +revolutionists, when their revolt was in an incipient stage, did not +wish to call attention to what they were planning by putting their +sympathizers through military tactics. The Cuban Army also lacked a +tremendous stabilizer of morale, in not being properly uniformed, but +rather presenting a motley appearance on the field. In fact there were +many times when they were so hard put that they were not only +inadequately clothed, but suffered for lack of food. The fact that they +were able so frequently to defeat the highly trained and well equipped +Spanish forces, and to hold their ground as successfully, as they did +year after year, is the highest possible tribute to their valor, their +intelligence in military matters, and their patriotic devotion.</p> + +<p>The earliest engagements between the opposing forces occurred on October +13, 1868, at three places, not widely separated; Yara, Bairi and +Jiguani; in all of which the Cuban patriots were successful. The last of +the three named was considered by the patriots to be an extremely +important victory, and was accomplished by troops under the command of +General Donato Marmol. Heartened by this good fortune, the patriots on +October 15 laid siege to Bayamo, and three days later effected its +capture; whereupon that place was made the temporary seat of<a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a> the Cuban +Government. These victories were all the more creditable and encouraging +because, we must remember, while the Spanish Army numbered many +thousands—scattered it is true in various parts of the Island—the +Cuban Army was only one-fourth as large and poorly armed and equipped. +At all times during the first engagements, the patriots were +outnumbered, but they made up in courage what they lacked in numbers, +and their enthusiasm and zeal for the cause for which they were fighting +carried them safely against tremendous odds.</p> + +<p>Late in October—on the 26th to be exact—the patriots attacked the +Spanish troops at Las Tunas, and also at Villa del Cobre at the foot of +Monte Alta Garcia, between Puerto Principe and Nuevitas, and at Moran. +In all these engagements the Cubans were greatly hampered by the serious +lack of arms and munitions, but if they were not entirely successful +they were far from routed, they lost little ground, and maintained very +complete control over those portions of the Central and Eastern +Departments which were in sympathy with them.</p> + +<p>By the early part of November, 1868, the Cubans had thoroughly beaten +the troops under the command of the Spanish Colonel Demetrio Quiros, and +forced him to retreat, and were thus enabled to advance into the very +suburbs of Santiago de Cuba, the ancient capital of the Island, and at +this time the capital of the Eastern Department. They promptly cut the +aqueduct which supplied that city with water, and thereby caused not +only great discomfort but something resembling panic among the +inhabitants. The patriots were naturally reluctant to resort to such +measures, because of the suffering which it caused to their own friends +and sympathizers; yet if the Spanish garrison in Santiago was to be +brought to<a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a> terms, any strategic advantage which the Cubans could +acquire must be used to the utmost.</p> + +<p>The third week in November found them in possession of the towns of El +Caney and El Cobre; the latter famous as the site of the first copper +mines opened in Cuba, and the former as the scene of one of the sharpest +engagements of the United States war with Spain in 1898. The patriots +kept control of these two places for several weeks, and then deeming it +inexpedient to undertake any further operations against Santiago, which +was not only garrisoned by the Spanish Army but also protected by the +Spanish fleet, they withdrew their forces to the defense of Bayamo, +which was now being seriously threatened by the troops of Count +Valmaseda, reenforced by those under Colonel Lono, who had come thither +from Manati, under Colonel Campillo from Manzanillo, Colonel Mana from +Puerto Principe, and Colonel Quiro, who had hastened to Bayamo from +Santiago. With all these Spanish troops, well armed and abundantly +supplied with ammunition concentering upon the place, President Cespedes +realized that it would be impolitic to attempt to resist a siege. After +consultation with his associates, the result of which was a unanimous +decision, he set fire to the city and withdrew his troops. In +consequence, when Valmaseda arrived a little later, he found nothing +left of Bayamo but ruins.</p> + +<p>This loss of their temporary capital did not perceptibly weaken the +Cuban position; indeed the patriot cause steadily grew in strength and +numbers. The entire jurisdiction of Holguin revolted against Spanish +authority, on October 28, and the inhabitants, in large numbers, rushed +to take up arms with the patriots. A week later Camaguey followed the +example of Holguin. The Spanish government both at home and in Cuba was +in the<a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a> position of a man sitting on a couch under which had been stored +a quantity of bombs, all timed to go off at irregular intervals, and +from which position there was no escape. They did not know which way to +jump. The high officials in both countries lived in an uncertainty as to +events in Cuba which must have been nerve racking. Indeed—to mix our +metaphors—they never knew where the fever of revolutions was scheduled +to break out next. If they succeeded in getting it under control in one +place, and began to feel a bit secure against an epidemic, the next +morning they found what to them seemed a new eruption, and one which +they had not been able to anticipate. They conquered, or apparently +subdued, the patriots in one portion of the Island, and immediately +those in another burst forth into active opposition to what the Spanish +government would have termed law and order, but which the insurgents +called by the less pleasant terms of cruelty and unjust oppressions. And +occasionally, as we have seen, there glimmered in some Spanish +intelligence a faint doubt as to the efficacy of their usual methods, +and then for a very short time the authorities would try temporizing. +But the patriots had not suffered for generations from Spanish misrule +without having learned to mistrust the wiles of their oppressors, and +they viewed with more or less cynicism any surface indications of a less +tyrannous rule.</p> + +<p>With the revolts of Camaguey and Holguin, the Spanish authorities came +to the conclusion that it was about time to try temporizing, and to +endeavor in some way to pacify the patriots. It may be that they would +have actually made concessions—we have it from one authority that they +were willing at this time to grant almost anything but the one thing +which was the single desire of the patriots. At any rate, on January 19, +1869, they<a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a> made a formal proposal for a meeting between representatives +of the belligerents for the discussion of the issues between them, and +for a serious attempt to effect a compromise. President Cespedes felt +that the time for compromise had passed, long years before. The die had +been cast. The revolution had one aim, complete freedom, and that was +above all things the one concession which the Spaniards would not make. +But he was too clever not to realize that after all something might be +gained by compliance, if no more than a chance to feel out the mettle +and present designs of the Spaniards. It was possible that if he sent a +clever enough envoy he might learn much that would be to his advantage +in future negotiations. He was under no obligation to consent to or even +to consider seriously any terms which the Spaniards might offer, so that +he had nothing to lose by such a proceeding, and it was barely possible +that he might gain valuable information.</p> + +<p>So he assented to the proposal, and sent his representative, Augustin +Arango, to Puerto Principe, under safe conduct issued by the Spanish +Government at Manzanillo. It is probable that the safe conduct would +have been respected by the Spanish authorities and Spanish troops. But +unfortunately, not only for the innocent envoy, and for the patriots, +but also for any hope that the Spaniards may have entertained—if indeed +their offer had been made in good faith, and there is always a measure +of doubt, in the face of their usual trickery—of an amicable +understanding, Arango fell into the hands of the Volunteers, who, in +quite characteristic manner, contemptuously disregarded the credentials +of their own government, and cruelly and brutally murdered General +Cespedes's messenger, immediately upon his entrance into Puerto +Principe.<a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a></p> + +<p>It is not difficult to picture the rage and disgust of the patriots at +this new example of Spanish perfidy, which so clearly demonstrated the +futility of attempting any negotiations of any kind whatever with an +enemy capable of such lack of honor. The death of Arango, therefore, put +an end to the farce of Spanish pretended repentance. And this +circumstance did not pass without the news being spread all over the +island. Patriots who had been timidly balancing themselves in outward +neutrality, were so aroused with indignation that they began boldly to +plunge into the maelstrom of civil war. On February 9, 1869, the entire +district of Las Tunas revolted and cast its lot with the insurgents. +Each new act of injustice emanating from the Spaniards was like removing +the supports of a dam behind which had been restrained the waters of +patriotism. The Spaniards had killed one Cuban patriot in cold blood; +the cause of revolutions had gained thousands, each fired with +enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>Thus far General Quesada had been waging an almost exclusively irregular +or guerrilla warfare. This was because of the smallness of his army, the +lack of arms and equipment, and the unfamiliarity of his men with +military tactics. Indeed, such methods of warfare were in a large +measure continued throughout the entire Ten Years' War. But by the time +of which we now write he was able on some occasions and at some places +to array his troops in orderly fashion and to conduct his campaign in +much the same manner as the Spaniards themselves. Thus, he was able to +carry on regular siege operations against Colonel Mena, and his garrison +of three thousand Spaniards, at Puerto Principe. Colonel Prieto with +several thousand Cubans busied himself with cutting the railroad lines +which the Spanish authorities had constructed<a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a> for strategic purposes, +and destroying communications between Villa Clara and Cienfuegos. A +strong Spanish force was sent against him, and a serious engagement +occurred at San Cristobal, where the patriots were entirely successful. +The Spanish troops retreated to Guanajay, a short distance from Havana, +closely pursued by the patriots, and when forced to give battle, the +Spaniards were once more put to rout, with heavy losses.</p> + +<p>Havana was now practically in a state of siege, with a patriot army in +possession of Guanajay, and small bands constantly harassing the Spanish +troops at different points in the vicinity of the city. The Spanish +Captain-General, Dulce, was still nursing the idea that some sort of an +agreement might be reached, and at least a truce declared, and he +therefore refused to officially declare the besieged condition of the +city, and endeavored to placate the patriots by leniency toward the +sympathizers in the city, and a conciliatory attitude toward the +revolutionists. However, his efforts had little effect on the Cubans. +Their forces pressed forward against Santiago de Cuba, and disaster for +the Spanish garrison at that city was only averted by the timely arrival +of Count Valmaseda with reinforcements. Las Tunas was still in the hands +of the revolutionists, who were divided into small parties and were +conducting a guerrilla warfare throughout practically the entire Island, +attacking whenever it seemed to be to their advantage, and dispersing +when the forces sent against them were sufficiently large to give the +odds to the Government. Trinidad was practically segregated from the +outside world so far as communications by land were concerned. The +patriots had stopped the mail service, and had cut the telegraph wires. +The city was in a turmoil of fear and apprehension, sending requests<a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a> +for aid whenever they could get word through, which was not frequently, +since the patriots took a cynical delight in having so far turned the +tables on their oppressors, and in detaining and making prisoners the +couriers who tried to reach the Spanish lines with news of Trinidad's +predicament.</p> + +<p>The patriots did not confine their efforts to any part of the Island, +although the major part of them were east of Havana, and only that small +stretch of territory embracing the province of Pinar del Rio was +comparatively free from trouble. The insurgents were insufficiently +provisioned, and so they resorted to pillage. This was particularly true +of the bands in the vicinity of Nuevitas, where attacks were constantly +being made on the plantations, and the farmers lived in a state of +alarm, never knowing when a patriot band might descend upon them +demanding food for the present and for the future, and proceeding to +take it by force, if necessary. Frequently those who were not in favor +of the cause of liberty extended a frightened hospitality, rather than +to excite the wrath of their hungry visitors, and resorted to treachery +to carry the news of the marauders to some nearby Spanish camp, only to +have the rescuing forces chagrined to find, when they arrived, that the +birds were not "in the hand," but had been fed, and had fled with their +booty. Nuevitas was well garrisoned, and therefore the patriots confined +their operations to a region sufficiently remote from the outskirts of +the town, so that reprisals would be slow and difficult.</p> + +<p>The Cubans were strongly entrenched at San Miguel, where, on February 7, +they were attacked by the Spaniards. When other means failed, the +Spanish forces tried to "smoke out" the insurgents by burning the city, +but<a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a> while this dislodged them from the city itself, it failed to drive +them from the vicinity, where they took up an advantageous position and +held it against assault.</p> + +<p>Puerto Principe was surrounded; the aqueduct was cut, and food was +scarce and growing scarcer. The inhabitants clamored for succor, when +starvation seemed imminent. Their cries for aid became too insistent to +be disregarded, and therefore a body of troops was dispatched from +Santiago de Cuba toward Jiguani, whither the main body of the Spanish +troops under Count Valmaseda, had retired. The patriots were apprised of +this manoeuvre, and the Spanish troops were constantly harassed by bands +of Cubans, and it was only after several severe engagements, and +considerable losses, that they succeeded in joining Valmaseda at +Jiguani.</p> + +<p>In the sort of warfare which they were now waging, the advantages were +all with the revolutionists. They were thoroughly acquainted with the +country, and knew well how to take advantage of its natural defenses, +while the Spanish forces, especially those imported from Spain for the +purpose of putting down the rebellion, lacked such knowledge, and in +strategy were always at a disadvantage. The Cuban leaders were not only +exceedingly clever in their manoeuvres, but they seemed to have a sense +of humor, and to take a grim delight in fooling the Spanish commanders, +and luring them on a fool's errand. The patriots, whenever the tide of +battle went against them, retreated to fastnesses in the interior, well +known to them, and uncharted by the enemy, from whence they would sally +forth, when opportunity presented, harass the Spaniards, and again +retire to their lair, whither the enemy feared to follow them, lest they +might fall into a trap.</p> + +<p>The Cubans had a particularly annoying practice of<a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a> spreading reports +that a large revolutionary force had assembled in a certain place, and +enticing the Spaniards to that location, when the latter would only +discover, to their chagrin, that the report had been "grossly +exaggerated," and that in reality there was only a handful of men +instead of the large number which they expected; and to this would be +added the further annoyance of having the little body of Cubans melt as +if by magic in retreat to some position unknown to the Spanish or +practically impenetrable by them, with their lack of information as to +its potentialities, and their fear that it might prove their undoing. If +this were not sufficiently annoying, the Cubans had a habit of sending +out anonymous and misleading information, to the effect that an attack +on the Cubans at a particular point would have felicitous results for +the Spaniards, since it was believed that that position was inadequately +defended, and upon acting on this information, the Spaniards would be +baffled by discovering that the supposed forces, if indeed there had +been any previously present, had long since departed, leaving the place +deserted. Again and again the Spaniards were thus decoyed and beguiled, +and yet they continued to act on the misleading advices, because failure +to do so might lose them a real victory, should one message out of the +many really prove reliable.</p> + +<p>Thus were the patriots learning to match Spanish cunning with a new, +peculiar and ironic brand of their own, and were turning the tables on +the tormentors who had for so many years mistreated them and laughed at +their protests. It will be recalled that Bayamo had been burned by the +revolutionists, when it seemed apparent that their capital city was +about to fall in to the hands of the Spaniards, or at least, when it +seemed the part of prudence to surrender it. In spite of the fact that +this meant<a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a> that the inhabitants would be rendered homeless, so strong +was the patriotic feeling in that city, that the destruction was done +with the consent of the populace. A thousand of these people now fell +into the hands of the Spaniards, and on February 14 were taken to +Manzanillo. The next day long expected reinforcements arrived from +Spain. They were small in number, it is true, only a thousand strong, +but conditions in Spain made it difficult for her to spare large numbers +of troops, and this was most fortunate for the cause of freedom, for +thus Spain was unable to send to Cuba a sufficient number of drilled +soldiers to offset the advantage which the little Cuban army had in its +acquaintance with the geography of the Island, and the physical +possibilities which it afforded for scattered and sporadic attacks in +unexpected quarters.</p> + +<p>Captain-General Dulce, alarmed at the conditions which existed, and at +the failure of the Spanish army to subdue the revolution, and +undoubtedly spurred on by the Volunteers, who had no patience with his +conciliatory methods, changed his policy, and issued a proclamation, +thoroughly muzzling the press, to avoid the spreading of the news of the +extent of the revolution and the success of the revolutionists, and thus +endeavored to stem the influx of recruits into the Cuban Army. He also +established a military court martial, which planned to deal summarily +with the leaders of the revolution should any fall into their hands. +Next he proclaimed the expiration of the amnesty previously granted, +while he—true to type—softened this decree, probably as a bit of +insidious strategy, by offering to pardon all insurgents who would +surrender themselves, excluding the leaders, and those who had been +convicted—unrepresented at the trials, of course—of the crimes of +murder, arson and robbery.<a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a> The underlying thought of this proclamation +probably was that the rank and file of the insurgents might surrender +and deliver their leaders into his hands for punishment. This was +accompanied by a demand upon the citizens of Havana for the sum of +$25,000,000 to support the government, and to aid it in carrying on its +campaign against the revolutionists.</p> + +<p>He only too well knew that the sympathy of the people of the United +States, if not the secret sympathy of the government at Washington, was +with the Cubans, and not only Dulce himself but indeed all the leaders +of the Spanish cause lived in constant fear of private aid to the +insurgents from the United States, if not of possible governmental +intervention in their behalf. They well knew also that the Americans who +had made their homes on the Island, and who were deeply interested in +its commercial salvation, were all sympathizers in the cause of the +revolution, and felt that only through freedom from Spanish rule and a +resumption of peace could they hope to retrieve the fortunes which they +had invested, and now apparently sunk, in Cuban business ventures. That +these Americans, despite the censorship, were in communication with +their friends in their own country Dulce did not doubt, and that they +would urge the sending of relief to Cuba he felt certain. He therefore +applied to the United States Consul at Havana for the names of all +American residents of Cuba, that he might keep them under surveillance, +check up their movements, and act, if necessary, to prevent them from +either personally, or through their influence in the United States, +lending any material aid to the revolutionists.</p> + +<p>In spite of the Captain-General's precautions, his fears were realized. +Aid did reach the revolutionists from the United States, in the shape of +guns and ammunition,<a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a> accompanied by American sympathizers, who in some +fashion ran the gauntlet of the Spanish navy in Cuban waters. The Cuban +Army advanced against La Guanaja, wrested it from the Spaniards, and +proceeded to fortify it with American guns, manned by American gunners. +The town was believed by both of the belligerents to be impervious to +attack from the land, and the Spanish commanders therefore dispatched a +naval force to conquer it from the sea. The bombardment which ensued +dashed the hopes of the revolutionists, so far as the effectiveness of +their fortifications were concerned, as against a naval attack. The +Spanish shells wrought great damage, and when they had reduced the +defenses, a landing was made and the town was retaken by assault. The +Cubans were therefore forced to beat a hurried retreat to the +surrounding country, and the Spaniards were left in complete control of +the city. Now they had a decided advantage, for from this vantage-point +they were able to send aid to Puerto Principe, and, on February 23, two +battalions were hurried thither. Meanwhile, General Lesca, who had been +stationed at La Guanaja, set out to attack the Cuban Army at Colonia de +Santo Domingo and in this expedition he was reinforced by the troops +under General Puello. The Spanish army in this encounter greatly +outnumbered the patriots but the latter fought with the courage of +desperation; a wholesale slaughter ensued in which both sides suffered +enormous losses; and when, worn out, the Cubans withdrew, the result +might well be termed a draw, for neither side could justly claim +victory.</p> + +<p>During the month of February, the revolutionists harassed the Spaniards +in the vicinity of Santa Cruz, but not with their usual success, the +odds being largely in favor of the latter. On February 25, a band of +revolutionists<a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a> surprised the town of La Lujas, situated only a short +distance from Cienfuegos. Before opposition could be mustered, they took +possession of the town, and with it the uniforms of the city guards, and +all the arms, ammunition and horses which they could find, and they also +burned the police archives, thus destroying any records at that place +which might later be used against individual revolutionists, in the +event of an ultimate Spanish victory.</p> + +<p>But, with it all, neither army was making any particular progress toward +a decisive victory. The balance of advantage swung first one way and +then the other. The Spanish found their well drilled troops unable to +match themselves with any degree of effectiveness against the +resourcefulness of the revolutionists, and their methods of warfare. The +attempts at mediation had failed; indeed had been thwarted by the +treacherous action within their own body—by the murder which was staged +by the Volunteers' faction. On the other hand, as yet Cuba had been able +to secure but little aid from the one country on the sympathy of the +citizens of which she might count. The United States had far from come +up to expectations in the assistance she had thus far unofficially +rendered. Perhaps this was because the authorities in that country had +no desire to embroil themselves with Spain, and kept a close watch on +the movements of suspected Cuban partisans. The Cubans were able to make +life exceedingly uncomfortable for the Spanish forces, and for Spaniard +sympathizers throughout the country, but with their present numbers and +equipment they had little hope of gaining a decision of the hostilities +in their favor. The best they could do was to keep the country in a +state of uproar, gaining what little advantage they could, and meanwhile +the inhabitants were<a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a> facing starvation, the destruction of their +holdings, the burning of their buildings, and the devastation of a +fruitful country. The constant operations of marauders, who took +advantage of the Cuban method of warfare, to pillage and steal and lay +in ruin various portions of the country, as well as the fear of attack +from the guerrillas, were driving the farmers and their families to the +protection of the cities, and thus farms were standing idle and +uncultivated, and there was bound to be an even greater food shortage. +The Government was being aided by the church, and the neutrals, +despairing of any change in conditions for the better, were, whenever +the opportunity presented itself, emigrating from the Island to regions +less tumultuous, where living conditions were not so uncertain and +dangerous.</p> + +<p>The Government was finding conditions intolerable, and decided to make a +strenuous effort to dislodge the revolutionists from their inland +strongholds and thus to compel them to abandon their badgering methods, +and to come forth into the open and give battle, well knowing that, if +this could be accomplished, the odds would all be in favor of the +Spaniards. Therefore, a special company of Volunteers was assembled, +with fresh reinforcements direct from Spain, and they were sent into the +fastnesses of the interior, in a strong endeavor to drive out the +Cubans. Simultaneously General Letona conducted a vigorous campaign in +relief of Cienfuegos, and General Puello organized small parties which +were sent out on marauding expeditions. But the principal result of +these efforts was to throw the Island into a still greater state of +excitement, and to encourage robbers and bandits, who, taking advantage +of the consequent uproar, seized the favorable opportunity for pillage. +Thus their devastation was added to the troubles of the already much +tried<a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a> farmers in Cuba. The country around Holguin and Gibara was in a +state beyond description, and the life of every citizen, no matter what +his sympathies, was in constant danger.</p> + +<p>Then a very serious battle took place between the forces under General +Lesca, and an army of four thousand Cubans. The Spaniards were advancing +from La Guanaja to the succor of Puerto Principe, when the two forces +met. The Cubans were well entrenched on the Sierra de Cubitas. They were +principally infantry, and they had the Spanish at a disadvantage. The +engagement might have ended in an utter defeat for that portion of the +Government Army, had it not been that they were well supplied with +artillery, which did effective work against the Cubans, and therefore +the Spaniards were able to escape, though with heavy losses.</p> + +<p>Early in the next month, March, 1869, the Cubans obtained—from what +source is not disclosed, but it may be that their American sympathizers +were responsible—large accessions of artillery, with a goodly supply of +ammunition, which a small body of not over a hundred men, under +Cisneros, were able to convey to Mayari, where General Quesada was +stationed with seven thousand Cubans. When we consider that heretofore +the revolutionists had been much more blessed with enthusiasm and belief +in the ultimate triumph of their just cause than they had with the +material means for accomplishing that end, it is not difficult to +picture with what new hope and confidence this much needed assistance +was received. Now more than ever they began to feel the certainty of +final success, and to be imbued with a steadfast purpose to fight to the +last ditch for the cause of freedom.<a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<p>A<small>T</small> the time of the beginning of the Cuban insurrection the United States +was undergoing one of its quadrennial political campaigns, and March 4, +1869, saw General Ulysses S. Grant inducted to the Presidency—the man +who had led the nation to victory in the Civil War and had thus +maintained the union of the United States of America; a soldier of the +highest character, and one whose sympathies were keenly enlisted in +behalf of the Cuban revolution. When this news reached the Cuban leaders +they at once addressed to him an appeal for recognition, which ran as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="nind">"To his Excellency, the President of the United States:</p> + +<p class="nind">"Sir:</p> + +<p>"The people of Cuba, by their Grand Supreme Civil Junta, and through +their General-in-Chief, Señor Cespedes, desire to submit to your +Excellency, the following among other reasons, why your Excellency, as +President of the United States, should accord to them the belligerent +rights and a recognition of their independence.</p> + +<p>"Because from the hearts of nineteen-twentieths of the inhabitants of +the island go up prayers for the success of the armies of the republic; +and from the sole and only want of arms and ammunition these patient +people are kept under the tyrannical yoke of Spain.</p> + +<p>"Because the republic has armies numbering over 70,000 men, actually in +the field and doing duty. These men are organized and governed on the +principles of civilized warfare. The prisoners whom they take—and so<a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a> +far they have taken three times as many as their enemies have taken from +them—are treated in every respect as the prisoners of war are used and +treated by the most civilized nations of the earth. In the hope of +recognition by the United States, they have never yet in a single +instance retaliated death for death, even in cases of the most provoking +nature.</p> + +<p>"Because the Spanish authorities have almost invariably brutally +murdered the soldiers of the armies of the republic who have surrendered +to them, and have recently issued an official order requiring their +military forces hereafter instantly to kill and murder any prisoner of +the republic who surrenders. This is due, the order cheerfully tells us, +to save trouble and vexation to the Spanish civil authorities. This is +an outrage the civilized nations of the earth ought not to allow.</p> + +<p>"Because the United States is the nearest civilized nation to Cuba, +whose political institutions strike a responsive chord in the hearts of +all Cubans. The commercial and financial interests of the two peoples +being largely identical and reciprocal in their natures, Cuba earnestly +appeals for the unquestionable right of recognition.</p> + +<p>"Because the arms and authority of the Republic of Cuba now extend over +two-thirds of the entire geographical area of the island, embracing a +very great majority of the population in every part of the island.</p> + +<p>"Because she has a navy in course of construction which will excel in +point of numbers and efficiency that heretofore maintained by the +Spanish authorities in these waters.</p> + +<p>"Because these facts plainly show to the world that this is not a +movement of a few discontents, but the grand and sublime uprising of a +people thirsty for liberty and determined with this last effort to +secure to themselves and<a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a> their posterity those unquestioned +rights—liberty of conscience and freedom of the individual.</p> + +<p>"Finally, because she is following but in the footsteps of Spain herself +in endeavoring to banish tyrannical rulers, and in their stead place +rulers of her own choice, the people of Cuba having a tenfold more +absolute and potent right than Spain had, because Cuba's rulers are sent +without her voice or consent by a foreign country, accompanied by and +with swarms of officials to fill the various offices created only for +their individual comfort, drawing their maintenance and support from the +hard earnings of the natives of the soil.</p> + +<p>"Allow us to add, with the greatest diffidence and sensitiveness, that +the difference between the rebellion in the United States and the +present revolution in Cuba is simply that in the former a small minority +rebelled against laws which they had a voice in making, and the +privilege of repealing; while in the case of Cuba, we are resisting a +foreign power in crushing us to the earth, as they have done for +centuries, with no appeal but that of arms open to us, and appointing +without knowledge, voice, advice or consent, tyrannical citizens of +their own country to rule us and eat our substance.</p> + + <p class="r">"Patria y Libertad! <br /> + "Approved by the Supreme Junta and ordered approved<br /> + By S<small>EÑOR</small> G<small>ENERAL</small> C<small>ESPEDES</small>, <br /> + Commander in Chief Republican Forces in Cuba.<br /> + Headquarters in the Field, March 1, 1869."</p> +</div> + +<p>President Grant was strongly inclined to grant this petition, and in +this he was upheld by his most trusted friend and advisor, General +Rawlins. In consequence, he prepared on August 19, 1869, a proclamation +by which he recognized the insurgents as belligerents, the result of +which would have been to legalize the shipment of arms<a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a> to them. +Unfortunately for the Cuban cause, though doubtless fortunately for the +United States, there was at the head of the State Department of the +United States a man of cooler judgment than General Grant, and one whose +emotions of pity were not so easily moved. This was the Secretary of +State, Hamilton Fish. Before Grant's proclamation could become +effective, it was necessary for the Secretary of State to sign, seal and +publish it, and this Mr. Fish refused to do. He felt that to do so would +constitute a grave error in diplomacy, and one which might have +far-reaching detrimental effects for the United States. It was his +judgment that the President had been betrayed by his sympathies, and he +felt it incumbent upon himself, as chief of the Department of State, to +restrain him from making a bad mistake. There was to be taken into +consideration the fact that the United States, in the war so recently +fought for the maintenance of the Union, had made vigorous protests +against the recognition of the Confederacy by foreign powers, and +Secretary Fish felt that the proclamation in favor of the Cuban +revolutionary government would stultify the course of the United States +government in that matter. Indeed, in sound judgment, it was impossible +to deny that the Confederates of the South were more justly entitled to +recognition, under all the circumstances of both cases, than were the +Cuban revolutionists. Fish felt that the condition in Cuba, at that +time, at any rate, did not merit the official recognition of the United +States government, and he was not backward in conveying his conviction +to General Grant. Then he simply pigeon-holed the proclamation and let +it die a natural death in musty obscurity. Upon second thought, General +Grant saw the soundness of Fish's conclusions, and not only did not +register a protest, but took occasion some months later to thank Fish<a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a> +for his intervention, and the suppression of the proclamation.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 222px;"> +<a href="images/ill_204pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_204pg_sml.png" width="222" height="304" alt="MIGUEL DE ALDAMA" title="MIGUEL DE ALDAMA" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">MIGUEL DE ALDAMA</p> + +<p>A man of letters and of great wealth and social leadership, Miguel +de Aldama was a native of Havana and one of the foremost citizens +of that capital when the Ten Years' War began. He at once placed +his fortune and himself at the disposal of his country, and was +appointed by President Cespedes to be Agent of the Cuban Republic +in New York. To that place he was reappointed by President Cisneros +Betancourt. He served in that capacity throughout the war, to the +great advantage of the patriot cause.</p></div> + +<p>Meanwhile, reports of the cruelties of Spanish soldiers began to +penetrate the ears of American citizens. It was reported, and pretty +well authenticated, that disgusting atrocities were the order of the +day, when the Spanish troops found in their path anyone, male or female, +who was not in a position to resist them. There were stories of the +raping of little children before the eyes of their mothers, and of +mothers in the presence of their children, of the crucifixion, and +hanging by the thumbs of old men, and even of able bodied persons, who +happened to fall defenseless into the hands of the Spaniards. Tales of +barbarity to prisoners, even to the extent of roasting them alive, fired +the rage of justice-loving American citizens, and again touched the kind +heart of their President. To these reports were added others, less +revolting, but touching the commercial sense of the nation. American +property in Cuba was being destroyed, and American citizens were being +molested and restrained from the peaceful pursuit of their business. +American commerce was impeded and losses were suffered. It was recalled +that Spain had been prompt to recognize the Confederacy as a<a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a> +belligerent power, and it seemed but the irony of justice, and a fair +sort of retaliation, that now the United States should give recognition +to those who were rebelling against Spain's misrule. But Fish was deaf +to all pleas in behalf of the Cubans, and resolutely blocked all +attempts to secure recognition for them. He argued and pleaded with the +President with such eloquence that presently he seemed to have him +convinced that the cause of freedom in Cuba was not yet worthy of the +recognition of the United States. In consequence, in his annual message, +in December, 1869, President Grant, less than four months after his +unpublished proclamation of recognition, declared that "the contest has +at no time assumed the conditions which amount to a war in the sense of +international war, or which would show the existence of a political +organization of the insurgents sufficient to justify a recognition of +belligerency." He added that "the principle is to be maintained, +however, that this nation is its own judge when to accord the rights of +belligerency either to a people struggling to free themselves from a +government they believed to be oppressive, or to independent nations at +war with each other."</p> + +<p>It is needless to say that this position was a great disappointment to +the Cubans, and seemed to them utterly at variance with what they might +have expected from a nation so lately torn by Civil War, and which had +shown such keen individual sympathies with the cause of the freedom of +Cuba. However, from that time on, the United States, officially, at +least, showed the greatest patience—a patience which seemed almost +unbelievably enduring—toward the hardships which the Spanish +authorities put upon innocent Americans, and was indefatigably zealous +in its efforts to prevent violations of neutrality on the part of +sympathetic United States<a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a> citizens. That there was some bitterness in +the hearts of the Cuban leaders, who felt they had a right to expect the +support of their sister republic, and a country which had against such +odds won her own independence, it is easy to believe, and there were +many who felt that this was a righteous indignation.</p> + +<p>But during the months in which the Secretary of State and the somewhat +unwilling President of the United States were shaping this policy, the +war in Cuba was continuously waged. On March 7, 1869, a few days after +the Cubans addressed their petition to the United States government, the +Spanish attacked a strong Cuban position at Macaca, and were successful +in ousting the revolutionists. This disheartening occurrence was +followed by defeats for the Cubans, first at Mayari, where Spanish +forces under General Valcosta were victorious over a small army of which +General Cespedes was in command—General Cespedes, however, effecting a +withdrawal with safety to his own person and a part of his +supporters—and again at Jiguani, where it was the Cubans who made the +attack upon a Spanish force under General Valmaseda, only to meet defeat +at the hands of the Spaniards, and to be forced to flee in disorder to +their mountain fastnesses.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile reinforcements came from Spain; this time as before, not a +large number, being only about twelve hundred men, but enough materially +to aid the governmental army, and to strengthen its morale. The +Captain-General also endeavored to win the hearts of the timid by +issuing a proclamation which declared important concessions in tax +regulations. A fifty per cent reduction was made in the direct taxation +on plantations, on cattle and on country real estate, as well as in +those taxes only recently levied on merchants and tradesmen. As a<a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a> +crowning concession the taxes due for the last quarter of the year +1868-1869 were nullified. But it was apparently impossible for Spain to +make concessions without accompanying them with demands of some sort to +offset her seeming generosity. Therefore the Captain-General took +occasion to levy some new duties: On muscovado sugar, if shipped under +the flag of Spain, a tax of 16¢ a hundred weight, while shipment under a +foreign flag called for an additional 4¢ duty; on boxed sugar shipped +under the Spanish flag, a tax of 75¢ a box, while if under a foreign +flag, 12¢ additional; on every hogshead of sugar shipped under the flag +of Spain a tax of $1, and if under a foreign flag, 75¢ additional; a tax +on molasses of 50¢ a hogshead, and on rum of $1 for an equal quantity.</p> + +<p>It will be recalled that the Cuban patriots had by their proclamation of +December 27, 1868, granted freedom to all slaves on the island. They now +began a campaign to enforce this decree by removing, from all +plantations of which their armies were able to take possession, the +slaves for service in the Cuban army, and to make their liberation +doubly sure, burning the buildings, and laying waste to the crops. In +the districts around Sagua and Remedios there were nine thousand +insurgents engaged in this work. This action it would be hard to excuse, +if there were not taken into consideration the fact that the Cubans had +endured such grievous wrongs at the hands of the Spaniards that they +would have been much less than human if they had not had some desire to +retaliate; and, after all, the retaliation which spoke most forcefully +to the Spaniard was that which attacked his worldly goods and his +pocketbook.</p> + +<p>But to offset these actions, the Spanish at the same time proved +themselves victorious in several engagements. On March 18, at Alvarez, +they defeated the Cuban forces;<a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a> at about the same time, at Guaracabuya, +they won another victory, with Cuban losses numbering one hundred and +thirty-six killed outright; and two thousand Cubans, under Generals +Morales and Villamil, were routed by the Spaniards at Potrerillo. In +this last affair the patriots suffered severe losses; three hundred +wounded, two hundred and five killed, and twenty-one taken prisoners, +together with many horses killed or captured. They were also obliged to +retreat in such haste that they had to abandon a considerable quantity +of ammunition, which was seized by the enemy. It is only necessary to +add that the Spanish lost but one officer, one private and one of their +number taken prisoner, to demonstrate the disheartening nature of the +encounter. But the Cubans were, as has been stated, drafting large +quantities of slaves into their army, and this victory for the Spaniards +was a signal proof that the slaves were not good material for soldiers. +Besides this, the patriots who took part in this engagement suffered +severely a lack of proper equipment.</p> + +<p>The tide seemed to be turning against the Cubans, and in the days that +followed they were to face still further losses. The quality of the +recruits which were being added to the patriot army did not increase its +valor, skill or morale. They lacked guns, and those which they had were +of antiquated pattern; there was a woeful scarcity of larger arms and +ammunition, and the troops were weary and poorly fed. Against that +portion of the Cuban army stationed in the Villa Clara district the +Spanish now began to concentrate a large army, pouring troops into that +district until they were ten thousand strong. The Cubans were +outnumbered, and lacked the weapons of warfare, they had been +outmanoeuvred, and suffered tremendous losses, and yet another crushing +defeat lay before<a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a> them, for on March 20, two thousand Cubans who were, +as they fondly believed, strongly entrenched at Placitas, were put to +flight by a small body of Spanish troops, highly skilled and well armed +it is true, but numbering only three hundred regulars and a small +company of the much feared Volunteers.</p> + +<p>Emboldened by these successes, the Captain-General again shifted his +position, and issued an order, to be made the excuse for an outrage +against American shipping, which was severely to tax the friendliness of +international relations. The Spanish government was ever haunted by the +bugbear of American intervention, and doubtless the decree in question +was issued as a preventive against such action, for the Spanish well +knew that should such intervention once take place their cause would be +irrevocably lost, and with it their dominion over Cuba. The decree +provided for the confiscation on the high seas of any and all vessels +carrying either men, arms or ammunition or all three, or indeed anything +which might be construed as intended for material aid to the +revolutionists, and further provided that "all persons captured on such +vessels without regard to their number will be immediately executed." +Viewed in the calm light of history this decree would seem bound, if +enforced, to be almost suicidal to the Spanish interests, being in +opposition to law and justice, and in express violation of existing +treaty obligations between Spain and the United States, and thus bound +to bring a storm of protest from the United States government.</p> + +<p>As if this were not enough, Dulce followed this action by another +decree, promulgated on April 1, which prohibited the transfer of +property, except by the direct consent of the government, and this +prohibition included the sale of produce of all sorts, stocks, shares in +mercantile<a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a> projects, and real estate, together with many minor +provisions; while by a third decree, which shortly followed, he ordered +the confiscation of the estates of American citizens who were suspected +of sympathy or complicity with the revolutionists. Naturally, the United +States government made a strong protest against such summary action, +rightly declaring it to be in violation of the provisions of the treaty +of 1795.</p> + +<p>The Cuban troops now began a more or less concentrated attack on +Trinidad, and to relieve the pressure at this point, the Spanish sent a +large force toward Puerto Principe, hoping to weaken the Cuban army at +the former place, because of the necessity of withdrawing men to combat +the Spanish army at the latter. The Spanish government also sought to +offset the damage and destruction done by the insurgents to property of +loyalists by issuing a decree proclaiming their intention to confiscate +the property of all individuals who were absent from home without a +governmental excuse—which would of course include all landowners who +were fighting in the Cuban army—and providing for a detail of men to +protect against the revolutionists every estate thus taken.</p> + +<p>On April 17 battle was again joined by the Cubans under Colonel +Francisco Rubalcava and a Spanish force under the combined leadership of +Generals Letona, Escalante and Lesca. The fighting which ensued taxed +the Cuban resources to the utmost. All day long the battle raged, and +when both sides were worn out with combat, the result was not decisive +for either army, while one hundred and eighty Spanish troops and two +hundred Cubans lay dead under the stars.</p> + +<p>For nearly two weeks thereafter there was a period of quiet and +recuperation on the part of the Cubans, with the exception of a number +of minor skirmishes, but on May<a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a> 3 the belligerents again met in battle +at Las Minas, when twelve hundred Spaniards, under the command of +General Lesca, and a large Cuban force under General Quesada, fought in +the most violent of hand to hand conflicts. Frightful butchery ensued, +for this time victory again returned to the Cuban standards, and the +Spanish were forced to retreat in disorder, leaving behind them one +hundred and sixty killed and three hundred wounded, while the Cuban +losses were two hundred killed and an equal number wounded.</p> + +<p>To add to the rejoicing over this victory, small as it was, a few days +previous the Cubans had had a practical demonstration of the sympathy of +United States citizens for their cause, and of the ability of those +citizens to evade the drastic provisions of the government against any +display of that feeling. On May 1 there arrived at Mayari a body of +three hundred Americans, under the leadership of General Thomas Jordan, +a tried veteran of the Civil War, in which he had been an officer in the +Confederate Army. He was an experienced soldier, who had had a fine +military training and had been graduated from West Point. This in itself +might have been quite enough to put new heart into the Cuban leaders, +but General Jordan had brought with him not only reinforcements but +arms, ammunition, clothing, medical supplies and food. A detailed list +of this material included four thousand long range rifles, three hundred +new pattern Remington rifles, five hundred revolvers, twelve pieces of +artillery of various sizes including twelve, twenty-four and thirty-two +pound cannon, and a large supply of ammunition for these arms. And the +relief did not stop here, for there were a thousand pairs of shoes, and +clothing for one thousand persons, two printing-presses, medical +supplies, and quantities of rice, tinned biscuits, salt meat, flour<a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a> and +salt. This meant food and arms for at least six thousand men, and there +is no wonder that there seemed to be occasion for the wildest rejoicing +on the part of those who were so manfully and against such great odds +engaged in upholding the cause of freedom in Cuba. Now the patriots +might oppose the Spanish with at least six thousand well equipped men, +and they had also acquired in the person of General Jordan an officer +whose aid in drilling raw recruits could not be overestimated.</p> + +<p>The Cubans did not get their booty to headquarters without some +opposition from the Spaniards. That was hardly to be hoped, since their +every movement was reported to the government by Spanish spies, and it +would have been impossible for an expedition like the one in question to +land without detection. But they were able to resist all attempts to +wrest their supplies from them.</p> + +<p>Around Trinidad and Cienfuegos fighting was constant. Each day saw its +skirmishes, and there were some violent engagements, all of which left +matters pretty much as they had been so far as any victory of a decisive +character for either side was concerned. The Cubans were, however, able +to disperse a body of Spanish troops which were advancing toward Las +Tunas in the hope of relieving the citizens of that place, which was +also in a state of siege. The Spaniards were bearing a quantity of +provisions for the city, and in their flight these were abandoned and +fell into the hands of the Cubans.</p> + +<p>When matters were succeeding in a manner more or less favorable to the +Spanish cause, the Volunteers were quiet and inclined to discontinue +temporarily their opposition to Dulce, but when things took a turn for +the worse he was always made the scapegoat. Hence the Volunteers were +renewing their attacks on his policies, although for the time being he +had been suffering one of his periodic<a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a> reversions to severity. This +time, the Volunteers were successful in obtaining the recall of Dulce as +Captain-General. They simply drove him out by mob force, on June 4, and +put into his place one Señor Espinar. This appointment was an arbitrary +act, which the Spanish government refused to confirm, and therefore +Espinar's political life was cut short almost at its inception, and +General Caballero de Rodas became Captain-General of the island. Now +Rodas should have been a man entirely to the liking of the Volunteers. +He had won for himself a reputation for cruelty toward the republican +insurgents in Spain while he was stationed at Cadiz, which had caused +him to be called "the butcher of Cadiz." He evidently felt it incumbent +to live up to his title, for now the Spanish troops were incited to +unspeakable cruelties.</p> + +<p>Promptly on taking office, Rodas began his career with the decree of +July 7, 1869, which he fondly hoped would prevent further aid from +reaching the revolutionists from the United States or from any other +country. The proclamation was as follows:</p> + +<p>"The custody and guardianship of the coasts of this island, of the keys +adjacent, and the waters appertaining to the territory, being of the +greatest importance, in order to suppress the insurgent bands that have +hitherto maintained themselves by outside assistance, and determined as +I am to give a vigorous impulse to the pursuit of them, and with a view +of settling the doubts entertained by our own cruisers as to the proper +interpretation of the decree promulgated by this superior political +government under dates of November 9, 1868, and February 18 and 26 and +March 24 last, I have decided to amplify and unite the aforesaid orders +and substitute for them the following, which, by virtue of the authority +vested in me by the nation, I decree:<a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a></p> + +<p>"Article I.—All parts situated between Cayo Bahia de Cadiz and Point +Maysi on the north side, and from Point Maysi to Cienfuegos on the +south, with the exception of Sagua La Grande, Caibarien, Nuevitas, +Gibara, Baracoa, Guantanamo, Santiago de Cuba, Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, +Zaza, Trinidad and Cienfuegos, where there are custom houses, will +continue closed to the import and export trade, both by foreign and +coasting vessels. Those who may attempt the entry of any closed ports, +or to open communications with their coasts, will be pursued, and, on +being captured, are to be tried as violators of the law.</p> + +<p>"Article II.—Vessels carrying gunpowder, arms and warlike stores, will +likewise be judged in accordance with the law.</p> + +<p>"Article III.—The transportation of individuals in the service of the +insurrection is by far more serious than that of contraband of war, and +will be deemed an act of decided hostility, and the vessel and crew +regarded as enemies to the state.</p> + +<p>"Article IV.—Should the individuals referred to in the foregoing +article come armed, this will be regarded, <i>de facto</i>, as proof of their +intentions, and they will be regarded as pirates, as will also be the +case with the crew of the vessel.</p> + +<p>"Article V.—In accordance with the law, vessels captured under an +unknown flag, whether armed or unarmed, will also be regarded as +pirates.</p> + +<p>"Article VI.—In free seas adjacent to those of this island, the +cruisers will limit themselves to their treatment of denounced vessels, +or those who render themselves suspicious, to the rights given in the +treaties between Spain and the United States in 1795, Great Britain in +1835, and with other nations subsequently; and if, in<a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a> the exercise of +these rights, they should encounter any vessels recognized as enemies of +the integrity of the territory, they will carry them into port for legal +investigation and judgment accordingly.</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Caballero de Rodas</span>."</p> + +<p>Of course this action was incited and backed by the Volunteers, and met +with their heartiest approval, but if either they or their mouthpiece, +Rodas, had any real idea that such a decree would act as a deterrent +against aid being sent to the Cubans, they misjudged the temper of the +friends of the revolution in America. It simply made them aware of the +necessity of increased secrecy and caution, but did not one whit curtail +their enterprises.</p> + +<p>To reinforce his action, Rodas promptly issued another decree against +the insurgents in the following contemptuous terms:</p> + +<p>"The insurrection, in its impotency, being reduced to detached bands, +perverted to the watchword of desolation and daily perpetrating crimes +that have no precedent in civilized countries, personal security and the +rights of justice, the foremost guarantees of person and property, +imperiously demand that said insurrection be hastened to its end, and +without consideration toward those who have placed themselves beyond the +pale of the law. The culprit will not be deprived of the guarantee of +just impartiality in the evidence of his crime, but without delay +admissible in normal periods, which would procrastinate or paralyze the +verdict of the law and its inexorable fulfilment.</p> + +<p>"As the guardians of the national integrity, the protection of the +upright and pacific citizen, fulfilling the duties of my office, and in +virtue of the authority conceded to me by the Government of the nation, +I hereby decree:<a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a></p> + +<p>"Article I.—The decrees promulgated by this superior political +government under date of the 12th and 13th of February last shall be +carried out with vigor.</p> + +<p>"Article II.—The crimes of premeditated incendiarism, assassination and +robbery, by armed force and contraband, shall be tried by a council of +war.</p> + +<p>"Article III.—The courts of justice will continue in the exercise of +their attributes, without prejudice, however, of having submitted to me +such cases as special circumstances may require.</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Caballero de Rodas</span>."</p> + +<p>Thus, in high-sounding phrases and treacherous hypocrisy, did the +"butcher of Cadiz" proclaim himself the guardian of persons and +property. If his pronouncements had not had too grim a significance, +they might have filled the Cuban patriots with the spirit of ironical +laughter, such a divergence was there between his character and his past +record, and the new rôle which he now announced himself as about to +play.</p> + +<p>Naturally this action did not pass unnoticed by the United States +government. On July 16, the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish, informed +the Spanish minister at Washington that Rodas's decree of July 7 +interfered with the commerce of the United States in a manner which +could only be tolerated in times of war; that the United States would +maintain her right to carry contraband in times of peace, and would +permit no interference with her vessels on the high seas, except in time +of war; that if Spain was in a state of war with Cuba it was incumbent +on her to proclaim the fact; and further adding that the United States +would regard any attempt to enforce Rodas's decree as a recognition by +Spain of the existence of a state of war in Cuba, and would govern +itself accordingly. Spain was in no position and had<a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a> no desire to +declare Cuba in a state of war. Such action would wrest from her certain +advantages which in her present ambiguous position she was prepared to +enjoy to the utmost. She at once recognized that Rodas's action was +entirely too arbitrary, and might be productive of a most embarrassing +situation, and therefore acting under instructions from the Spanish +government, he at once receded from his arrogant position and his decree +was materially modified.</p> + +<p>American commerce with Cuba had been exceedingly profitable to those +engaged in it, and, under the disturbed condition of affairs in the +island, not only did it suffer, but the commercial interests of American +residents in Cuba were badly jeopardized. General Grant still nursed his +secret good will toward the cause of the revolutionists, although the +advice of his Secretary of State had put a temporary restraint on it. It +may be that this new indignity which Spain had sought to impose not only +on the insurgents but also on American interests spurred him to action. +However, that may be, when Daniel E. Sickles was appointed United States +Minister to Spain, on June 29th, 1869, he was instructed at once on his +arrival in Madrid to offer to the Spanish government the good offices of +the United States in an effort to bring about an understanding and +adjustment between the revolutionists and the governmental party and to +effect a cessation of the hostilities which were rapidly ruining both +the Creoles and the Spanish landowners alike. Sickles received the most +careful instructions to proceed in a conciliatory fashion, and in no +manner to imply any recognition by the United States of the belligerency +of Cuba. To guide him in his work, terms were drafted as a basis for the +negotiations and they embodied the following points:<a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a></p> + +<p>1. The acknowledgment by Spain of the independence of Cuba.</p> + +<p>2. Cuba to pay Spain an indemnity under conditions to be thereafter +agreed upon. In case such sum could not immediately be paid in full, the +unpaid portion to be secured by the pledge of export and import duties, +in a manner to be agreed upon.</p> + +<p>3. The abolition of slavery in the island of Cuba.</p> + +<p>4. The declaration of an armistice pending negotiations for a final +settlement.</p> + +<p>And, furthermore, Sickles was empowered, if necessary, to suggest that +the United States would guarantee the payment by Cuba of the indemnity.</p> + +<p>Sickles took up the negotiations with the Spanish government at Madrid +in accordance with his instructions, and after much consideration the +Spanish government agreed to accept the good offices of the United +States government, provided it was not required to treat with the +revolutionists on a basis of equality—that would be too galling to the +sensitive Spanish dignity—but that it would be allowed to take the +position of making concessions to a rebellious people, such concessions +of course to be couched in legal terms, and carried out in accordance +with constitutional forms and with all due solemnity. Above all, the +result of the negotiations was not to be regarded as a treaty between +armed powers on an equal footing. In support of her position, Spain made +the following demands, as constituting the basis of settlement to which +she would agree:</p> + +<p>1. The revolutionists to lay down their arms and return to their homes.</p> + +<p>2. Whereupon, Spain would grant a full and complete amnesty.</p> + +<p>3. The question of the independence of Cuba to be<a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a> submitted to vote by +their own vote whether they desired independence or not.</p> + +<p>4. Provided a majority vote was cast for independence Spain would grant +it, the Cortes consenting, upon the payment of a satisfactory sum by +Cuba, or the partial payment and guarantee by the United States of the +remainder.</p> + +<p>When Sickles submitted the result of his efforts to the government of +his own country, that government, well knowing that the Cubans would +never consent to the first two stipulations laid down by Spain, promptly +rejected them. Sickles again took up the matter with the Spanish +government, but they stood firm, and since there seemed no hope of an +agreement on any terms which would be acceptable to the revolutionists, +the matter was finally dropped.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Spain had been sending considerable reinforcements to Cuba, +and commenced an active campaign against the force under the command of +the American General Jordan. These were probably the best equipped and +best trained troops which the Cuban army had at its command, and they +were well fitted to administer a rebuff to the Spaniards, which they +did. The attacks of the Spaniards were all unsuccessful, and the Cubans +were elated by the certainty that in bravery and resources they were +more than a match for the Spanish army, and that, when they were +properly equipped they seemed to have the advantage. In these different +battles—none of them of very large scope—the Spanish lost four hundred +killed, wounded and taken prisoners. Meanwhile the Cubans attacked the +Spanish forces near Baja, a small town on the bay in the vicinity of +Nuevitas, and defeated three hundred marines under General Puello, +killing eighty of the enemy.<a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a></p> + +<p>But the rainy season was approaching and soon caused a halt in +hostilities, while both armies were strengthening their positions +looking forward to the time when weather would permit a resumption of +the warfare. If the Spanish were obtaining reinforcements, the Cubans +also were, in spite of the Spanish blockade and the decrees of the +Captain-General, as well as the activities of the United States +officials, constantly receiving aid from the United States. This mainly +took the form of small expeditions from the southern states. However, at +the close of July there arrived a company of two hundred and +seventy-five recruits from the states of Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky, +bringing with them large stores of food, clothing, arms and ammunitions. +So it appeared that faith in the righteousness of the Cuban cause was +not confined to what were known as the southern states.</p> + +<p>These men were placed under the direct command of General Quesada, and +thus reinforced he decided to make an effort to subdue and capture the +besieged Las Tunas. He set out to go thither with twelve hundred men. +All night long the fight raged on the outskirts of the town, and just as +the morning was breaking the Cubans made a triumphal entry. By two +o'clock the next afternoon the town was completely under their control. +When news of this victory reached the Spanish headquarters, a large +force was immediately dispatched to dislodge the Cubans, and spies +reporting to General Quesada that the Spanish troops sent against him +not only largely outnumbered his own, but also were bringing large +quantities of heavy artillery with them, he decided that to hold the +town would not be of sufficient importance—if indeed he could do so +against such odds—to risk an engagement. He, therefore, again retired. +He had been welcomed as a deliverer by the inhabitants of Las Tunas,<a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a> +for they had suffered gross indignities under Spanish occupation, and +now many of them enlisted in the Cuban army, and accompanied General +Quesada on his retreat.</p> + +<p>It may have been that the attempted intervention of the United States +government at Madrid led the Spanish government to believe that the time +had again arrived to temporize; at any rate, several concessions were +made in an attempt to pacify the insurgents, but without any perceptible +effect.</p> + +<p>Not every attempt to bring aid from the United States to Cuba was +productive of results, and during the summer there had been a number of +efforts which were abortive, or which failed of execution. But just as +hope of a successful relief expedition was dying in the hearts of the +Cubans, a party of six hundred men with a quantity of rifles and a large +amount of ammunition arrived from that stronghold of Cuban sympathizers, +New Orleans. Meanwhile General Jordan communicated a request for aid to +his compatriots who composed the Cuban Junta in the City of New York. He +reported that the Cuban army was composed of twenty six thousand eight +hundred men, besides whom there were at least forty thousand freed +slaves, who were armed merely with machetes. He requested that seventy +five thousand stands of arms be in some manner dispatched to the Cubans, +and expressed the opinion that if this could be accomplished, in ninety +days the war would be determined in favor of the patriots.</p> + +<p>Small bodies of Cubans were still carrying on guerrilla warfare wherever +it seemed most effective, and the plantations belonging to Spanish +sympathizers were suffering in consequence. The idea of this action was +not wanton destruction. The Cubans argued that it was from such sources +as the rich Spanish planters that<a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a> Spain, by taxation, obtained revenues +which were enabling her to continue the war, and thus their own country +was being used to supply funds for her own destruction; and therefore +when they destroyed Spanish holdings, they were not only wreaking +vengeance on their tormentors, but they were also reducing the resources +which made the prosecution of the war possible. To offset these actions, +the Spanish commanders were countenancing the most scandalous +conditions, and allowing most wholesale torture and butchery of such +luckless patriots as fell into their hands, in which they could have had +no motive except to terrorize the Cubans, and to enjoy that peculiar +pleasure which they seemed to take in cruelty and murder. However, in +the month of November alone, the patriots were able to burn the +buildings on and destroy the productiveness of over a hundred and fifty +sugar plantations, which the Spanish government had confiscated under +the order which Dulce had promulgated. These were plantations which +belonged to soldiers in the Cuban army, and which had been seized by the +Spaniards in the absence of their owners, and the revenues of which had +been flowing into the Spanish treasury.</p> + +<p>This work of destruction had the approval of General Cespedes, for he +felt that it was necessary to cut off every possible source of revenue +for Spain from the island, and so, in December, he issued a proclamation +calling on all loyal patriots to see that it was made impossible for +Spain to collect revenue from sugar and tobacco plantations on the +island, when by any action of patriots this could be avoided.</p> + +<p>The revolutionists had been encouraged, not only by their friends in the +United States, but also by the sympathetic expressions of former Spanish +colonies in South<a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a> America, who were now enjoying their own freedom. As +early as May 15, 1869, the President of the Republic of Peru expressed +to General Cespedes his good wishes, in a letter couched in the +following terms:</p> + +<p>"The President of Peru sympathizes deeply with the noble cause of which +your Excellency constitutes himself the worthy champion, and he will do +his utmost to mark the interest that island, so worthy of taking its +place with the civilized nations of the world, inspires him with. The +Peruvian Government recognizes as belligerents the party which is +fighting for the independence of Cuba, and will strive its utmost to +secure their recognition as such by other nations; and likewise that the +war should be properly regulated in conformity with international usages +and laws."</p> + +<p>This action on the part of Peru was followed by recognition of the +revolutionists on the part of other South American states of Spanish +origin. Action was taken on this subject in Colombia, in June, 1870, +when a bill was introduced into the House of Representatives proposing +that all the Spanish-American republics form a combination for the +active promotion of aid to Cuba, material and political, in her struggle +for independence. This bill was reported out of Committee, with the +following comments:</p> + +<p>"1. The cause for which Cuban patriots fight is the same for which +Colombia fought incessantly from 1810 to 1824.</p> + +<p>"2. The interests of self-preservation, and our duty as a civilized and +Christian nation, justify in the most complete manner Colombian +intervention.</p> + +<p>"3. The aggressions of monarchial Europe against the liberty and +independence of America always have had and will have for a base Spanish +dominion in Cuba.<a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a></p> + +<p>"4. The policy of the United States cannot serve as a guide to Colombia +on this occasion.</p> + +<p>"5. The resources we may need for this war are not beyond our means.</p> + +<p>"6. The time has arrived when Colombia should assume in the politics of +South America the position to which she is called by her topographical +situation, her historical traditions, her population, and her political +conquests."</p> + +<p>In spite of this favorable report, and the fact that the bill passed the +House, the Senate rejected it.</p> + +<p>Thus the struggle went on, the patriots fighting almost with the courage +of desperation, gaining a little here, and losing there, but always +holding before them the justice of their cause, and resolutely refusing +to admit the possibility of failure.<a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<p>W<small>ITH</small> the opening of the year 1870, the revolutionists had in the field +forty thousand well disciplined, and for the time being at least well +armed troops, who were under the command of efficient officers, and a +competent military organization. The movements of the troops were, so +far as possible, directed according to a concerted plan, and their +distribution through the island was governed in the same manner.</p> + +<p>Spain had also increased her regular army, and her navy had been greatly +augmented, for she now had in Cuban waters, in addition to the +men-of-war which had at the beginning of the war been stationed there, +the following:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>iron-clad vessels</td><td align="right">48</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>1st class wooden steamers</td><td align="right">85</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>2nd class wooden steamers </td><td align="right">69</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>3rd class wooden steamer</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4</td><td>steam schooners</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6</td><td>gunboats</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">13</td><td>armed merchantmen</td><td align="right">41</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>sailing gunboats</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>transport</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>schoolship</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">guns</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>About the middle of April, 1870, an occurrence happened of which the +Spanish made great capital, spreading the tidings throughout the world. +Connected with it is one of the illustrious names in Cuban history—a +name which has been borne by some of the most famous<a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a> Cuban patriots. +However, it has been said that there is no family which has not its +black sheep.</p> + +<p>Augustin Arango gave his life for his country, when he was murdered by +the Spaniards, while on the way to the conference at Puerto Principe, +under safe conduct from the Spanish leaders. Two other members of the +Arango family were prominent in the support of the revolution. It +remained for Napoleon Arango to disgrace his family. He had taken an +active part in the revolution upon its inception, but had not been +accorded a high place in the revolutionary government, or the rank which +his ambition craved in the army, because his loyalty had been suspected. +Angry and disgruntled, he made an attempt to betray his friends to the +Spanish troops. His action was, however, discovered in time, and he was +arrested, tried, found guilty and sentenced to death. The high standing +of the Arango family, and the fact that his brother had given his life +for the cause of liberty, were urged as reasons for commuting his +sentence, and he was finally taken from confinement, and driven outside +the Cuban lines, with orders never to return under penalty of having the +death sentence executed. He quickly made his way to the Spanish army.</p> + +<p>All this happened in 1869, and for almost a year Arango had been living +under Spanish protection. Suddenly, in April, 1870, the Spanish +authorities caused the report to be circulated that Arango had +surrendered himself to them, bringing with him a large force of Cubans, +who had declared their allegiance to Spain, and the Spanish Government +in Cuba cited this as an indication of the weakness of the patriots, and +as an augury of their approaching dissolution and of the ultimate +triumph of Spain. As a matter of fact, Arango had always been a<a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a> trouble +maker and a potential traitor; he had been characterized by one Cuban +officer as a "poor, despised, worthless creature," and it is needless to +say that the whole story was false from beginning to end. However, +Arango issued a grandiloquent statement, in which he explained his +supposed action, and urged the Cuban revolutionists to lay down their +arms and follow his example. His open letter to Cuban patriots is to be +recalled as one of the curiosities of treason. It ran as follows:</p> + +<p>"Cubans!"</p> + +<p>"When Carlos Manuel de Cespedes thought of raising the cry of +Independence and expected the other cities of the Island to second him, +he received as a reply, from the jurisdiction of Holguin and Puerto +Principe, <i>that they would not support him</i>; and the Cinco Villas and +other towns maintained an attitude of expectancy. Notwithstanding this, +Cespedes said that he had no need of the <i>reminder</i> and that he <i>would +pronounce</i> on the 14th of October as he did in fact but somewhat in +advance of that date. Having so many reasons, as I have, to know the +country as well as the character and tendencies of its inhabitants; and +also what Spain would do and what was to be <i>expected of the people</i> on +the Island; knowing moreover the policy of the United States and the +effects as well as the consequences that must follow a revolution +especially when it was an <i>extemporaneous outburst</i>; and being convinced +besides that owing to the heterogeneous nature of our population and to +the little <i>enlightenment</i> of the masses, <i>nothing but extermination</i> +could be expected for Cuba, I took part in framing the reply given to +Cespedes by Puerto Principe, stating that <i>since he took pains to carry +out so wicked an idea, he should not be<a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a> seconded by us</i>; and <i>we made +him responsible</i> before posterity for the evils which he was about to +bring on Cuba.</p> + +<p>"Cespedes and his inexperienced fellow-believers proclaimed Independence +at Yara without any supply of arms or munitions of war, without +provisions, clothing, etc., etc., with which to support their movement. +Ignorant of what revolution is, they bunched forth just like children +who heedlessly play with a wild beast, in entire ignorance of its +nature. The first movement of enthusiasm on the part of the people, and +of surprise on the part of the Government gave them the victory at +Bayamo; and they at once thought that the Independence of Cuba was +already secured. This was a fatal error, a sad illusion, which blunted +the common sense and gave <i>loose rein to their passions</i>. It was the +fatal error of those men who had not sufficient strength of will to be +able to wait. Ah! how fatal it is not to know when to wait!</p> + +<p>"The Camagueyans were aroused at the enthusiastic shout for liberty, and +they wished to help their brethren of Bayamo, driven on by a sentiment +of fraternity and by their yet stronger love of liberty;—that noble +aspiration which God has imbued in the hearts of all men. I shared not +in these desires, although I did really in their sentiments, but I was +restrained by experience and by my knowledge of the situation. Anxious +to be of service to my country, I offered to go to Bayamo as a +representative from Puerto Principe, which I did.</p> + +<p>"From my first steps into the Eastern Department, I was <i>convinced of +the error</i> into which the people had fallen, and the <i>impossibility</i> of +keeping up so unequal a contest. Moreover after studying the revolution +and sounding the feelings of the people, I discovered that they <i>did not +desire</i> the movement but had been dragged<a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a> into it; without noticing in +the beginning, owing to their blind precipitation, that they were not +prepared to receive a successful issue.</p> + +<p>"In some private circles I spoke of the propriety of <i>changing</i> the cry +for Independence into an acceptation of the <i>Cadiz programme</i>;—an idea +which was <i>well received</i> and seemed so to change the course of affairs, +that I saw a great risk, being threatened by the few who persisted in +their original intention. I spoke to Cespedes and made known to him the +untimeliness of the revolution; that if he really desired the welfare of +Cuba, this latter consisted in withdrawing from a war that must be +ruinous and unsuccessful in the end; that the liberties offered in the +Cadiz programme <i>were perhaps even more than would suit Cuba</i>, etc., +etc. Cespedes, <i>convinced</i> by my reasoning <i>agreed to my proposals</i>; and +if he then failed to follow my advice it was, to use his own words, +because he feared that he would not be obeyed by those who had already +proclaimed for Independence. They did not understand the true policy +that should be followed in the guidance of returns. They began badly and +will end worse.</p> + +<p>"On my return to Puerto Principe I found the country in insurrection, +<i>dragged on</i> by two or three men who were led wrong by their +ill-digested ideas of liberty or by their own <i>private interest</i>, and +whose only wish was <i>revolution in whatever way it could be brought +about</i>. I grieved at this mistake, but without losing heart, and always +firm in advancing the prosperity of Cuba, I called a meeting which was +held at Clavellinas. There I made known the result of my observations +during my trip to Bayamo; and after some discussions, the force of my +arguments <i>prevailed</i>. With <i>one</i> exception all agreed that we should +<i>adhere to the Cadiz programme</i>. I was afterwards appointed<a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a> +General-in-Chief with <i>especial charge</i> (thus it was set forth in the +record) <i>that I should have an interview with General Valmaseda for the +purpose noted above</i>.</p> + +<p>"In a conversation with that gentleman he manifested the <i>best of +intentions</i> in favor of a pacification, but stated that he was not +empowered by his government to make any concession. He offered +nevertheless to grant <i>effectual ones</i>, so soon as he could obtain the +power. He called my attention to this; that whatever the liberties which +should be granted to Cuba, the rights of the Cubans would have to be +regarded as attacked if they did not <i>send representatives</i> to have a +hand in everything that might be done in regard to this country.</p> + +<p>"I knew too well the <i>reasons</i> of General Valmaseda, but fearing that my +fellow countrymen might not seize the force of his reasoning, we agreed +upon a truce for four days which I requested in order to call another +meeting more numerous and one which should decide the matter. This +meeting <i>took place</i> at <i>Las Minas</i>; and there as well as at +Clavellinas, the majority was <i>not for a continuation of the war</i> but +for <i>accepting the Cadiz programme</i>. Had a vote been taken, it is +certain that this choice <i>would have carried</i>; but I refrained from +calling a vote in order to be consistent with the Caunao district which +had made known through its delegate, Don Carlos L. Mola, Junior, that it +wished to have no voting; because in case thereof they would be bound to +its result; and that district was only in favor of <i>accepting</i> whatever +the government <i>chose to grant them</i>.</p> + +<p>"An <i>immense majority</i> was in favor of the <i>programme</i>, and, +nevertheless, the war was kept up because those bent upon it spared no +means nor suggestion to entice away those in favor of the <i>Cadiz +programme</i>. That is to say<a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a> that, taking advantage of family ties, of +friendships, and of an ill comprehended association, etc., etc., they +dragged along with them the <i>unwary</i> and the <i>inexperienced</i>, who were +<i>reluctant</i> enough and who now know their error, as I never wished to +force upon anyone (not even on my own brothers) my own ideas, nor to +make use of any other means than persuasion, in accordance with reason. +I confined myself to simply resigning the rank that had been conferred +on me and withdrew to my plantation. From that time forward, I busied +myself merely with enlightening the people, showing them the mistakes +into which they were led by those who were interested in the continuance +of the war.</p> + +<p>"I have not sought to impose my notions upon anyone, but I do not any +the more accept those of others when my reason and my conscience reject +them. And I believe there is no right, nor law, nor reason to support +those who willingly, or through force, wish to force upon others their +own ideas however good or holy these may be.</p> + +<p>"Those who are at the head of the Cuban government and guide the +revolution believe their triumph possible; they think their ideas are +correct and their way a good one. Very well; but not believing as they +do, I move aside from that government, whose <i>pressure and +arbitrariness</i> are such, that it will not even admit neutrality in +others. I will not wage war against you; I will not take up arms against +you except in personal defence; but I separate from men who wish to +<i>impose</i> their own notions on others <i>through force</i>. You are free to +think and act as you like, and I reserve to myself the same right and +act in accordance therewith.</p> + +<p>"But there is more. In the position where, unfortunately and much +against my will, events have placed me,<a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a> I occupy a place as a public +man, as a politician in Cuban politics; and I should not remain inactive +while I behold the destruction of Cuba and look out merely for my +personal safety under the protection of the Spanish government. No, +Gentlemen, I would then be a bad patriot, and I love my country before +liberty or rather I do not understand the former principle as divorced +from the latter. Both are intimately bound together; and in order that +the first be worthy, honorable and beneficial to humanity it cannot be +separated from the second.</p> + +<p>"I am a Cuban, the same as yourselves, and I have consequently the same +right to busy myself with the welfare of my country. Let everyone have +his method; you pretend that you obey the popular will; that you are at +the head of government, because the will of the people and popular +choice; that you act in uniformity with ideas and sentiments of the +Cubans; and finally that you are provoking the welfare and prosperity of +Cuba. <i>I shall prove entirely the contrary.</i></p> + +<p>"The favorable reception with which my ideas were met at Bayamo, the +meeting at Clavellinas, that at Las Minas, and the desire—almost +unanimous—to accept the <i>concessions</i> offered by General Dulce, prove +sufficiently that the country wanted peace, nevertheless you maintain +war. Hence, popular suffrage in the country is but a chimera.</p> + +<p>"Let us see how the actual government was formed. On the one side, +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes who, <i>for himself</i> and in <i>his own name set +himself up</i> as the <i>dictator</i> of Cuba, <i>appointed</i> a certain number of +deputies for the cast, at the famous meeting in Guaimaro. That is a fine +representation of popular will and an admirable republic, when the +deputies are not elected by the people! On the other hand, the assembly +at Puerto Principe was<a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a> <i>illegally constituted</i> and <i>entirely +unauthorized</i>; and, finally, some deputies from the Cinco Villas—the +only ones which perhaps held a legitimate representation—met together +and formed the actual government, which they should have called the +<i>Venetian</i> rather than a <i>Cuban Republic</i>. They formed the government by +<i>sharing with each other the offices</i>, and they propose thus to shape +the destiny of Cuba. A <i>handful of men</i> thus representing over a million +souls, who <i>have had no share</i> in their nomination, does not assuredly +constitute popular election.</p> + +<p>"The Cubans want the liberty of assemblage, freedom of speech, respect +of property, personal security, the liberty to leave the territory of +the Republic,—which is a right secured in all nations of the world to +every individual, they want, in fine, to be governed as the majority +choose, and not according to the will of a few. But <i>nothing of all this +is done</i>. Whoever puts forth ideas <i>contrary</i> to those of the government +or any of its <i>functionaries</i>, is <i>threatened</i> with four shots, +<i>property is a prey to the first comer</i>, who, with arms in hand can take +<i>possession</i> of what suits him; the <i>lives</i> of men are <i>sported</i> with, +just as children sport with flies; and in fine whoever attempts to +abandon the government, even without intruding to wage war on it, is +persecuted to death. Hence the conduct of said government is not in +conformity with the ideas and sentiments of the country.</p> + +<p>"If to all this be added the <i>arsons</i> and the complete <i>destruction</i> of +Cuban wealth, the <i>demolition of towns</i> and—what must follow in the +end, can there be one sensible man who will maintain that all this +constitutes the prosperity and well-being of Cuba? Assuredly not.</p> + +<p>"You employ <i>force, deceit, terror</i> to <i>drag the masses</i> on and carry +out whatever you judge beneficial for the<a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a> cause of Cuba; I use only +reason, truth and the irrepressible logic of facts and of experience, +not the material argument of arms.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;"> +<a href="images/ill_234pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_234pg_sml.png" width="220" height="262" alt="DOMINGO GOICOURIA" title="DOMINGO GOICOURIA" /></a> +</div> + +<p>"Well, then, knowing as I do that the country <i>does not want war</i>, and +that it continues therein under the <i>pressure</i> of the Cuban government +in the one hand and on the others out of fear of the punishment which +the Spanish government might inflict, knowing as I do that nothing is to +be expected from the United States as it was attempted to make the +people believe; knowing that since the beginning of the Insurrection, +40,000 men have come from Spain, and that many more will come—a fact +generally unknown in this country; aware, as I am, that over 100,000 men +are under arms; that the coasts are well watched, and that the New York +Junta lacks resources to send material aid to the Insurrection; aware +moreover that the <i>Cuba</i>, the <i>Lillian</i>, the expedition of Goicouria and +others are lost resources; that the Insurrection is almost stifled in +the East and in the Cinco Villas; that in the Vuelta-Abajo far from +there being any secessionists, it is the country people themselves who +pursue the insurgents, as has taken place in Guines; knowing as I do +that the families to be met with in the fields are anxious to return to +the towns; and aware of the importance attached to my conduct, both in +the Island and abroad, I have made a new sacrifice for my<a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a> country. I +have come forward with my family to prove by my example that I do not +believe in the triumph of the Insurrection, nor do I fear the Spanish +government; which animated as it is with the best of wishes is ready to +draw a veil over the past, provided the country can be pacified and many +tears, much blood and loss of property be spared.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">DOMINGO GOICOURIA</p> + +<p>General Domingo Goicouria, one of the pioneers of Cuban +independence was born in 1804, and was an active participant in the +Lopez expeditions and other uprisings. He was one of the leaders in +the beginning of the Ten Years' War, but was captured by the +Spaniards, at Cayo Guajaba, and was put to death at Havana on May +14, 1870.</p></div> + +<p>"It is a sacrifice indeed, Gentlemen, for I expose my name to the +evil-tongued and make it the butt of false interpretations.</p> + +<p>"I believe firmly that the happiness of Cuba and the welfare of humanity +consists in the pacification of this beautiful country, and maintain +this in the presence of the whole universe with my hand on my conscience +and head erect as becomes a man of honor.</p> + +<p>"There is no man who is infallible, and perhaps my opinions and +determination may be wrong; but I can at least affirm that I am acting +in good faith, having for sole object in view the welfare of my country +and of humanity and making total abstraction of my own personality, as +well as of my own interests.</p> + +<p>"I am not a time server but a man of fixed principles; I am convinced of +my opinions and feel the energy of my convictions. I now maintain what I +have maintained since the beginning of the revolution, even previous +thereto. My actual conduct is not therefore an apostasy but the +energetic continuance in my opinions and principles. These I do not mean +to impose on any one; merely make them known, inviting all to examine +them in every detail, and I am sure that they will follow my example. +But if blind to reason and unmindful of the events which for a year and +a half have supported my predictions, they persist in a struggle which I +believe hopeless, let them keep on, but without <i>extending the<a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a> horrors +of war to families</i>. Let the women and children whom <i>government</i> wishes +to <i>foster</i> and <i>daily supports</i> with rations of bread, rice, butter, +etc., come to the city; and let you keep on, if unfortunately you refuse +to listen to the voice of reason and patriotism, in that senseless +contest, which you must later repent having ever begun.</p> + +<p>"Reflect a moment; examine thoroughly, and not merely the appearances of +the situation, and you will see that the existing strife is an +unqualifiable mistake, and its continuation an unparalleled +blindness.... What has become of the intelligence of Cubans? Where are +the energy and the influence of men of intelligence and character?</p> + +<p>" ...Cubans! You have seen that I have always been a protector to the +people; that I have tried to enlighten them, that they might have a +participation in everything and know what they were doing, so as to +follow their own ideas and not be carried off by others; but what has +been the result? I was treacherously and illegally arrested, at the +request of those who wish to rule the masses; I was sentenced to death, +and over twenty times they have tried to put an end to my life.... +Natural sense shows clearly that when an attempt is made to annihilate +him who speaks the <i>truth</i>, who <i>enlightens</i> and never <i>deceives</i>; who +instead of speculating on his fellow countrymen and growing rich on the +revolution makes use of his own means to succor the masses (let all +Yaguajey speak); who never makes use of any pressure to enforce his +ideas, who allows himself to be ruined from the neglect of his own +interests, in order to give himself up solely to the welfare of his +country; does it not show clearly, I say, that the attempt is made only +because his adversaries have different pretensions and a different line +of conduct from his? Now what is this<a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a> difference? It consists in +<i>violence, deceit</i>, the use of <i>force, spoliation</i> of the neighbor for +<i>his own benefit</i>; it is despotism, based on the ignorance in which the +people are kept. I have sought to have the country governed as it is its +wish to be governed, in accordance with universal suffrage; your +government, <i>on the contrary</i>, pretend to rule it as they see fit. They +state that they want liberty for the people whilst the most <i>cruel +despotism</i> weighs upon you....</p> + +<p>"The people are told that from the United States will come reinforcement +and resources; that there are elements to spare for the continuation of +the war; that the Spanish soldier carries a cartridge-box and wears +shoes of rawhide and is short of provisions; that there are <i>no troops</i> +nor will <i>any come</i> from Spain; that the <i>taxes are ruining</i> the +country, etc., etc. Well, I ... tell you all this is <i>illusion, deceit</i>, +and a fatal chimera.</p> + +<p>"The government of the United States does not busy itself nor can it +with the Cuban Insurrection. Look at Article 16 of the Treaty of 1797 +and you will learn that they cannot favor the Cubans in the least +efficacious way without failing in national dignity and exposing +themselves to a coalition against themselves. That government is too +polished and financially shrewd to compromise itself in a war that would +entail serious mischief upon its commerce; and moreover there are other +motives that would be too lengthy to detail....</p> + +<p>"I have just read a manifesto of Manuel Quesada, published in New York +under date of the 8th inst., in which he sets astray entirely the +opinion that should be formed of the state of insurrection. I shall tear +off the bandage. He states that the Cuban army numbers 61,000; that +there are here five powder factories; that firearms are manufactured +here as well as swords and bayonets;<a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a> that there are thirteen public +schools and thirteen churches; that three thousand shoes are made every +week and four thousand hides tanned every month; that the soldier +receives for daily ration, beef, sugar, coffee, vegetables and rice at +his discretion, tobacco, etc.; that there are many sugar mills grinding +for the state; that several warehouses are filled with tobacco, sugar, +hides, etc., to the value of many millions of dollars, that the +territory which is occupied by the Cubans in insurrection is in a +cultivated and producing condition, such as has never before been +witnessed, even during years of the greatest abundance; that thousands +of percussion caps are daily made; that he (Quesada) left here under +commission of importance after having temporarily put Jordan in command +under instructions, as well as the other leaders, etc., etc., to an +endless length. I address you, fellow countrymen, who are there on the +ground of this insurrection, whence I have lately come. You all, as well +as myself, know that all these things are <i>false</i>, entirely <i>false</i>.</p> + +<p>"Quesada states that he has gone to seek means and bring arms, with +which to end the insurrection, but for what <i>does he need them if he has +61,000 men</i>? Is it possible that it should not occur to the inhabitants +of New York to ask him <i>what need he has of more means when he has so +many thousand men? When he has over 20,000 arms and can make more as +well as powder and caps?</i> Why has not <i>that soldier of fourteen years' +campaigning</i> taken possession with that army of <i>one single town</i> at +least wherein to <i>locate the government</i> of the republic? Why has he not +<i>captured one single port</i> through which to get aid, export the +productions of the country to the value of millions, and thus acquire a +right to recognition as belligerents? <i>Where are schools? Where are +those churches?</i> Have those at Guaimaro and<a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a> Sibarncu, which <i>were +burned</i> by that renowned general been perchance rebuilt? Why are the +soldiers <i>unshod</i> or wearing <i>strips of raw hide</i> if there are three +thousand shoes made weekly and four thousand hides tanned per month? +<i>Where is the abundance</i> for the soldier? <i>Where has he got coffee, +rice, tobacco, etc.? Where are those sugaring mills</i> in regular running +order?... Then as to the commission of Manuel Quesada and his separation +from command, do you know as well as I do that he was <i>ignominiously +deposed by the Chamber</i>, and that <i>during his stay</i> in Cuba, from his +first arrival his conduct has been <i>blameworthy under all aspects</i>?</p> + +<p>"Well, then, Cubans, this is the plan followed from the beginning of the +revolution. They are deceiving you and our brethren in New York as well +as the whole world. For these reasons I say that the edifice is raised +on insecure and imaginary foundations. For these reasons have I always +tried to undeceive the country and let them see clearly, so as to +prevent Cuba from sinking into the abyss wherein she is intended to be +cast. Withal I have not been understood. There has been no lack of +someone who, out of exaltation and under pressure of some sad aberration +has qualified my conduct as treasonable. Ah! Whoever stated that knows +not even the meaning of his words! When did I ever recognize this +government? Never; but rather have I always been in opposition thereto. +For as I wish my country's welfare I could not second an <i>illegal, +arbitrary, despotic</i> government that is <i>annihilating</i> our land.</p> + +<p>"They recognize their error, but they have not loyalty enough to confess +it, they are aware that they are neither statesmen nor lovers of +liberty, nor patriots and their consciences sting them; they know that I +have always seen farther than they could, and more clearly, that all<a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a> my +predictions have been fulfilled; that I have been alone in maintaining +energetically my principles; bearing up against all kinds of privation +and danger; and they do not forgive me for these advantages over them; +they know that my past and my present career have been free from all +stain; and they do not forgive me for that.</p> + +<p>"Well, if to have thus behaved, to have made entire abstraction of self +and my interests, to look after the welfare of Cuba, to have done harm +to no one, but much good; far from having taken life, to have saved the +lives of many, without distinction of nationality; to have respected +always the property of others, and never have let my hand touch the +incendiary torch, to forward pacification, when I know that the country +needs it; and that by it alone can tears, blood, and destruction be +prevented;—if to have done all this constitute treason, ah! then I am a +traitor; yes, Gentlemen, I am one and feel proud of it.</p> + +<p>"Your government claims to favor liberty for the country; why then does +it not consent to <i>freedom of one's principles</i>? Why does it not <i>admit +of neutrality</i>? Why does it force people to take up arms without +<i>distinction of persons</i>? Why has it always been opposed to <i>speaking +out in public</i>? Why did it oppose the <i>country's acceptance</i>, when so +close, of <i>General Dulce's concessions</i>? Why does it <i>persecute to +death</i> whoever tries to separate himself from said government without +having any intention of waging war against it? Why? I will tell you. +Because then there would <i>remain in the camp of the insurrection only a +dozen men; the only ones interested in the continuance of this war</i> +between brethren; this war of desolation and extermination.</p> + +<p>"I agree that there was reason for the Cuban people to complain and be +resentful against the government that<a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a> ruled them; but all this has +changed, not only with regard to the institution but as to the manner of +being as well. I am myself an example of what I state. I presented +myself to the Captain-General who received me in such a way as to prove +by his manner alone, his good wishes; even if these were not confirmed +by the conduct which he followed in the Villas and wherever he has been +able to make the impress of his own feelings felt. In his proclamation +he offers a pardon to all who will present themselves; but as every +medal has its reverse, so whoever fails to do so must suffer the cold +and inexorable rigor of the law.</p> + +<p>"Fellow-countrymen, my brethren, let us throw a veil over the past. Let +us look to the future of our families and to the prosperity of our +nation.</p> + +<p>"You know well how many persecutions, privations and even vexations I +have suffered. I forget it all and forgive from my heart all who have +sought my death and wanted my blood. I forgive all who, directly or +indirectly have offended me, of whatever nation or condition they may +be. I sacrifice all, all, on the altar of my country, and for the +welfare of humanity. Why do you not follow my example?</p> + +<p>"Brethren! let there be no more tears, no more blood, no more ruins! +Return to your presides and let a fraternal embrace unite forever both +Spaniards and Cubans and let us all together make of this beautiful +Island—the Pearl of the Antilles—the Pearl also of the world. Cubans, +I await you, and the undeserved consideration shown to me by the first +authority of Cuba which fortunately is held by Señor Don Antonio +Caballero de Rodas I offer to use in your behalf. For myself I seek only +the satisfaction of having always forwarded the welfare of Cuba.</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Napoleon Arango.</span></p> + +<p>"March 28th, 1870."<a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a></p> + +<p>The italics are Arango's and his alone also the extraordinary sentiments +expressed in this remarkable document.</p> + +<p>In this same year, the question of slavery came up for attention. While +the United States government had abandoned its attempt to mediate +between Spain and Cuba it had, of course, by its own action during the +Civil War, definitely arrayed itself against slavery wherever it +existed, and it now, through its Minister to Spain, Daniel E. Sickles, +entered into negotiations with the Spanish government, looking to the +actual freeing of the slaves in Cuba.</p> + +<p>Of course news of these happenings did not fail to penetrate Cuba and to +reach the ears of the Captain-General. Indeed he seemed to have a +premonition of them, even before the United States government had +definitely taken up the matter with Spain. He was nothing if not an +opportunist, and he, therefore, on his own account, on February 24, +1870, issued a decree which had the effect of freeing two thousand +colored prisoners of war, and which read as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="nind"> +"Superior Political Government of the Province of Cuba:<br /> +<br /> +"Decree:<br /> +</p> + +<p>"By virtue of the faculties with which I am invested, and in +keeping with the royal decree of the 27th of October, 1865, I think +fit to extend by decree of the 21st of September, ultimo, declaring +exemption from dependency on the government the expeditions +entitled Puerto Escondido, Cabanas 10, Cabanas 85, Cabanas San +Diego de Minez and Trinidad.</p> + +<p>"In consequence thereof the employers who have in their service +emancipated slaves of the referred-to expeditions, will present +them in the Secretary's office of this superior government within +the period of one month, in<a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a> order that, after the usual +formalities, they may receive their letters of exemption.</p> + +<p>"At the same time, the governors and lieutenant-governors will +publish this direction in the periodicals of their respective +jurisdictions, so that it may come to the notice of the holders of +these emancipados and they cannot allege ignorance of it.</p> + +<p class="r"> +"<span class="smcap">Caballero de Rodas.</span></p> + +<p class="nind">"Havana, February 24, 1870."</p></div> + +<p>Rodas was crafty, and he now thought of a device which under the guise +of mercy would hamper the Cuban army. On May 26th he promulgated a +second decree freeing all slaves who had acted or would act as guides to +the Spanish army, or render any like valuable service to the government, +an effort, of course, to induce the former servants of patriots to +betray their masters and the Cuban army into the hands of the Spaniards. +To disguise the baldness of this attempt at corruption, he also included +a provision, freeing all slaves belonging to the insurgents or who had +escaped to foreign countries. This provision was for all practical +purposes meaningless and without any value, because the Cubans +themselves who were fighting for freedom from Spain had already +emancipated their slaves.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile negotiations between Sickles and the Spanish government +resulted in the promulgation of a decree, which was known as the Moret +law, acquiring its name from the Spanish Minister of Colonies, whose +signature was one of many signed to the document, and who is reported to +have had a hand in its composition. It bore date, July 4, 1870, and was +promulgated by the Captain-General nearly two months later, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +"Superior Political Government of the Province of Cuba:<br /> +</p> + +<p><a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a></p> + +<p>"His Excellency the Regent of the kingdom communicates to me, under +date of July 4th ultimo, the following law, which has been +promulgated or sanctioned by the Congressional Cortes:</p> + +<p>"Don Francisco Serrano of Dominguez, Regent of the kingdom, by the +will of the sovereign Cortes, to all to whom these presents shall +come, greeting:</p> + +<p>"Know ye that the Congressional Cortes of the Spanish nation does +hereby decree and sanction the following:</p> + +<p>"Article 1. All children of slave mothers, born after the +publication of this law, are declared free.</p> + +<p>"Article 2. All slaves born between the 18th of September, 1868, +and the time of the publication of this law, are acquired by the +state by the payment to the owners of the sum of twenty five +dollars.</p> + +<p>"Article 3. All slaves who have served under the Spanish flag or +who have in any way aided the troops during the present +insurrection in Cuba are declared free. All those are equally +recognized as free as shall have been so declared by the superior +government of Cuba, by virtue of its jurisdiction. The state shall +pay their value to their masters, if the latter have remained +faithful to the Spanish cause; if belonging to insurgents, they +shall receive no indemnity.</p> + +<p>"Article 4. Slaves, who, at the time of the publication of this +law, shall have attained the age of sixty years are declared free, +without any indemnification to their owners. The same benefit shall +be enjoyed by those who shall hereafter reach this age.</p> + +<p>"Article 5. All slaves belonging to the state, either as +emancipated, or who for any other cause are at present under the +control of the state, shall at once enter upon the full exercise of +their civil rights.</p> + +<p>"Article 6. Those persons freed by this law who are<a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a> mentioned in +articles 1 and 2, shall remain under the control of the owners of +the mother, after the payment of the indemnity prescribed in +Article 2.</p> + +<p>"Article 7. The control referred to in the foregoing article +imposes upon the person exercising it the obligation to maintain +his wards, to clothe them, care for them in sickness, giving them +primary instruction, and the education necessary to carry on an art +or trade. The person exercising the aforesaid control acquired all +the rights of a guardian, and may, moreover, enjoy the benefit of +the labor of the freedman, without making any compensation, until +said freedman has reached the age of eighteen years.</p> + +<p>"Article 8. When the freedman has reached the age of eighteen +years, he shall receive half the wages of a freedman. Of these +wages, one half shall be paid to him at once, and the other half +shall be reserved in order to form a capital for him, in the manner +to be determined by subsequent regulations.</p> + +<p>"Article 9. On attaining the age of twenty-two years, the freedman +shall acquire the full control of his civil rights and his capital +shall be paid to him.</p> + +<p>"Article 10. The control will also be annulled: first, by the +marriage of the freedman, when the same is entered into by females +over fourteen years and males over eighteen years old; second, by a +proved bad treatment on the part of the guardian or his +noncompliance with his duty, as stipulated in Article 7; third, +should the guardian prostitute or favor the prostitution of the +freedwoman.</p> + +<p>"Article 11. The above mentioned control is transmissible by all +means known in law, and is also resignable when just motives exist. +Legitimate or illegitimate parents who are free shall be permitted +to assume the<a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a> control of their children by the payment to the +guardian of the same of any expense he may have incurred for +account of the freedman. Subsequent regulations will settle the +basis of this indemnification.</p> + +<p>"Article 12. The Superior civil government shall form, in the space +of one month from the publication of this law, lists of the slaves +comprised in articles 3 and 5.</p> + +<p>"Article 13. The freed persons mentioned in the foregoing article +remain under the control of the state. This control is confined to +protecting them, defending them and furnishing them the means of +gaining a livelihood, without limiting their liberty in the +slightest degree. Those who prefer to return to Africa shall be +conveyed thither.</p> + +<p>"Article 14. The slaves referred to in article 4 may remain with +their owners, who shall thus acquire control over them. When they +shall have preferred to continue with their former masters it shall +be optional with the latter to give them compensation or not, but, +in all cases, as well as in that of the freed persons being unable +to maintain themselves by reason of physical disability, it shall +be the duty of the said former masters to feed them, clothe them, +and care for them in sickness. This duty shall be a concomitant of +the right to employ them in labors suitable to their condition. +Should the freedman object to the compliance with his obligation to +labor, or should he create disturbances at the house of his +guardian, the authorities will decide the questions arising +therefrom, after having first heard the freedman.</p> + +<p>"Article 15. If the freedman of his own free will shall leave the +control of his former master, the latter shall no longer be under +the obligations mentioned in the foregoing article.</p> + +<p>"Article 16. The Government shall provide the means<a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a> necessary for +the indemnifications made necessary by the present law, by means of +a tax upon those who shall remain in slavery, ranging from eleven +to sixty years of age.</p> + +<p>"Article 17. Any act of cruelty, duly justified as having been +indicted by the tribunals of justice, will bring with it as a +consequence the freedom of the slave suffering such excess of +chastisement.</p> + +<p>"Article 18. Any concealment impeding the application of the +benefits of this law shall be punished according to title 13 of the +penal code.</p> + +<p>"Article 19. All those shall be considered free who do not appear +enrolled in the census drawn up in the Island of Porto Rico the +31st of December, 1869, and in that which will have been drawn up +in the Island of Cuba on the 31st of December of the present year, +1870.</p> + +<p>"Article 20. The Government shall make a special regulation for the +execution of this law.</p> + +<p>"Article 21. The Government will report to the Cortes when the +Cuban deputies shall have been admitted, a bill for the compensated +emancipation of those who remain in slavery after the establishment +of this law. Meantime this emancipation is carried into effect; the +penalty of the whip, authorized by chapter 13 of the regulations +for Porto Rico and Cuba, shall be abolished; neither can there be +sold separately from their mothers children younger than fourteen +years, nor slaves who are united in matrimony.</p> + +<p>"By a resolution of the Congressional Cortes the foregoing is +reported to the Regent of the Kingdom for its promulgation as a +law.</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Manuel Ruiz Zorilla</span>, President.</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Manuel de Lianos y Persi</span>, Deputy Secretary.</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Julian Sanchez Ruano</span>, Deputy Secretary.<a name="page_248" id="page_248"></a></p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Francisco Xavier Carratala</span>, Deputy Secretary.</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Mariano Ruiz</span>, Deputy Secretary.</p> + +<p>"Palace of the Cortes, June 23, 1870.</p> + +<p>"Therefore I order all tribunals, justices, officers, governors and +other authorities of whatsoever class or position, to obey the same +and cause it to be obeyed, complied with and executed in all its +parts.</p> + +<p class="nind"> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"<span class="smcap">Francisco Serrano</span>, Minister of Ultramar.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"<span class="smcap">Sigismondo Moret y Prendergast.</span></span></p> + +<p class="nind">"San Ildefonso, July 4, 1870.</p> + +<p>"And, having opportunely omitted the publication of the same for +the want of the regulation referred to in Article 20, and having +received the sense in which said document is to be drawn up, I have +ordered the exact compliance of said law, in virtue of which it is +inserted in the Official Gazette for future guidance.</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Caballero de Rodas.</span>"</p> + +<p>"Havana, Sept. 28, 1870."</p> +</div> + +<p>If these decrees were intended to fill the insurgents with gratitude, +and to have the effect of halting the revolution, they fell far short of +their mark. In the first place, the Spanish Government had too often +tricked her Cuban subjects, and they had little cause to have faith in +either her good will or her good intentions, and much more cause to +believe that her action was intended as a sop to the Government at +Washington, an attempt to "pull the wool over the eyes" of American +sympathizers, and even a very cursory glance at the provisions of the +Moret law would convince even a layman with no knowledge of +jurisprudence that there was small chance of their ever being enforced.</p> + +<p>It is true that this law provided for the freedom of all slaves born +after a certain date, but it left them in the care of their mothers, and +under the control of their<a name="page_249" id="page_249"></a> former masters, condemned to serve without +pay and virtually free only in name. It also proclaimed the freedom of +slaves who had reached the age of sixty years and who very likely had +endured years of such hard treatment that they were infirm and in no +condition to support themselves. If they were reluctant to start life +alone and either by timidity or by coercion remained with their masters, +the latter were at liberty to pay them or not, and when a Spanish +planter had the option of obtaining labor free rather than paying for +it, there was not much room for doubt as to what course he would pursue. +The whipping post was abolished, but the Cubans were too busy with other +matters to patrol the country in search of violations of this +regulation, and the masters were pretty safe to conduct themselves as +they chose. This law, which contained such fair words that it met with +the approval of the American minister, was almost ludicrous in its +paradoxical terms, and instead of impressing the patriots with the +softened hearts of their tyrannical masters, it must have filled the +intelligent ones with mirth.</p> + +<p>Besides this, since upon the declaration of the independence of Cuba the +revolutionary government had declared the freedom of all men on the +Island, Spain's action so long afterward was like opera bouffe, or +rather a grimly amusing anti-climax. As a matter of fact the Moret law +remained a dead letter, unenforced, overlooked, violated, almost +forgotten, and the subject of slavery again fell into the background, +while the war took the front of the stage.</p> + +<p>Spain was having constantly to reinforce her army, and she was unable to +do this in sufficient numbers to make up deficits properly. The climate +of Cuba was very hard on the new recruits who had not become accustomed +to it, and Spain lost almost as many by disease as<a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a> she did in battle. +She renewed her cruelties against the unprotected Cuban planters, and +not only burned and pillaged, but subjected all captives to the most +revolting and sickening cruelties, gouging out eyes, cutting out +tongues, crucifying and hanging men by their hands. Probably the +atrocities practiced by the Spaniards in this war were never equalled, +unless we recall the barbarities which they practiced later in 1895, +until the Huns of Prussia invaded Belgium and France in the great war of +1914-18, and showed what inefficient novices in deviltry the Spanish had +been when compared with the disciples of "Kultur."</p> + +<p>The year 1871 opened brightly for the patriots. That seasoned warrior +General Jordan led a company to victory, at Najassa, against a force of +Spaniards under General Puello. The Spanish losses were especially +gratifying, if that term may be employed, since they included thirty-six +officers.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Rodas, in spite of his methods, which must have been most +gratifying to them, fell into disfavor with the Volunteers, and they +exerted their power against him, finally effecting his resignation and +the elevation of Count Valmaseda in his place, in a temporary capacity, +until another Captain-General could be sent from Spain.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 219px;"> +<a href="images/ill_251pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_251pg_sml.png" width="219" height="307" alt="NICOLAS AZCARATE" title="NICOLAS AZCARATE" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">NICOLAS AZCARATE</p> + +<p>Nicolas Azcarate was the founder of the New Lyceum of Havana which +for years was the centre of the intellectual life of that city, and +his home was the resort of the literary and artistic world. Papers +read at his receptions by eminent men were published in two volumes +under the title of "Literary Nights." He was born in 1826 and died +in 1894, leaving a literary influence which is still gratefully +perceptible.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 209px;"> +<a href="images/ill_252pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_252pg_sml.png" width="209" height="304" alt="JUAN CLEMENTE ZENEA" title="JUAN CLEMENTE ZENEA" /></a> +</div> + +<p>Spain once more made overtures to the United States Government, asking +it to use its offices in eliciting from the revolutionary government +some statement of terms which would be satisfactory to them as a basis +of peace. Since former efforts to bring the belligerents together had +been so productive of failure, Washington demurred from officially +undertaking the matter; whereupon Don Nicolas Azcarate went to +Washington from Spain with authorization to offer to the insurgents an +amnesty, and disarmament of the Volunteers, provided the Cubans<a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a> laid +down their arms. They were further to be granted the immediate and +unconditional emancipation of slaves, irrespective of age and condition +of servitude. All confiscations made by either side were to be annulled, +and the property thus seized was to be restored to the original owners. +Religious freedom, free speech, and free assembly, were to be granted +the Cubans, while Cuba was to have representation in the Spanish Cortes, +and to be governed by colonial autonomy, similar to that which Great +Britain maintained in her American provinces. Last of all, and by no +means least, all officials who were offensive to the Cubans were to be +removed from office. Of course, these instructions were confidential, +because of the offense which they would have given the powerful +Volunteers. The United States, however, did not undertake to transmit +the proposed terms to the insurgents, and finally Azcarate undertook to +do so on his own initiative. He had little faith in the fate which his +proposal might meet, should it be transmitted through Spanish sources in +Cuba and its terms be divulged to the Volunteers. He doubted whether it +would ever reach President Cespedes. He therefore decided to transmit it +by special messenger, for this purpose choosing Juan Clemente Zenea, a +man in whose discretion and resourcefulness<a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a> he had the greatest faith. +To make the journey safe for his envoy, he obtained from the Spanish +minister at Washington a safe conduct for Zenea, ordering the military +and naval authorities of Cuba, as well as the Volunteers, to afford safe +passage to Don Juan Clemente Zenea "into and out of any port on the +Island of Cuba." Zenea reached President Cespedes without accident and +laid the proposition before him, which was promptly refused. The +Volunteers, meanwhile, had learned of Zenea's coming, and of the nature +of his errand. Even the greatest of secrecy could not have kept the +knowledge from them, for their spies were everywhere active, not only in +the Island, but in the United States and at the Spanish court as well. +When Zenea left the Cuban lines, he was immediately seized by the +Volunteers and imprisoned at Havana, under heavy guard. The news of this +occurrence reached Spain and immediately the Duke de la Torre, then +President of King Amadeus's Council of Ministers, protested to the +authorities at Havana, and insisted that Zenea be released and be given +safe conduct from the Island. But the will of the Volunteers was more +powerful in Cuba than were the wishes of those<a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a> high in authority in +Spain, or than the common tenets of decency, right and justice. Zenea +was not released and he was not given safe conduct. After many months' +imprisonment under the most revolting conditions, he was condemned to +death without trial, and on August 15 was taken out and shot in the +back.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">JUAN CLEMENTE ZENEA</p> + +<p>Poet, patriot and martyr, Juan Clemente Zenea was born at Bayamo in +1831, and in boyhood settled in Havana. He was a teacher in La +Luz's school, El Salvador, and wrote some exquisite poems. But +politics and Cuban independence claimed his chief attention. From +his seventeenth year he was incessantly engaged in revolutionary +conspiracies, in Havana and in New Orleans and New York. In 1868, +he went to New York where he was an active member of the Junta. In +1870, he was sent on a mission to President Cespedes, which he +accomplished but soon afterward was captured by the Spaniards, +imprisoned in Cabanas, and then shot.</p></div> + +<p>This action would hardly have been conducive to good feeling between the +opposing leaders, even had the Cubans had faith in Spanish promises. In +too hard a school had they learned that it was useless to expect the +Spanish authorities on the Island to keep their word to the Cubans, +either in the small matter of a safe conduct for an innocent messenger, +or the larger one of proposed concessions to an oppressed people. The +Cuban government was not to be thus easily lured from their attempts to +secure the one thing which was to them paramount, the real object for +which they had made so many sacrifices, the absolute independence of the +Island. Moreover, even were the promise made under the guarantee of the +United States Government, the Cubans could not be convinced of the good +faith of Spain, or that when once they had abandoned their struggle, +laid down their arms, and given Spain the advantage, she would act +otherwise than she had during her entire occupation of the Island. They +felt sure that if her advances were graciously met, she would, when she +again had the balance of power, simply impose upon the Island new +indignities, and cover her treachery with fair words and vague promises +whenever the United States might enter a protest.</p> + +<p>Spain expressed indignation at the shortsighted policy of the Cuban +leaders, and then gave demonstration of how she intended to punish Cuba. +She renewed her persecution of individual Cubans, and her cruelty toward +Cuban sympathizers who while nursing their cordial feelings for<a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a> the +revolution had not yet taken up arms against Spain. It was only +necessary that such persons should be suspected, and that suspicion +might be of the slightest variety. They were immediately seized and +thrown into dungeons and tortured to extract their confessions; the +right of trial was at this time almost entirely dispensed with, and +victims of Spanish wrath were put to death without an opportunity to +defend themselves, and executed in ways which are usually associated +with the most barbarous savageness. So glaring did these outrages become +that General Cespedes undertook to write a letter to the Spanish +Government at Madrid concerning them, although why, knowing the +character of his opponents as he did, he should have entertained the +idea that this mild intervention on his part would have the slightest +effect, or should have imagined that Spain was not cognizant of the +actions of her legionaries in Cuba, and that such actions were performed +without her fullest sanction, is not revealed. Cespedes certainly +displayed a childlike faith in the ultimate spark of good in depraved +human nature, when he took up his pen for such a communication. But be +that as it may, he addressed the following epistle to the "Supreme +Government of Spain."</p> + +<p>"The respect inspired by the laws of nations, which, under the influence +of modern civilization has, as far as possible, deprived war of its +savage character, imposes on us the obligation of addressing the Spanish +Government an energetic remonstrance, in consequence of several +offensive acts, which could not be known without causing offense to the +civilized world. From the time when the standard of Independence was +raised in Cuba, unworthy motives have been attributed to our contest. We +shall not explain the justice of the Cuban Revolution, for such an +explanation would be unpleasant to that Government,<a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a> and besides it is +not now necessary; but we may say, in general, a colony is justified in +severing the knot which binds it to the mother-country, if it possesses +sufficient elements to live independently.</p> + +<p>"Colonial life is restricting, it can never entirely satisfy the +aspirations of an intelligent people, and, therefore, it cannot be +justly imposed upon them when they are in a position to maintain their +political existence.</p> + +<p>"A vicious rule, which was dissipated in Spain by the popular rising of +September, made worse, we might say intolerable, the colonial existence +of the Cubans.</p> + +<p>"The Cubans have decided to conquer with the sword, as they can obtain +in no other manner the exercise of their most important rights. Weighty +motives prevent their government from being more explicit in so delicate +a matter, but it is certain that only taking into consideration the +results of the war, no other relations are now possible between Cuba and +Spain, than those of a friendly spirit based on the condition of perfect +independence.</p> + +<p>"In addition to what we have already stated, a political party armed +from commencement of the struggle, under the denomination of Spanish +Volunteers, and known by their intolerance and retrograding tendencies, +have converted a question of ideas into a question of petty personal +interest; wresting the authority from those delegates of that +government, and imposing their caprices like laws; giving an indecorous +character to official manifestations relating to the revolution; and in +entire forgetfulness of the rights of man, have perpetrated incredible +crimes, which cast a blot on the history of Spain in America.</p> + +<p>"To relate all in detail would be very painful to us, and to the +government whom we are addressing.</p> + +<p>"It is sufficient to say that the troops charged with preserving the +Spanish dominion occupy themselves, in<a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a> preference, in persecuting the +families who reside in the territories of the Republic, by depriving +them of all they possess, burning their habitations, and have even gone +several times so far as to make use of their arms against women, +children and old people. At the very moment whilst we are writing this +remonstrance, an awful example has occurred.</p> + +<p>"On the 6th of January of the present year, a Spanish column, commanded +by Colonel Acosta y Alvear, while marching from Camaguey to Ciego de +Avila, assassinated in its march these citizens of Juana, Mora de Mola +and Mercedes Mora de Mola; the children, Adrina Mola, aged twelve, +Agnela Mola, aged eight, and Mercedes Mola, aged two years. The horror +which is produced by crimes of such enormity, above all in the minds of +those who are far from the theatre of the events, is such as to make +them appear hardly credible, if we did not take into consideration the +demoralization of an army accustomed to pillage and violence, which +generally has no limits.</p> + +<p>"Such excesses doubtless are not with the consent of the Supreme +Government of a nation, in which the spirit of modern times has made +very eloquent manifestations.</p> + +<p>"If Spain will not grant to us the happy establishment of their acquired +liberties, recognizing the right of the Cubans to the separation, we +hope she will at least be disposed to guarantee the observation of human +principles in the prosecution of the struggle; and as some chiefs of the +liberating forces have on several occasions demanded in vain from the +opposing chiefs a proper method of conducting the war, we now ask the +Supreme Government of the Spanish nation to enter into arrangements to +protect the lives of the prisoners, and secure the inviolability of the +individuals who, on account of their sex, age<a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a> and other personal +considerations may be exempt from liabilities protesting that we shall +not be responsible, if such Spanish chiefs will not regard what we now +offer, for the terrible consequences which will certainly follow this +barbarous system of warfare.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"We give publicity to the present dispatch, that it may come to the +knowledge of foreign governments.</p> + +<p>"Headquarters of the Government.</p> + +<p class="r">"<span class="smcap">Carlos Manuel de Cespedes.</span><br /> +President of the Cuban Republic.</p> + +<p>"January 24, 1871."</p> +</div> + +<p>The foregoing did have the effect of acquainting the world with Spanish +atrocities, but its influence in restraining the further perpetration of +outrages, or in producing any official action by Spain looking toward +that desirable end, was absolutely nil.</p> + +<p>It possibly did impress the United States Government, confirmed as it +was by constant complaints from citizens of the United States, resident +in Cuba. At any rate, the United States issued a rebuke to Spain for the +indignities inflicted on American citizens in Cuba, and backed up this +communication with an order to her navy to stand by and protect the +lives and property of Americans in Cuba, and to maintain the dignity of +the flag of the United States.</p> + +<p>The Cuban forces were at this time suffering from grave disorder. +Attacks by the enemy were not so menacing to the success of the struggle +as internal disruptions and dissention among the leaders of the +Republican army. They grew so serious that an actual break occurred, and +on January 19, General Cornelio Porro proved disloyal to the cause of +freedom, and in company with some other supposed patriots, entered +Puerto Principe and surrendered to the Spanish Government, while at the +end of the<a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a> month, Eduardo Machado, the Secretary of the Cuban House of +Representatives, wrote to the Captain-General, Count Valmaseda, stating +that the Cuban House of Representatives had dissolved and beseeching +clemency for the former members of that body. He added that Señor Miguel +G. Gutierrez was a fugitive, wandering about with his little son.</p> + +<p>It naturally was a severe blow to loyal patriots to find such treachery +within their own ranks, although they may have comforted themselves with +the truism that such has always been the case in rebellions against a +powerful ruler. The weak, the fearful, and the selfish have abandoned +the cause, when its fate seemed wavering. They may also have justly +argued that, if these men were traitors, loyal supporters of the cause +of freedom were well rid of them; that the strength of an organization +is like that of the proverbial chain, and that it becomes shorter but +immeasurably stronger by the removal of the weak links. Whether they +were sustained by any such comforting philosophy or not, the defection +of Porro and Machado did not for a moment cause the loyal Cuban leaders +to falter from their purpose to secure freedom for Cuba. To strengthen +the courage of loyal Cubans, President Cespedes and Ignacio Agramonte +issued proclamations in which they expressed the greatest faith in the +Cuban cause, and its ultimate victory, and urged all loyal hearts to +maintain their support of the battle for liberty.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_005x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_005x_sml.jpg" width="365" height="550" alt="IGNACIO AGRAMONTE" title="IGNACIO AGRAMONTE" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">IGNACIO AGRAMONTE</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>One of the foremost heroes of the Ten Years' War was Ignacio +Agramonte y Loinaz, a member of one of the most distinguished +families in Cuban history. He was born in Camaguey in 1841, was +educated for the bar, and became an eminent advocate, writer and +orator, with intense devotion to the cause of Cuban independence. +Immediately upon the outbreak of the revolution at Yara in 1868 he +took the field and showed himself a born leader of men. He was made +Secretary of the Revolutionary government, signed the Emancipation +act and the Cuban Constitution, and then returned to active work in +the field. As Major General he participated in many battles, +including the capture of a part of Camaguey on July 20, 1869. +President Cespedes made him Chief of the Department of Camaguey, +and for a time he succeeded Quesada as commander in chief of the +Revolutionary Army. He fell in the battle of Jimaguayu on July 1, +1873.</p></div> + +<p><a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<p>W<small>HILE</small> these things were occurring in the "Ever Faithful Isle," there +were doings of epochal significance in Peninsular Spain. Queen Isabella +had, as we have seen, for some time been an exile, and on June 25, 1870, +the Serrano republican government forced her to sign a final manifesto +of abdication. The government itself, however, was far from strong, and +was unable to stand against strong opposition in the Cortes. It was +shortly overthrown by a vote of that body, and a monarchical form of +government was re-established. The crown was formally offered to and +accepted by Amadeus, son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, on +December 4, 1870. When this news reached Cuba, the Spanish troops on the +island took formal oath of allegiance to the new king of Spain.</p> + +<p>The reestablishment of a monarchy was, of course, exceedingly pleasing +to the Volunteers, for they had no sympathy with a republic, and the +freedom which it was supposed to entail, although in the case of the +republic in Spain, few changes or concessions had been extended to its +Cuban subjects. The Volunteers promptly took oath to support the +monarchy, and denounced the republican constitution. They embraced this +as a favorable opportunity to further an end of their own. They had long +suspected the Bishop of Havana of being in sympathy with the revolution. +He was at this time absent in attendance at the Vatican Council at Rome, +and the Volunteers were able so to manipulate matters that, upon his +return on April 13, 1871, he was refused permission to land.</p> + +<p>Believing that the new government would give even<a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a> more cordial support +to their machinations than had the previous one, the Volunteers now +began a system of persecutions against Cuban patriots. The Volunteer +corps, in 1872, numbered eighty thousand members, and in 1870 and 1871 +they could not have fallen far below that number. They were so powerful +that the Captain-General must either conform to their wishes or sooner +or later give way to a successor whom they selected. Now there was +published in Havana a paper, called <i>La Voz de Cuba</i>, which was really +the "<i>Voice of the Volunteers</i>," for its editor, Gonzalo Castanon, was a +Colonel of that organization. It busied itself, among other things, with +attacks on the patriots, and took occasion to voice some derogatory +remarks concerning Cuban women. Naturally the Cuban husbands, sons, +fathers and lovers were hot with indignation against such calumny. +Castanon paid the just penalty of his scurrilous lack of chivalry, for +he was challenged by an outraged Cuban and in the duel which followed he +received a mortal wound. He was buried in a tomb in the Espada Cemetery. +Some time afterward, a party of young students—hardly more than +boys—from the University of Havana, visited the cemetery, and it was +reported to the authorities that one of them had been heard, while +standing near the tomb of Castanon, to make remarks derogatory to the +dead Colonel. This information was given by a Spanish soldier, who +claimed to have overheard the conversation, and when it was repeated to +a Spanish judge, the accusation was added that the boy's companions had +defaced the glass which closed the Castanon tomb. The Volunteers +immediately pounced upon the happening, as a delightful opportunity to +chastise and punish the members of wealthy families in Havana who were +suspected of aiding and abetting the revolution. The power of the +Captain-General<a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a> was invoked, and forty-three students were arrested and +brought to trial. They were ably defended by a Spanish officer, Señor +Capdevilla, and he made such a good case for their innocence that they +were acquitted. The Volunteers, however, were not satisfied. Injustice +had in some manner miscarried, how they could not conceive, and justice +had triumphed. Such things would not do in dealing with Cubans. They +made a vigorous appeal to the Captain-General, and obtained from him an +order for assembling a second court martial, and this time they saw to +it that their own body was well represented in that body. The boys were +again apprehended, and the trial which ensued was a tragic farce, in +which they were given not the slightest chance for justice. Eight of +them were condemned to death, and the others to imprisonment at hard +labor. Consternation reigned among the best families of Cuba. One +distracted father offered a ransom of a million dollars for the life of +his son, but without avail. On November 27, 1871, the condemned +criminals, whose worst offence, if indeed there was any offense at all, +was the utterance of an indignant remark about a ruffian who had +attacked those dearest to all loyal, chivalrous and patriotic hearts, +the women of Cuba, were led out and shot in the presence of fifteen +thousand Spanish Volunteers, all under arms. In after years when the +wrong was beyond repair, justice was done to the memory of these +martyred youths, for not only did the Spanish Cortes, with admirable +fairness, investigate the matter and pronounce in favor of the innocence +of the students, but also the son of Castanon came to Cuba from Spain +with the object of removing thither his father's remains, investigated +the condition of the tomb, and made a sworn statement before a notary +that it had never been disturbed.<a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a></p> + +<p>The murder of the students of course created intense feeling in Cuba; +Havana was in a turmoil, and the sentiment engendered by this and +similar outrages committed or incited by the Volunteers swelled the list +of those who were in sympathy with a speedy release for Cuba from +Spanish rule. The scene of the tragedy has since been marked by the +Cuban government with a tablet which bears this inscription:</p> + +<p>"On the 27th of November, 1871, there were sacrificed in front of this +place, by the Spanish Volunteers of Havana, the eight young Cuban +students of the First Year of Medicine:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="margin:1% auto 1% 2%;"> +<tr><td align="left">Alonzo Alvarez de la Campa, </td><td align="left">Jose de Marcos Medina,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Carlos Augusto de Latorre, </td><td align="left">Eladio Gonzales Toledo,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Pascual Rodriquiz Perez,</td><td align="left">Anacleto Bermudez,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Angel Laborde,</td><td align="left">Carlos Verdugo.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>To their eternal memory, this tablet is dedicated, the 27th of November, +1899."</p> + +<p>While these events were taking place, and in spite of the troubles which +had beset them within their own ranks, the Cuban leaders maintained a +force of fifty thousand men in the field, and gained an important +victory in the vicinity of Mayari. This was more than offset by an +occurrence which struck brutally at the very foundation of the Cuban +army. In July, 1871, the Spanish defeated at Guantanamo a force of two +hundred men, under General Quesada, but this was trivial compared with +the catastrophe which it involved. General Quesada was taken prisoner, +as was General Figueredo, and in August these two loyal patriots who had +so ably supported the revolution, and the former of whom had been the +brains of the army, were executed by the Spaniards. The deepest gloom +filled the hearts of the Cuban leaders, and their<a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a> discouragement is the +only explanation which can be offered of what followed, when a force of +Cubans, who had been operating in the central part of the island, under +General Agramonte, deserted, and approaching the Spanish authorities, +agreed to lay down their arms, provided their lives would be spared. The +Spaniards accepted their offer, and promptly gave out a statement that +the Cuban army was disrupted and that all that remained was a few slaves +under General Agramonte. They were to learn, however, that the Cubans +still had some fighting spirit left in them. Although the defection of +so large a body of his command left only thirty-five men under +Agramonte, he speedily recruited a new company, and was able to harass +the Spanish for two years longer, until he was killed in battle.</p> + +<p>The death of General Quesada left the post of Commander-in-Chief of the +Cuban army vacant, and General Modeste Diaz was elected to that office. +An official report made by the Cubans at this time shows the composition +of the army to have been:</p> + +<div class="corps"> +<p class="c"><i>Army Corps of Oriente.</i></p> + +<p class="c">Commander-in-Chief, General Modeste Diaz</p> + +<p class="c">Division of Santiago de Cuba; Major-General Commanding, Maximo Gomez</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="center"><i>Regiments</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>Commander</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>Localities</i> <i>No. of Men</i></td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="center">1 and 2</td><td align="left">Col. Jesus Perez</td><td align="left">Cobre</td><td align="left">600</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">3</td><td align="left">Lt. Col. Prado</td><td align="left">Baracoa</td><td align="left">450</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">Lt. Col. Guillermo Moncada </td><td align="left">Baracoa</td><td align="left">550</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">5</td><td align="left">Lt. Col. Pacheco</td><td align="left">Guantanamo</td><td align="left">450</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">6</td><td align="left">Brig. Calixto Garcia</td><td align="left">Jiguani</td><td align="left">600</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Total</td><td +style="border-top:1px solid black;" align="left">2,650</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="c">Division of Holguin—General Commanding, Jose Inclan</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="center"><i>Regiments</i></td><td align="center"><i>Commander</i></td><td align="center"><i>Localities</i> <i>No. of Men</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">Co. Fco. Herrero </td><td align="left">West</td><td align="left">300</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">Gen. Inclan</td><td align="left">East</td><td align="left">500</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Total</td><td align="left" +style="border-top:1px solid black;">800</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a></p> + +<p class="c">Division of Bayamo—General Commanding, Luis Figueredo</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="center"><i>Regiments</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>Commander</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>Localities</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>No. of Men</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">Maj. Gen. N. Garrido </td><td align="left">Manzanillo</td><td align="right">550</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">Gen. Luis Figueredo</td><td align="left">Bayamo</td><td align="right">450</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">Total</td><td align="right" +style="border-top:1px solid black;">1,000</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left">Grand Total Army Corps of Oriente</td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">4,300</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="c"><i>Army Corps of Camaguey</i></p> + +<p class="c">Commander-in-Chief, General Vicente Garcia</p> + +<p class="c">Division of Las Tunas—General Commanding, Vicente Garcia</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="center"><i>Regiments</i></td><td align="right"><i>Commander</i></td><td align="right"><i>Localities</i></td><td align="right"><i>No. of Men</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">General Vincente Garcia</td><td align="left">Santa Rita</td><td align="right">650</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">Brig. Francisco Vega</td><td align="left">Arenas</td><td align="right">400</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td align="right">Total</td><td align="right" +style="border-top:1px solid black;">1,050</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="c">Division of Camaguey—General Commanding, Ignacio Agramonte</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="center"><i>Regiments</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>Commander</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>Localities</i></td> +<td align="center"><i>No. of Men</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">Lt. Col. La Rosa</td><td align="left">Guaican Amar</td><td align="right">300</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">Col. Agramonte Porro</td><td align="left">Guaican Amar</td><td align="right">400</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">3</td><td align="left">Lt. Col. Espinosa</td><td align="left">Guaican Amar</td><td align="right">250</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">Lt. Col. Manuel Suarez</td><td align="left">Guaimaro</td><td align="right">300</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">5</td><td align="left">Lt. Col. Antonio Rodriguez</td><td align="left">Cubitas</td><td align="right">200</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right" +style="border-top:1px solid black;">1,450</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Grand Total Army Corps of Camaguey</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">2,600</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="c"><i>Army Corps of Las Villas</i></p> + +<p class="c">Commander-in-Chief, Major-General Matso Casanova</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"><i>No. of Men</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Division of Trinidad, General Commanding, Brig. Juan Villegas</td><td align="right">700</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Division of Sancti Spiritus, General Com'ding, Brig. Jose Villamie</td><td align="right">800</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Division of Villa Clara, General Commanding, Brig. Carlos Ruloff</td><td align="right">600</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Division of Cienfuegos, General Commanding, Brig. Juan Villegas</td><td align="right">700</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Division of Remedios, General Commanding, Brig. Salome Hernandez</td><td align="right">600</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Grand Army Total of Las Villas</td><td align="right" +style="border-top:1px solid black;">3,400</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Grand Total</td><td align="right">10,300</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>In June, 1871, three regiments under General Maximo Gomez—that able +soldier and patriot who was to figure so largely in the final struggle +against Spain in 1895—were instructed to take up their position and +endeavor to hold the line between Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo, and +they accordingly entrenched themselves in the Loma de la Gallista, but +they were almost immediately attacked by the Spanish. The battle was +hotly contested for four hours and ended in a victory for the Cubans. +The Spanish<a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a> losses included arms and ammunition which were eagerly +appropriated by the conquerors. A few days later, a Spanish force +renewed the attack, advancing fifteen hundred strong against the men +under Gomez, and again they went down to defeat, their total losses in +the two battles amounting to one hundred killed, and a large number +wounded. In addition to this, the Cubans took fifteen Spaniards +prisoners. What must have been still more gratifying was an encounter +which a small band of Cubans had about this time with a company of +Volunteers, in which twenty-five of the latter were made prisoners.</p> + +<p>On July 3, Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Guevara with a company of Cubans +was encamped at La Cabana del Estribo, when they were attacked by a +force of three hundred Spaniards. He promptly ordered the camp +abandoned, covering his retreat by a weak fire on the enemy. The Cubans +were unable to make a more vigorous resistance, because they were +inadequately supplied with ammunition, even though, with plenty of +supplies, their position at La Cabana del Estribo might have been +considered an advantageous one. But with the odds so greatly against +them, the Cubans killed five Spaniards, and wounded forty others, among +whom was Pedro Popa, one of those who had turned traitor to the cause of +the revolution. But the Spaniards took vengeance on two practically +defenseless persons. On their retreat, with their wounded, they met +Major Baldoguin and two companions, who were on their way to see +Lieutenant-Colonel Guevara, and captured Major Baldoguin. They took him +to Bayamo, and in spite of the fact that he was severely wounded, they +executed him at once upon arrival at that city.</p> + +<p>A few days later, the same force which had attacked Lieutenant-Colonel +Guevara at Estribo, were reported to<a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a> be again advancing against him. He +sent a company of infantry to meet them, and an engagement ensued which +lasted for over an hour. The Spaniards retreated to Los Toros, leaving +behind them fifty-three killed and wounded. On this occasion Guevara's +son was wounded, and one private was killed.</p> + +<p>A few days previous, on the evening of July 4, a small Cuban force +attacked the Spanish camp at the village of Veguita, and harassed the +enemy during the entire night, and the next day a company from the same +division of the Cuban army had an engagement with a hundred and fifty +Spanish cavalry, and put them to flight. The Cubans pursued them, and +forced them to take a stand, when a fight took place which lasted an +hour. The Cubans did not suffer a single casualty, while several of the +Spaniards were killed, and they were obliged to retreat.</p> + +<p>On July 25, Major Dominguez with a small force, attacked the sugar +plantation of Las Ovas, and sacked it almost in the presence of the +Spaniards, who were encamped only about half a mile distant, on the +Esperanza estate. Having accomplished this feat, Major Dominguez's +soldiers raided a nearby estate, which was owned by Tomas Ramirez, +another of those who had turned traitor. All the buildings on this +plantation were set on fire, and razed to the ground, as were also those +on the estate of Antonio Lastes. Curiously enough, although the +Spaniards in much larger numbers, were near at hand, and must have been +cognizant of these happenings, they made no attempt to interfere.</p> + +<p>A few days later, Major Noguera, with a small band, attacked forty of +the enemy on a road leading to Bayamo, and put them to rout, capturing a +considerable stock of supplies. This same band of patriots a little +later encountered<a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a> a company of fifty Spaniards, who were driving a herd +of cattle toward El Huinilladero. They opened fire, and dispersed the +Spaniards, wounding an officer, and taking possession of the cattle, +together with a supply of cartridges, horses with their equipment, +blankets and provisions.</p> + +<p>On July 30, several companies from the division of Bayamo and Manzanillo +attacked a force of a hundred Spaniards who were strongly entrenched +near La Caridad. After a fight which lasted not over half an hour, the +Spanish were dislodged from their trenches, and fled into a nearby wood. +The Cubans followed, forcing the Spaniards into the open, and, after a +brief engagement, put them to rout. One Spaniard was captured, and he +gave information that the Spanish forces had lost seventeen men killed, +and that in their flight they had thrown away their rifles, which were +afterward recovered by the Cubans, who also took possession of a large +amount of supplies of all kinds.</p> + +<p>The estate of La Indiana had been fortified by the Spaniards, and on +August 4, General Gomez led an attack against it. The Spanish put up a +strong resistance, but the Cubans were able to take the buildings, and +capture thirty-five Spaniards. The entire district of Guantanamo was at +this time practically controlled by the insurgents. They destroyed +fourteen coffee plantations, and did other damage to the property of +Spanish sympathizers. On August 8, the Spaniards made an attack at El +Macio, but it was unsuccessful. For the next week there was one +engagement after another, with victory first with the Spaniards and then +with the Cubans, but the results were not of moment to either of the +belligerents. The Cubans were not able to marshal a sufficiently large +or well equipped force to venture a decisive battle, and so<a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a> kept up an +annoying guerrilla warfare. Late in the month they advanced to the +outskirts of Santiago, destroying all plantations which lay along the +line of march, and defeated the Volunteers in an unimportant engagement. +Perhaps the most serious defeat that they inflicted on the Spanish at +this time was the destruction of the fortified camp at Miguel, in the +district of Sagua de Tanamo. Earlier in the month they had attacked and +taken a fortified camp in the neighborhood of Santa Isabel. All the +buildings were burned to the ground, twenty-six Volunteers were killed, +and a large quantity of stores was taken. There followed other +engagements in which the odds and the victory were with the Spaniards, +and the Cuban patriots were put to rout with heavy losses. But for the +most part in guerrilla warfare the Cubans had the advantage and made the +most of it.</p> + +<p>Late in August, a force under Major Villanueva and Captain Rios +surprised some Spanish soldiers at breakfast near Malangas. The +Spaniards largely outnumbered the Cubans, but the attack was so sudden +that they fled, leaving their rice and salted beef behind them. In this +engagement eight Spaniards were killed.</p> + +<p>On the first day of September, news reached Major Noguera that the enemy +were convoying a stock of supplies in the neighborhood where he was +stationed. He divided his men and concealed them at different points +along the road over which the Spaniards must pass. Six Volunteers and +one regular soldier were killed, and the enemy abandoned to the Cubans a +number of carts, filled with food stuffs, carbines, machetes, and other +supplies.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_006x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_006x_sml.jpg" width="364" height="550" alt="CALIXTO GARCIA" title="CALIXTO GARCIA" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">CALIXTO GARCIA</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>One of the most gallant figures in the patriot ranks in the Ten Years' +War and the War of Independence was that of Calixto Garcia e Iñiguez. +Born at Bayamo on August 4, 1839, he was in the prime of young manhood +when he took the field under General Marmol in 1868. Soon as a brigadier +general he was the right-hand man of Maximo Gomez, and was made by him +commander in chief in Oriente when Gomez himself marched westward. After +six years of almost incessant and victorious fighting, he was surprised +and surrounded at San Antonio de Baja, when, rather than be captured, he +placed the muzzle of a pistol in his mouth and fired. The bullet pierced +the roof of his mouth and came out at the centre of his forehead. The +Spaniards then took him to a military hospital and, respecting his +valor, nursed him back to health. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was +released, whereupon he took the lead in the Little War. He was in Spain +in 1895 and could not get into the War of Independence until March, +1896, but thereafter he was one of its chief warriors. After the close +of the war he was sent to Washington on a diplomatic mission, and died +there on December 11, 1898.</p></div> + +<p>September 18 was to be a memorable day in the year's fighting, for on +that date General Calixto Garcia with three regiments advanced against +Jiguani, where a large force of Spaniards were garrisoned. The latter +defended<a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a> the town for two hours, but in the end the Cubans were +victorious, and gained control of the major portion of the town and its +fortifications. Many houses were burned, and two hundred Spaniards lay +dead in the streets. General Garcia then retreated, carrying with him a +large quantity of captured supplies, since he did not have a large +enough force to complete the occupation of Jiguani. He was pursued by +the Spaniards who had been reinforced, but the patriots made good their +escape with only slight losses.</p> + +<p>Throughout the entire months of August and September the eastern part of +the island was in a constant state of uproar and confusion. Attack and +counter-attack followed in succession, and yet neither side was any +nearer a significant victory or a decision.</p> + +<p>On October 23, the Spaniards gained a victory over the Cubans at El +Toro, and in November the insurgents turned the tables by defeating the +Spanish forces under Captain Ferral y Mongs. So the war continued, the +whole country witnessing the destruction of plantations, the burning of +buildings, the pillaging of villages, and loss of life as well as of +property. In the end it was the land of Cuba that suffered, for from a +once prosperous country it bade fair to be transformed into waste lands.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Cuban forces were slowly degenerating. The Spaniards were +well fed, well clothed and well equipped, while the Cuban forces were +poorly armed, often hungry, and in torn and ragged garments. The +resources of Spain reinforced her army, but the patriots had to rely on +chance help that came to them from their American sympathizers. Nothing +in their existence was certain, and as the war was prolonged without +their gaining a victory which seemed to bring the end nearer, the weaker +spirits began to despair and there was dissension<a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a> and an undercurrent +of revolt among the common soldiers. In vain the leaders tried to put +heart into their forces, and desertions became alarmingly common. The +reductions in numbers compelled the Cuban leaders more and more to +resort to guerrilla warfare. This involved deplorable destruction of +property, valuable holdings of both loyalists and patriots were rendered +valueless, and naturally the morale of both armies suffered from a +spirit of lawlessness. By the end of 1871, two thirds of the farms and +coffee and sugar plantations in the district of Trinidad were destroyed +or abandoned, and the entire central portion of the island had suffered +grievously.</p> + +<p>Valmaseda on December 27, 1871, issued a proclamation to the effect that +after the first of the year every prisoner would be shot, and every +patriot who delivered himself up would suffer life imprisonment. This +applied to both negroes and white men; while all white women captured +would be banished, and all negro women would be returned to their +owners, and condemned to wear chains for a period of four years. +However, prior to that date, only if four days distant, the leaders or +any of the soldiers would lay down their arms and announce their +allegiance to Spain, they would be received with kindness and clemency. +This might have had more effect than it did but for the fact that the +Cubans were distrustful of promises of clemency, and feared that if they +escaped the vengeance of the government, they would later suffer at the +hands of the Volunteers.<a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<p>A<small>T</small> the beginning of 1872 the storm center of the insurrection moved +eastward to Puerto Principe, Santiago and Guantanamo. Engagements in the +vicinity of these places had been frequent, and now they were almost +daily consisting chiefly of little skirmishes between small forces of +men.</p> + +<p>It was estimated that by this time Spain had sent to the island in the +neighborhood of sixty thousand trained soldiers, but they had come few +at a time, and on no occasion in larger numbers than two or three +thousand. Evidently the Spanish Government had at no time properly +estimated the strength, if not in numbers, at least in valor and +determination of the insurgents, and had never realized that only by +investing the island with overwhelming superiority could they hope to +put down the rebellion. However, during all this time Spain had been +struggling against disturbances at home of no mean dimensions, and early +in the year 1872 she was to endure another revolution, and the +abdication of Amadeus, followed once more by a republican form of +government. Records compiled by both sides prove that the war continued +during the year 1872 with the same persistence, unchanged in character, +and apparently no nearer a decision. The Spanish government, both at +home and abroad, seems to have suffered at this time from great +apprehension that the United States government would officially +recognize the Cubans as belligerents, in which event their position +would be materially strengthened. In February Spain sent more troops to +Cuba, at the request of Captain-General<a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a> Valmaseda, who accompanied his +appeal by a statement—for publication, and to impress the United +States—that the war would be over by April or May.</p> + +<p>March found the struggle continuing, and on March 5, General Cespedes +himself, with a large body of Cuban troops, succeeded in taking Sagua de +Tanamo by storm. In this same month aid came from the United States, for +the steamer <i>Edgar Stewart</i> arrived with arms, ammunition and supplies +for the Cuban army.</p> + +<p>Small engagements took place all during April, and in May the Cuban +leaders issued a statement to the effect that if Valmaseda was expecting +that the war would soon be ended, he was not taking into consideration +the strong resistance which the Cubans were still able to offer, and +which they intended to continue until Spain granted them independence. +Truly the war might end at once, but Spain would end it not by force of +arms but by acceding to the frequently expressed desire of Cuba for +complete separation from her rule, by withdrawing the offensive +government, and by transporting her troops back to their native land.</p> + +<p>Early in June the Cubans defeated the Spaniards near Las Tunas, and on +the 9th of that month, after heavy fighting, took Sama. The Cuban losses +in these engagements were heavy in comparison with the number of men +involved, but they were able to comfort themselves with the knowledge +that the Spanish killed and wounded totaled a much greater number, for +while the Cubans had only fifty killed and less than a hundred wounded, +the Spanish left dying on the battle field more than four times as many +as the Cubans, and their wounded amounted to three hundred and fifty. +But the Spanish navy was able to capture an expedition bearing relief to +the Cubans, and to defeat a band of patriots at Holguin, so that it +would<a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a> seem that the honors for the month were about equal.</p> + +<p>In July, General Garcia attacked Spanish troops under the Governor of +the Province, Colonel Huertas, and a very hot fight resulted, in which +the victory fell to the Cubans; and when Spanish reinforcements arrived, +they too were routed and put to flight. But this was offset by the fact +that General Inclan, one of the bravest and most loyal of the Cuban +commanders, as well as an expert tactician, fell into the hands of the +enemy, and was summarily executed at Puerto Principe.</p> + +<p>Count Valmaseda, Captain-General, now ran foul of the displeasure of the +Volunteers, and suffered a downfall in consequence. On July 15 he was +recalled, and General Ceballos served in his place until the arrival of +his successor, Don Joachim Jovellar.</p> + +<p>It now seemed time again for the Spaniards to assert themselves against +defenseless sympathizers with the revolution. Spies were busily at work +in Guira, Jiguani and Holguin, and presently they purported to discover +grave disloyalty among the members of some of the well known Cuban +families. This was the signal and the excuse for a wholesale slaughter +of innocent unoffending people, who, whatever their feelings, had taken +no active part in the uprising. As a means of reprisals the Cubans made +an attack on Guira, but it was not entirely successful.</p> + +<p>The people of the United States were now following the insurrection with +much interest, particularly in those portions of that country in which +there were large numbers of sympathizers, and they were no longer +willing to ignore well authenticated reports of Spanish cruelty. A State +Convention of the Republican party was held at Jacksonville, Florida, +where there were many who were friendly to the Cuban patriots, and +adopted a resolution,<a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a> denouncing the action of the Spanish authorities +in Cuba as cruel and inhuman, and calling upon Congress to pass the +necessary legislation to make it possible for the United States +government to extend such aid to the Cubans as "becomes a great and free +republic, whose people so ardently sympathize with the struggles and +hopes of the oppressed of all nations." However, the Government at +Washington did not look with favor upon this suggestion, and ignored it, +and it had little effect in stemming the tide of Spanish oppression in +Cuba.</p> + +<p>The close of the year 1872 registered a splendid victory for the +patriots, when on December 20 they stormed and took Holguin, and +captured large quantities of supplies of all kinds.</p> + +<p>Public documents compiled by the Spanish in August, 1872, estimated the +losses of the patriots up to that time as "thirteen thousand six hundred +insurgents—and a large number taken prisoner" while "sixty-nine +thousand six hundred and forty were in submission to the government; our +thousand eight hundred and forty-nine firearms, three thousand two +hundred and forty-nine swords and bayonets, and nine thousand nine +hundred and twenty-one horses were captured."</p> + +<p>When, in 1873, Spain once more became a republic, the Cuban patriots had +high hopes that their independence would be recognized, but these were +soon dashed to the ground, when the Spanish government sent an appeal to +the Cubans to lay down their arms, and to entrust their fortunes to the +doubtful mercies of the new rulers of Spain, with the idea that Spain +needed the co-operation of her colonies to bring about the permanence of +the new government, which it was represented would result in a fair and +equitable Spanish rule in Cuba. These overtures were promptly rejected, +and the patriots made preparations<a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a> to continue their struggle, adhering +with tenacity to their one goal, complete independence. The Spanish +government then appealed to the Volunteers, but that was such an +aristocratic organization that it had no sympathy with democracy, and no +desire to ally itself too closely with a republican form of government; +wherefore for once it refused to aid in coercing the patriots.</p> + +<p>New Year's day, 1873, was doubly a gala occasion, because on that date +another relief expedition arrived from the United States, which brought +much needed supplies. The Cubans continued to harass the Spaniards, and +on the occasion of one successful engagement captured a number of horses +which were turned over to General Agramonte for his cavalry regiment. +This was one of the best organized regiments in the army, and had done +good work against the enemy, but it was soon to lose its leader, for in +May, 1873, General Agramonte was killed while charging the enemy at +Jimaguaya, and his command was taken over by Major-General Maximo Gomez.</p> + +<p>Meantime another change was made in the head of the Spanish insular +government, and Don Candido Pieltain succeeded to the office of +Captain-General.</p> + +<p>But there was serious trouble among the leaders of the Republic of Cuba. +No man in as high a position as that which General Cespedes occupied +could escape exciting jealousy. The Cubans were actuated by high ideals +and motives, but they were only human. Rumors derogatory to the +administration of General Cespedes began to be circulated, and on +October 27, 1873, the House of Representatives, assembled at Vijagual, +preferred charges against him of having in the administration of his +duties exceeded the powers which the Republic had conferred upon him. He +was tried and found guilty, and removed from office. By this action, a +great injustice was done<a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a> to a man whose sole thought was the good of +his country, and who had given his best endeavors in its service. His +removal was a hard blow to the cause of the Republic, because it gave +the enemy notice of dissension among the patriots, placed the republican +government in a bad light in the eyes of the rest of the world, and lost +to the Cuban cause a loyal and efficient leader. General Cespedes +accepted without complaint the will of the Assembly, and took leave of +his office, after delivering a very eloquent and convincing address, +protesting his innocence of any thought of wrong. He was now in a +delicate position, for he was not in good standing with those with whom +he had cast his lot, and a price had been set on his head by the +Spaniards. He took refuge with a friend, and remained virtually in +hiding, until on February 27, 1874, he was betrayed by a negro who had +been captured by the Spaniards and who sought their clemency by +delivering Cespedes to them. He was taken prisoner and speedily executed +by the garrote.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 221px;"> +<a href="images/ill_276pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_276pg_sml.png" width="221" height="337" alt="SALVADOR CISNEROS BETANCOURT" title="SALVADOR CISNEROS BETANCOURT" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">SALVADOR CISNEROS BETANCOURT</p> + +<p>The Marquis of Santa Lucia, patriot and statesman, was born in +Camaguey on February 10, 1828, and from boyhood was an ardent +advocate of Cuban independence. In early life he joined the +Liberator Society of Camaguey, and because of his activities was +arrested and confined for a time in Morro Castle. He was one of the +leaders of the Ten Years' War from its beginning, participated in +the making of the Constitution, and succeeded Cespedes as President +of the Revolutionary government. Old as he was, he eagerly joined +in the War of Independence and took part in several battles. He was +a member of the Constitutional Assembly of 1895, and was elected +President of the Republic in Arms, which office he held until +October 10, 1898. Then he retired to private life, and died on +February 28, 1914.</p></div> + +<p>The office of President was filled temporarily by Don<a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a> Salvador Cisneros, +Marquis de Santa Lucia, the Chairman of the House, in the absence of the +Vice-President of the Republic, who was temporarily out of the country. +Cespedes had been the only one of the Cuban leaders who had really made +a study of civil government, and who was thus qualified for the position +of President. While Cisneros was a man of fine education, and great +intelligence, he was neither a leader of men nor a wise administrator, +and the downfall of Cespedes marked the beginning of the end of the long +struggle, and foreshadowed the final defeat of the Cubans.</p> + +<p>But now came an incident which for a time bade fair to bring the United +States into the quarrel. There was a small side-wheel steamer called the +<i>Virginius</i> which had for a long time been active in running the Spanish +blockade of the Cuban coast and in conveying reinforcements and +contraband supplies to the insurgents. She was under the command of +Captain Fry, an American citizen, and a veteran of the Civil War, in +which he had served on the side of the Confederates. The vessel was +manned by American and British seamen, and flew the American flag. In +October, 1873, at Port au Prince, Captain Fry took on board his vessel +five hundred Remington rifles, six hundred sabres, four hundred +revolvers, and other arms and ammunition intended for the Cuban army. +The steamer was well known to the Spanish navy, which had long been +seeking to capture her.</p> + +<p>The end came on October 31. The <i>Virginius</i> was hastening toward Cuba +with her questionable cargo when off the south coast she was sighted by +a Spanish cruiser, the <i>Tornado</i>, which had by curious coincidence, been +built by the same builders as had the <i>Virginius</i>. Her captain +recognized the <i>Virginius</i> and gave chase. Captain Fry, who had been +vainly trying to effect a landing<a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a> with his supplies and his men, some +of whom were going to Cuba to fight with the patriots, gave up the +endeavor and endeavored to escape to British waters at Jamaica; but the +<i>Tornado</i> soon overhauled the <i>Virginius</i> and took her with her +passengers and crew, numbering one hundred and seventy. When capture +seemed inevitable, an attempt was made to dump the cargo overboard, but +the <i>Tornado</i> captured the <i>Virginius</i> before this could be +accomplished. The vessel was taken to Santiago de Cuba, where four of +the passengers were at once recognized by the authorities as officers in +the revolutionary army, and were speedily sentenced to death. The +official Spanish report of the execution was as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="r"> +"Santiago de Cuba, Nov. 4, 1873.</p> + +<p class="nind">"To His Excellency, the Captain-General:</p> + +<p>"At six o'clock this morning, we shot in this city, for being +traitors to their country, and for being insurgent chiefs, the +following persons, styling themselves 'patriot generals': Bernabe +Varona, alias Barnbeta, General of Division; Pedro Cespedes, +Commanding General of Cienfuegos; General Jesus Del Sol; and +Brigadier-General Washington Ryan. The executions took place in the +presence of the entire corps of Volunteers, the force of regular +infantry, and the sailors from the fleet. An immense concourse of +people also witnessed the act. The best of order prevailed. The +prisoners met their death with composure."</p></div> + +<p>There followed a summary court martial of the remainder of the company; +conducted according to the ruthless Spanish fashion, and under the +domination of the implacable Volunteers. The result was that Captain Fry +and forty-eight of the crew and passengers, including a number of +Americans and Englishmen, were sentenced to death. The sentence was +promptly executed, despite<a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a> the earnest and urgent official protests of +the American and British consuls of Havana and their demands for at +least a decent delay of proceedings to enable them to consult their +governments and to have interviews with the condemned men. In fact, the +American consul was prevented from doing anything more than to protest +by being made a virtual prisoner in his own house, under a strong guard +of Spanish soldiers; under the pretence that in the excited state of +public feeling it would be unsafe for him to go upon the street.</p> + +<p>The tragedy began on the afternoon of November 7, at 4 o'clock. The +scene was the chief public square of Santiago. It was ordered that the +victims should be shot in groups of four; all the others being compelled +to witness the fate of their fellows. As on the former occasion, a great +company of the Volunteers attended the butchery, together with a +multitude of the populace. In the first group of four was Captain Fry +himself. He refused to have his eyes bandaged, or to turn his back to +his slayers, and with his latest breath spoke words of comfort and cheer +to his comrades. The other victims of that day's slaughter were James +Flood, mate; J. C. Harris, John N. Boza, B. P. Chamberlain, William +Rose, Ignacio Dueñas, Antonio Deloyo, Jose Manuel Ferran, Ramon La +Wamendi, Eusebio Gariza, Edward Day, Francisco S. Trujillo, Jack +Williamson, Porfirio Corbison, Pedro Alfaro, Thomas Gregg, Frank Good, +Paul Plumer, Barney Hewals, Samuel Card, John Brown, Alfred Hosell, W. +F. Price, George Thomas, Ezekiel Durham, Thomas W. Williams, Simeon +Brown, Leopold Larose, A. Arcey, John Stewart, Henry Bond, George +Thomson, James Samuel, Henry Frank, and James Read—35 men beside the +Captain. More than two-thirds of them were obviously, judging from their +names, Americans or Englishmen.<a name="page_280" id="page_280"></a> It is probable, however, that many of +these names, as also those of the passengers, were assumed, in order to +conceal the identity of their bearers in just such an emergency as this.</p> + +<p>The next day, November 8, the massacre was continued, the victims of +that day being Arturo Mola, Francisco Mola, Louis Sanchez (who was in +fact Herminio Quesada, an active revolutionist), Jose Bortel, Augustin +Varona, Salvador Pinedo, Enrique Castellanos, Joseph Otero, Francisco +Rivera (otherwise Augustin Santa Rosa, an active patriot), Oscar Varona, +Justus Consuegra, and William S. Valls—12 in all; making with the 35 +and the Captain of the day before, and the four of November 4, the total +of 52. But even this wholesale slaughter did not appease the blood-lust +of the Volunteers, or of General Burriel, the Spanish commander at +Santiago. Ninety-three more of the passengers of the <i>Virginius</i> were +held in prison under sentence of death, which there was every reason to +fear would be executed.</p> + +<p>But a militant Providence intervened. The British government learned of +what had been done, and of what was threatened. In consequence, as +quickly as engines under forced draught could drive her thither, the +British cruiser <i>Niobe</i> sped to Santiago harbor. She entered the inner +harbor, rounded broadside to the city, and double-shotted her guns. Then +her captain, the intrepid Sir Lambton Lorraine, went ashore and demanded +of General Burriel that there should be no more murders. That worthy +protested that it was no affair of Sir Lambton's, since there were no +British subjects among the men. This latter statement was false, though +Sir Lambton did not know it, and may have thought it true. But Sir +Lambton knew his business. He curtly replied that the nationality of the +prisoners did not enter into his consideration of<a name="page_281" id="page_281"></a> the affair; he +was there to stop the butchery, and the butchery must stop. The Spanish +general retorted hotly that he was not yet under British rule, and that +until he was he would take his orders from the Captain-General of Cuba. +To that Sir Lambton replied that as for him, he took his orders from the +Queen of England, at whose command the <i>Niobe</i> lay in the harbor with +her guns double-shotted and trained on the city, the biggest of them, +indeed, aimed at the governor's palace; and he gave warning that the +slaying of another prisoner would be the irrevocable signal for every +gun to be put into action. It was enough. There were no more shootings; +and presently all the prisoners were released.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_007x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_007x_sml.jpg" width="550" height="358" alt="A SANTIAGO SUNSET" title="A SANTIAGO SUNSET" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">A SANTIAGO SUNSET</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Cuba is world-famed for its land-locked harbors, described as +bottle-shaped, or purse-shaped, with a narrow but deep entrance leading +to a spacious inland lagoon, secure from storms and affording room for +vast fleets to ride at anchor. One of the largest and finest of these is +at the old capital, Santiago; so large that a scene upon its waters +appears like one on the open Caribbean. It was from this harbor that +Admiral Cervera's fleet emerged to be destroyed in the great sea fight +which broke the power of Spain in Cuba.</p></div> + +<p>Following is a list of the captured passengers on the <i>Virginius</i>, who +were bound to Cuba for the purpose of serving in the revolution. It does +not include those who were bound for the island on legitimate personal +business, but does include those already mentioned as having been put to +death:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Pedro Cespedes</td><td align="left">Manuel Padron</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Arturo Mola</td><td align="left">Alexandro Cruz Estrada</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Jose Diaz</td><td align="left">Felix Fernandez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Francisco de Porras</td><td align="left">Juan Soto</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Juan Merrero</td><td align="left">Manuel Perez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Jose Medeo</td><td align="left">Jose Otero</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Raimundo Pardo</td><td align="left">Jose Antonio Ramon</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Francisco Gonzales</td><td align="left">Radom Barrios</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Jose Palaez</td><td align="left">Ignacio Valdes</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leonardo Alvarez</td><td align="left">Jose Santesteban</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Julio Arango</td><td align="left">Felix Morejon</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Jose Hernandez</td><td align="left">Francisco Pacheco</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Nicholas Ramirez</td><td align="left">Evaristo Sungunegri</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ignacio Quentin Baltran </td><td align="left">Ramon Gonzalez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Perfecto Bello</td><td align="left">Antonio Chacon</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Benito Glodes</td><td align="left">Francisco Rivero</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Louis Sanchez</td><td align="left">Sireno Otero</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Nicholas Reriz</td><td align="left">Carlos Pachero</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Juan Alvarado</td><td align="left">Antonio Padilla</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Jose Boitel</td><td align="left">Enrico Canals</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ricardo Calvo</td><td align="left">Indalecio Trujillo</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Augustin Varona</td><td align="left">Domingo Diaz</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Silverio Salas</td><td align="left">Carlos Gonzalez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Domingo Salazar</td><td align="left">Oscar Varona</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Justus Consuegra</td><td align="left">Alfredo Lopez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Jose Ignacio Lamar</td><td align="left">Andres Villa</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Andres Acosta</td><td align="left">Francisco Castillo</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Benjamin Olazara</td><td align="left">Salvador Penedo</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Enrique Castellanos</td><td align="left">Rafael Pacheco</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Alejandro Calvo</td><td align="left">Camito Guerra</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Jesus de Sol</td><td align="left">Camilo Sanz</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leon Bernal</td><td align="left">Emilio Garcia</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Rafael Cabrera</td><td align="left">Amador Rosello</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ignacio W. Tapia</td><td align="left">Manuel A. Silverio</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Santiago Rivera</td><td align="left">Antonio Gomez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Andres Echeverria</td><td align="left">Luiz Martinez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Jose Maren</td><td align="left">Pedro Sariol</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Pedro Saez</td><td align="left">Miguel Saya</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Severo Mendive</td><td align="left">Patricio Martinez</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Enrique Ayala</td><td align="left">Manuel Saumel</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Domingo Rodrigue</td><td align="left">Luis Rebollo</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Arturo Rivero</td><td align="left">Carlos Manin</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">William S. Valls</td><td align="left">Ramon R. D. Armas</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Manuel Menenses</td><td align="left">Joseph A. Smith</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">General Ryan</td><td align="left">Philip Abecaler</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">William Curtis</td><td align="left">Samuel Hall</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">S. Gray</td><td align="left">Sidney Robertson</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">George Winter</td><td align="left">William Marshall</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Evan Pento</td><td align="left">George Burke</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ricardo Trujillo</td><td align="left">Gil Montero</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leopoldo Rizo</td><td align="left"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_283" id="page_283"></a></p> + +<p>These occurrences, when known, aroused tremendous excitement and wrath +in the United States, and there was much talk of war. But the +government, under the wise counsel of Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, +kept its head and resorted to diplomacy before force. The Spanish +government, too, kept its head. It realized that its officers in Cuba +had acted outrageously, and that their deeds must be disavowed. So it +agreed, on December 8, to surrender the <i>Virginius</i> on December 16, to +release all surviving passengers and sailors and deliver them safely to +an American warship at Santiago, and to punish all Spanish officials who +had acted illegally. There remained the supposed outrage to the American +flag, which the <i>Virginius</i> was flying when she was fired upon and +seized. The Spanish government agreed to make amends by saluting the +American flag at Santiago on Christmas Day, provided it could be proved +that the <i>Virginius</i> had a right to carry it. But as a matter of fact +the vessel had no such right. The Attorney-General of the United States +gave, before the day set for the salute, the opinion that the vessel was +the property of General Quesada and other Cubans, and therefore had no +right to sail under the American flag. The final settlement of the +affair occurred in February, 1875, when the Spanish government paid an +indemnity of $80,000 to the United States, and a smaller sum to Great +Britain, for their citizens who had been slaughtered. The <i>Virginius</i> +was lost at sea while being returned to the United States.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the patriots had not ceased fighting, and on November 9 they +met the Spaniards in a battle in which<a name="page_284" id="page_284"></a> a large force was engaged on +both sides. They were equally matched, each belligerent having about +three thousand men in the field. The Cubans were victorious, and they +lost only a hundred men killed and double that number wounded, while the +Spanish losses were four times as many killed, and six hundred wounded.</p> + +<p>Stories of Spanish cruelty to prisoners and to peaceful citizens +continued to be heard, and the Cubans were not content to allow these to +remain unsubstantiated. In 1873, Cuban sympathizers compiled a statement +which they called "The Book of Blood." In some manner they gained access +to Spanish records, and used not their own personal knowledge but the +official reports of the Spaniards themselves as a basis for their +accusations. The acts complained of were not confined to one year, but +covered the administrations as Captain-General of Lersundi, Dulce, +Rodas, Ceballos, Pieltain and Jovellar. There was almost no comment; +simply a plain statement of facts. The book commences with the names of +three thousand nine hundred and twenty-seven persons, exclusive of men +killed in battle, who had been brutally murdered by the Spaniards. The +dates and places of execution are given, so that there can be no mistake +as to the accuracy of the data. Following this is a list of four +thousand six hundred and seventy-two prisoners, captured by the +Spaniards, who had simply dropped out of sight, and whose fate had never +been determined. Next there is a record of one hundred and ninety-one +men who had been garrotted. There are the names of eighty-four men who +had been court-martialled in accordance with the decree of February 12, +1869, and under orders from the Captain-General; then the names of five +men condemned for life to hard labor in the chain gang of the penal +colony of Ceuta; the names of five others who had<a name="page_285" id="page_285"></a> been given the same +sentence for a period of ten years, twenty sentenced for eight years, +and one for six years. After this is a list of men condemned to the +chain gang, place unknown, five for ten years, two for eight years, +seventeen for six years, three for four years, and one hundred and +fifty-eight from two to eight years. Then comes a list of two hundred +and fifty men from all walks of life, including superintendents of +plantations, attorneys at law, brokers, bankers, one architect, +clergymen, carpenters, druggists, engineers, farmers, masons, military +officers, notaries, Post Office clerks, railroad clerks, one British +Consul, three dentists, several police officers, surveyors, pilots, +students, shoemakers, silversmiths, physicians, an artist, seventeen +property holders, seven teachers, five tobacco manufacturers, a tailor, +fifteen sailors, musicians, boatmen, sugar makers, journeymen, and even +one schoolboy, who had been transported on May 21, 1869, to the island +of Fernando Po, off the coast of Africa. They were reported to have been +badly treated; so badly in fact that forty-seven died on the voyage or +immediately on landing. Besides this there is a report of forty-four men +transported to the penal colonies of Africa.</p> + +<p>A defense is made against the charge that the Cubans had during the war +been no more merciful than the Spaniards. It was claimed that during the +first years of the war, when a number of officers had been captured by +the patriots, they were not executed, but were placed under parole not +to attempt to escape. They broke their parole, and in return for the +merciful conduct of their former captors they became the most violent +and brutal of all the Spanish officials in their persecution of the +Cubans. On the other hand, when men of Spanish birth approached the +patriots expressing sympathy for their cause, and a desire to fight for +independence, their services were accepted<a name="page_286" id="page_286"></a> and in every instance they +proved to be spies, who furnished the Spanish leaders with valuable +information and delivered their Cuban comrades into the hands of the +enemy. It was alleged that up to August, 1869, the Cuban leaders adhered +to their policy of fair and decent treatment of their captives, and when +they learned of the brutal conduct of the Spaniards, General Quesada +addressed a message to General Lesca, and endeavored to effect a mutual +agreement on the subject. The reply received declared that the Spaniards +saw no reason to depart from their custom in the matter of this and left +the Cubans no alternative but to resort to similar measures. General +Quesada therefore ordered the execution of sixty-seven persons who had +voluntarily taken up arms under the Cuban banner, and who had later been +apprehended in a conspiracy to betray the patriots. It is stated that +the report of the affairs erroneously added an extra numeral to the +figures, which caused the number to be stated as six hundred and +seventy.</p> + +<p>In proof of the truth of the statements contained in the "Book of +Blood," an account from the Spanish journal "Diario de la Marina," under +date of March 24, 1870, is cited:</p> + +<p>"All the officers, sergeants and corporals who were in the hands of the +enemy have been shot. In connection with many Cubans they had planned a +counter-revolution, and had concerted the delivery of all rebel +chieftains to General Puello. Two days before the one appointed by this +gallant general to commence his march, he sent a messenger to Captain +Troyano with the news of his advance. The bearer of the news was +arrested, however, and searched, the letter was found, and on the +following day, the messenger, our officers, and the Cubans compromised +in the counter-revolution, were shot, thus sealing<a name="page_287" id="page_287"></a> with their lives +their devotion to their beloved mother country."</p> + +<p>This seems to be an ample corroboration of the fact that the men in +question were shot as traitors and not as prisoners of war. Another +Spanish officer, Don Domingo Graino, a Captain of the Volunteers, under +date of September 23, 1869, writes:</p> + +<p>"More than three hundred spies and conspirators are shot monthly in this +jurisdiction. Myself alone with my band have already disposed of nine."</p> + +<p>We have also this testimony from Jesus Rivacoba, an officer of the +Volunteers:</p> + +<p>"We captured seventeen, thirteen of whom were shot outright; on dying +they shouted, 'Hurrah for Free Cuba!' A mulatto said, 'Hurrah for +Cespedes!' On the following day we killed a Cuban officer, and another +man. Among the thirteen that we shot the first day were found three sons +and their father; the father witnessed the execution of his sons without +even changing color, and when his turn came he said he died for the +independence of his country. On coming back we brought along with us +three carts filled with women and children, the families of those we had +shot; and they asked us to shoot them, because they would rather die +than live among Spaniards."</p> + +<p>Still another officer of the Volunteers, Pedro Fardon, writes:</p> + +<p>"Not a single Cuban will remain in this island, because we shoot all +those we find in the fields, on the farms, and in every hovel.</p> + +<p>"We do not leave a creature alive when we pass, be it man or animal. If +we find cows we kill them; if horses, ditto; if hogs, ditto; men, women +and children, ditto; as to the houses, we burn them; so everyone +receives his due<a name="page_288" id="page_288"></a>—the men in balls, the animals in bayonet-thrusts. The +island will remain a desert."</p> + +<p>At the end of the year, the forces under General Maximo Gomez were +victorious over those under the Spanish General Bascones, in the +district of Camaguey, while the fortified town of Manzanillo was on +November 11 taken by storm and occupied by troops under General Garcia. +The Cubans lost forty-nine killed and eighty wounded, while the +Spaniards lost two hundred killed and one hundred and thirty wounded. On +December 2, the battle of Palo Seco occurred. Seven hundred patriots +under General Gomez were arrayed against a thousand Spaniards. A lively +fight took place, and the Spaniards were put to flight in such disorder +that they abandoned their wounded, their arms and their impediments. +They lost several officers and two hundred common soldiers, while the +Cubans captured seventeen officers, one of them being a +Lieutenant-Colonel. The Cuban casualties were small in comparison, being +ninety killed and one hundred and six wounded. Among the stores left +behind by the fleeing Spaniards were twelve revolvers, sixteen thousand +five hundred cartridges, two hundred and fifty Remington rifles, eighty +horses, and thirty mules, their packs containing ammunition, clothing +and a small amount of money.<a name="page_289" id="page_289"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<p>A<small>T</small> the beginning of the year 1874 a <i>coup d'etat</i> placed Serrano again +at the head of the government in Spain, but in Cuba there was no change. +The struggle was still continued. The first battle of the year was on a +larger scale than the majority of those which had preceded it. At +Naranjo, on January 4, two thousand Cubans under General Gomez were +victorious over four thousand Spaniards, and the Cuban losses were +slight in comparison with those of the enemy. Again, at Corralillo, on +January 8, the Cubans scored a triumph, and on the next day a third +victory was achieved at Los Melones by the forces of General Garcia.</p> + +<p>Don Joachim Jovellar, the Captain-General, declared the island to be in +a state of siege, and in a bold but hardly successful attempt to swell +the Spanish forces proclaimed a conscription of all men from twenty to +forty years old, and exacted the payment of a thousand dollars in gold +in lieu of compliance with this decree. He antagonized the Volunteers, +who considered themselves of much finer quality than the Spanish common +soldiers, by demanding that one-tenth of their number be allotted to and +placed under the command of the regular army. The Volunteers resisted +this order, and made an attempt to secure Jovellar's removal from +office, but were unsuccessful, and he continued to take the most +extraordinary measures, stating that he would summarily put down the +rebellion; and yet the fighting steadily continued.</p> + +<p>General Portillo was considered one of the most able of the Spanish +officers, and it was expected that he would<a name="page_290" id="page_290"></a> be able to inflict great +losses on the insurgents, hence the Spanish leaders were greatly +chagrined when he went down in defeat at the hands of General Gomez, who +then proceeded to administer a like chastisement to the forces under +General Arminan, who had taken up his position at Guasimas, and who was +forced to make his escape to Puerto Principe, abandoning his command, +all of whom were killed, wounded or taken prisoner. In all the history +of the war no such victory had ever before been won. The battle had +raged for three days and nights, and at its inception General Arminan +had been at the head of an army of three thousand men. When the +Spaniards had heard how Arminan was faring, they had sent General +Bascones to the rescue, but he never got through to aid Arminan, for he +was routed by the Cubans while on his way.</p> + +<p>Jovellar was a little less confident, after these occurrences, that it +would be a simple matter to put down the rebellion. He seems to have +lacked the quality of resolute perseverance, and when matters were +against him he resigned his office, and again Don José de la Concha +returned to take charge of Spanish affairs in Cuba. Now Concha had been +<i>persona non grata</i> with the Volunteers and he was not received by them +with great enthusiasm. He began at once upon assuming office to take the +force out of the decrees promulgated by Jovellar, by greatly modifying +their terms, and promising freedom to all blacks who would serve in the +army for a period of five years.</p> + +<p>In April, 1874, Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, made public +announcement in Washington that during the five years of the war the +Spanish losses had totaled more than eighty thousand men and officers, a +large number of these casualties being due to sickness caused by<a name="page_291" id="page_291"></a> +unsanitary conditions, while Spain had spent over one hundred million +dollars in her ineffective efforts to put down the revolution. He +further stated that it did not appear that she was likely to accomplish +this speedily, since the revolutionary government seemed quite as +powerful and as active as in the beginning.</p> + +<p>The history of the year 1875 was one of unimportant engagements, small +skirmishes and guerrilla warfare, no important battle being fought until +the year had about reached its close, when Gomez suffered a severe +defeat at Puerto Principe, which is believed to have been the turning of +the tide against the Cubans. Meanwhile the United States began to +display a strong interest in Cuban affairs.</p> + +<p>On November 5, 1875, a letter was sent by the State Department to Caleb +Cushing, then United States minister to Madrid, containing the following +information, intended, of course, as admonition to the Spanish +government:</p> + +<p>"In the absence of any prospect of a termination of the war, or of any +change in the manner in which it has been conducted on either side, the +President feels that the time is at hand when it may be the duty of +other governments to intervene, solely with a view of bringing to an end +a disastrous and destructive conflict, and of restoring peace in the +island of Cuba. No government is more deeply interested in the order and +peaceful administration of this island than is the United States, and +none has suffered as the United States from the condition which has +obtained there during the past six or seven years. He will, therefore, +feel it his duty at an early day to submit the subject in this light, +and accompanied by an expression of the views above presented, for the +consideration of Congress."<a name="page_292" id="page_292"></a></p> + +<p>For some strange reason, Mr. Fish seemed to have lost his usual cool +wisdom; for he went perilously near to ignoring the Monroe Doctrine, so +sacred to all the traditions of American diplomacy, when he directed +that a copy of this letter be forwarded to General Robert C. Schenck, +the United States Minister at London, directing him to ask for the +support of Great Britain in his position.</p> + +<p>Following this action of his Secretary of State, President Grant, in his +message to Congress in December, 1875, said: "The past year has +furnished no evidence of an approaching termination of the ruinous +conflict which has been raging for seven years in the neighboring island +of Cuba. While conscious that the insurrection has shown a strength and +endurance which made it at least doubtful whether it be in the power of +Spain to subdue it, it seems unquestionable that no such civil +organization exists which may be recognized as an independent government +capable of performing its international obligations and entitled to be +treated as one of the powers of the earth."</p> + +<p>The Spanish government was very wrathful when these facts became known +to it and at once sent a note to Great Britain claiming that the United +States had no reason to bewail the Cuban situation, for on account of it +her commerce had increased; that Spanish had had under the most jealous +and watchful care, as regards the safety of their person and property, +all American citizens who were engaged in business ventures on the +island, and that most of them were making huge fortunes. A complaint was +made that the United States gave refuge to Cuban outlaws, and it was +alleged that all past claims of the United States growing out of the +Cuban difficulty had been or were about to be settled.<a name="page_293" id="page_293"></a></p> + +<p>However, Great Britain refused to have anything to do with an attempt, +in conjunction with the United States, to end the Cuban war, stating +that it was doubtful whether Spain would accept any terms that could be +offered, and that if she refused, Great Britain did not feel willing to +bring pressure to bear.</p> + +<p>Spain, in a note dated February 3, 1876, intimated that the reason why a +settlement of the insurrection in Cuba had not been effected was because +the insurgents would not come out into the open and fight, but preferred +to wage a guerrilla warfare from mountain fastnesses; that could they be +lured into the open, Spain had a sufficient force in the field promptly +to defeat them. It was further intimated that the Creoles were tiring of +the insurrection and that it was now being supported mainly by negroes, +mulattoes, Chinese laborers, adventurers, and deserters from the Spanish +army. Finally the assertion was made that when Spain was finally +victorious, as it was assumed that she would be, she would at once +abolish slavery, and put into effect the most liberal of administrative +reforms.</p> + +<p>In strange contradictions of these pretensions, Spain presently looked +to the United States Government to mediate in the affairs of Cuba, and +early in the year 1876 asked that it attempt to bring about an +understanding with the insurgents. Hamilton Fish, who was still +Secretary of State, replied, stating plainly the points which the United +States considered essential for the establishment of peace, law and +order in distressed Cuba:</p> + +<p>"1—The mutual and reciprocal observance of treaty obligations, and a +full, friendly and liberal understanding and interpretation of all +doubtful treaty provisions, wherever doubt or question may exist.</p> + +<p>"2—Peace, order, and good government in Cuba which<a name="page_294" id="page_294"></a> involves prompt and +effective measures to restore peace, and the establishment of a +government suited to the spirit and necessities of the age, liberal in +its provisions, wherein justice can be meted out to all alike, according +to defined and well-established provisions.</p> + +<p>"3—Gradual but effectual emancipation of slaves.</p> + +<p>"4—Improvement of commercial facilities and the removal of the +obstructions now existing in the way of trade and commerce."</p> + +<p>The Spanish government replied on April 16, making a specific answer to +each point made by the United States:</p> + +<p>"1—The government of his majesty is in entire conformity as regards +complying for its part with all the stipulations of the existing +treaties, and giving to them a perfect, friendly and liberal +interpretation in all that which may be the subject of doubt or +question.</p> + +<p>"2—The government of the king likewise proposes, because it believes it +necessary, to change in a liberal sense the régime hitherto followed in +the island of Cuba, not only in its administration but also in its +political part.</p> + +<p>"3—Not merely gradual and genuine, but rapid emancipation of the +slaves, because the government of his majesty recognizes and +unreservedly proclaims that slavery neither can nor ought to be +maintained in any of its dominions, by reason of its being an +anti-Christian institution and opposed to present civilization.</p> + +<p>"4—The government of the king finds itself in complete accord not only +as to increasing but as to extending to the furthest possible limit all +commercial facilities, and causing the disappearance of all the +obstacles which today exist, and which hinder the rapid and free course +of commercial negotiations."</p> + +<p>The United States made no further attempts at intervention,<a name="page_295" id="page_295"></a> and for the +time being the matter was dropped.</p> + +<p>During the year which followed, 1877, more and more the Cuban methods of +warfare merited the description which Spain had given of them. It became +a war of extermination, rather than battle for independence. Cespedes, +Quesada, Agramonte, and many other of the original leaders had died in +battle, or had been captured and murdered by the enemy. Foreigners, who +knew nothing of early ideals, and indeed little of early struggles, had +largely replaced the great Cuban patriots, and their idea was not so +much separation from Spain and conquest of the enemy as plunder. +Property was no longer respected, the once prosperous island was fast +becoming desolate, and on every hand deserted and ruined plantations +were covered with weeds, where once had been wide cultivated fields. The +insurgents were a motley array of men, of many races, and of varied +color, yellow Chinese, and all shades of mulattoes, with only a small +proportion of Creoles. The bands were now composed principally of +marauders, who destroyed everything that they could not steal. Their +victory no longer meant a triumph for democracy, and the establishment +of a liberal government where there was now an oppressive one, but +rather it would be a menace to civilization, hostile to all ideals of +law and order.</p> + +<p>The constitution of Spain's army at this period is reported to have been +two hundred and seventy-three superior officers; three thousand and +fifty-four subalterns; sixty-eight thousand one hundred and fifteen +privates, with an equipment of eight thousand four hundred and +seventy-eight horses; four hundred and sixty-two mules; forty-two field +guns, and plenty of small arms and ammunition. The men were properly +clothed, and well fed. Notwithstanding the confusion of the Carlist +uprising,<a name="page_296" id="page_296"></a> Spain had been able to send over, during the first year of +King Alfonso's reign, twenty-four thousand, four hundred and forty-five +soldiers, while her naval force included forty-five vessels, equipped +with one hundred and thirty-two guns, and manned by two thousand four +hundred and twenty-six men. Besides this, over ten thousand men were on +the high seas to reinforce the Spanish army. The disorganized, ragged, +weary, badly fed Cuban forces, with the lawless element which now +unhappily predominated among them had small chance of victory against +such overwhelming odds. Nothing but the natural topography of the +country, so favorable to guerrilla warfare, and the knowledge which the +natives had of its mountain strongholds, had enabled the Cuban army to +prolong thus far the war. The only thing which had saved the island from +entire economic destruction was the fact that the belligerents had not +invaded the western provinces, and their inhabitants had been free to +plant and reap and conduct their lives in an orderly fashion.</p> + +<p>The expenses of the war had made heavy inroads on the Spanish treasury, +and in August of this year, the Spanish capitalists had contributed +nearly twenty-five thousand pesetas toward the expenses of the army in +Cuba. As the season advanced, troop ships arrived at regular intervals. +In October, General Martinez Campos—one of the ablest soldiers and +statesmen in Spain—was appointed Captain-General of Cuba and commander +of the army, and he sailed from Spain to take over his command, +accompanied by fourteen thousand men. Determined that the revolution +should once for all be terminated, and not content with the sum which +Spain's bankers had placed at her disposal, the Spanish Cortes passed a +bill providing for a foreign loan,<a name="page_297" id="page_297"></a> which would be devoted to the +suppression of the insurrection.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the year 1877 thus saw the cause of liberty in a +precarious condition. The Cuban army had been so greatly weakened that +in the encounters which took place the Spaniards were constantly +victorious, and they were soon able to regain the major portion of the +territory which had previously been occupied by the revolutionists. The +time seemed favorable for a settlement of the difficulties in a manner +which, while offering a few concessions to the Cubans, might still be +greatly to the advantage of Spain. To the Captain-General this seemed +the proper occasion for some nice diplomacy, for coaxing with fair words +instead of coercing with violence. He therefore on May 5 issued a +proclamation which he felt would be effective in inducing the +revolutionists to abandon the struggle and to return to the doubtful +protection of allegiance to Spanish rule. His proclamation read as +follows:</p> + +<p>"Article I—From the date of this decree, all orders of banishment +decreed gubernatively by this Government for political motives are +hereby rescinded, and all proceedings now under way regarding the same +are hereby overruled.</p> + +<p>"Article II—The embargoes imposed gubernatively on insurgents who have +presented or may present themselves for pardon before the termination of +the war shall also be raised. There will, however, be excepted from the +favor of disembargo the property of backsliding insurgents and that of +the leaders of the insurrection, in respect to which this General +Government will adopt the measure it deems most convenient, according to +the special circumstances of each case.</p> + +<p>"Article III—The property, embargoed gubernatively,<a name="page_298" id="page_298"></a> of the disloyal +('infidentes') who have since died, shall also be released from embargo, +and delivered unto their lawful heirs, if these remain faithful to the +Spanish nation.</p> + +<p>"Article IV—The property referred to in the two preceding articles once +returned, its owners or holders shall not sell, assign, transfer or +burden it in any manner until two years after the official publication +of the complete pacification of the island.</p> + +<p>"Article V—The proceeds of property before its return shall be +considered as applied toward the expenses of the war, unless otherwise +provided for, and its owners without any right to make reclamation of +any nature whatsoever.</p> + +<p>"Article VI—None of those whose property has been released from embargo +shall either have the right to make reclamation for any loss or injury +that may have been suffered by the property or object returned them.</p> + +<p>"Article VII—To assist as far as possible in the return of said +property, this Government will authorize the Governors and +Lieutenant-Governors of the island to effect the same in each case, to +those comprised in this decree, whose property is situated within their +respective jurisdictions, with the due precautions which shall be +communicated to them from the office of the Secretary of the General +Government.</p> + +<p>"Article VIII—The judicial proceedings actually under way against +<i>infidentes</i> shall be forwarded until overruled, or judged, as may +result in law.</p> + +<p>"Article IX—Concerning the property adjudged to the State, by sentence +of competent tribunals, his Majesty's Government will decide in due time +whatever it may deem most convenient.</p> + +<p>"Article X—The requisite orders shall be issued<a name="page_299" id="page_299"></a> through the office of +the Secretary of this General Government, that the foregoing articles +shall be duly complied with by whom it may concern."</p> + +<p>Seven months later, on November 3, he promulgated a second decree +providing "that all estates ruined during the war, and in the way of +reconstruction, shall be free from contributions for five years, from +the date of the decree. Every new state and all new property acquired in +cities or villages of the central and oriental departments will have the +same privilege. All industries and commerce in said departments newly +established will be exempt for three years from contributions. All +female cattle, either Spanish or foreign, imported into Cuba with the +exclusive object of raising stock, will be duty free for two years."</p> + +<p>The first decree had the desired effect. A number of the Cuban leaders +surrendered in October, 1877. It is true that when some of these men +attempted to return to the Cuban lines and persuade the other officers +to join them in submission to Spanish authority, they were tried by +court-martial and sentenced. But the tide had turned, and was now +steadily flowing favorably for the Spaniards. The war was over. Cuban +independence had once more been postponed.</p> + +<p>Negotiations were entered into at Zanjon, in which General Maximo Gomez +represented the Cubans, and Captain-General Campos the Spanish +government. On February 15, 1878, the so-called Treaty of Zanjon was +signed; its terms being in brief as follows:</p> + +<p>"Article I—The political, organic and administrative laws enjoyed by +Porto Rico shall be established in Cuba.</p> + +<p>"Art. II—Free pardon for all political offenses committed from 1868 to +date, and freedom for those who are under indictment or are serving +sentences within or<a name="page_300" id="page_300"></a> without the island. Amnesty to all deserters from +the Spanish army, regardless of nationality, this clause being extended +to include all those who have taken part directly or indirectly in the +revolutionary movement.</p> + +<p>"Art. III—Freedom for the Asiatic coolies and for the slaves who may be +in the insurgent ranks.</p> + +<p>"Art. IV—No individual who by virtue of this capitulation shall submit +to and remain under the authority of the Spanish government shall be +compelled to render any military service before peace be established +over the whole territory.</p> + +<p>"Art. V—Every individual who by virtue of this capitulation may wish to +depart from the island shall be permitted to do so, and the Spanish +government shall provide him with the means therefor, without passing +through any town or settlement, if he so desire.</p> + +<p>"Art. VI—The capitulation of each force shall take place in uninhabited +spots, where beforehand the arms and ammunition of war shall be +deposited.</p> + +<p>"Art. VII—In order to further the acceptance, by the insurgents of the +other departments of these articles of capitulation, the +commander-in-chief of the Spanish army shall furnish them free +transportation, by land and sea, over all the lines within his control +of the Central Department.</p> + +<p>"Art. VIII—This pact with the Committee of the Central Department shall +be deemed to have been made with all the departments of the island which +may accept the conditions."</p> + +<p>In addition to this, there were reported to have been secret agreements, +which provided for "a civil governor with duties distinct from those of +a military governor; a provincial parliament in each of the three +departments; popular elections for municipal officers; the inclusion<a name="page_301" id="page_301"></a> of +the war debt in the public estimates of the island; the dissolution of +the Volunteer Corps of Havana, and the organization of a new militia to +be composed alike of Cubans and Spaniards; a representation of the +island in the Cortes; a recognition of the military rank of the +insurgent chiefs and officers, and those accredited with foreign +commissions, their rank 'to be effective only in the list of the Spanish +army in Cuba,' and the complete abolition of slavery in five years, with +indemnity."</p> + +<p>Both parties disregarded the terms of the treaty. Doubtless the Cubans +would have played with entire fairness, had it not been for the fact +that the Spaniards at once demonstrated that they did not intend to keep +their promises. General Garcia retained the title of "President of the +Republic," and the House of Representatives continued, until 1869, to +meet somewhere in the wilderness. General Campos made a bid for popular +favor, and went on record as advocating a peace which would be lasting. +The Spaniards had good cause not to desire resumption of warfare, and +the Cubans were too worn out to start any serious trouble. Campos wrote +a report to the Spanish government, couched in florid language and +breathing benevolence:</p> + +<p>"I do not wish to make a momentary peace. I desire that this peace be +the beginning of a bond of common interests between Spain and her Cuban +provinces, and that this bond be drawn continually closer by the +identity of aspirations and the good faith of both.</p> + +<p>"Let not the Cubans be considered as pariahs or minors, but put on an +equality with other Spaniards in everything not inconsistent with their +present condition.</p> + +<p>"It was on the other hand impossible, according to my judgment and +conscience, not to grant the first condition; not to do it was to +postpone indefinitely the fulfilment<a name="page_302" id="page_302"></a> of a promise made in our present +constitution. It was not possible that this island, richer, more +populous, and more advanced morally and materially than her sister, +Porto Rico, should remain without the advantages and liberties long ago +planted in the latter with good results; and the spirit of the age, and +the decision of the country gradually to assimilate the colonies to the +Peninsula, made it necessary to grant the promised reforms, which would +have been already established, and surely more amply, if the abnormal +state of things had not concentrated all the attention of government on +the extirpation of the evil which was devouring this rich province.</p> + +<p>"I did not make the last constitution; I had no part in the discussion +of it. It is now the law, and as such I respect it, and as such endeavor +to apply it. But there was in it something conditional, which I think a +danger, a motive of distrust, and I have wished that it might disappear. +Nothing assures me that the present ministry will continue in power, and +I do not know whether that which replaces it would believe the fit +moment to have arrived for fulfilling the precept of the constitution.</p> + +<p>"I desire the peace of Spain, and this will not be firm while there is +war or disturbance in the richest jewel of her crown. Perhaps the +insurgents would have accepted promises less liberal and more vague than +those set forth in this condition; but even had this been done it would +have been but a brief postponement, because those liberties are destined +to come for the reasons already given, with the difference that Spain +now shows herself generous and magnanimous, satisfying just aspirations +which she might deny, and a little later, probably very soon, would have +been obliged to grant them, compelled by the force of ideas and of the +age.<a name="page_303" id="page_303"></a></p> + +<p>"Moreover, she has promised over and over again to enter on the path of +assimilation, and if the promises were more vague, even though the +fulfillment of this promise were begun, these people would have the +right to doubt our good faith and to show a distrust unfortunately +warranted by the failings of human nature itself.</p> + +<p>"The not adding another one hundred thousand to the one hundred thousand +families that mourn their sons slain in this pitiless war, and the cry +of peace that will resound in the hearts of the eighty thousand mothers +who have sons in Cuba who are liable to conscription, would be a full +equivalent for the payment of a debt of justice."</p> + +<p>February 21, 1878, saw the Cuban insurrection officially at an end. The +Cubans laid down their arms and surrendered to the Spanish forces. On +March 1, telegrams announcing this fact were received by the Cortes in +Spain with the greatest rejoicing. On the next day a royal decree was +published at Havana announcing that Cuba was to be accorded the same +treatment which had been granted to Porto Rico; and many concessions +were nominally made to the former insurgents. Cuba was to be allowed to +have her own municipal government and city councils, and was to be +granted representation in the Cortes, while a second decree was +promulgated at Puerto Principe declaring the freedom of all slaves who +had been born since the enactment of the measure of February 10, 1869, +on the condition that within a month they presented themselves to the +authorities for the proper legal procedure. Spain had so frequently gone +on record, particularly in her efforts to enlist the sympathy of the +United States Government, that she would, immediately on a determination +of the war in her favor, declare the abolition of slavery, that she +could not now very well give the lie to her assurances. The +proclamation<a name="page_304" id="page_304"></a> at Puerto Principe, however, contained the extremely +unjust provision that all patriots who had taken part in the revolution +would not receive compensation for the financial loss suffered in the +freeing of their slaves, but that the loyal Spaniards would be +indemnified. It is not difficult to picture how this provision must have +impressed those patriots who had sacrificed everything in an effort to +free themselves from that very rule which was now imposing such an +unfair enactment upon them.</p> + +<p>Official Spanish reports give the following table of their losses yearly +during the Ten Years' War:</p> + +<div class="corps"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td><i>Year</i></td><td align="center"> <i>Force in Field</i></td><td align="right" +rowspan="12" valign="bottom">Total</td><td align="center"><i>Deaths</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>1869</td><td align="right"> 35,570</td><td align="right"> 5,504</td></tr> +<tr><td>1870</td><td align="right">47,242</td><td align="right">9,395</td></tr> +<tr><td>1871</td><td align="right">55,357</td><td align="right">6,574</td></tr> +<tr><td>1872</td><td align="right">58,708</td><td align="right">7,780</td></tr> +<tr><td>1873</td><td align="right">52,500</td><td align="right">5,902</td></tr> +<tr><td>1874</td><td align="right">62,578</td><td align="right">5,923</td></tr> +<tr><td>1875</td><td align="right">63,212</td><td align="right">6,361</td></tr> +<tr><td>1876</td><td align="right">78,099</td><td align="right">8,482</td></tr> +<tr><td>1877</td><td align="right">90,245</td><td align="right">17,677</td></tr> +<tr><td>1878</td><td align="right">81,700</td><td align="right">7,500</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td align="right" +style="border-top:1px solid black;">81,098</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><a name="page_305" id="page_305"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<p>T<small>HE</small> Spanish government had granted concessions to the Cubans, or what on +their face seemed to be concessions, but in actual administration, the +government remained practically the same. The power remained vested in a +military government, at the head of which was the Captain-General, whose +name was subsequently changed to Governor-General, but whose nature and +functions remained in the last analysis very little different from what +they had been before the revolution. The struggle had, however, given +the Cubans less fear of their tyrant. They had demonstrated that they +were able for ten years to keep up an armed resistance against their +oppressors, and one which had occasioned Spain a great loss of life, and +of property, and had caused her rulers to have many unpleasant hours, +struggling with vexing problems. Those who had accomplished this would +never again be quite the same. They could never again be ground beneath +the heels of Spanish tyrants in the same unresisting if not +uncomplaining fashion, which had been the regular order of things before +the revolution. Had a Lopez come to Cuba, he would have found a far +different people from those who failed to rally to aid him when in 1851 +he made his fruitless efforts to free the island.</p> + +<p>During 1878 two political parties were organized in Cuba, and another +was essayed, the proposed constitution of the latter forming the basis +for the platform of the Autonomistas, then the most radical of all Cuban +political organizations.<a name="page_306" id="page_306"></a></p> + +<p>The Liberal Party belied its name, for its platform was a most +conservative one. It followed closely the lines of the agreement with +Spain, as laid down in the Treaty of Zanjon, and the negotiations in +connection therewith, and it sought mainly to obtain the enforcement of +the promises which Spain made at that time, and in which, from long +experience, most Cubans had little faith—nor was this lack of faith +unwarranted. The party was really an organized movement to enforce the +provisions of the treaty. Its platform provided for the right to +assemble and to discuss political questions, the right of freedom in +religious worship, the removal of the restrictions which had been placed +on the press, and the right of petition. It also provided for the +protection of the homes and property of loyal Cubans, and for the right +of correspondence without censorship or interference from the Spanish +authorities. It stood for improvements in the criminal law, which would +make it impossible for the crimes which had been so prevalent to be +committed further against the persons and property of those who were in +sympathy with the liberation of Cuba. It also sought to obtain the +admission of Creoles to office on the island on the same basis as +Spanish born citizens, and above all a complete separation of the +military and civil functions of the government. It will be recalled that +one of the promises said to have been made by Spain was that there +should be a civil governor. By these means it hoped to abolish the +discrimination against the Creoles in the government of their own +country. Changes in taxation also had their part in the platform, with +an idea of obtaining a decrease of the high export duties.</p> + +<p>An analysis of the platform of the Union Constitutionalists shows +surprisingly little difference from that<a name="page_307" id="page_307"></a> of the Liberals. It also +provided for the right of petition, asked for an improvement in the +methods of administration of the laws—that is the abatement of the +perversion of those laws by unscrupulous Spanish officials, so that they +might be used as a club for protesting Creoles. The platform of the +Union Constitutionalists further stood for the enactment of special laws +for Cuba, which would be peculiarly suited to her needs, including +protection for the various industries and activities, the planters and +the tobacco raisers, and the removal of excessive export duties. It also +sought a commercial treaty with the United States, and the abolition of +slavery in accordance with the Moret law, with modifications which +seemed proper in the light of conditions in Cuba.</p> + +<p>A third platform was formulated, but it was never completely adopted, +and the party which drafted it died at birth, without a name. It took +the bull by the horns, and flaunted its conviction in the face of Spain. +It is a matter of conjecture whether if the leaders of this movement had +prolonged the life of the potential party, it would have long survived +active Spanish opposition. This platform provided for free trade, free +banks, free shipping, free labor, none but municipal taxes, the prompt +and complete abolition of slavery, the formation of a provincial militia +and universal suffrage. Its terms must have been a severe shock to the +Spaniards.</p> + +<p>No fewer than thirty representatives in the Spanish Cortes were allotted +to Cuba; but such representation was a farce, for pains were taken by +those who held the balance of power to see that so small a number of +Creoles were sent as representatives, and that the Spaniards so greatly +outnumbered them, that the Cuban vote counted for nothing, and Spain +still held complete power. This was the more regrettable and +exasperating, since the<a name="page_308" id="page_308"></a> Cubans so far as they were permitted to do so +sent men of the highest type to the Cortes. Among them, preeminently, +was Dr. Rafael Montoro, one of the ablest scholars and statesmen in +Cuban history, who was destined subsequently to play a great part in the +administration of the free and independent Republic of Cuba.</p> + +<p>It is self-evident that such conditions and the failure of Spain to live +up to her promises would be provocative of much dissatisfaction, and it +followed as a matter of course that those who had learned to rebel now +took that means of expressing their dissatisfaction. In fact the war had +never ceased, for soon after the signing of the treaty, as soon as Spain +had shown her hand, Calixto Garcia assembled a small band of rebels, and +continued to harass the Spanish in guerrilla warfare, taking up his +position in mountain fastnesses which were inaccessible except to those +who held the key to their labyrinthine paths, and biding his time in the +most annoying fashion possible until he felt matters were ripe for +another widespread armed rebellion.</p> + +<p>In August, 1879, in the districts of Holguin and Santiago there was a +serious renewal of hostilities. The rebels, so termed by the Spanish, +consisted mainly of freed blacks, and were under the leadership of three +mulattoes, Maceo, Brombet and Guilleamon. This movement thoroughly +frightened the authorities, and two thousand Spanish troops were +promptly sent to repress it. The insurgents were reinforced by large +numbers of runaway slaves—those who had demanded their liberty and had +had their request denied. The insurgents took advantage of the disturbed +condition of the country and sought to turn the general situation to +their advantage. They hid in the mountains, in dense woods, and in wild +places, and descended wherever and whenever<a name="page_309" id="page_309"></a> they could pillage and +burn without intervention from Spanish troops. So thoroughly did the +Spanish authorities dread a renewal of hostilities that the +Captain-General declared the province of Santiago to be in a state of +siege. Meanwhile the insurgents drew up a constitution for themselves, +and continued their activities for over six months, terrorizing the +people, destroying property and taking prisoners for ransom.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_008x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_008x_sml.jpg" width="364" height="550" alt="JOSÉ SILVERIO JORRIN" title="JOSÉ SILVERIO JORRIN" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">JOSÉ SILVERIO JORRIN</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>José Silverio Jorrin y Bramosio, a distinguished advocate, man of +letters and publicist, was born in Havana on June 20, 1816, and was one +of the pupils of José de la Luz at his famous school. After travelling +in the United States and Europe he became one of the leaders of the +Cuban bar and filled several judicial and other public offices. He was +at one time a Senator in the Spanish Cortes, from Camaguey. His chief +interest was in the advancement of the educational and economic welfare +of the island, and on subjects relating thereto he wrote a number of +important works. He wrote a Biography of Christopher Columbus and other +historical works, and had much repute as an orator. For some years he +was a leader of the Autonomist party, but later identified himself +actively with the cause of independence. He lived to see independence +assured if not actually yet achieved, dying in New York in 1897.</p></div> + +<p>Meantime General Garcia conducted a campaign in the neighborhood of +Santiago, which further complicated matters for the government. He had +planned a general uprising for December 15, with the expectation that +his small band would be largely reinforced by the arrival of +filibustering expeditions from the United States, with men and arms and +ammunitions. But he was disappointed, and the government retaliated by +making wholesale arrests of all persons, particularly blacks, who were +under the slightest suspicion of sympathy with the rebellion. Three +hundred and fifty blacks were arrested in Santiago alone. The rebels in +spite of their small numbers had been able to do so much damage to +property in this vicinity, that the government voted a hundred thousand +dollars for the relief of Santiago, and half that amount for the same +purpose in Puerto Principe.</p> + +<p>The general feeling of unrest, uncertainty and suspicion among the +Creoles was enhanced by the action of the government at Madrid in +publishing a manifesto, on April 6, 1880, demanding that the Cuban +government be assimilated with that of Spain, and promising in return +enactments which would greatly increase the material prosperity of the +colony. If Spain did not keep her promises with Cuba in a position to +protest, it was a foregone conclusion that the action contemplated by +the manifesto would not be productive of leniency in the<a name="page_310" id="page_310"></a> government of +the island, and it is not difficult to imagine with what wrath and +consternation the knowledge that such a plan could ever be formulated +filled the hearts of those who had struggled so long and so valiantly +and at so great personal sacrifice for the freedom of Cuba. The result +was a renewal of sporadic rebellions, and a seething turmoil of anger +and resentment on the part of the Creoles.</p> + +<p>In April, 1881, an attempt was made by the Spanish government by +concessions to allay the storm which it had raised, and on April 7, the +constitution of 1876 was again proclaimed. This granted to the Cubans +full rights of citizenship, and the rights of free speech, free press +and assembly, and representation. This was promptly modified on the very +day of its enactment by the promulgation of the order of January 7, +1879, which had the effect of muzzling the press which had only a few +hours before been freed. The other rights granted were of course +existent only in name, and thus Spain continued her old program of +stupid treachery.</p> + +<p>In 1882 an event occurred which for a time seemed likely to draw England +into the controversy. Three Cuban patriots, Maceo, Rodriguez, and a +third whose name is not of record, escaped from custody while they were +being transferred from one penal colony in Spain to another. They +hastened to gain English territory, and fled to Gibraltar. One of the +rights sacred to the English government was the right of asylum. This +the Spanish government proceeded to ignore. The Spanish consul notified +the English authorities that the fugitives must be returned to Spain, +and suggested as a method which would be productive of the least trouble +that at a time and place agreed upon they be sent across the border, +whereupon the Spanish authorities could apprehend<a name="page_311" id="page_311"></a> them without +difficulty and the controversy would be happily ended. Through some +misapprehension on the part of the British officials, this was done. But +the end was not yet. The British government, when it learned of the +occurrence, promptly demanded the return of the men to British soil, +under the right of asylum. The Spanish government exhausted all its +arguments in vain. Great Britain stood firm, but when Spain had +surrendered two of the fugitives, the matter was finally dropped and the +fate of the third one was left to the mercies of Spain.</p> + +<p>The history of Cuba was from this time on, until rebellion finally +flamed into the war in which, with the aid of the United States, she +gained her independence, one of petty persecutions, and retaliation by +continuous uprisings, small in character but indicative of the +smouldering fire. These were frequently aided by filibustering +expeditions sent by the Cuban Junta in New York.</p> + +<p>In 1885 a revolt took place in the provinces of Santa Clara and +Santiago, always the hotbed of rebellion. The rebellion was quickly +suppressed, but its leaders, and a large number of other Cubans, who +were merely under suspicion of complicity, were executed without trial. +One of the leaders, General Vidal, was banished from Cuba, but, when he +was about to leave for Jamaica, under an arrangement made with the +Spanish authorities, he was brutally murdered by hired assassins.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the administration of justice in Cuba would have been almost +ludicrous if it had not been tragic. The Spaniards openly practiced the +most egregious frauds at the polls, and by all the chicanery known to +corrupt politics kept the Creoles from the participation in the +government which Spain had so glibly promised them. One of the +interesting methods to prevent the<a name="page_312" id="page_312"></a> voting of the poor in Cuba was the +prohibition under a law passed on December 12, 1892, of bona fide +citizens from exercising the right of suffrage unless they paid the sum +of five dollars in taxes. This law applied to black and white alike, and +was prohibitive so far as the greater number of the former were +concerned.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile those Cubans who desired better things for their children than +the nightmare in which they themselves lived were eager for education +for their families, but for the most part education was a privilege +which belonged only to the wealthy. It was not until 1883 that there +existed schools of learning similar to high schools. It was not Spain's +game to educate the masses, for if an autocracy is to survive, too much +learning is a dangerous thing to be allowed to spread among the common +people.</p> + +<p>In 1887 the Spanish authorities decided, justly, that the treasury of +Spain was being deprived of revenues by the evasion of taxes, and that +this was being done by the connivance of the custom house officials. The +Governor-General therefore ordered the seizure of the custom house by +Spanish troops, and the wharfs and warehouses were placed under heavy +guard. After an investigation had been started a number of merchants +whose business was importing confessed that they had been doing business +in a way which deprived the government of certain revenues and asked +permission to change their entries. They were granted three days to do +this. The result was an enormous increase in revenue from the custom +house. The Governor-General proceeded from that time forth to keep a +strict watch on custom house matters, with the result that evasions of +the law were the exception.</p> + +<p>By 1887 the country was in such condition that it was unsafe for any man +to proceed unguarded for a mile or<a name="page_313" id="page_313"></a> two into the country. Neither the +person of any well-to-do planter, nor his property was safe. Outlaw +bands overran the highways, and took cover in woods and hills, from +whence they pounced on travelers, robbed and beat them, and took them +captive for ransom. The brigands were so daring and their depredations +assumed such proportions that martial law was declared in over a hundred +towns and villages. Incendiarism was rife, not only were planters robbed +and murdered, but their possessions were pillaged, their fields were +laid waste and their buildings were burned. Sanitary conditions on the +island were so bad that in the months of December, 1887, and of January +and February, 1880, two thousand cases of smallpox were reported. This, +of course, covered only a small portion of the cases actually existent, +and those who did not fall victim to smallpox were in danger of yellow +fever. Even Nature seemed to have entered into a conspiracy against the +unhappy island, for in 1887 there was an earthquake, and the following +year a violent cyclone, which went the whole length of the island, but +did its principal damage in the province of Santa Clara. Not less than a +thousand lives were lost.</p> + +<p>For a time, indeed, there was a measure of relief. That was when under +the McKinley tariff of 1890, Cuban products, particularly sugar, gained +freer access to American markets. While this system lasted, there was an +accession of material prosperity in Cuba. But upon its repeal, due to a +change of politics in the United States government, prosperity in Cuba +waned, while discontent, dissatisfaction and disaffection waxed apace, +and undismayed and resolute patriots began preparing for another general +insurrection.</p> + +<p>During the period between the Ten Years' War and the final War of +Independence there was a succession of<a name="page_314" id="page_314"></a> Governors-General, varying +chiefly in the degree of their unacceptability to the Cuban people and +of the ineptitude with which they maladministered the affairs of the +island and thus contributed to the ultimate and inevitable catastrophe. +Martinez Campos served, with the best of intentions, until the late +summer of 1883. Then on September 28 he was succeeded by Ignacio Maria +del Castillo. His administration endured for three years, and was +replaced in 1886 by that of General Emilio Calleja y Isasi, who gave +place the next year to Saba Marin. Another change occurred on March 13, +1889, when Manuel de Salamanca y Negrete took office. He served for less +than a year, being succeeded on February 7, 1890, by General J. +Chinchilla. To the latter must be accorded the distinction of having the +shortest term of all, for on June 10 following his place was taken by +General Polavieja. He served for two years and was succeeded on May 31, +1892, by General A. R. Arias, who in turn, on August 10, 1894, was +replaced by General Emilio Calleja, who thus entered upon his second +term, in which he was to suffer the penalty of the misdeeds of a long +line of predecessors, and was to begin reaping the whirlwind harvest of +the evil wind which for four centuries Spain had been sowing with a +perverse and ruthless hand.<a name="page_315" id="page_315"></a></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<p>"N<small>EW</small> occasions," sang a great American poet of freedom and of progress, +"new occasions teach new duties"; and splendidly was the truth +exemplified in Cuba in the era of which we have been writing in this +volume. There befell the island at the beginning of the Nineteenth +Century a new occasion, the greatest thus far in all its history since +the landfall of Columbus. It was perhaps only partially realized at +first, and it took many years for the complete realization to dawn upon +the universal popular mind. But even before the realization came, the +Cuban people, not yet cognizant of the tremendous force which was +working within them, began to rise to meet the new occasion, the new +opportunity which was opening before them, with a triumphant spiritual +puissance which has not often been rivalled in the annals of the +nations.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"> +<a href="images/ill_315pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_315pg_sml.png" width="260" height="298" alt="FELIPE POEY" title="FELIPE POEY" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">FELIPE POEY</p> + +<p>One of Cuba's greatest natural scientists, Felipe Poey, was born in +Havana on May 26, 1799, and was educated at the San Carlos Seminary +and in France. He became a lawyer in Madrid, but in 1822 left that +city because of political conditions and returned to Cuba to devote +himself to ichthyology and entomology. He published a monumental +work on "Cuban Ichthyology," and others on "Cuban Lepidopteres," +"Cuban Mineralogy," the "Geography of Cuba," and the "Natural +History of Cuba." He was for many years professor of zoology at the +University of Havana and Dean of the Faculty of Sciences. He died +in 1891.</p></div> + +<p>Writing of that very period, in his essay on Jean Paul Richter, and +referring to the British domination of the sea which Nelson had +achieved, to the mastery of the lands of Europe which Napoleon had won, +and to the intellectual primacy which Germany—though beaten to the dust +in war—was then enjoying, Carlyle observed that "Providence has given +to the French the empire of the land, to the English that of the sea, to +the Germans that of—the air!" It was a fine conception, as true then as +it would be untrue to-day. In a significant sense the same shrewd +observation is apt to the situation of Cuba a hundred years ago. Spain +held control of the material interests of the island, on sea and on +land, but she could not restrain the Cubans from self-control, which +meant immeasurable progress, in the air—that is, in the intellectual +life. It was thus intellectually, in the only way as yet within their +power, that the people of the island met the new and transcendent +occasion.</p> + +<p>It was, as we have seen, a period of revolution and of +counter-revolution, a time of flux, throughout the greater part of the +world. The mighty liberal impulse of the French Revolution, following in +the wake of the American revolution, was by no means annihilated by the +infatuated imperialism of Napoleon or by the reactionary movement which +prevailed for a time after his fall. It was felt, and it prevailed, in +North and Central and South America, from the Golden Gate to the Strait +of Magellan; and in the islands of the Caribbean and the Gulf. In Cuba, +as we have seen, there seemed to be at first no response, for reasons +which also we have hitherto considered. But all unconsciously the Cuban +people received and felt the impulse, and answered it.</p> + +<p>Periods of revolution are usually periods of intellectual activity, and +such was the case in Cuba. While there<a name="page_317" id="page_317"></a> was in the first quarter of the +century little thought of a revolt against Spain, or of independence, +the revolutionary spirit which was in the air inspired the minds of +Cubans, not only with activity but also, largely, with thoughts and +aspirations of freedom. There was indeed in particular a striking +likeness between Cuba and the Thirteen Colonies in North America just +before the Revolution in that country. It will be recalled that down to +a few months, perhaps even weeks, before the Declaration of Independence +in 1776, very few American leaders contemplated independence. The war +which they had begun at Lexington and Concord and Bunker Hill was not a +war of secession, but a civil war intended merely to secure for British +subjects in the colonies the same rights and privileges that British +subjects in the British Isles enjoyed. But a little later it was seen +that this would not suffice, and that complete separation and +independence must be achieved. Precisely so did some of the foremost +Cuban minds at the time of which we are writing, and indeed in much +later years, incline toward reforms and autonomous freedom under the +Spanish crown.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 254px;"> +<a href="images/ill_317pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_317pg_sml.png" width="254" height="298" alt="ANTONIO BACHILLER" title="ANTONIO BACHILLER" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">ANTONIO BACHILLER</p> + +<p>Patriot, economist and man of letters, Antonio Bachiller y Morales +was born in Havana on June 7, 1812, and was educated for the bar. +He wrote several volumes of poems and plays, but gave his best +attention to valuable treatises on Cuban history, industry, +agriculture, economics, administration, and law. He was one of the +foremost authorities and writers on Cuban and Antillean +archaeology. He was professor of philosophy in the University of +Havana, held various public offices, and was a patriotic orator of +great power. He died on January 10, 1889.</p></div> + +<p>These men saw with exultation the enkindling of a<a name="page_318" id="page_318"></a> spirit of liberty in +the Iberian Peninsula. They saw the revolt of Spain against Joseph +Bonaparte. They saw the Spanish people dictate to their Bourbon king +that Constitution of 1812 which had it been triumphantly enforced would +have marked an epoch in the history of the rights of man. They +sympathized with and exulted in these things, and hoped for their +extension in Cuba. It was only when they sadly realized that these +things, even if gained for Spain, were not for Cuba, and that Liberal +Spain was as illiberal toward Cuba as ever despotic Spain had been, that +they turned from autonomy to independence. Then the intellectual +activities which had been directed to the achievements of the Peninsula, +were turned to the interests of the island.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_009x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_009x_sml.jpg" width="356" height="550" alt="JOSÉ MARÍA HEREDIA" title="JOSÉ MARÍA HEREDIA" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">JOSÉ MARÍA HEREDIA</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The bearer of one of the greatest names in the literature of Cuba and of +Spain, José María Heredia, was born at Santiago de Cuba on December 31, +1803, and died at Toluca, Mexico, on May 7, 1839. Because of his early +identification with the cause of Cuban freedom in the "Soles y Rayos de +Bolivar" he was compelled to flee to the United States, whence he +presently went to Mexico and there spent the remainder of his life, +holding places of high rank and importance. He was at once advocate, +soldier, traveller, linguist, diplomat, journalist, magistrate, +historian, poet. His "Ode to Niagara" has made him illustrious in +American literature. His general writings have given him conspicuous +rank among the world's great lyric poets of the Nineteenth Century.</p></div> + +<p>The most striking exemplar of the pro-Spanish attitude of which we have +been speaking, as well as perhaps the greatest of all Cuban poets, was +José Maria Heredia; of whom the world too often thinks as a Spanish +rather than as a Cuban genius. He was born in Cuba in 1803, the son of +parents who had fled from Santo Domingo to escape the fury of the +revolution of Toussaint l'Ouverture. His father had formerly been a +Chief Justice of the Venezuelan court at Caracas, under the Spanish +government, and was loyal to Spain, though he detested and protested +against her tyrannies and corruption and imbued his son with a +passionate love of liberty. The younger Heredia established himself in +the city of Matanzas, as a successful lawyer. But already he had written +many poems, chiefly of freedom. They were in praise of Spain, and of the +Spanish aspirations for liberty which were manifested in the +Constitution of 1812. Indeed, never did Heredia commit himself against +Spain, harshly as he was treated by her. But the poems which he had +written in glorification of the Peninsular struggles<a name="page_319" id="page_319"></a> for liberty +against Napoleon and against the Bourbons were recognized by his +countrymen to be equally applicable to the Cuban struggle against Spain, +which was already impending, and they were consequently taken up +throughout the island in that sense and for that purpose. This +circumstance, though unintended by him, subjected him to grave +suspicion; and he was presently charged with complicity in an +insurrectionary movement in 1823, and was banished from Cuba for life. +After a brief visit to the United States he went to Mexico, became a +government official, married, and spent the rest of his life there, with +the exception of a few weeks in 1836, when the Spanish authorities +permitted him to revisit Cuba, though their espionage made his visit +anything but pleasant. He died in 1839.</p> + +<p>Heredia, who has been called the Byron of Spanish literature, and who is +claimed by Spain as one of the glories of her letters, is known in Cuba +largely by his patriotic poems, and his poems on nature. In the United +States, where because of his exile from Cuba his poems were first +printed, he is chiefly known by three great compositions, two of which +were translated into English by William Cullen Bryant. These are his +"Ode to Niagara," Which ranks among the greatest poems ever written by +any poet on that theme; his "Ode to the Hurricane"; and a sonnet +addressed to his wife. It is with his political and patriotic poems, +however, that we are now most concerned, and of them it may be said that +seldom have the aspirations of a people for freedom been expressed with +more passionate eloquence. His first important poem, "The Star of Cuba," +written while he was yet in his teens, expressed a readiness to die, if +need be, for Cuba, leaving his head upon the scaffold as a token of the +brutality of Spain. Years afterward, in exile, he<a name="page_320" id="page_320"></a> apostrophized Cuba as +the "land of light and beauty," and then thus prophesied:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="poetry"> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">My Cuba! Thou shalt one day rise</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">From 'neath the despot's hand,</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">Free as the air beneath thy skies</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Or waves which kiss thy strand.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">In vain the traitor's noxious plots,</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The tyrant's wrath is vain;</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">Since roll the surges of the sea</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Between thy shores and Spain!</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 234px;"> +<a href="images/ill_320pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_320pg_sml.png" width="234" height="302" alt="FELIX VARELA" title="FELIX VARELA" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">FELIX VARELA</p> + +<p>One of Cuba's greatest philosophers and churchmen, Felix Varela, +was born in Havana on November 20, 1788, was educated at San +Carlos, and became a priest and teacher. After several years of +service at San Carlos as Professor of Philosophy, in 1823 he was +compelled to flee to New York as a political exile. In that city he +spent the rest of his life, editing several periodicals, +translating many works, and writing much on religious and +philosophical subjects. He became rector of the Church of the +Transfiguration, and in 1845 was chosen Vicar-General of New York. +A few years later he went to Florida on account of his health, and +died at St. Augustine in 1853.</p></div> + +<p>Though Heredia took little active part in the physical revolt of Cuba +against Spain, his poems exerted during his lifetime a potent influence +in aid of revolution, and that influence steadily increased until, +nearly three score years after his death, his prophecy of Cuban freedom +was splendidly fulfilled. He was the first great voice of Cuban freedom, +the first great pioneer in that extraordinary intellectual development +which made Cuban history memorable in the Nineteenth Century. Truly did +the Spanish critic Menendez say of him that if his political activity +did not equal that of other<a name="page_321" id="page_321"></a> conspirators against Spain, and though he +took no part in armed struggles, his intellectual influence was constant +and supremely effective, since he surpassed in talents all his +countrymen.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a href="images/ill_321pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_321pg_sml.png" width="250" height="304" alt="JOSÉ AGUSTIN CABALLERO" title="JOSÉ AGUSTIN CABALLERO" /></a> +</div> + +<p>But men might fall a little short—if indeed they did so—of Heredia's +singular genius, and yet be noteworthy figures in the intellectual +world. Well comparable with Heredia in influence, though exerted far +differently, was the brilliant Professor of Latin, philosophy and +science in the University of Havana, Felix Varela y Morales. It used to +be said, and not without reason, that it was he who first taught the +Cuban people to think as Cubans. He was sent to Spain as a Cuban Deputy +to that historic Cortes which met at Cadiz in 1823 and was dispersed by +Ferdinand VII because of its Liberalism. Varela was among its most +conspicuous members, and was among those whose arrest was ordered by the +reactionary Bourbons. He fortunately found asylum under the British flag +at Gibraltar, whence he made his way to the United States. There, at +Philadelphia, he published during the remainder of his life, a weekly +journal, <i>El Habanero</i>, which had a large though chiefly surreptitious +circulation in Cuba, and which exerted an inestimable<a name="page_322" id="page_322"></a> influence for the +encouragement of patriotic endeavors. He died in Florida in 1853, and +his remains rested there for nearly half a century, when, after the +achievement of Cuban independence, they were transferred to his native +land.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">JOSÉ AGUSTIN CABALLERO</p> + +<p>One of the greatest ecclesiastics of Cuba, Father José Agustin +Caballero, uncle and preceptor of José de la Luz, was born in +Havana in February, 1771, and for many years was Director of the +San Carlos Seminary. He was a leading member of the Patriotic +Society, wrote much for the press, was the author of a number of +educational and historical works, and preached a memorable sermon +over the remains of Columbus when they were placed in the Cathedral +at Havana. He died in 1835.</p></div> + +<p>A name which we are not inclined to rank below any other in intellectual +significance and influence in Nineteenth Century Cuba is that of the +illustrious José de la Luz y Caballero, who was born in 1800 and died in +1862, too soon to see the beginning of that Ten Years' War to which his +teachings had powerfully contributed. "The Father of the Cuban +Revolution" the Spaniards called him, and more perhaps than any other +man did he deserve that honorable distinction. It was as an educator of +youth that this great man's great work was done. In the world-shaking +revolution year of 1848, after O'Donnell has drowned the Cuban slave +revolts in blood, and when Narciso Lopez was just preparing for his +descents upon the island, Luz y Caballero opened in Cuba a high school +for boys. It was not a political school; certainly not seditious, unless +truth and virtue were seditious. Hundreds of Cuban patriots, including +many of the leaders in the Ten Years' War and the War of Independence, +have testified that it was his teaching that made them the aggressive, +resolute, militant patriots that they were. Yet they have all been +equally insistent that "Don Pepe" as they called him was never a +political propagandist. He never incited them to revolt, never +prejudiced them against Spain. Yet, said his Spanish critics and +enemies, he prepared his pupils to conspire and to be garrotted!</p> + +<p>Both accounts of his teaching were true, and together they formed the +severest possible indictment of the Spanish régime. The burden of his +teaching was manhood.<a name="page_323" id="page_323"></a> He and his assistants gave much attention to the +ordinary academic studies, in science and the humanities. But constantly +he impressed upon them the duty of being manly. That meant that they +were to be true, pure, resolute against injustice, respecting themselves +and respecting others as themselves, and ready if need should be to +sacrifice themselves for the sake of duty. It was the highest and best +form of practical ethical teaching. He might, it is true, have added at +the end of each of his weekly discourses to his boys the words of +Patrick Henry, "If this be treason, make the most of it." The Spaniards +did regard it as treason, and it did certainly incite and foment +insurrection against Spain. But so much the worse for Spain, if such +teaching was incompatible with her rule in Cuba.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 221px;"> +<a href="images/ill_323pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_323pg_sml.png" width="221" height="306" alt="DOMINGO DEL MONTE" title="DOMINGO DEL MONTE" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">DOMINGO DEL MONTE</p> + +<p>One of the greatest patrons of Cuban letters, Domingo del Monte, +was born in Venezuela on August 4, 1804, was brought to Cuba in +1810, and was educated at the University of Havana. He travelled +much in America and Europe, and then settled in Havana, where he +was secretary of the Royal Economic Society. He edited a dictionary +of Cuban provincialisms, and published a volume of "American +Rhymes." He made his house the rendezvous of Cuban men of letters +and gave to many of them invaluable encouragement and aid; and was +also active in promoting public education throughout the island. He +died at Madrid, Spain, in 1853.</p></div> + +<p>An important literary influence was exerted in Cuba, beginning in the +latter part of the Eighteenth century, and reaching its height in the +first third of the Nineteenth, by the society called "Friends of Peace," +of which Domingo del Monte was the leading spirit. It was this +organization which gave Varela his professorship in the University of +Havana. It was it that gave a prize for the best poem on the birth of +the princess who was to<a name="page_324" id="page_324"></a> become Isabella II of Spain; a prize which was +won by a lad of sixteen. This was Jose Antonio Echeverria, who afterward +edited a literary journal called <i>El Plantel</i>, and still later became +one of the leaders of the strife for independence. Another protégé of +Del Monte's—for he was a wealthy patron of letters, at Havana—was +Ramon Velez y Herrera, who was born in 1808 and died in 1886. He devoted +his attention chiefly to depicting in poetry the life, manners and +customs of the common people of Cuba, and particularly of the peasantry. +Still another was José Jacinto Milanes, who was born in 1814 and died in +1863. He was preeminently the poet of "local color" in nature. No other +has quite so richly and so perfectly embodied Cuban landscapes in verse. +But both these poets also wrote in behalf of Cuban freedom.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 246px;"> +<a href="images/ill_324pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_324pg_sml.png" width="246" height="321" alt="JOSÉ JACINTO MILANES" title="JOSÉ JACINTO MILANES" /></a> +</div> + +<p>Domingo del Monte himself wrote some poetry, but much more in prose, and +he had the distinction of being practically the founder of political +tract and pamphlet writing, an art which was largely practised with +powerful results. He wrote in 1836 a notable criticism of the despotic +administration of Tacon, and an analysis of the condition in which Cuba +found herself under such government. This opened the way for a veritable +flood of political tracts.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">JOSÉ JACINTO MILANES</p> + +<p>Born in Matanzas on August 16, 1814, and because of poverty chiefly +self-educated, José Jacinto Milanes became a noted linguist and +graceful poet. Most of his writings were translated into German, +and some into English and French, and he gained international +repute as a man of letters. Mental derangement and failing physical +health afflicted him in 1843, and he died in 1863.</p></div> + +<p><a name="page_325" id="page_325"></a></p> + +<p>Conspicuous among them were the writings of José Antonio Saco, who was +born in 1797 and died in 1879. He was both a rival and a friend of +Varela, and was the latter's successor in his professorship when Varela +went to Cadiz and then fled to America. After Varela's arrival in the +United States, Saco formed a literary and patriotic partnership with +him, and together they edited the <i>Cuban Review</i>, a literary and +critical journal of high rank, which commanded international attention. +The American historian and literary critic, George Ticknor, said of it +that perusal of it greatly impressed him with the amount of literary +talent that existed in Cuba. The <i>Review</i>, he declared, far surpassed +anything of the kind in any other of the Spanish or former Spanish +colonies, and indeed "a review of such spirit, variety and power has +never been attempted even in Madrid." Of course, Saco was exiled by +Tacon, the immediate cause of offense being a pamphlet exposing and +denouncing some of the more flagrant evils of the slave trade. The +result was, however, that in exile Saco wrote one of the most elaborate +and exhaustive histories of slavery in existence in any language, beside +continuing his occasional political tracts. Nor did his influence end +with his death and the laying down of his pen, for portions of his +writings figured conspicuously and effectively in the literary +propaganda which formed the prelude to the War of Independence.</p> + +<p>Gabriel de la Conception Valdes was another of the protégés of Del +Monte. He was born in 1809 and died in 1844. His father was a mulatto +barber and his mother was a Spanish dancer, and he himself was permitted +to remain illiterate in boyhood. While working as a maker of tortoise +shell combs he was taught to read, and soon developed a passion for +books. From reading<a name="page_326" id="page_326"></a> he proceeded to the writing of poetry, adopting the +pen name of "Placido" from the name of Placido Puentes, a druggist of +Havana who encouraged his literary efforts to the extent of giving him +pen and ink and paper, and a desk in his shop at which to sit and write +whenever he felt inclined. Valdes was a voluminous writer, above most of +his contemporaries, and while much that he wrote was mediocre, many of +his poems were of high merit, and some of them deserve to rank among the +best in Cuban literature; indeed, they would be noteworthy in the +literature of any land. Especially meritorious are his poems about the +slave trade and his apostrophes to Liberty. Because of these he was +accused of complicity in an attempted negro uprising. He was hurried +through a farcical trial, in which no real proof of his guilt was +presented. Indeed, there is good reason for believing that he was +entirely innocent. But he was found guilty, and was put to death; +repeating aloud, as he walked to the place of execution, one of his +poems on liberty.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 247px;"> +<a href="images/ill_326pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_326pg_sml.png" width="247" height="303" alt="JOSÉ MANUEL MESTRE" title="JOSÉ MANUEL MESTRE" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">JOSÉ MANUEL MESTRE</p> + +<p>Advocate, philosopher, journalist and revolutionist, José Manuel +Mestre was born in Havana in 1832. He was a professor of both law +and philosophy in the University until he resigned because of +governmental injustice to a colleague. For a time he taught on La +Luz's school of El Salvador, and as a lawyer he defended Abad +Torres who was charged with trying to murder the Archbishop of +Santiago. During the Ten Years' War he was in New York, a member of +the Cuban Junta, a diplomatic agent at Washington, and one of the +editors of "El Nuevo Mundo." After the Treaty of Zanjon he returned +to Cuba, and died in Havana in 1886.</p></div> + +<p>Three more writers of note and of real merit must be mentioned as +members of the company gathered about him by Domingo del Monte. These +were Anselmo<a name="page_327" id="page_327"></a> Suarez y Romero, who lived from 1818 to 1878, and who as a +delineator of Cuban life and customs in fiction and essays ranks among +the best Cuban writers of prose; Cirillo Villaverde, who lived from 1812 +to 1894, and who also depicted in romances the life and manners of his +countrymen, dealing much, moreover, with African slavery; and Ramon de +Palma y Romay, who dates from 1812 to 1860, who assisted Echeverria in +the editing of "El Plantel," and who was an accomplished writer of verse +and of dramas, and who is said to have been the first native Cuban +dramatist to have a play of his produced upon the stage. The work of his +thus honored was "La Prueba o la Vuelta del Cruzado," in 1837. Palma +also wrote some strongly patriotic poems, which excited the suspicion +and enmity of the Spanish authorities, and in consequence in 1852 he was +arrested and imprisoned for a time on charge of complicity in the +revolutionary movements of that time. We may reckon him to have been the +last of the earlier school of Cuban writers, who had been more or less +unconsciously inspired by the revolutionary era of the beginning of the +century. Next came a new school, of the writers of the final and +triumphant revolution.</p> + +<p>We may indeed regard José Antonio Saco, to whom we have already +referred, as one of the writers and intellectual leaders of the final +revolution. In his earlier years he was an advocate of reforms in the +Spanish administration of the island which would make continued union +acceptable. In 1848 he had written a strong pamphlet against +incorporation of Cuba in the United States, largely on the ground that +thus Cuban nationality and the individuality of the Cuban people would +be extinguished. Three years later he wrote again on "The Cuban +Situation and Its Remedy," in which he pointed<a name="page_328" id="page_328"></a> out the necessity of +Spain's granting fully the just demands of the Cuban people, the +alternative being separation and independence; and he indicated pretty +clearly that he regarded the latter course as all but inevitable.</p> + +<p>Thereafter for some years there was comparatively little political +literature put forth in Cuba, but other departments of letters greatly +flourished. A noteworthy volume of poems by four authors was published +in 1853 under the title of "Cuatro Laudes." One of the authors was Dr. +Ramon Zambrana, a physician and scientist of high attainments, whose +poems were chiefly metaphysical, speculative and imaginative. He was +married to Dona Luisa Perez, perhaps the foremost of the women poets of +Cuba; to whom he was attracted by the reading of her poems. Many critics +rate her verses more highly than his, and they were certainly more +popular.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 223px;"> +<a href="images/ill_328pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_328pg_sml.png" width="223" height="303" alt="LUISA PEREZ DE ZAMBRANA" title="LUISA PEREZ DE ZAMBRANA" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">LUISA PEREZ DE ZAMBRANA</p> + +<p>One of Cuba's greatest poets, Luisa Perez, was born near El Cobre +in 1837, and was married in 1858 to Dr. Ramon Zambrana, an eminent +man of letters of Havana. She wrote much in youth, and published a +volume of poems in 1856. In addition to her poems she wrote +"Angelica and Estrella" and other novels, and translated much from +the French and Italian. When Gertrudis Avellanda returned to Cuba, +Luisa Perez was chosen to place upon her brow a golden laurel +wreath.</p></div> + +<p>The second of the four authors was José Gonzalo Roldan, whose best work +was in poems of tender sentiment. The third, Rafael Maria de Mendive, +devoted himself almost exclusively to poems of melancholy or at least +pensive sentiment. He was a passionate admirer and to some extent a +disciple if not an imitator of Byron and Moore, many of whose poems he +translated into<a name="page_329" id="page_329"></a> Spanish with much success. Beside his poetical work +however, he cooperated with Quintiliano Garcia in founding and +conducting <i>The Havana Review</i>, a meritorious fortnightly literary +journal. His career in Cuba was cut short early in the Ten Years' War by +banishment for treason. He was at that time the head of a boys' school, +in Havana, and was suspected by the authorities of inculcating in his +pupils forbidden ideas of freedom and democracy. One night in January, +1869, when there was much popular indignation against the Spanish +government on account of a very drastic proclamation which had been +issued against the insurgent patriots, a number of Cuban women marched +to a theatre in Havana, wearing dresses of red, blue and white adorned +with stars, obviously representing the colors of the revolutionary Cuban +flag. Some of Mendive's boys were present, and they applauded and +cheered the women so vigorously that a riot arose, in which the +notorious Volunteers caused some bloodshed. For this Mendive was held +responsible, and he was arrested and exiled to Spain for a term of four +years. The influence of the American poet Longfellow and other literary +men, however, procured his release, on condition that he would not +reenter Cuba. He accordingly went to New York and there lived until the +general amnesty after the Ten Years' War permitted his return to Cuba. +While in New York he wrote much in behalf of the insurrection, and he +cheerfully sent his son as a member of the ill-fated <i>Virginius</i> +expedition; writing a touching poem on that occasion:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="poetry"> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">“’Tis well that thou hast done,</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">Most noble and most right,</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">To answer honor's call, my son,</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">For Fatherland to fight.”</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_330" id="page_330"></a></p> + +<p>The fourth of the four poets of "Cuatro Laudes" was Felipe Lopez de +Brinas, who drew his best themes from nature, and who addressed his best +poems to his wife.</p> + +<p>One of the most popular poets in the period just preceding and during +the Ten Years' War was José Fornaris, who in his "Cantos de Siboney" +related many legends of the Cuban aborigines, some of them actual +traditions but most of them invented by himself. A contemporary who +essayed similar themes with almost equal success was Juan Cristobal +Napoles Fajardo. Another, Miguel Teurbe de Tolon, devoted himself to +legends and ballads not of the aborigines but of the Cuban people of +European ancestry. Tolon was an intense patriot, and for that cause +suffered exile. For some years he lived in New York, where he was +efficiently active as the secretary of the Cuban Revolutionary Junta in +that city.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 216px;"> +<a href="images/ill_330pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_330pg_sml.png" width="216" height="292" alt="JOAQUIN LORENZO LUACES" title="JOAQUIN LORENZO LUACES" /></a> +</div> + +<p>But perhaps above all others the poet—we might say, the Tyrtaeus—of +the revolution was Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces, though he did not live to see +the beginning of the war which he did so much to provoke. Luaces, who +was born in 1826 and died in 1867, was a devoted Greek scholar, and took +Greek poetry for his model. For that reason many have thought that his +writings were somewhat academic and artificial. There is however in his<a name="page_331" id="page_331"></a> +poems an exquisite finish surpassed by no other Cuban writer, while many +of them reach a height of inspiration which few others have equalled. +There was in them, moreover, an irresistible call to Cuban patriotism, +which had vast effect in rousing the nation for the Ten Years' War. One +of his most stirring lyrics was on the Greek War of Independence, +entitled "The Fall of Missolonghi":</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="poetry"> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">To arms, ye Greeks! Missolonghi falls!</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">And Ibrahim conquers her soldiers brave.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 0em;">But the Moslem finds within those walls</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corpses of Greeks, but never one slave!</span></td></tr> +</table> +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">JOAQUIN LORENZO LUACES</p> + +<p>Lyric, dramatic and patriotic poet, Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces was born +in Havana in 1826, and was educated at the University of that city. +His themes as a poet were largely those of the great events of the +day, or of history, such as the Fall of Missolonghi, the Death of +Lincoln, and the Laying of the Atlantic Cable. Many of his poems +were patriotic appeals disguised in classic forms. He died in 1867.</p></div> + +<p>This passionate call to patriots to do battle to the death against +tyrants was addressed to the Greeks, thousands of miles away, and the +tyrants against whom it raged were Moslem Turks, hated by all true +Spaniards; wherefore the Spanish censor permitted it to be published +freely in Cuba. But every Cuban patriot read in it "Cubans" for "Greeks" +and "Spaniards" for "Moslems." Luaces was the author of a number of +meritorious dramas.</p> + +<p>We have spoken of Doña Louisa Perez as probably the foremost of Cuba's +women poets. Her chief rival for that distinction was Doña Gertrudis +Gomez de Avellanda, a woman of real genius. But she, although born in +Camaguey, was for practically all her life so identified with Spain that +she is commonly regarded as a Spaniard rather than a Cuban. Born in +1814, she went to Spain with her mother in 1836, and there remained +until 1860. By that time she had gained world-wide reputation as a poet +and dramatist, and also as a writer of prose fiction, and on her return +to Cuba she was publicly greeted as though she were a queen or an +empress. A<a name="page_332" id="page_332"></a> few months later she hastened back to Spain and there spent +the remainder of her life. Only a few of her writings were on Cuban +themes, but they indicated that she retained in her voluntary exile a +deep love for and sympathy with her native land.</p> + +<p>The successor of Domingo Del Monte as a patron of Cuban letters was +Nicolas Azcarate, a very wealthy lawyer of Havana, himself a writer and +orator of great power, and an ardent patriot, though generally inclined +toward reforms and autonomy rather than independence. He was the leader +of that "Committee of Information" which went to Spain in 1865 to lay +before the Spanish Minister for the Colonies, Canovas del Castillo, the +grievances and the demands of Cuba; a mission which was quite fruitless, +for it was quickly followed by the outbreak of the Ten Years' War. +Azcarate also founded and conducted at his own cost a newspaper at +Havana, <i>La Voz del Siglo</i>, to advocate reforms and autonomy. But he +lost popularity with the Cubans, who were by this time almost unanimous +for independence, while he could not command the favor of the Spaniards; +and in consequence he lost his influence, his fortune and his place in +society, and ended his life in obscurity and poverty.</p> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_010x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_010x_sml.jpg" width="390" height="550" alt="GERTRUDIS GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA" title="GERTRUDIS GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">GERTRUDIS GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Although most of her life was spent abroad, the name of Gertrudis Gomez +de Avellaneda y Arteaga must always be enrolled among the glories of +Cuban literature and Cuban womanhood. She was born in Camaguey on March +23, 1814, and almost literally "lisped in numbers," since she wrote an +elegy on the death of her father at the age of six, and two years later +wrote a fairy tale, "The Hundred-Headed Giant." In 1836 she bade +farewell to Cuba in a memorable sonnet, and went to France, and thence +to Spain. There she wrote poems and dramas which placed her in the +foremost rank of the world's literary artists; her poetical drama of +"Baltasar" in 1853 being one of the greatest triumphs of that +generation. In 1860 she revisited Cuba and was publicly crowned in the +Tacon Theatre before a great assemblage of the foremost men and women of +the nation. She returned to Spain a few years later and died at Seville +on February 2, 1873.</p></div> + +<p>Prominent among the poets of the Revolution was Juan Clemente Zenea, who +was a martyr as well as a poet. He was born at Bayamo in 1832, his +mother being the sister of the poet Fornaris already mentioned. He was +one of the pupils of José de la Luz y Caballero, and before leaving +school began to write patriotic poems and other articles. At the age of +twenty he had to flee from Cuba to escape arrest and prosecution for his +complicity in some revolutionary publications; whereupon he went to New +York and there continued his revolutionary<a name="page_333" id="page_333"></a> writings. So extreme +were some of these that in December, 1853, a court martial at Havana +condemned him to death. Under the amnesty of 1855 he returned to Cuba +and became a teacher of modern languages and a writer for the press, and +a few years later published a volume of charming poems. After ten years +he left Cuba for New York and then for Mexico, and upon the outbreak of +the Ten Years' War he joined the Cuban Junta in New York and became +editor of its organ, <i>La Revolucion</i>. In 1870 the Spanish Minister at +Washington, wishing to negotiate secretly with Cespedes, the leader of +the Cuban revolutionists, gave Zenea a safe conduct to pass through the +Spanish lines and convey a message to Cespedes. This errand was +undertaken against the advice of his friends. It was accomplished in +safety, however, until when, on his return trip, he was just about to +pass beyond the limits of Spanish jurisdiction. Then he was seized by +order of the Volunteers and imprisoned. The Spanish government at Madrid +telegraphed orders to the Captain-General to honor the safe conduct and +to release him at once. But that officer, the notorious Count Valmaseda, +ignored these orders, kept Zenea in prison until there was a change of +Ministry at Madrid, and then, on August 25, 1871, put him to death. The +Spanish government disavowed this monstrous crime, and paid Zenea's +widow an indemnity of $25,000, though it failed to punish Valmaseda +according to his deserts.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 254px;"> +<a href="images/ill_334pg_lg.png"> +<img src="images/ill_334pg_sml.png" width="254" height="297" alt="ENRIQUE PIÑEYRO" title="ENRIQUE PIÑEYRO" /></a> +</div> + +<p>Another pupil of Luz y Caballero, and a close friend of Zenea, was +Enrique Piñeyro, a journalist, historian, essayist and lecturer, who, +born in 1839, had the good fortune to survive until 1911 and thus to see +the work of Cuban independence triumphantly completed. José Morales +Lemus, born in 1808, established in Havana in<a name="page_334" id="page_334"></a> 1863 the paper <i>El +Siglo</i>, a powerful advocate of reforms and autonomy. He went with Saco +and Azcarate on the Committee of Information to Madrid, and on his +return from that bootless errand he went to Washington as the first +Cuban Minister. He was the envoy of the Provisional Government of the +Cubans in the Ten Years' War, and as such, though the Cuban Republic did +not receive official recognition, he participated in formulating the +plan of Cuban settlement which General Daniel E. Sickles, as a special +American envoy, carried to Madrid to propose to the Spanish government. +This plan provided that Spain should grant Cuban independence in return +for a large indemnity to be paid by Cuba under the guarantee of the +United States. It was not certain that the Cuban people would have +approved that plan. Indeed, it is probable that they would not have done +so. The Spanish government would not listen to it, however, and it was +abandoned. A little later, in June, 1870, Lemus died.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">ENRIQUE PIÑEYRO</p> + +<p>The son of a University professor of literature and history, +Enrique Piñeyro was born in Havana in 1839 and was educated at La +Luz's school of El Salvador. He became a successful journalist, +writer and teacher, and when the Ten Years' War began he went to +New York and there edited "La Revolucion" and "El Nuevo Mundo," and +wrote several notable histories and biographies. After the war he +returned to Cuba for a short time, then went to Paris and remained +there until his death in 1910.</p></div> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_011x_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_011x_sml.jpg" width="370" height="550" alt="JOSÉ MORALES LEMUS" title="JOSÉ MORALES LEMUS" /></a> +<br /> +<span class="caption">JOSÉ MORALES LEMUS</span> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A veteran of the Lopez insurrection and of the Ten Years' War was José +Morales Lemus, who was born at Gibara on May 2, 1808, and became a +successful advocate. Convinced of the wrong of slavery, he liberated his +own slaves, who however insisted upon voluntarily remaining in his +service. He participated in the Lopez invasion in 1851 and in the Pinto +conspiracy in 1855, on which account he was exiled to the United States. +In 1866 he returned to Cuba and became President of the Junta of +Information. At the outbreak of the Ten Years' War he went to New York +to become head of the Cuban Junta there, in consequence of which all his +property in Cuba was confiscated. At Washington he strove earnestly +though in vain to secure the recognition of Cuban belligerence. His +efficient patriotic labors were continued in New York to the day of his +death, which occurred on June 23, 1870.</p></div> + +<p>One more Cuban writer demands attention, prior to the War of +Independence; though there were indeed many others of merit whose names +might well be recalled if a bibliography of the island were to be +compiled.<a name="page_335" id="page_335"></a> Rafael Merchan was born in 1844, and was thus a mere +youth when the Ten Years' War began to be planned; yet we must reckon +him to have been perhaps the foremost patriotic journalist of that +struggle. It was he who suggested the name "Laborers" which was at first +commonly applied to the Cuban revolutionists. It will be recalled that +in Cuba affairs were directed by a "Labor Committee," that in the United +States societies of "Cuban Laborers" were formed in many cities, and +that periodicals called <i>El Laborante</i> were published. Proscribed and +sentenced to death by the Spanish authorities, he found asylum in New +York, and there edited the Cuban revolutionary journal, <i>La Revolucion</i>. +Thence a few years later he went to Bogota, Colombia, to engage in +business and also to continue his literary career. It was his good +fortune to be able to resume his patriotic writings in 1890, when the +War of Independence began to loom upon the horizon, and to write in 1895 +and later several pamphlets in support of that struggle, some of which +had much influence in both America and Great Britain. He lived to see +the Cuban Republic securely established, and to go abroad as its +Minister to France and Spain in 1902. His service was brief, however, +because of ill health, which soon brought him home to die.</p> + +<p>It would be pleasant, and not lacking in profit, to dwell at greater +length upon these and other intellectual leaders of the Cuban people. +What we have said is, however, sufficient to show how greatly and how +masterfully the intellectual side of Cuban life was developed during the +century of political stress and fitful military strife which served as +the stormy prelude to Cuba's achievement of her independent rank among +the nations of the world. It was a development admirably comparable<a name="page_336" id="page_336"></a> +with any ever recorded of any other people, and one which splendidly +vindicated the claim of the Cuban people to worth as a sovereign nation. +Moreover, it was an unmistakable earnest of approaching independence. +While for a century Cuba was purely a Spanish colony, her intellectual +life was embryotic and inert. During the two centuries while she was +more or less an object of international contention, she showed little +activity. But in her fourth century, the era of revolution and of +aspirations for independence, she showed the stuff that was in her sons +and daughters. Her soldiers were valiant in battle. Her statesmen were +wise in council. Her scholars and literati commanded distinguished +attention in the most brilliant intellectual era of human history, and +demonstrated that the Cuba that was about to be would be in the culture +of the higher life a worthy member of the community of nations.</p> + +<p> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="c">THE END OF VOLUME THREE</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX for Volumes 1 thru 4</h2> + +<ul> +<li>Abarzuza, Sr. proposes reforms for Cuba, IV, 6.</li> + +<li>Abreu. Marta and Rosalie, patriotism of, IV, 25.</li> + +<li>Academy of Sciences, Havana, picture of, IV, 364.</li> + +<li>Adams, John Quincy, enunciates American policy toward Cuba, II, 258;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 259;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Cuban annexation, 327.</span></li> + +<li>Aglona, Prince de. Governor, II, 363.</li> + +<li>Agramonte, Aristide, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.</li> + +<li>Agramonte, Enrique, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12.</li> + +<li>Agramonte, Eugenio Sanchez, sketch and portrait, IV, 362.</li> + +<li>Agramonte, Francisco, IV, 41.</li> + +<li>Agramonte, Ignacio, portrait, facing. III, + +<a href="#page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Agriculture, early attention to, I, 173, 224;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress, 234;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 213;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">absentee landlords, 214;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">statistics, 223;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">discussed in periodicals, 250;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rehabilitation of after War of Independence, IV, 147.</span></li> + +<li>Aguayo, Geronimo de, I, 161.</li> + +<li>Aguero, Joaquin de, organizes revolution, III, + +<a href="#page_072">72</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final defeat, <a href="#page_087">87</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Aguiar, Luis de, II, 60.</li> + +<li>Aguiera, Jose, I, 295.</li> + +<li>Aguila, Negra, II, 346.</li> + +<li>Aguilera, Francisco V., sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li>Aguirre, Jose Maria, filibuster, IV, 55;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 85.</span></li> + +<li>Albemarle, Earl of, expedition against Havana, II, 46;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupies Havana, 78;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Bishop Morell, 83.</span></li> + +<li>Alcala, Marcos, I, 310.</li> + +<li>Aldama, Miguel de, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Aleman, Manuel, French emissary, II, 305.</li> + +<li>Algonquins, I, 7.</li> + +<li>Allen, Robert, on "Importance of Havana," II, 81.</li> + +<li>Almendares River, tapped for water supply, I, 266;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view on, IV, 167.</span></li> + +<li>Almendariz, Alfonso Enrique, Bishop, I, 277.</li> + +<li>Alquiza, Sancho de, Governor, I, 277.</li> + +<li>Altamarino, Governor, I, 105;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">post mortem trial of Velasquez, 107;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by the Guzmans, 109;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed, 110.</span></li> + +<li>Altamirano, Juan C., Bishop, I, 273;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seized by brigands, 274.</span></li> + +<li>Alvarado, Luis de, I, 147.</li> + +<li>Alvarado, Pedro de, in Mexico, I, 86.</li> + +<li>Amadeus, King of Spain, III, + +<a href="#page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>America, relation of Cuba to, I, 1;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 254. See <span class="smcap">United States</span>.</span></li> + +<li>American Revolution, effect of upon Spain and her colonies, II, 138.</li> + +<li>American Treaty, between Great Britain and Spain, I, 303.</li> + +<li>Andrea, Juan de, II, 9.</li> + +<li>Angulo, Francisco de, exiled, I, 193.</li> + +<li>Angulo, Gonzales Perez de, Governor, I, 161;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">emancipation proclamation, 163;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Havana Council, 181;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight from Sores, 186;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of administration, 192.</span></li> + +<li>Anners, Jean de Laet de, quoted, I, 353.</li> + +<li>Annexation of Cuba to United States, first suggested, II, 257, 326;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign for, 380;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sought by United States, III, + +<a href="#page_132">132</a>, + +<a href="#page_135">135</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcy's policy, 141;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ostend Manifesto, 142;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buchanan's efforts, 143;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">not considered in War of Independence, IV, 19.</span></li> + +<li>Antonelli, Juan Bautista, engineering works in Cuba, I, 261;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">creates water supply for Havana, 266.</span></li> + +<li>Apezteguia. Marquis de, Autonomist leader, IV, 94.</li> + +<li>Apodaca, Juan Ruiz, Governor, II, 311.</li> + +<li>Arana, Martin de, warns Prado of British approach, II, 53.</li> + +<li>Arana, Melchior Sarto de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 237.</li> + +<li>Arana, Pedro de, royal accountant, I, 238.</li> + +<li>Aranda, Esquival, I, 279.</li> + +<li>Arango, Augustin, murder of, III, + +<a href="#page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li>Arango, Napoleon, treason of, III, + +<a href="#page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Arango y Pareño, Francisco, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. II;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes Society of Progress, II, 178;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leadership in Cuba, 191;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward slavery, 208;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his illustrious career, 305 et seq.</span></li> + +<li>Aranguren, Nestor, revolutionist, IV, 85;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 92.</span></li> + +<li>Araoz, Juan, II, 181.</li> + +<li>Arias, A. R., Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>Arias, Gomez, I, 145.</li> + +<li>Arignon, Villiet, quoted, II, 26, 94.</li> + +<li>Armona, José de, II, 108.</li> + +<li>Army, Cuban, organization of, III, + +<a href="#page_178">178</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganized, <a href="#page_263">263</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Jose Miguel Gomez, IV, 301.</span></li> + +<li>Army, Spanish, in Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_181">181</a>, + +<a href="#page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Aroztegui, Martin de, II, 20.</li> + +<li>Arrate, José Martin Felix, historian, II, 17, 179.</li> + +<li>Arredondo, Nicolas, Governor at Santiago, II, 165.</li> + +<li>Asbert, Gen. Ernesto, amnesty case, IV, 326.</li> + +<li>"Assiento" compact on slavery, II, 2.</li> + +<li>Assumption, Our Lady of the, I, 61.</li> + +<li>Astor, John Jacob, aids War of Independence, IV, 14.</li> + +<li>Asylums for Insane, II, 317.</li> + +<li>Atares fortress, picture, II, 103.</li> + +<li>Atkins, John, book on West Indies, II, 36.</li> + +<li>Atrocities, committed by Spanish, III, + +<a href="#page_250">250</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cespedes's protest against, <a href="#page_254">254</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Book of Blood," <a href="#page_284">284</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish confession of, <a href="#page_286">286</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of destruction,</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#page_295">295</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weyler's "concentration" policy, IV, 85.</span></li> + +<li>Attwood's Cay. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li> + +<li>Autonomist party, III, + +<a href="#page_305">305</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">IV, 34;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward Campos in War of Independence, 59;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet under Blanco, 94;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">earnest efforts for peace, 101;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">record of its government, 102.</span></li> + +<li>Avellanda, Gertrudis Gomez de, III, + +<a href="#page_331">331</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing, <a href="#page_332">332</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Avila, Alfonso de, I, 154.</li> + +<li>Avila, Juan de, Governor, I, 151;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marries rich widow, 154;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">charges against him, 157;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">convicted and imprisoned, 158.</span></li> + +<li>Avila. See <span class="smcap">Davila</span>.</li> + +<li>Aviles, Pedro Menendez de, See <span class="smcap">Menendez</span>.</li> + +<li>Ayala, Francisco P. de, I, 291.</li> + +<li>Ayilon, Lucas V. de, strives to make peace between Velasquez and Cortez, I, 98.</li> + +<li>Azcarata, José Luis, Secretary of Justice, sketch and portrait, IV, 341.</li> + +<li>Azcarate, Nicolas, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_251">251</a>, + +<a href="#page_332">332</a>.</li> + +<li>Azcarraga, Gen., Spanish Premier, IV, 88.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>"Barbeque" sought by Columbus, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Bachiller, Antonio, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_317">317</a>.</li> + +<li>Bacon, Robert, Assistant Secretary of State of U. S., intervenes in revolution, IV, 272.</li> + +<li>Bahia Honda, selected as U. S. naval station, IV, 256.</li> + +<li>Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, I, 55, 91.</li> + +<li>Bancroft, George, quoted, I, 269;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 1, 24, 41, 117, 120, 159.</span></li> + +<li>Banderas, Quintin, revolutionist, IV, 34;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">raid, 57;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 84.</span></li> + +<li>Baracoa, Columbus at, I, 18;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Velasquez at, 60;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture, 60;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first capital of Cuba, 61, 168.</span></li> + +<li>Barreda, Baltazar, I, 201.</li> + +<li>Barreiro, Juan Bautista, Secretary of Education, IV, 160.</li> + +<li>Barrieres, Manuel Garcia, II, 165.</li> + +<li>Barrionuevo, Juan Maldonado, Governor, I, 263.</li> + +<li>Barsicourt, Juan Procopio. See <span class="smcap">Santa Clara</span>, Conde.</li> + +<li>Bayamo, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban Republic organized there, III, + +<a href="#page_157">157</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Bayoa, Pedro de, I, 300.</li> + +<li>Bay of Cortez, reached by Columbus, I, 25.</li> + +<li>Bees, introduced by Bishop Morell, II, 104;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase of industry, 132.</span></li> + +<li>"Beggars of the Sea," raid Cuban coasts, I, 208.</li> + +<li>Bells, church, controversy over, II, 82.</li> + +<li>Bembrilla, Alonzo, I, 111.</li> + +<li>Benavides, Juan de, I, 280.</li> + +<li>Berrea, Esteban S. de, II, 6.</li> + +<li>Betancourt, Pedro, Civil Governor of Matanzas, IV, 179;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyal to Palma, 271.</span></li> + +<li>Betancourt. See <span class="smcap">Cisneros</span>.</li> + +<li>"Bimini," Island of, I, 139.</li> + +<li>Bishops of Roman Catholic Church in Cuba, I, 122.</li> + +<li>"Black Eagle," II, 346.</li> + +<li><i>Black Warrior</i> affair, III, + +<a href="#page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Blanchet, Emilio, historian, quoted, II, 9, 15, 24;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on siege of Havana, 57, 87.</span></li> + +<li>Blanco, Ramon, Governor, IV, 88;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">undertakes reforms, 89;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans Cuban autonomy, 93;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on destruction of <i>Maine</i>, 99;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 121.</span></li> + +<li>Blue, Victor, observations at Santiago, IV, 110.</li> + +<li>Bobadilla, F. de, I, 54.</li> + +<li>Boca de la Yana, I, 18.</li> + +<li>"Bohio" sought by Columbus, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Bolivar, Simon, II, 333;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 334;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Liberator," 334 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Cuba, 341;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Soles de Bolivar," 341.</span></li> + +<li>Bonel, Juan Bautista, II, 133.</li> + +<li>"Book of Blood," III, + +<a href="#page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li>Bourne, Edward Gaylord, quoted, on slavery, II, 209;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Spanish in America, 226.</span></li> + +<li>Brinas, Felipe, III, + +<a href="#page_330">330</a>.</li> + +<li>British policy toward Spain and Cuba, I, 270;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aggressions in West Indies, 293;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slave trade, II, 2;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of 1639, 22;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">designs upon Cuba, 41;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition against Havana, 1762, 46;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquest of Cuba, 78;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relinquishment to Spain, 92. See <span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>.</span></li> + +<li>Broa Bay, I, 22.</li> + +<li>Brooke, Gen. John R., receives Spanish surrender of Cuba, IV, 122;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation to Cuban people, 145;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retired, 157.</span></li> + +<li>Brooks, Henry, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li> + +<li>Buccaneers, origin of, I, 269.</li> + +<li>Buccarelli, Antonio Maria, Governor, II, 110;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 115.</span></li> + +<li>Buchanan, James, on U. S. relations to Cuba, II, 263;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, + +<a href="#page_135">135</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minister to Great Britain, 142;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">as President seeks annexation of Cuba to U. S., 143.</span></li> + +<li>Bull-fighting, II, 233.</li> + +<li>Burgos, Juan de, Bishop, I, 225.</li> + +<li>Burtnett, Spanish spy against Lopez, III, + +<a href="#page_065">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Bustamente, Antonio Sanchez de, jurist, sketch and portrait, IV, 165.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Caballero, José Agustin, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_321">321</a>.</li> + +<li>Caballo, Domingo, II, 173.</li> + +<li>Cabanas, defences constructed, II, 58;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laurel Ditch, view, facing, 58.</span></li> + +<li>Caballero, Diego de, I, 111.</li> + +<li>Cabezas, Bishop, I, 277.</li> + +<li>Cabrera, Diego de, I, 206.</li> + +<li>Cabrera, Luis, I, 198.</li> + +<li>Cabrera, Lorenzo de, Governor, I, 279;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed, 282.</span></li> + +<li>Cabrera, Rafael, filibuster, IV, 70.</li> + +<li>Cabrera, Raimundo, conspirator in New York, IV, 334;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warned, 339.</span></li> + +<li>Cadreyta, Marquis de, I, 279.</li> + +<li>Cagigal, Juan Manuel de, Governor, II, 154;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defence of Havana, 155;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed and imprisoned, 157.</span></li> + +<li>Cagigal, Juan Manuel, Governor, II, 313;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">successful administration, 315.</span></li> + +<li>Cagigal de la Vega, Francisco, defends Santiago, II, 29;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor, 32;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Viceroy of Mexico, 34.</span></li> + +<li>Caguax, Cuban chief, I, 63.</li> + +<li>Calderon, Gabriel, Bishop, I, 315.</li> + +<li>Calderon, Garcia, quoted, II, 164, 172.</li> + +<li>Calderon de la Barca, Spanish Minister,</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on <i>La Verdad</i>, III, + +<a href="#page_019">19</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on colonial status, <a href="#page_021">21</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiations with Soulé, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Calhoun, John C., on Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li>Calleja y Isisi, Emilio, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_313">313</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaims martial law, IV, 30;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 35.</span></li> + +<li>Camaguey. See <span class="smcap">Puerto Principe</span>, I, 168.</li> + +<li>Campbell, John, description of Havana, II, 14.</li> + +<li>Campillo, Jose de, II, 19.</li> + +<li>Campos, Martinez de, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_296">296</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamations to Cuba, 297, 299;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes Treaty of Zanjon and ends Ten Years War, 299;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spanish crisis, IV, 36;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor again, 37;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes Trocha, 44;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by Maceo, 46;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conferences with party leaders, 59, 63;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed, 63.</span></li> + +<li>Cancio, Leopoldo, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 161, 320.</li> + +<li>Canizares, Santiago J., Minister of Interior, IV, 48.</li> + +<li>Canning, George, policy toward Cuba, II, 257;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 258.</span></li> + +<li>Canoe, of Cuban origin, I, 10.</li> + +<li>Canon, Rodrigo, I, 111.</li> + +<li>Canovas del Castillo, Spanish Premier, IV, 36;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">assassinated, 88.</span></li> + +<li>Cape Cruz, Columbus at, I, 20.</li> + +<li>Cape Maysi, I, 4.</li> + +<li>Cape of Palms, I, 17.</li> + +<li>Capote, Domingo Menendez. Vice-President, IV, 90;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of State, 146;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Constitutional Convention. 189.</span></li> + +<li>Carajaval, Lucas, defies Dutch, I, 290.</li> + +<li>Cardenas, Lopez lands at, III, + +<a href="#page_049">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Caribs, I, 8.</li> + +<li>Carillo, Francisco, filibuster, IV, 55.</li> + +<li>Carleton, Sir Guy, at Havana, II, 47.</li> + +<li>Carranza, Domingo Gonzales, book on West Indies, II, 37.</li> + +<li>Carrascesa, Alfonso, II, 6.</li> + +<li>Carreño, Francisco, Governor, I, 219;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions at his accession, 228;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dies in office, 229;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work in rebuilding Havana, 231.</span></li> + +<li>Carroll, James, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.</li> + +<li>Casa de Beneficienca, founded, I, 335;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 177.</span></li> + +<li>Casa de Resorgiamento, founded, II, 31.</li> + +<li>Casares, Alfonso, codifies municipal ordinances, I, 207.</li> + +<li>Castellanos, Jovellar, last Spanish Governor of Cuba, IV, 121;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders Spanish sovereignty, 123.</span></li> + +<li>Castillo, Demetrio, Civil Governor of Oriente, IV, 180.</li> + +<li>Castillo, Ignacio Maria del, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>Castillo, Loinaz, revolutionist. IV, 269.</li> + +<li>Castillo, Pedro del, Bishop, I, 226.</li> + +<li>Castro, Hernando de, royal treasurer, I, 115.</li> + +<li>Cathcart Lord, expedition to West Indies, II, 28.</li> + +<li>Cathedral of Havana, picture, facing I, 36;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begun, I, 310.</span></li> + +<li>Cat Island. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li> + +<li>Cayo, San Juan de los Remedios del, removal of, I, 319.</li> + +<li>Cazones, Gulf of, I, 21.</li> + +<li>Cemi, Cuban worship of, I, 55.</li> + +<li>Census, of Cuba, first taken, by Torre, II, 131;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">by Las Casas, 176;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of slaves, 205;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1775, 276;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1791, 277;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humboldt on, 277;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1811, 280;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1817, 281;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1827, 283;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1846, 283;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1899, IV, 154;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1907, 287.</span></li> + +<li>Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, III, + +<a href="#page_157">157</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing <a href="#page_158">158</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#page_158">158</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leads Cuban revolution, <a href="#page_158">158</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Republic, <a href="#page_158">158</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation, <a href="#page_168">168</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiations with Spain, <a href="#page_187">187</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed from office, <a href="#page_275">275</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, filibuster, IV, 55.</li> + +<li>Cespedes, Enrique, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li> + +<li>Cervera, Admiral, brings Spanish fleet to Cuba, IV, 110;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 110;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders, 114.</span></li> + +<li>Chacon, José Bayoma, II, 13.</li> + +<li>Chacon, Luis, I, 331, 333.</li> + +<li>Chalons, Sr., Secretary of Public Works, IV, 297.</li> + +<li>Chamber of Commerce founded, II, 307.</li> + +<li>Charles I, King, I, 74;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces oppression of Indians, 128.</span></li> + +<li>Chaves, Antonio, Governor, I, 157;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosecutes Avila, 157;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruthless policy toward natives, 159;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with King, 160;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dismissed from office, 161.</span></li> + +<li>Chaves, Juan Baton de, I, 331.</li> + +<li>Chilton, John, describes Havana, I, 349.</li> + +<li>Chinchilla, José, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>Chinese, colonies in America, I, 7;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">laborers imported into Cuba, II, 295.</span></li> + +<li>Chorrera, expected to be Drake's landing place, I, 248.</li> + +<li>Chorrera River, dam built by Antonelli, I, 262.</li> + +<li>Christianity, introduced into Cuba by Ojeda, I, 55;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">urged by King Ferdinand, 73.</span></li> + +<li>Church, Roman Catholic, organized and influential in Cuba, I, 122;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cathedral removed from Baracoa to Santiago, 123;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with civil power, 227;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with British during British occupation, II, 84;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of island into two dioceses, 173;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 26;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy over property, 294.</span></li> + +<li>Cienfuegos, José, Governor, II, 311.</li> + +<li>Cimmarones, "wild Indians," I, 126;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt against De Soto, 148.</span></li> + +<li>Cipango, Cuba identified with, by Columbus, I, 5.</li> + +<li>Cisneros, Gaspar Betancourt, sketch and portrait, II, 379.</li> + +<li>Cisneros, Pascal Jiminez de, II, 110, 127.</li> + +<li>Cisneros, Salvador, III, + +<a href="#page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, <a href="#page_276">276</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Cuban Republic, <a href="#page_277">277</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Council of Ministers, IV, 48;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Constitutional Convention, 190.</span></li> + +<li>Civil Service, law, IV, 325;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">respected by President Menocal, 325.</span></li> + +<li>Clay, Henry, policy toward Cuba, II, 261.</li> + +<li>Clayton, John M., U. S. Secretary of State, issues proclamation against filibustering, III, + +<a href="#page_042">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Cleaveland, Samuel, controversy over church bells, II, 83.</li> + +<li>Cleveland, Grover. President of United States, issues warning against breaches of neutrality, IV, 70;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reference to Cuba</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in message of 1896, 79;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">its significance, 80.</span></li> + +<li>Coat of Arms of Cuba, picture, IV, 251;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">significance, 251.</span></li> + +<li>Cobre, copper mines, I, 173, 259.</li> + +<li>"Cockfighting and Idleness" campaign, IV, 291.</li> + +<li>Coffee, cultivation begun, II, 33, 113.</li> + +<li>Coinage, reformed, II, 142;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">statistics of, 158.</span></li> + +<li>Collazo, Enrique, filibuster, IV, 55.</li> + +<li>Coloma, Antonio Lopez, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li> + +<li>Colombia, designs upon Cuba, II, 262;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, + +<a href="#page_134">134</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward Cuban revolution, <a href="#page_223">223</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Columbus, Bartholomew, recalled to Spain, I, 57.</li> + +<li>Columbus, Christopher, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. I;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">discoverer of America, I;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">i;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first landing in America, 2;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">monument on Watling's Island, picture, 3;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival in Cuba, 11;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">question as to first landing place, 12;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first impressions of Cuba and intercourse with natives, 14;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exploration of north coast, 16;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of first visit, 18;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second visit, 19;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exploration of south coast, 21;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Bay of Cortez, 25;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">turns back from circumnavigation, 26;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Isle of Pines, 26;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final departure from Cuba, 27;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">diary and narrative, 28 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death and burial, 33;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tomb in Havana cathedral, 34;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removal to Seville, 36;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removal from Santo Domingo to Havana, II, 181;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">epitaph, 182.</span></li> + +<li>Columbus, Diego, plans exploration and colonization of Cuba, I, 57;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts mediation between Velasquez and Cortez, 97;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">replaces Velasquez with Zuazo, 100;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuked by King, 100.</span></li> + +<li>Comendador, Cacique, I, 55.</li> + +<li>Commerce, begun by Velasquez, I, 68;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of corporations, II, 19;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after British occupation, 98;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Torre, 132;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduction of duties, 141;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">extension of trade, 163;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tribunal of Commerce founded, 177;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Real Compania de Havana, 199;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive measures, 200;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamber of Commerce founded, 307;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce with United States, III, + +<a href="#page_002">2</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">during American occupation, IV, 184;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">present, 358.</span></li> + +<li>Compostela, Diego E. de, Bishop, I, 318;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 332.</span></li> + +<li>Concepcion, Columbus's landing place, I, 3.</li> + +<li>Concessions, forbidden under American occupation, IV, 153.</li> + +<li>Concha, José Gutierrez de la, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_062">62</a>, + +<a href="#page_290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Conchillos, royal secretary, I, 59.</li> + +<li>Congress, Cuban, welcomed by Gen. Wood, IV, 246;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">turns against Palma, 269;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">friendly to Gomez, 303;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostile to Menocal, 323;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protects the lottery, 324.</span></li> + +<li>Constitution: Cuban Republic of 1868, III, + +<a href="#page_157">157</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1895, IV, 47;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">call for Constitutional Convention, 185;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">meeting of Convention, 187;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">draft completed, 192;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">salient provisions, 193;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Elihu Root's comments, 194;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Convention discusses relations with United States, 197;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platt</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amendment, 199;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">amendment adopted, 203;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">text of Constitution, 304 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Nation, 205;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cubans, 205;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foreigners, 207;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Individual Rights, 208;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Suffrage, 211;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Suspension of Guarantees, 212;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sovereignty, 213;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legislative Bodies, 214;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Senate, 214;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">House of Representatives, 216;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress, 218;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legislation, 221;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Executive, 222;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President, 222;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vice-President, 225;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretaries of State, 226;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Judiciary, 227;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Supreme Court, 227;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Administration of Justice, 228;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provincial Governments, 229;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provincial Councils, 230;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provincial Governors, 231;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Municipal Government, 233;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Municipal Councils, 233;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mayors, 235;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">National Treasury, 235;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amendments, 236;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transient Provisions, 237;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Appendix (Platt Amendment), 238.</span></li> + +<li>"Constitutional Army," IV, 268.</li> + +<li>Contreras, Andres Manso de, I, 288.</li> + +<li>Contreras, Damien, I, 278.</li> + +<li>Convents, founded, I, 276;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuns of Santa Clara, 286.</span></li> + +<li>Conyedo, Juan de, Bishop, II, 35.</li> + +<li>Copper, discovered near Santiago, I, 173;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">wealth of mines, 259;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reopened, II, 13;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports, III, + +<a href="#page_003">3</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Corbalon, Francisco R., I, 286.</li> + +<li>Cordova de Vega, Diego de, Governor, I, 239.</li> + +<li>Cordova, Francisco H., expedition to Yucatan, I, 84.</li> + +<li>Cordova Ponce de Leon, José Fernandez, Governor, I, 316.</li> + +<li>Coreal, Francois, account of West Indies, quoted, I, 355.</li> + +<li>Coronado, Manuel, gift for air planes, IV, 352.</li> + +<li>Cortes, Spanish, Cuban representation in, II, 308;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">excluded, 351;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lack of representation, III, + +<a href="#page_003">3</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Ten Years' War, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Cortez, Hernando, Alcalde of Santiago de Cuba, I, 72;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to Mexico by King, 74;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">agent of Velasquez, 86;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early career, 90;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 90;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Velasquez, 91;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage, 92;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commissioned by Velasquez to explore Mexico, 92;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for Mexico, 94;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final breach with Velasquez, 96;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced as rebel, 97;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">escapes murder, 99.</span></li> + +<li>Cosa, Juan de la, geographer, I, 6, 53.</li> + +<li>Councillors, appointed for life, I, 111;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Procurators, 113.</span></li> + +<li>Creoles, origin of name, II, 204.</li> + +<li>Crittenden, J. J., protests against European intervention in Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Crittenden, William S., with Lopez, III, + +<a href="#page_096">96</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured, <a href="#page_101">101</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Crombet, Flor, revolutionist, IV, 41, 42.</li> + +<li>Crooked Island. See <span class="smcap">Isabella</span>.</li> + +<li>Crowder, Gen. Enoch H., head of Consulting Board, IV, 284.</li> + +<li>Cuba: Relation to America, I, 1;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's first landing, 3;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">identified with Mangi or Cathay, 4;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Cipango, 5;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">earliest maps, 6;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical history, 7, 37 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's discovery, 11 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">named Juana, 13;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">other names, 14;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's account of, 28;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">geological history, 37-42;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">topography, 42-51;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate, 51-52;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first circumnavigation, 54;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonization, 54;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Velasquez at Baracoa, 60;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce begun, 68;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">government organized, 69;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">named Ferdinandina, 73;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of Spain toward, 175;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slow economic progress, 215;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">land legislation, 232;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish discrimination against, 266;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">divided into two districts, 275;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British description in 1665, 306;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">various accounts, 346;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">turning point in history, 363;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">close of first era, 366;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British conquest, II, 78;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relinquished to Spain, 92;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great changes effected, 94;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">economic condition, 98;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reoccupied by Spain, 102;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">untouched by early revolutions, 165;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of revolution in Santo Domingo, 190;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first suggestion of annexation to United States, 257;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Ever Faithful Isle," 268;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of independence, 268;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">censuses, 276 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">representation in Cortes, 308;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Soles de Bolivar," 341;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">representatives rejected from Cortes, 351;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">transformation of popular spirit, 383;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence proclaimed, III, + +<a href="#page_145">145</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Republic organized, <a href="#page_157">157</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">War of Independence, IV, 15;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish elections held during war, 67;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blanco's plan of autonomy, 93;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sovereignty surrendered by Spain, 123;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of Spanish Governors, 123. See <span class="smcap">Republic of Cuba</span>.</span></li> + +<li>Cuban Aborigines;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">I, 8;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">manners, customs and religion, 8 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's first intercourse, 15, 24;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">priest's address to Columbus, 26;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's observations of them, 29;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostilities begun by Velasquez, 61;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjected to Repartimiento system, 70;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">practical slavery, 71;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Key Indians, 125;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cimmarones, 126;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">new laws in their favor, 129;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rojas's endeavor to save them, 130;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final doom, 133;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">efforts at reform, 153;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppression by Chaves, 159;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angulo's emancipation proclamation, 163.</span></li> + +<li>"Cuba-nacan," I, 5.</li> + +<li>"Cuba and the Cubans," quoted, II, 313.</li> + +<li>"Cuba y Su Gobierno," quoted, II, 354.</li> + +<li>Cuellar, Cristobal de, royal accountant, I, 59.</li> + +<li>Cushing, Caleb, Minister to Spain, III, + +<a href="#page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Custom House, first at Havana, I, 231.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Dady, Michael J., & Co., contract dispute, IV, 169.</li> + +<li>Davila, Pedrarias, I, 140.</li> + +<li>Davis, Jefferson, declines to join Lopez, III, + +<a href="#page_038">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Del Casal, Julian, sketch and portrait, IV, 6.</li> + +<li>Del Cueta, José A., President of Supreme Court, portrait, IV, 359.</li> + +<li>Delgado, Moru, Liberal leader, IV, 267.</li> + +<li>Del Monte, Domingo, sketch, portrait, and work, II, 323.</li> + +<li>Del Monte, Ricardo, sketch and portrait, IV, 2.</li> + +<li>Demobilization of Cuban army, IV, 135.</li> + +<li>Desvernine, Pablo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 146.</li> + +<li>Diaz, Bernal, at Sancti Spiritus, I, 72;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico, 86.</span></li> + +<li>Diaz, Manuel, I, 239.</li> + +<li>Diaz, Manuel Luciano, Secretary of Public Works, IV, 254.</li> + +<li>Diaz, Modeste, III, + +<a href="#page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Divino, Sr., Secretary of Justice, IV, 297.</li> + +<li>Dockyard at Havana, established, II, 8.</li> + +<li>Dolz, Eduardo, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 96.</li> + +<li>Dominguez, Fermin V., Assistant Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 50.</li> + +<li>Dorst, J. H., mission to Pinar del Rio, IV, 107.</li> + +<li>"Dragado" deal, IV, 310.</li> + +<li>Drake, Sir Francis, menaces Havana, I, 243;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hispaniola, 246;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves Havana unassailed, 252;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">departs for Virginia, 255.</span></li> + +<li>Duany, Joaquin Castillo, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assistant Secretary of Treasury, 50;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">filibuster, 70.</span></li> + +<li>Dubois, Carlos, Assistant Secretary of Interior, IV, 50.</li> + +<li>Duero, Andres de, I, 93, 115.</li> + +<li>Dulce y Garay, Domingo, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, + +<a href="#page_194">194</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">decree of confiscation, <a href="#page_209">209</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled, <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Dupuy de Lome, Sr., Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 40;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">writes offensive letter, 98;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled, 98.</span></li> + +<li>Duque, Sr., Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, IV, 297.</li> + +<li>Durango, Bishop, I, 225.</li> + +<li>Dutch hostilities, I, 208, 279;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">activities in West Indies, 283 et seq.</span></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Earthquakes, in 1765, I, 315;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 114.</span></li> + +<li>Echeverria, Esteban B., Superintendent of Schools, IV, 162.</li> + +<li>Echeverria, José, Bishop, II, 113.</li> + +<li>Echeverria, José Antonio, III, + +<a href="#page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li>Echeverria, Juan Maria, Governor, II, 312.</li> + +<li>Education, backward state of, II, 244;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress under American occupation, IV, 156;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">A. E. Frye, Superintendent, 156;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganization of system, 162;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harvard University's entertainment of teachers, 163;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">achievements under President Menocal, 357.</span></li> + +<li>Elections: for municipal officers under American occupation, IV, 180;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">law for regulation of, 180;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">result, 181;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">for Constitutional Convention, 186;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">for general officers, 240;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">result, 244;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential, 1906, 265;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">new law, 287;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">local elections under Second Intervention, 289;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential, 290;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">for Congress in 1908, 303;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential, 1912, 309;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential, 1916, disputed, 330, result confirmed, 341.</span></li> + +<li>Enciso, Martin F. de, first Spanish writer about America, I, 54.</li> + +<li>Epidemics: putrid fever, 1649, I, 290;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">vaccination introduced, II, 192;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">small pox and yellow fever, III, + +<a href="#page_313">313</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Santiago, IV, 142;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gen. Wood applies Dr. Finlay's theory of yellow fever, 171;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">success, 176;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">malaria, 177.</span></li> + +<li>Escudero, Antonio, de, II, 10.</li> + +<li>Espada, Juan José Diaz, portrait, facing II, 272.</li> + +<li>Espagnola. See <span class="smcap">Hispaniola</span>.</li> + +<li>Espeleta, Joaquin de, Governor, II, 362.</li> + +<li>Espinosa, Alonzo de Campos, Governor, I, 316.</li> + +<li>Espoleto, José de, Governor, II, 169.</li> + +<li>Estenoz, Negro insurgent, IV, 307.</li> + +<li>Estevez, Luis, Secretary of Justice, IV, 160;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vice-President, 245.</span></li> + +<li>Evangelista. See <span class="smcap">Isle of Pines</span>.</li> + +<li>Everett, Edward, policy toward Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>"Ever Faithful Isle," II, 268, 304.</li> + +<li>Exquemeling, Alexander, author and pirate, I, 302.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>"Family Pact," of Bourbons, effect upon Cuba, II, 42.</li> + +<li>Felin, Antonio, Bishop, II, 172.</li> + +<li>Fels, Cornelius, defeated by Spanish, I, 288.</li> + +<li>Ferdinand, King, policy toward Cuba, I, 56;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">esteem for Velasquez, 73.</span></li> + +<li>Ferdinandina, Columbus's landing place, I, 3;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">name for Cuba, 73.</span></li> + +<li>Ferrara, Orestes, Liberal leader, IV, 260;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionist, 269;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">deprecates factional strife, 306;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary conspirator in New York, 334;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warned by U. S. Government, I, 239.</span></li> + +<li>Ferrer, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 239.</li> + +<li>Figueroa, Vasco Porcallo de, I, 72;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">De Soto's lieutenant, 142;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns from Florida in disgust, 145.</span></li> + +<li>Figuerosa, Rojas de, captures Tortuga, I, 292.</li> + +<li>Filarmonia, riot at ball, III, + +<a href="#page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Filibustering, proclamation of United States against, III, + +<a href="#page_042">42</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Ten Years' War, <a href="#page_311">311</a>,</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in War of Independence, IV, 20;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expeditions intercepted, 52;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">many successful expeditions, 69;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warnings, 70.</span></li> + +<li>Fine Arts, II, 240.</li> + +<li>Finlay, Carlos G., theory of yellow fever successfully applied under General Wood, IV, 171;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing, 172.</span></li> + +<li>Fish, Hamilton, U. S. Secretary of State, prevents premature recognition of Cuban Republic, III, + +<a href="#page_203">203</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests against Rodas's decree, <a href="#page_216">216</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on losses in Ten Years' War, <a href="#page_290">290</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks British support, <a href="#page_292">292</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">states terms of proposed mediation, <a href="#page_293">293</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Fish market at Havana, founder for pirate, II, 357.</li> + +<li>Fiske, John, historian, quoted, I, 270.</li> + +<li>Flag, Cuban, first raised, III, + +<a href="#page_031">31</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">replaces American, IV, 249;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture, 250;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">history and significance, 250.</span></li> + +<li>Flores y Aldama, Rodrigo de, Governor, I, 301.</li> + +<li>Florida, attempted colonization by Ponce de Leon, I, 139;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">De Soto's expedition, 145. See <span class="smcap">Menendez</span>.</span></li> + +<li>Fonseca, Juan Rodriguez de, Bishop of Seville, I, 59.</li> + +<li>Fonts-Sterling, Ernesto, Secretary of Finance, IV, 90;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">urges resistance to revolution, 270.</span></li> + +<li>Fornaris, José, III, + +<a href="#page_230">230</a>.</li> + +<li>Forestry, attention paid by Montalvo, I, 223;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">efforts to check waste, II, 166.</span></li> + +<li>Foyo, Sr., Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, IV, 297.</li> + +<li>France, first foe of Spanish in Cuba, I, 177;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Family Pact," II, 42;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">interest in Cuban revolution, III, + +<a href="#page_126">126</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Franquinay, pirate, at Santiago, I, 310.</li> + +<li>French refugees, in Cuba, II, 189;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expelled, 302.</span></li> + +<li>French Revolution, effects of, II, 184.</li> + +<li>Freyre y Andrade, Fernando, filibuster,</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">IV, 70;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiations with Pino Guerra, 267.</span></li> + +<li>Frye, Alexis, Superintendent of Schools, IV, 156;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with General Wood, 162.</span></li> + +<li>Fuerza, La: picture, facing I, 146;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">building begun by De Soto, I, 147;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">scene of Lady Isabel's tragic vigil, 147, 179;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">planned and built by Sanchez, 194;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work by Menendez, and Ribera, 209;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slave labor sought, 211;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">bad construction, 222;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montalvo's recommendations, 223;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Luzan-Arana quarrel, 237;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">practical completion, 240;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">decorated by Cagigal, II, 33.</span></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Galvano, Antony, historian, quoted, I, 4.</li> + +<li>Galvez, Bernardo, seeks Cuban aid for Pensacola, II, 146;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor, 168;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 170.</span></li> + +<li>Galvez, José Maria, head of Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.</li> + +<li>Garaondo, José, I, 317.</li> + +<li>Garay, Francisco de, Governor of Jamaica, I, 102.</li> + +<li>Garcia, Calixto, portrait, facing III, + +<a href="#page_268">268</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Cuban Republic, III, + +<a href="#page_301">301</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins War of Independence, IV, 69;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his notable career, 76 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins with Shafter at Santiago, 111;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 241.</span></li> + +<li>Garcia, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 269.</li> + +<li>Garcia, Esequiel, Secretary of Education, IV, 320.</li> + +<li>Garcia, Marcos, IV, 44.</li> + +<li>Garcia, Quintiliano, III, + +<a href="#page_329">329</a>.</li> + +<li>Garvey, José N. P., II, 222.</li> + +<li>Gastaneta, Antonio, II, 9.</li> + +<li>Gelder, Francisco, Governor, I, 292.</li> + +<li>Gener y Rincon, Miguel, Secretary of Justice, IV, 161.</li> + +<li>Geraldini, Felipe, I, 310.</li> + +<li>Germany, malicious course of in 1898, IV, 104;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba declares war against, 348;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">property in Cuba seized, 349;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aid to Gomez, 350.</span></li> + +<li>Gibson. Hugh S., U. S. Chargé d'Affaires, assaulted, IV, 308.</li> + +<li>Giron. Garcia, Governor, I, 279.</li> + +<li>Godoy, Captain, arrested at Santiago, and put to death, I, 203.</li> + +<li>Godoy, Manuel, II, 172.</li> + +<li>Goicouria, Domingo, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Gold, Columbus's quest for, I, 19;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Velasquez's search, 61;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "Spaniards' God," 62;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early mining, 81;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of mines, 173.</span></li> + +<li>Gomez, José Antonio, II, 18.</li> + +<li>Gomez, José Miguel, Civil Governor of Santa Clara, IV, 179;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aspires to Presidency, 260, 264;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">turns from Conservative to Liberal party, 265;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">compact with Zayas, 265;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">starts revolution, 269;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected President, 290;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes President, 297;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet, 297;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 298;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">acts of his administration, 301;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">charged with corruption, 304;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Veterans' Association, 304;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Zayas, 306;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">suppresses Negro revolt, 307;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">amnesty bill, 309;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">National Lottery, 310;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Dragado" deal, 310;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad deal, 310;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of his administration, 311;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">double treason in 1916, 332;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated and captured, 337;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his orders for devastation, 337;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aided by Germany, 350.</span></li> + +<li>Gomez, Juan Gualberto, revolutionist, IV, 30;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured and imprisoned, 52;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurgent, 269.</span></li> + +<li>Gomez, Maximo, III, + +<a href="#page_264">264</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">succeeds Gen. Agramonte, <a href="#page_275">275</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes Treaty of Zanjon with Campos, <a href="#page_299">299</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in War of Independence, IV, 15;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander in chief, 16, 43;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 44;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans great campaign of war, 53;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Lacret, 84;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposed to American invasion, 109;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals to Cubans to accept American occupation, 136;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">impeachment by National Assembly ignored, 137;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence during Government of Intervention, 149;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">considered by Constitutional Convention, 191;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposed for Presidency, 240;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines, 241.</span></li> + +<li>Gonzalez, Aurelia Castillo de, author, sketch and portrait, IV, 192.</li> + +<li>Gonzales, William E., U. S. Minister to Cuba, IV, 335;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">watches Gomez's insurrection, 336.</span></li> + +<li>Gorgas, William C., work for sanitation, IV, 175.</li> + +<li>Government of Cuba: organized by Velasquez, I, 69;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">developed at Santiago, 81;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">radical changes made, 111;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in political status of island, 138;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">codification of ordinances, 207;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ordinances of 1542, 317;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">land tenure, II, 12;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms by Governor Guemez, 17;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganization after British occupation, 104;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great reforms by Torre, 132;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">budget and tax reforms, 197;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">authority of Captain-General, III, + +<a href="#page_011">11</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">administrative and judicial functions, <a href="#page_013">13</a> et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">military and naval command, <a href="#page_016">16</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempted reforms, <a href="#page_063">63</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions after Ten Years' War, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Governors of Cuba, Spanish, list of, IV, 123.</li> + +<li>Govin, Antonio, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 95.</span></li> + +<li>Grammont, buccaneer, I, 311.</li> + +<li>Gran Caico, I, 4.</li> + +<li>Grand Turk Island. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li> + +<li>Grant, U. S., President of United States, III, + +<a href="#page_200">200</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inclined to recognize Cuban Republic, <a href="#page_202">202</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">prevented by his Secretary of State, <a href="#page_203">203</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments in messages, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Great Britain, interest in Cuban revolution, III, + +<a href="#page_125">125</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protection sought by Spain, <a href="#page_129">129</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines cooperation with United States, <a href="#page_294">294</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">requires return of fugitives, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Great Exuma. See <span class="smcap">Ferdinandina</span>.</li> + +<li>Great Inagua, I, 4.</li> + +<li>Great War, Cuba enters, IV, 348;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers 10,000 troops, 348;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">German intrigues and propaganda, 349;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of Roman Catholic clergy, 349;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">ships seized, 350;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cooperation with Food Commission, 351;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">military activities, 352;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberal subscriptions to loans, 352;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Red Cross work, 352;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Señora Menocal's inspiring leadership, 353.</span></li> + +<li>Grijalva, Juan de, I, 65;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition to Mexico, 66;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">names Mexico New Spain, 97;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unjustly recalled and discredited, 88.</span></li> + +<li>Guajaba Island, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Guama, Cimmarron chief, I, 127.</li> + +<li>Guanabacoa founded, II, 21.</li> + +<li>Guanahani, Columbus's landing place, I, 2.</li> + +<li>Guanajes Islands, source of slave trade, I, 83.</li> + +<li>Guantanamo, Columbus at, I, 19;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">U. S. Naval Station, IV, 256.</span></li> + +<li>Guardia, Cristobal de la, Secretary of Justice, IV, 320.</li> + +<li>Guazo, Gregorio, de la Vega, Governor, I, 340;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">stops tobacco war, 341;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warnings to Great Britain and France, 342;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">military activity and efficiency, II, 5.</span></li> + +<li>Guemez y Horcasitas, Juan F., Governor, II, 17;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms, 17;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">close of administration, 26.</span></li> + +<li>Guerra, Amador, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li> + +<li>Guerra, Benjamin, treasurer of Junta, IV, 3.</li> + +<li>Guerro, Pino, starts insurrection, IV, 267, 269;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander of Cuban army, 301;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempt to assassinate him, 303.</span></li> + +<li>Guevara, Francisco, III, + +<a href="#page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li>Guiteras, Juan, physician and scientist, sketch and portrait, IV, 321.</li> + +<li>Guiteras, Pedro J., quoted, I, 269;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 6;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">42;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">207.</span></li> + +<li>Guzman, Gonzalez de, mission from Velasquez to King Charles I, I, 85;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">vindicates Velasquez, 108;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Cuba, 110;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marries rich sister-in-law, 116;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">litigation over estate, 117;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tremendous indictment by Vadillo, 120;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals to King and Council for Indies, 120;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to oppress natives, 128;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second time Governor, 137;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes more trouble, 148;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">trouble with French privateers, 178.</span></li> + +<li>Guzman, Nuñez de, royal treasurer, I, 109;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death and fortune, 115.</span></li> + +<li>Guzman, Santos, spokesman of Constitutionalists, IV, 59.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Hammock, of Cuban origin, I, 10.</li> + +<li>Hanebanilla, falls of, view, facing III, + +<a href="#page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Harponville, Viscount Gustave, quoted, II, 189.</li> + +<li>Harvard University, entertains Cuban teachers, IV, 163.</li> + +<li>Hatuey, Cuban chief, leader against Spaniards, I, 62;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 63.</span></li> + +<li>Havana: founded by Narvaez, I, 69;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">De Soto's home and capital, 144;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise in importance, 166;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor's permanent residence, 180;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inadequate defences, 183;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by Sores, 186;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protected by Mazariegos, 194;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sea wall proposed by Osorio, 202;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified by Menendez, 209;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Key of the New World," 210;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial metropolis of West Indies, 216;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first hospital founded, 226;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco church, picture, facing 226;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">building in Carreño's time, 231;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">custom house, 231;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatened by Drake, 243;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">preparations for defence, 250;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">officially called "city," 262;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">coat of arms, 202;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">primitive conditions, 264;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first theatrical performance, 264;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of western district, 275;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great fire, 277;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Pit Hein, 280;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by John Chilton, 349;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first dockyard established, II, 8;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by British under Admiral</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hosier, 9;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">University founded, 11;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by John Campbell, 14;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British expedition against in 1762, 46;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">journal of siege, 54;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">American troops engaged, 66;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrender, 69;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">terms, 71;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British occupation, 78;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great changes, 94;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">description, 94;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view from Cabanas, facing, 96;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reoccupied by Spanish, 102;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hurricane, 115;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">improvements in streets and buildings, 129;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view in Old Havana, facing 130;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">street cleaning, and market, 169;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slaughter house removed, 194;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">shopping, 242;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cafés, 243;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tacon's public works, 365;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of old Presidential Palace, facing III, + +<a href="#page_014">14</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the Prado, facing IV, 16;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged in War of Independence, 62;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of bay and harbor, facing, 98;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">old City Wall, picture, 122;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of old and new buildings, facing 134;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General Ludlow's administration, 146;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Police reorganized, 150;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of University, facing 164;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the new capitol, facing 204;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the President's home, facing 268;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the Academy of Arts and Crafts, facing 288;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">new railroad terminal, 311.</span></li> + +<li>Hay, John, epigram on revolutions, IV, 343</li> + +<li>Hayti. See <span class="smcap">Hispaniola</span>.</li> + +<li>Hein, Pit, Dutch raider, I, 279.</li> + +<li>Henderson, John, on Lopez's expedition, III, + +<a href="#page_064">64</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Herald</i>, New York, on Cuban revolution, III, + +<a href="#page_089">89</a>.</li> + +<li>Heredia, José Maria. II, 274;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exiled, 344;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">life and works, III, + +<a href="#page_318">318</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 318.</span></li> + +<li>Hernani, Domingo, II, 170.</li> + +<li>Herrera, historian, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Hatuey, 62;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of West Indies, 345.</span></li> + +<li>Herrera, Geronimo Bustamente de, I, 194.</li> + +<li>Hevea, Aurelio, Secretary of Interior, IV, 320.</li> + +<li>Hispaniola, Columbus at, I, 19;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, II, 173;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">186;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect upon Cuba, 189.</span></li> + +<li>Hobson, Richmond P., exploit at Santiago, IV, 110.</li> + +<li>Holleben, Dr. von, German Ambassador at Washington, intrigues of, IV, 104.</li> + +<li>Home Rule, proposed by Spain, IV, 6;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">adopted, 8.</span></li> + +<li>Horses introduced into Cuba, I, 63.</li> + +<li>Hosier, Admiral, attacks Havana, I, 312;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 9.</span></li> + +<li>Hospital, first in Havana, I, 226;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belen founded, 318;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Paula and San Francisco, 195.</span></li> + +<li>"House of Fear," Governor's home, I, 156.</li> + +<li>Humboldt, Alexander von, on slavery, II, 206;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on census, 277;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">282;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on slave trade, 288.</span></li> + +<li>Hurricanes, II, 115, 176, 310.</li> + +<li>Hurtado, Lopez, royal treasurer, I, 116;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">has Chaves removed, 162.</span></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Ibarra, Carlos, defeats Dutch raiders, I, 288.</li> + +<li>Incas, I, 7.</li> + +<li>Independence, first conceived, II, 268;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">326;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first revolts for, 343;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sentiment fostered by slave trade, 377;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaimed by Aguero, III, + +<a href="#page_072">72</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaimed by Cespedes at Yara, <a href="#page_155">155</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposed by United States to Spain, <a href="#page_217">217</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">War of Independence, IV, 1;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognized by Spain, 119. See <span class="smcap">War of Independence</span>.</span></li> + +<li>Intellectual life of Cuba, I, 360;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lack of productiveness in Sixteenth Century, 362;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban backwardness, II, 235;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first important progress, 273;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great arising and splendid achievements, III, + +<a href="#page_317">317</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Insurrections. See <span class="smcap">Revolutions</span>, and <span class="smcap">Slavery</span>.</li> + +<li>Intervention, Government of: First, established, IV, 132;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organized, 145;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban Cabinet, 145;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">saves island from famine, 146;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">works of rehabilitation and reform, 148;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage law, 152;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions forbidden, 153;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">census, 154;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil governments of provinces, 179;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">municipal elections ordered, 180;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">electoral law 180;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final transactions, 246;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second Government of Intervention, 281;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">C. E. Magoon, Governor, 281;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Consulting Board, 284;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elections held, 289, 290;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commission for revising laws, 294;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy over church property, 294.</span></li> + +<li>Intervention sought by Great Britain and France, III, + +<a href="#page_128">128</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">by United States, IV, 106.</span></li> + +<li>Iroquois, I, 7.</li> + +<li>Irving, Washington, on Columbus's landing place, I, 12.</li> + +<li>Isabella, Columbus's landing place, I, 3.</li> + +<li>Isabella, Queen, portrait, I, 13.</li> + +<li>Isidore of Seville, quoted, I, 4.</li> + +<li>Islas de Arena, I, 11.</li> + +<li>Isle of Pines, I, 26;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognized as part of Cuba, 224;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">status under Platt Amendment, IV, 255.</span></li> + +<li>Italian settlers in Cuba, I, 169.</li> + +<li>Ivonnet, Negro insurgent, IV, 307.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Jamaica, Columbus at, I, 20.</li> + +<li>Japan. See <span class="smcap">Cipango</span>.</li> + +<li>Jaruco, founded, II, 131.</li> + +<li>Jefferson, Thomas, on Cuban annexation, II, 260;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, + +<a href="#page_132">132</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Jeronimite Order, made guardian of Indians, I, 78;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes their oppressor, 127.</span></li> + +<li>Jesuits, controversy over, II, 86;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expulsion of, 111.</span></li> + +<li>Jordan, Thomas, joins Cuban revolution, III, + +<a href="#page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Jorrin, José Silverio, portrait, facing III, + +<a href="#page_308">308</a>.</li> + +<li>Jovellar, Joachim, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_273">273</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaims state of siege, <a href="#page_289">289</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, <a href="#page_290">290</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Juana, Columbus's first name for Cuba, I, 13.</li> + +<li>Juan Luis Keys, I, 21.</li> + +<li>Judiciary, reforms in, II, 110;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Navarro, 142;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Unzaga, 165;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Leonard Wood, IV, 177.</span></li> + +<li>Junta, Cuban, in United States, III, + +<a href="#page_091">91</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, IV, 2;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">branches elsewhere, 3;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy in enlisting men, 19.</span></li> + +<li>Junta de Fomento, II, 178.</li> + +<li>Juntas of the Laborers, III, + +<a href="#page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Keppel, Gen. See <span class="smcap">Albemarle</span>.</li> + +<li>Key Indians, I, 125;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition against, 126.</span></li> + +<li>"Key of the New World and Bulwark of the Indies," I, 210.</li> + +<li>Kindelan, Sebastian de, II, 197, 315.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Lacoste, Perfecto, Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, IV, 160.</li> + +<li>Land tenure, II, 12;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">absentee landlords, 214.</span></li> + +<li>Lanuza, Gonzalez, Secretary of Justice, IV, 146;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 146.</span></li> + +<li>Lares, Amador de, I, 93.</li> + +<li>La Salle, in Cuba, I, 73.</li> + +<li>Las Casas, Bartholomew, Apostle to the Indies, arrival in Cuba, I, 63;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 64;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces Narvaez, 66;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins campaign against slavery, 75;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">mission to Spain, 77;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">before Ximenes, 77.</span></li> + +<li>Las Casas, Luis de, Governor, II, 175;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 175;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 182.</span></li> + +<li>Lasso de la Vega, Juan, Bishop, II, 17.</li> + +<li>Lawton, Gen. Henry W., leads advance against Spanish, IV, 112;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Military Governor of Oriente, 139.</span></li> + +<li>Lazear, Camp, established, IV, 172.</li> + +<li>Lazear, Jesse W., hero and martyr in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.</li> + +<li>Ledesma, Francisco Rodriguez, Governor, I, 310.</li> + +<li>Lee, Fitzhugh, Consul General at Havana, IV, 72;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reports on "concentration" policy of Weyler, 86;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">asks for warship to protect Americans at Havana, 97;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Maine</i> sent, 98;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commands troops at Havana, 121.</span></li> + +<li>Lee, Robert Edward, declines to join Lopez, III, + +<a href="#page_039">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Legrand, Pedro, invades Cuba, I, 302.</li> + +<li>Leiva, Lopez, Secretary of Government, IV, 297.</li> + +<li>Lemus, Jose Morales, III, + +<a href="#page_333">333</a>.</li> + +<li>Lendian, Evelio Rodriguez, educator, sketch and portrait, IV, 162.</li> + +<li>Liberal Party, III, + +<a href="#page_306">306</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">triumphant through revolution, IV, 285;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissensions, 303;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspiracy against election, 329.</span></li> + +<li>Liberty Loans, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 352.</li> + +<li>Lighthouse service, under Mario G. Menocal, IV, 168.</li> + +<li>Linares, Tomas de, first Rector of University of Havana, II, 11.</li> + +<li>Lindsay, Forbes, quoted, II, 217.</li> + +<li>Linschoten, Jan H. van, historian, quoted, I, 351.</li> + +<li>Liquor, intoxicating, prohibited in 1780, II, 150.</li> + +<li>Literary periodicals: <i>El Habanero</i>, III, + +<a href="#page_321">321</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>El Plantel</i>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Cuban Review</i>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Havana Review</i>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Literature, II, 245;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early works, 252;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">poets, 274;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great development of activity, III, + +<a href="#page_315">315</a> et seq.</span></li> + +<li>Little Inagua, I, 4.</li> + +<li>Llorente, Pedro, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188, 190.</li> + +<li>Lobera, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 182;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">desperate defence against Sores, 185.</span></li> + +<li>Lolonois, pirate, I, 296.</li> + +<li>Long Island. See <span class="smcap">Ferdinandina</span>.</li> + +<li>Lopez, Narciso, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_023">23</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#page_024">24</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins the Spanish army, <a href="#page_026">26</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marries and settles in Cuba, <a href="#page_030">30</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">against the Carlists in Spain, <a href="#page_031">31</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">friend of Valdez, <a href="#page_031">31</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offices and honors, <a href="#page_033">33</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans Cuban revolution, <a href="#page_036">36</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrayed and fugitive, <a href="#page_037">37</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">consults Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee, <a href="#page_038">38</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first American expedition, <a href="#page_039">39</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">members of the party, <a href="#page_040">40</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">activity in Southern States, <a href="#page_043">43</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition starts, <a href="#page_045">45</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation to his men, <a href="#page_046">46</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands at Cardenas, <a href="#page_049">49</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lack of Cuban support, <a href="#page_054">54</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reembarks, <a href="#page_056">56</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands at Key West, <a href="#page_058">58</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrested and tried, <a href="#page_060">60</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second expedition organized, <a href="#page_065">65</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrayed, <a href="#page_067">67</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">third expedition, <a href="#page_070">70</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final expedition organized, <a href="#page_091">91</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands in Cuba, <a href="#page_098">98</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated and captured, <a href="#page_112">112</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#page_114">114</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of his works, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Lorenzo, Gen., Governor at Santiago, II, 347.</li> + +<li>Lorraine, Sir Lambton, III, + +<a href="#page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Los Rios, J. B. A. de, I, 310.</li> + +<li>Lottery, National, established by José Miguel Gomez, IV, 310.</li> + +<li>Louisiana, Franco-Spanish contest over, II, 117;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ulloa sent from Cuba to take possession, 118;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">O'Reilly sent, 123;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uznaga sent, 126.</span></li> + +<li>Louverture, Toussaint, II, 186.</li> + +<li>Luaces, Joaquin Lorenzo, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_330">330</a>.</li> + +<li>Ludlow, Gen. William, command and work at Havana, IV, 144.</li> + +<li>Lugo, Pedro Benitez de, Governor, I, 331.</li> + +<li>Luna y Sarmiento, Alvaro de, Governor, I, 290.</li> + +<li>Luz y Caballero, José de la, "Father of the Cuban Revolution," III, + +<a href="#page_322">322</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great work for patriotic education, <a href="#page_323">323</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portrait, <a href="#front">frontispiece, Vol III.</a></span></li> + +<li>Luzan, Gabriel de, Governor, I, 236;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy over La Fuerza, 237;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">feud with Quiñones, 241;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unites with Quiñones to resist Drake, 243;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">energetic action, 246;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tenure of office prolonged, 250;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of term, 260.</span></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Macaca, province of, I, 20.</li> + +<li>Maceo, José Antonio, proclaims Provisional Government, IV, 15;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leader in War of Independence, 41;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commands Division of Oriente, 43;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Campos, 46;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans great campaign, 53;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">invades Pinar del Rio, 61;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">successful campaign, 73;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 74;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 74.</span></li> + +<li>Maceo, José, IV, 41;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marches through Cuba, 76.</span></li> + +<li>Machado, Eduard, treason of, III, + +<a href="#page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Machete, used in battle, IV, 57.</li> + +<li>Madison, James, on status of Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li>Madriaga, Juan Ignacio, II, 59.</li> + +<li>Magoon, Charles E., Provisional Governor, IV, 281;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his administration, 283;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promotes public works, 286;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes census, 287;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">election law, 287;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 295.</span></li> + +<li>Mahy, Nicolas, Governor, II, 315.</li> + +<li>Mail service established, II, 107;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under American occupation, IV, 168.</span></li> + +<li>Maine sent to Havana, IV, 98;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">destruction of, 98;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">investigation, 100.</span></li> + +<li>Maldonado, Diego, I, 146.</li> + +<li>Mandeville, Sir John, I, 20.</li> + +<li>Mangon, identified with Mangi, I, 20.</li> + +<li>Manners and Customs, II, 229 et seq.;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">balls, 239;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">shopping, 242;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of black and white races, 242;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cafés, 243;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early society, 248.</span></li> + +<li>Monosca, Juan Saenz, Bishop, I, 301.</li> + +<li>Manrique, Diego, Governor, II, 109.</li> + +<li>Manzaneda y Salines, Severino de, Governor, I, 320.</li> + +<li>Manzanillo, Declaration of Independence issued, III, + +<a href="#page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li>Maraveo Ponce de Leon, Gomez de, I, 339.</li> + +<li>Marco Polo, I, 4, 20.</li> + +<li>Marcy, William L., policy toward Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Mar de la Nuestra Señora, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Mariguana. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li> + +<li>Marin, Sabas, succeeds Campos in command, IV, 63.</li> + +<li>Markham, Sir Clements, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12.</li> + +<li>Marmol, Donato, III, + +<a href="#page_173">173</a>, + +<a href="#page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Marquez, Pedro Menendez, I, 206.</li> + +<li>Marriage law, reformed under American occupation, IV, 152;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy over, 153.</span></li> + +<li>Marti, José, portrait, frontispiece, Vol IV;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leader of War of Independence, IV, 2;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his career, 9;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in New York, 11;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes Junta, 11;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to Cuba, 15;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 16;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his war manifesto, 17;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fulfilment of his ideals, 355.</span></li> + +<li>Marti, José, secretary of War, portrait, IV, 360.</li> + +<li>Marti, the pirate, II, 357.</li> + +<li>Martinez Campos. See Campos.</li> + +<li>Martinez, Dionisio de la Vega, Governor, II, 8;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inscription on La Punta, 14.</span></li> + +<li>Martinez, Juan, I, 192.</li> + +<li>Martyr, Peter, I, 53.</li> + +<li>Maso, Bartolome, revolutionist, IV, 34;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebukes Spotorno, 35;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Cuban Republic, 43;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vice President of Council, 48;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Republic, 90;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for Vice President, 242;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks Presidency, 243.</span></li> + +<li>Mason, James M., U. S. Minister to France, III, + +<a href="#page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li>Masse, E. M., describes slave trade, II, 202;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rural life, 216;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Spanish policy toward Cuba, 227;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">social morals, 230.</span></li> + +<li>Matanzas, founded, I, 321;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of name, 321.</span></li> + +<li>Maura, Sr., proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 5.</li> + +<li>McCullagh, John B., reorganizes Havana Police, IV, 150.</li> + +<li>McKinley, William, President of United States, message of 1897 on Cuba, IV, 87;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines European mediation, 103;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">message for war, 104.</span></li> + +<li>Maza, Enrique, assaults Hugh S. Gibson, IV, 308.</li> + +<li>Mazariegos, Diego de, Governor, I, 191;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">a scandalous moralist, 193;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defences against privateering, 193;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes charge of La Fuerza, 195;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Governor of Florida, 196;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">replaced by Sandoval, 197.</span></li> + +<li>Medina, Fernando de, I, 111.</li> + +<li>Mendez-Capote, Fernando, Secretary of Sanitation, portrait, IV, 360.</li> + +<li>Mendieta, Carlos, candidate for Vice President, IV, 328;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebels, 338.</span></li> + +<li>Mendive, Rafael Maria de, III, + +<a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li>Mendoza, Martin de, I, 204.</li> + +<li>Menendez, Pedro de Aviles, I, 199;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander of Spanish fleet, 200;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">clash with Osorio, 201;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Cuba, 205;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dealing with increasing enemies, 208;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortifies Havana, 209;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled to Spain, 213;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Bishop Castillo, 226.</span></li> + +<li>Menocal, Aniceto G., portrait, IV, 50.</li> + +<li>Menocal, Mario G., Assistant Secretary of War, IV, 49;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chief of Police at Havana, 144, 150;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in charge of Lighthouse Service, 168;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for President, 290;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slandered by Liberals, 291;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected President, 312;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, 312;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 312;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of birthplace, 313;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet, 320;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinion of Cuba's needs, 321;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first message, 322;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Congress, 323;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">important reforms, 324;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">suppresses rebellion, 327;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for reelection, 328;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">vigorous action against Gomez's rebellion, 335;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines American aid, 337;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">escapes assassination, 339;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reelection confirmed, 341;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">clemency to traitors, 342;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">message on entering Great War, 346;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fulfilment of Marti's ideals, 355;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of his administration, 356;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">achievements for education, 357;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">health, 357;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">industry and commerce, 358;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">finance, 359;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"from Velasquez to Menocal," 365.</span></li> + +<li>Menocal, Señora, leadership of Cuban womanhood in Red Cross and other work, IV, 354;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 352.</span></li> + +<li>Mercedes, Maria de las, quoted, II, 174;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on slave insurrection, 368.</span></li> + +<li>Merchan, Rafael, III, + +<a href="#page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">patriotic works, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Merlin, Countess de. See <span class="smcap">Mercedes</span>.</li> + +<li><i>Merrimac</i>, sunk at Santiago, IV, 111.</li> + +<li>Mesa, Hernando de, first Bishop, I, 122.</li> + +<li>Mestre, José Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_326">326</a>.</li> + +<li>Meza, Sr., Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, IV, 297.</li> + +<li>Mexico, discovered and explored from Cuba, I, 87;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">designs upon Cuba, II, 262;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban expedition against, 346;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warned off by United States, III, + +<a href="#page_134">134</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of Maximilian, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Milanes, José Jacinto, sketch, portrait and works, III, + +<a href="#page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li>Miles, Gen. Nelson A., prepares for invasion of Cuba, IV, 111.</li> + +<li>Miranda, Francisco, II, 156;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Bolivar, 335.</span></li> + +<li>Miscegenation, II, 204.</li> + +<li>Molina, Francisco, I, 290.</li> + +<li>Monastic orders, I, 276.</li> + +<li>Monroe Doctrine, foreshadowed, II, 256;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promulgated, 328.</span></li> + +<li>Monroe, James, interest in Cuba, II, 257;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promulgates Doctrine, 328;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 329.</span></li> + +<li>Monserrate Gate, Havana, picture, II, 241.</li> + +<li>Montalvo, Gabriel, Governor, I, 215;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">feud with Rojas family, 218;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">investigated and retired, 219;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">pleads for naval protection for Cuba, 220.</span></li> + +<li>Montalvo, Lorenzo, II, 89.</li> + +<li>Montalvo, Rafael, Secretary of Public Works, urges resistance to revolutionists, IV, 270.</li> + +<li>Montanes, Pedro Garcia, I, 292.</li> + +<li>Montano See <span class="smcap">Velasquez</span>, J. M.</li> + +<li>Montes, Garcia, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 254.</li> + +<li>Montesino, Antonio, I, 78.</li> + +<li>Montiel, Vasquez de, naval commander, I, 278.</li> + +<li>Montoro, Rafael, Representative in Cortes, III, + +<a href="#page_308">308</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">spokesman of Autonomists, IV, 59;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Autonomist Cabinet, 95;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for Vice President, 290;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Liberals, 291;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, 317;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 320.</span></li> + +<li>Morales case, IV, 92.</li> + +<li>Morales. Pedro de, commands at Santiago, I, 299.</li> + +<li>Morals, strangely mixed with piety and vice, II, 229.</li> + +<li>Morell, Pedro Augustino, Bishop, II, 53;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Albemarle, 83;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exiled, 87;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 113.</span></li> + +<li>Moreno, Andres, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 90.</li> + +<li>Moret law, abolishing slavery, III, + +<a href="#page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Morgan, Henry, plans raid on Havana, I, 297;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">later career, 303.</span></li> + +<li>Morro Castle, Havana, picture, facing I, 180;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">site of battery, 180;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tower built by Mazariegos, 196;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified against Drake, 249;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">planned by Antonelli, 261;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged by British, II, 55.</span></li> + +<li>Morro Castle, Santiago, built, I, 289;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture, facing 298.</span></li> + +<li>Mucaras, I, 11.</li> + +<li>Muenster, geographer, I, 6.</li> + +<li>Mugeres Islands, I, 84.</li> + +<li>Munive, Andres de, I, 317.</li> + +<li>Murgina y Mena, A. M., I, 317.</li> + +<li>Music, early concerts at Havana, II, 239.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Nabia, Juan Alfonso de, I, 207.</li> + +<li>Nancy Globe, I. 6.</li> + +<li>Napoleon's designs upon Cuba, II, 203.</li> + +<li>Naranjo, probable landing place of Columbus, I, 12.</li> + +<li>Narvaez, Panfilo de, portrait, I, 63;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival in Cuba, 63;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign against natives, 65;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">explores the island, 67;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">errand to Spain, 77;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to Mexico to oppose Cortez, 98;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">secures appointment of Councillors for life, 111.</span></li> + +<li>Naval stations, U. S., in Cuba, IV, 255.</li> + +<li>Navarrete, quoted, I, 3, 12.</li> + +<li>Navarro, Diego Jose, Governor, II, 141, 150.</li> + +<li>Navy, Spanish, in Cuban waters, III, + +<a href="#page_182">182</a>, + +<a href="#page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li>Negroes, imported as slaves, I, 170;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of, 171;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slaves and free, increasing numbers of, 229. See <span class="smcap">Slavery</span>.</span></li> + +<li>New Orleans, anti-Spanish outbreak, III, + +<a href="#page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>New Spain. See <span class="smcap">Mexico</span>.</li> + +<li>Newspapers: <i>Gazeta</i>, 1780, II, 157;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Papel Periodico</i>, 179;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">246;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">publications in Paris, Madrid and New York, 354;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">El Faro Industrial, III, + +<a href="#page_018">18</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Diario de la Marina, <a href="#page_018">18</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Verdad, <a href="#page_018">18</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Vos de Cuba, <a href="#page_260">260</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Vos del Siglo, <a href="#page_232">232</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Revolucion, <a href="#page_333">333</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">El Siglo, <a href="#page_334">334</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">El Laborante, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Norsemen, American colonists, I, 7.</li> + +<li>Nougaret, Jean Baptiste, quoted, II, 26.</li> + +<li>Nuñez, Emilio, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in war, 57;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil Governor of Havana, 179;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">head of Veterans' Association, 305;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of Agriculture, 320;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for Vice President, 328;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">election confirmed, 341.</span></li> + +<li>Nuñez, Enrique, Secretary of Health and Charities, IV, 320.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Ocampo, Sebastian de, circumnavigates Cuba, I, 54.</li> + +<li>O'Donnell, George Leopold, Governor, II, 365;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his wife's sordid intrigues, 365.</span></li> + +<li>Oglethorpe, Governor of Georgia, hostile to Spain, II, 24, 30.</li> + +<li>O'Hara, Theodore, with Lopez, III, + +<a href="#page_046">46</a>.</li> + +<li>Ojeda, Alonzo de, I, 54;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduces Christianity to Cuba, 55.</span></li> + +<li>Olid, Christopher de, sent to Mexico, I, 88.</li> + +<li>Olney, Richard. U. S. Secretary of State, attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 71.</li> + +<li>Oquendo, Antonio de, I, 281.</li> + +<li>Orejon y Gaston, Francisco Davila de, Governor, I, 301, 310.</li> + +<li>O'Reilly, Alexandre, sent to occupy Louisiana, II, 123;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruthless rule, 125.</span></li> + +<li>Orellano, Diego de, I, 86.</li> + +<li>Ornofay, province of, I, 20.</li> + +<li>Ortiz, Bartholomew, alcalde mayor, I, 146;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 151.</span></li> + +<li>Osorio, Garcia de Sandoval, Governor, I, 197;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Menendez, 199, 201;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retired, 205;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tried, 206.</span></li> + +<li>Osorio, Sancho Pardo, I, 207.</li> + +<li>Ostend Manifesto, III, + +<a href="#page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Ovando, Alfonso de Caceres, I, 214;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revises law system, 233.</span></li> + +<li>Ovando, Nicolas de, I, 54.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Palma, Tomas Estrada, head of Cuban Junta in New York, IV, 3;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provisional President of Cuban Republic, 15;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Delegate at Large, 43;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejects anything short of independence, 71;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for Presidency, 241;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his career, 241;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected President, 245;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival in Cuba, 247;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 248;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">receives transfer of government from General Wood, 248;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet, 254;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first message, 254;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperous administration, 259;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">non-partisan at first, 264;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">forced toward Conservative party, 264;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reelected, 266;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses to believe insurrection impending, 266;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses to submit to blackmail, 268;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrayed by Congress, 269;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">acts too late, 270;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks American aid, 271;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview with W. H. Taft, 276;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns Presidency, 280;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of character and work, 282;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 284.</span></li> + +<li>Palma y Romay, Ramon, III, + +<a href="#page_327">327</a>.</li> + +<li>Parra, Antonio, scientist, II, 252.</li> + +<li>Parra, Maso, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li> + +<li>Parties, political, in Cuba, IV, 59;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin and characteristics of Conservative and Liberal, 181, 261.</span></li> + +<li>Pasalodos, Damaso, Secretary to President, IV, 297</li> + +<li>Pasamonte, Miguel, intrigues against Columbus, I, 58.</li> + +<li>Paz, Doña de, marries Juan de Avila, I, 154.</li> + +<li>Paz, Pedro de, I, 109.</li> + +<li>Penalosa, Diego de, Governor, II, 31.</li> + +<li>Penalver. See <span class="smcap">Penalosa</span>.</li> + +<li>Penalver, Luis, Bishop of New Orleans, II, 179.</li> + +<li>"Peninsulars," III, + +<a href="#page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Pensacola, settlement of, I, 328;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seized by French, 342;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recovered by Spanish, II, 7;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defended by Galvez, 146.</span></li> + +<li>Pereda, Gaspar Luis, Governor, I, 276.</li> + +<li>Perez, Diego, repels privateers, I, 179.</li> + +<li>Perez, Perico, revolutionist, IV, 15, 30, 78.</li> + +<li>Perez de Zambrana, Luisa, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li>Personal liberty restricted, III, + +<a href="#page_008">8</a>.</li> + +<li>Peru, good wishes for Cuban revolution, III, + +<a href="#page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip II, King, appreciation of Cuba, I, 260.</li> + +<li>Pieltain, Candido, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li>Pierce, Franklin, President of United States, policy toward Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Pina, Severo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 48.</li> + +<li>Pinar del Rio, city founded, II, 131;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maceo invades province, IV, 61;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war in, 73.</span></li> + +<li>Pineyro, Enrique, III, + +<a href="#page_333">333</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 334.</span></li> + +<li>Pinto, Ramon, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_062">62</a>.</li> + +<li>"Pirates of America," I, 296.</li> + +<li>Pizarro, Francisco de, I, 54, 91.</li> + +<li>Platt, Orville H., Senator, on relations of United States and Cuba, IV, 198;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amendment to Cuban Constitution, 199;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amendment adopted, 203;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">text of Amendment, 238.</span></li> + +<li>Pococke, Sir George, expedition against Havana, II, 46.</li> + +<li>Poey, Felipe, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_315">315</a>.</li> + +<li>Point Lucrecia, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Polavieja, Gen., Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>Police, reorganized, II, 312;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under American occupation, IV, 150;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">police courts established, 171.</span></li> + +<li>Polk, James K., President of the United States, policy toward Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li>Polo y Bernabe, Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 98.</li> + +<li>Ponce de Leon, in Cuba, I, 73;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 139.</span></li> + +<li>Ponce de Leon, of New York, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13.</li> + +<li>Pope, efforts to maintain peace, between United States and Spain, IV, 104.</li> + +<li>Porro, Cornelio, treason of, III, + +<a href="#page_257">257</a>.</li> + +<li>Port Banes, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Port Nipe, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Port Nuevitas, I, 3.</li> + +<li>Portuguese settlers, I, 168.</li> + +<li>Portuondo, Rafael, Secretary for Foreign Affairs, IV, 48;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">filibuster, 70.</span></li> + +<li>Prado y Portocasso, Juan, Governor, II, 49;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">neglect of duty, 52;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sentenced to degradation, 108.</span></li> + +<li>Praga, Francisco de, I, 282.</li> + +<li>Presidency, first candidates for, IV, 240;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tomas Estrada Palma elected, 245;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">José Miguel Gomez aspires to, 260;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidates in 1906, 265;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palma's resignation, 280;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jose Miguel Gomez elected, 290;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fourth campaign, 312;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mario G. Menocal elected, 312;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fifth campaign, 328;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General Menocal reelected, 341.</span></li> + +<li>Prim, Gen., Spanish revolutionist, III, + +<a href="#page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Printing, first press in Cuba, II, 245.</li> + +<li>Privateers, French ravage Cuba, I, 177;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havana and Santiago attacked, 178;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havana looted, 179;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacques Sores, 183;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havana captured, 186;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santiago looted, 193;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">French raids, 220, et seq.</span></li> + +<li>Proctor, Redfield, Senator, investigates and reports on condition of Cuba in War of Independence, IV, 87.</li> + +<li>Procurators, appointment of, I, 112.</li> + +<li>Protectorate, tripartite, refused by United States, II, 261;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, + +<a href="#page_130">130</a>, + +<a href="#page_133">133</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Provincial governments organized, IV, 179, confusion in, 292.</li> + +<li>Public Works, promoted by General Wood, IV, 166;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">by Magoon, 286.</span></li> + +<li>Puerto Grande. See <span class="smcap">Guantanamo</span>.</li> + +<li>Puerto Principe, I, 18, 167.</li> + +<li>Punta, La, first fortification, I, 203;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">strengthened against Drake, 249;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortress planned by Antonelli, 261;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture, IV, 33.</span></li> + +<li>Punta Lucrecia, I, 3.</li> + +<li>Punta Serafina, I, 22.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Queen's Gardens, I, 20.</li> + +<li>Quero, Geronimo, I, 277.</li> + +<li>Quesada, Gonzalo de, Secretary of Cuban Junta, IV, 3;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minister to United States, 275.</span></li> + +<li>Quesada, Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation, <a href="#page_169">169</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Quezo, Juan de, I, 113.</li> + +<li>Quilez, J. M., Civil Governor of Pinar del Rio, IV, 179.</li> + +<li>Quiñones, Diego Hernandez de, commander of fortifications at Havana, I, 240;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">feud with Luzan, 241;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unites with Luzan to resist Drake, 243.</span></li> + +<li>Quiñones, Doña Leonora de, I, 117.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Rabi, Jesus, revolutionist, IV, 34, 42.</li> + +<li>Railroads, first in Cuba, II, 343.</li> + +<li>Raja, Vicente, Governor, I, 337.</li> + +<li>Ramirez, Alejandro, sketch and portrait, II, 311.</li> + +<li>Ramirez, Miguel, Bishop, partisan of Guzman, I, 120;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">political activities and greed, 124.</span></li> + +<li>Ramos, Gregorio, I, 274.</li> + +<li>Ranzel, Diego, I, 295.</li> + +<li>Recio, R. Lopez, Civil Governor of Camaguey, IV, 180.</li> + +<li>Recio, Serafin, III, + +<a href="#page_086">86</a>.</li> + +<li>Reciprocity, secured by Roosevelt for Cuba, IV, 256.</li> + +<li>"Reconcentrados," mortality among, IV, 86.</li> + +<li>Red Cross, Cuban activities, IV, 353.</li> + +<li>Redroban, Pedro de, I, 201.</li> + +<li>Reed, Walter, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.</li> + +<li>Reformists, Spanish, support Blanco's Autonomist policy, IV, 97.</li> + +<li>Reggio, Andreas, II, 32.</li> + +<li>Reno, George, in War of Independence, IV, 12;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">running blockade, 21;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 21;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">services in Great War, 351.</span></li> + +<li>Renteria, Pedro de, partner of Las Casas, I, 75;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes slavery, 76.</span></li> + +<li>Repartimiento, I, 70.</li> + +<li>Republic of Cuba: proclaimed and organized, III, + +<a href="#page_157">157</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first representative Assembly, <a href="#page_161">161</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution of 1868, <a href="#page_164">164</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first House of Representatives, <a href="#page_176">176</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Judiciary, <a href="#page_177">177</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">legislation, <a href="#page_177">177</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">army, <a href="#page_178">178</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fails to secure recognition, <a href="#page_203">203</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government reorganized, <a href="#page_275">275</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Treaty of Zanjon, <a href="#page_301">301</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganized in War of Independence, IV, 15;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maso chosen President, 43;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conventions of Yara and Najasa, 47;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution adopted, 47;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government reorganized, Cisneros President, 48;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital at Las Tunas, 56;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removes to Cubitas, 72;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exercises functions of government, 72;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganized in 1897, 90;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Spanish evacuation of island, 134;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">disbanded, 135;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitutional Convention called, 185;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution completed, 192;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with United States, 195;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platt Amendment, 203;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">enters Great War, 346.</span></li> + +<li>Revolutions: Rise of spirit, II, 268;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in South America, 333;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Soles de Bolivar," 341;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts to revolt, 344;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Black Eagle," 346;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans of Lopez, III, + +<a href="#page_036">36</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lopez's first invasion, <a href="#page_049">49</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aguero's insurrection, <a href="#page_072">72</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments of New York <i>Herald</i>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lopez's last expedition, <a href="#page_091">91</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of his work, <a href="#page_116">116</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">European interest, <a href="#page_125">125</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">beginning of Ten Years' War. <a href="#page_155">155</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of Ten Years' War, <a href="#page_299">299</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection renewed, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">War of Independence, IV, 1;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sartorius Brothers, 4;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of War of Independence, 116;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt against President Palma, 266;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">ultimatum, 278;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">government overthrown, 280;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Negro insurrection, 307;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspiracy against President Menocal, 327;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great treason of José Miguel Gomez, 332;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gomez captured, 337;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warnings from United States Government, 338;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutions denounced by United States, 343.</span></li> + +<li>Revolutionary party, Cuban, IV, 1, 11.</li> + +<li>Rey, Juan F. G., III, + +<a href="#page_040">40</a>.</li> + +<li>Riano y Gamboa, Francisco, Governor, I, 287.</li> + +<li>Ribera, Diego de, I, 206;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work on La Fuerza, 209.</span></li> + +<li>Ricafort, Mariano, Governor, II, 347.</li> + +<li>Ricla, Conde de, Governor, II, 102;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 109.</span></li> + +<li>Rio de la Luna, I, 16.</li> + +<li>Rio de Mares, I, 16.</li> + +<li>Riva-Martiz, I, 279.</li> + +<li>Rivera, Juan Ruiz, filibuster, IV, 70;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">succeeds Maceo, 79.</span></li> + +<li>Rivera, Ruiz, Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, IV, 160.</li> + +<li>Roa, feud with Villalobos, I, 323.</li> + +<li>Rodas, Caballero de, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_213">213</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">emancipation decree, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Rodney, Sir George, expedition to West Indies, II, 153.</li> + +<li>Rodriguez, Alejandro, suppresses revolt, IV, 266.</li> + +<li>Rodriguez, Laureano, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.</li> + +<li>Rojas, Alfonso de, I, 181.</li> + +<li>Rojas, Gomez de, banished, I, 193;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of La Fuerza, 217;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuilds Santiago, 258.</span></li> + +<li>Rojas, Hernando de, expedition to Florida, I, 196.</li> + +<li>Rojas, Juan Bautista de, royal treasurer, I, 218.</li> + +<li>Rojas, Juan de, aid to Lady Isabel de Soto, I, 145;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander at Havana, 183.</span></li> + +<li>Rojas, Manuel de, Governor, I, 105;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">adopts policy of "Cuba for the Cubans," 106;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second Governorship, 121;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dealings with Indians, 126;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">noble endeavors frustrated, 130;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 135;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the King's unique tribute to him, 135.</span></li> + +<li>Roldan, Francisco Dominguez, Secretary of Public Instruction, sketch and portrait, IV, 357.</li> + +<li>Roldan, José Gonzalo, III, + +<a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li>Roloff, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 45;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of War, 48;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">filibuster, 70.</span></li> + +<li>Romano Key, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Romay, Tomas, introduces vaccination, II, 192;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 192.</span></li> + +<li>Roncali, Federico, Governor, II, 366;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Spanish interests in Cuba, 381.</span></li> + +<li>Roosevelt, Theodore, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 113;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of United States, on relations with Cuba, 245;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of General Wood's work in Cuba, 251;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fight with Congress for Cuban reciprocity, 256;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to aid President Palma against revolutionists, 275;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">letter to Quesada, 275.</span></li> + +<li>Root, Elihu, Secretary of War, on Cuban Constitution, IV, 194;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Cuban relations with United States, 197;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">explains Platt Amendment, 201.</span></li> + +<li>Rowan, A. S., messenger to Oriente, IV. 107.</li> + +<li>Rubalcava, Manuel Justo, II, 274.</li> + +<li>Rubens, Horatio, Counsel of Cuban Junta, IV, 3.</li> + +<li>Rubios, Palacios, I, 78.</li> + +<li>Ruiz, Joaquin, spy, IV, 91;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 92. See <span class="smcap">Aranguren</span>.</span></li> + +<li>Ruiz, Juan Fernandez, filibuster, IV, 70.</li> + +<li>Rum Cay. See <span class="smcap">Conception</span>.</li> + +<li>Rural Guards, organized by General Wood, IV, 144;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">efficiency of, 301.</span></li> + +<li>Ruysch, geographer, I, 6.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Saavedra, Juan Esquiro, I, 278.</li> + +<li>Sabinal Key, I, 18.</li> + +<li>Saco, José Antonio, pioneer of Independence, II, 378;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 378;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">literary and patriotic work, III, + +<a href="#page_325">325</a>, + +<a href="#page_327">327</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Sagasta, Praxedes, Spanish Premier, proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 6;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 36.</span></li> + +<li>Saint Augustine, expedition against, I, 332.</li> + +<li>Saint Mery, M. de, search for tomb of Columbus, I, 34.</li> + +<li>Salamanca, Juan de, Governor, I, 295;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promotes industries, 300.</span></li> + +<li>Salamanca y Negrete, Manuel, Governor, III, + +<a href="#page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>Salaries, some early, I, 263.</li> + +<li>Salas, Indalacio, IV, 21.</li> + +<li>Salazar. See <span class="smcap">Someruelos</span>.</li> + +<li>Salcedo, Bishop, controversy with Governor Tejada, I, 262.</li> + +<li>Sama Point, I, 4.</li> + +<li>Samana. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li> + +<li>Sampson, William T., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Santiago, 114;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 115.</span></li> + +<li>Sanchez, Bartolome, makes plans for La</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fuerza, I, 194;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins building, 195;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">feud with Mazariegos, 197.</span></li> + +<li>Sanchez, Bernabe, II, 345.</li> + +<li>Sancti Spiritus, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168.</li> + +<li>Sandoval, Garcia Osorio, Governor, I, 197. See <span class="smcap">Osario</span>.</li> + +<li>Sanitation, undertaken by Guemez, II, 18;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">vaccination introduced by Dr. Romay. 192;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">bad conditions, III, + +<a href="#page_313">313</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General Wood at Santiago, IV, 142;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">achievements under President Menocal, 357.</span></li> + +<li>Sanguilly, Julio, falls in leading revolution, IV, 29, 55.</li> + +<li>Sanguilly, Manuel, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 190.</li> + +<li>San Lazaro watchtower, picture, I, 155;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified against Drake, 248.</span></li> + +<li>San Salvador. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li> + +<li>Santa Clara, Conde de, Governor, II, 194, 300.</li> + +<li>Santa Crux del Sur, I, 20.</li> + +<li>Santa Cruz, Francisco, I, 111.</li> + +<li>Santiago de Cuba, Columbus at, I, 19;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded by Velasquez, 68;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second capital of island, 69;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seat of gold refining, 80;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">site of cathedral, 123;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition in Angulo's time, 166;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">looted by privateers, 193;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified by Menendez, 203;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">raided and destroyed by French, 256;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuilt by Gomez de Rojas, 258;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of Eastern District, 275;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morro Castle built, 289;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by British, 299;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Franquinay, 310;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Admiral Vernon, II, 29;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">literary activities, 169;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great improvements made, 180;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles near in War of Independence, IV, 112;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">naval battle, 114;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General Wood's administration, 135;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great work for sanitation, 142.</span></li> + +<li>Santiago, battle of, IV, 114.</li> + +<li>Santiago, sunset scene, facing III, + +<a href="#page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Santillan, Diego, Governor, I, 205.</li> + +<li>Santo Domingo See <span class="smcap">Hispaniola</span>.</li> + +<li>Sanudo, Luis, Governor, I, 336.</li> + +<li>Sarmiento. Diego de, Bishop, makes trouble, I, 149, 152.</li> + +<li>Saunders, Romulus M., sounds Spain on purchase of Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li>Sartorius, Manuel and Ricardo, revolutionists, IV, 4.</li> + +<li>Savine, Albert, on British designs on Cuba, II, 40.</li> + +<li>Schley, Winfield S., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 110;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Santiago, 114.</span></li> + +<li>Schoener's globe, I, 5.</li> + +<li>Schools, backward condition of, II, 174, 244, 312. See <span class="smcap">Education</span>.</li> + +<li>Shafter, W. R., General, leads American army into Cuba, IV, 111.</li> + +<li>Shipbuilding at Havana, II, 8, 33, 113, 300.</li> + +<li>Sickles, Daniel E., Minister to Spain, offers mediation, III, + +<a href="#page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Silva, Manuel, Secretary of Interior, IV, 90.</li> + +<li>Slave Insurrection, II, 13;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, + +<a href="#page_234">234</a>, et seq.</span></li> + +<li>Slavery, begun in Repartimiento system, I, 70;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">not sanctioned by King, 82;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slave trading begun, 83;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth and regulation, 170;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppressive policy of Spain, 266;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "Assiento," II, 2;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great growth</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of trade, 22;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">gross abuses, 202;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Masse, 202;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">census of slaves, 204;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of emancipation movement, 206;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rights of slaves defined by King, 210;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">African trade forbidden, 285;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Negro census, 286;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early records of trade, 288;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humboldt on, 288;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">statistics of trade, 289 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">domestic relations of slaves, 292;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dangers of system denounced, 320;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">official complicity in illegal trade, 366;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slave insurrection, 367;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inhuman suppression by government, 374 et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">emancipation by revolution of 1868, 159;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States urges Spain to abolish slavery, 242;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rodas's decrees, 242;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moret law, 243.</span></li> + +<li>Smith, Caleb. publishes book on West Indies, II, 37.</li> + +<li>Smuggling, II, 133.</li> + +<li>"Sociedad de Amigos," II, 169.</li> + +<li>"Sociedad Patriotica," II, 166.</li> + +<li>"Sociedad Patriotica y Economica," II, 178.</li> + +<li>Society of Progress, II, 78.</li> + +<li>Solano, José de, naval commander, II, 147.</li> + +<li>"Soles de Bolivar," II, 341;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts to suppress, 343.</span></li> + +<li>Solorzano, Juan del Hoya, I, 337;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 10.</span></li> + +<li>Someruelos, Marquis of, Governor, II, 196, 301.</li> + +<li>Sores, Jacques, French raider, II, 183;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacks Havana, 184;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captures city, 186.</span></li> + +<li>Soto, Antonio de, I, 292.</li> + +<li>Soto, Diego de, I, 109, 217.</li> + +<li>Soto, Hernando de, Governor and Adelantado, I, 140;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 140;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival in Cuba, 141;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tour of island, 142;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes Havana his home, 144;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">chiefly interested in Florida, 144;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for Florida, 145;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fate in Mississippi, 147;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">trouble with Indians, 148.</span></li> + +<li>Soto, Lady Isabel de, I, 141;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">her vigil at La Fuerza, 147;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 149.</span></li> + +<li>Soto, Luis de, I, 141.</li> + +<li>Soulé, Pierre, Minister to Spain, III, + +<a href="#page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indiscretions, <a href="#page_138">138</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ostend Manifesto, <a href="#page_142">142</a>.</span></li> + +<li>South Sea Company, II, 21, 201.</li> + +<li>Spain: Fiscal policy toward Cuba, I, 175;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">wars with France, 177;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">discriminations against Cuba, 266, 267;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests against South Sea Company, II, 22;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">course in American Revolution, 143;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Great Britain, 151;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward America, 159;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">peace with Great Britain, 162;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive laws, 224;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy under Godoy, 265;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">decline of power, 273;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to pawn Cuba to Great Britain for loan, 330;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests to United States against Lopez's expedition, III, + +<a href="#page_059">59</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks British protection, <a href="#page_129">129</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses to sell Cuba, <a href="#page_135">135</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution against Bourbon dynasty, <a href="#page_145">145</a> et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejects suggestion of American mediation in Cuba, <a href="#page_219">219</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks American mediation, <a href="#page_293">293</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">strives to placate Cuba, IV, 5;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">crisis over Cuban affairs, 35;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward War of Independence, 40;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">considers Autonomy, 71;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet crisis of 1897, 88;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposes joint investigation of Maine disaster, 100;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with United States, 106;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes Treaty of Paris, relinquishing Cuba, 118.</span></li> + +<li>Spanish-American War: causes of, IV, 105;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declared, 106;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">blockade of Cuban coast, 110;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">landing of American army in Cuba, 111;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fighting near Santiago, 112;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fort at El Caney, picture, 112;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Juan Hill, battle, 113;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Juan Hill, picture of monument, 114;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">naval battle of Santiago, 115;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">peace negotiations, 116;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Peace Tree," picture, 116;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of peace, 118.</span></li> + +<li>Spanish literature in XVI century, I, 360.</li> + +<li>Spotorno, Juan Bautista, seeks peace, rebuked by Maso, IV, 35.</li> + +<li>Steinhart, Frank, American consul, advises President Palma to ask for American aid, IV, 271;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">correspondence with State Department, 272.</span></li> + +<li>Stock raising, early attention to, I, 173, 224;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of, 220.</span></li> + +<li>Stokes, W. E. D., aids War of Independence, IV, 14.</li> + +<li>Students, murder of by Volunteers, III, + +<a href="#page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Suarez y Romero, Anselmo, III, + +<a href="#page_326">326</a>.</li> + +<li>Sugar, Industry begun under Velasquez, I, 175, 224;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of industry, 265;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">primitive methods, II, 222;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth, III, + +<a href="#page_003">3</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great development under President Menocal, IV, 358.</span></li> + +<li>"Suma de Geografia," of Enciso, I, 54.</li> + +<li>Sumana, Diego de, I, 111.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Tacon, Miguel, Governor, II, 347;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">despotic fury, 348;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Lorenzo, 349;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">public works, 355;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fish market, 357;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">melodramatic administration of justice, 359.</span></li> + +<li>Taft, William H., Secretary of War of United States, intervenes in revolution, IV, 272;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives at Havana, 275;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiates with President Palma and the revolutionists, 276;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 276;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conveys ultimatum of revolutionists to President Palma, 279;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">accepts President Palma's resignation, 280;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">pardons revolutionists, 280;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unfortunate policy, 283.</span></li> + +<li>Tainan, Antillan stock, I, 8.</li> + +<li>Tamayo, Diego, Secretary of State, IV, 159;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of Government, 254.</span></li> + +<li>Tamayo, Rodrigo de, I, 126.</li> + +<li>Tariff, after British occupation, II, 106;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduction, 141;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppressive duties. III, + +<a href="#page_005">5</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under American occupation, IV, 183.</span></li> + +<li>Taxation, revolt against, II, 197;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"reforms," 342;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppressive burdens, III, + +<a href="#page_006">6</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase in Ten Years' War, <a href="#page_207">207</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">evasion of, <a href="#page_312">312</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under American intervention, IV, 151.</span></li> + +<li>Taylor, Hannis, American Minister at Madrid, IV, 33.</li> + +<li>Tejada, Juan de, Governor, I, 261;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great works for Cuba, 262;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 263.</span></li> + +<li>Teneza, Dr. Francisco, Protomedico, I, 336.</li> + +<li>Ten Years' War, III, + +<a href="#page_155">155</a> et seq.;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first battles, <a href="#page_184">184</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aid from United States, <a href="#page_211">211</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers of American mediation, <a href="#page_217">217</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejected, <a href="#page_219">219</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaigns of destruction, <a href="#page_222">222</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses reported, <a href="#page_290">290</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end in Treaty of Zanjon, <a href="#page_299">299</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses, <a href="#page_304">304</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Terry, Emilio, Secretary of Agriculture, IV, 254.</li> + +<li>Theatres, first performance in Cuba, I, 264;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first theatre built, II, 130, 236.</span></li> + +<li>Thrasher, J. S., on census, II, 283.</li> + +<li>Tines y Fuertes, Juan Antonio, Governor, II, 31.</li> + +<li>Tobacco, early use, I, 9;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">culture promoted, 300;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">monopoly, 334;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Tobacco War," 338;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of monopoly, II, 221.</span></li> + +<li>Tobar, Nuñez, I, 141, 143.</li> + +<li>Tolon, Miguel de, III, + +<a href="#page_330">330</a>.</li> + +<li>Toltecs, I, 7.</li> + +<li>Tomayo, Esteban, revolutionist, IV, 34.</li> + +<li>Torquemada, Garcia de, I, 239;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">investigates Luzan, 241.</span></li> + +<li>Torre, Marquis de la, Governor, II, 127;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work for Havana, 129;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 133.</span></li> + +<li>Torres Ayala, Laureano de, Governor, I, 334;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reappointed, 337.</span></li> + +<li>Torres, Gaspar de, Governor, I, 234;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Rojas family, 235;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">absconds, 235.</span></li> + +<li>Torres, Rodrigo de, naval commander, II, 34.</li> + +<li>Torriente, Cosimo de la, Secretary of Government, IV, 320.</li> + +<li>Toscanelli, I, 4.</li> + +<li>Treaty of Paris, IV, 118.</li> + +<li>Tres Palacios, Felipe Jose de, Bishop, II, 174.</li> + +<li>Tribune, New York, describes revolutionary leaders, III, + +<a href="#page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li>Trinidad, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great fire, II, 177.</span></li> + +<li>Trocha, begun by Campos, IV, 44;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weyler's, 73.</span></li> + +<li>Troncoso, Bernardo, Governor, II, 168.</li> + +<li>Turnbull, David, British consul, II, 364;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">complicity in slave insurrection, 372.</span></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Ubite, Juan de, Bishop, I, 123.</li> + +<li>Ulloa, Antonio de, sent to take possession of Louisiana, II, 118;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arbitrary conduct, 120.</span></li> + +<li>Union Constitutionalists, III, + +<a href="#page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li>United States, early relations with Cuba, II, 254;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first suggestion of annexation, 257;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">John Quincy Adams's policy, 258;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jefferson's policy, 260;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clay's policy, 261;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">representations to Colombia and Mexico, 262;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buchanan's policy, 263;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Monroe Doctrine, 328;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">consuls not admitted to Cuba, 330;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Van Buren's policy, 331;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of commerce with Cuba, III, + +<a href="#page_022">22</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President Taylor's proclamation against filibustering, <a href="#page_041">41</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">course toward Lopez, <a href="#page_060">60</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward Cuban revolutionists, <a href="#page_123">123</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of sentiment between North and South, <a href="#page_124">124</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of Edward Everett, <a href="#page_130">130</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">overtures for purchase of Cuba, <a href="#page_135">135</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of Civil War, <a href="#page_151">151</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">new policy toward Cuba, <a href="#page_151">151</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognition denied to revolution, <a href="#page_172">172</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aid and sympathy given secretly, <a href="#page_195">195</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban appeals for recognition, <a href="#page_200">200</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognition denied, <a href="#page_203">203</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests against Rodas's decrees, <a href="#page_216">216</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers of mediation, <a href="#page_217">217</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejected by Spain, <a href="#page_219">219</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">increasing interest and sympathy with revolutionists, <a href="#page_273">273</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warning to Spanish Government, <a href="#page_291">291</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of reciprocity upon Cuba, <a href="#page_313">313</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 27, 70;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress favors recognition, 70;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tender of good offices, 71;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President Cleveland's message of 1896, 79;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appropriation for relief of victims of "concentration" policy, 86;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President McKinley's message of 1897, 87;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sensation at destruction of <i>Maine</i>, 99;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declaration of war against Spain, 106;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treaty of Paris, 118;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishment of first Government of Intervention, 132;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Republic of Cuba, 195;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protectorate to be retained, 196;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platt Amendment, 199;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">mischief-making intrigues, 200;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">naval stations in Cuba, 255;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reciprocity, 256;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second Intervention, 281;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warning to José Miguel Gomez, 305;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">asks settlement of claims, 308;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chargé d'Affaires assaulted, 308;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">supervision of Cuban legislation, 326;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warning to revolutionists, 339;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward Gomez revolution, 343.</span></li> + +<li>University of Havana, founded, II, 11.</li> + +<li>Unzaga, Luis de, Governor, II, 157.</li> + +<li>Urrutia, historian, quoted, I, 300.</li> + +<li>Urrutia, Sancho de, I, 111.</li> + +<li>Utrecht, Treaty of, I, 326;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins new era, II, 1.</span></li> + +<li>Uznaga, Luis de, sent to rule Louisiana, II, 126;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms, 165.</span></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Vaca, Cabeza de, I, 140.</li> + +<li>Vadillo, Juan, declines to investigate Guzman, I, 118;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary Governor, 119;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tremendous indictment of Guzman, 120;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires after good work, 121;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">clash with Bishop Ramirez, 124.</span></li> + +<li>Valdes, historian, quoted, II, 175.</li> + +<li>Valdes, Gabriel de la Conception, III, + +<a href="#page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li>Valdes, Jeronimo, Bishop, I, 335.</li> + +<li>Valdes, Pedro de, Governor, I, 202, 272;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 276.</span></li> + +<li>Valdes, Geronimo, Governor, II, 364.</li> + +<li>Valdueza, Marquis de, I, 281.</li> + +<li>Valiente, José Pablo, II, 170, 180.</li> + +<li>Valiente, Juan Bautista, Governor of Santiago, II, 180.</li> + +<li>Vallizo, Diego, I, 277.</li> + +<li>Valmaseda, Count, Governor, proclamation against revolution, III, + +<a href="#page_171">171</a>, + +<a href="#page_270">270</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled for barbarities, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Van Buren, Martin, on United States and Cuba, II, 331.</li> + +<li>Vandeval, Nicolas C., I, 331, 333.</li> + +<li>Varela, Felix, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_320">320</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">works, <a href="#page_321">321</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Varnhagen, F. A. de, quoted, I, 2.</li> + +<li>Varona, Bernabe de, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_178">178</a>.</li> + +<li>Varona, José Enrique, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 159;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vice President, 312;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, 316;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 316.</span></li> + +<li>Varona, Pepe Jerez, chief of secret service, IV, 268.</li> + +<li>Vasquez, Juan, I, 330.</li> + +<li>Vedado, view in, IV, 176.</li> + +<li>Vega, Pedro Guerra de la, I, 243;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">asks fugitives to aid in defence against Drake, 248.</span></li> + +<li>Velasco, Francisco de Aguero, II, 345.</li> + +<li>Velasco, Luis Vicente, defender of Morro against British, II, 58;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">signal valor, 61;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 67.</span></li> + +<li>Velasquez, Antonio, errand to Spain, I, 77</li> + +<li>Velasquez, Bernardino, I, 115.</li> + +<li>Velasquez, Diego, first Governor of Cuba, I, 59;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 59;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonizes Cuba, 60;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostilities with natives, 61, explores the island, 67;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage and bereavement, 68;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds various towns, 68;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins Cuban commerce, 68;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes government, 69;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">favored by King Ferdinand, 73;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointed Adelantado, 74;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to rule Yucatan and Mexico, 85;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalls Grijalva, 88;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrels with Cortez, 91;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends Cortez to explore Mexico, 92, 94;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to intercept and recall Cortez, 97;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends Narvaez to Mexico, 98;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed from office by Diego Columbus, 100;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">restored by King, 102;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death and epitaph, 103;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">posthumous arraignment by Altamarino, 107;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">convicted and condemned, 108.</span></li> + +<li>Velasquez, Juan Montano, Governor, I, 293.</li> + +<li>Velez Garcia, Secretary of State, IV, 297.</li> + +<li>Velez y Herrera, Ramon, III, + +<a href="#page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li>Venegas, Francisco, Governor, I, 278.</li> + +<li>Vernon, Edward, Admiral, expedition to Darien, II 27;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Invasion of Cuba, 29.</span></li> + +<li>Viamonte, Bitrian, Governor, I, 286.</li> + +<li>Viana y Hinojosa, Diego de, Governor, I, 317.</li> + +<li>Victory loan, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 353.</li> + +<li>Villa Clara, founded, I, 321.</li> + +<li>Villafana, attempts to assassinate Cortez, I, 99.</li> + +<li>Villafana, Angelo de, Governor of Florida, controversy with Mazariegos, I, 196.</li> + +<li>Villalba y Toledo, Diego de, Governor, I, 290.</li> + +<li>Villalobos, Governor, feud with Roa, I, 323.</li> + +<li>Villalon, José Ramon, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of Public Works, 160, 330.</span></li> + +<li>Villalon Park, scene in, IV, 247.</li> + +<li>Villanueva, Count de, II, 342.</li> + +<li>Villapando, Bernardino de, Bishop, I, 225.</li> + +<li>Villarin, Pedro Alvarez de, Governor, I, 333.</li> + +<li>Villaverde, Cirillo, III, + +<a href="#page_327">327</a>.</li> + +<li>Villaverde, Juan de, Governor of Santiago, I, 276.</li> + +<li>Villegas, Diaz de, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 297;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 302.</span></li> + +<li>Villuendas, Enrique, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">secretary, 189.</span></li> + +<li>Virginius, capture of, III, + +<a href="#page_277">277</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">butchery of officers and crew, <a href="#page_278">278</a> et seq.;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British intervention, <a href="#page_280">280</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of passengers, <a href="#page_281">281</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">diplomatic negotiations over, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Vives, Francisco, Governor, II, 317;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">despotism, 317;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition against Mexico, 346.</span></li> + +<li>Viyuri, Luis, II, 197.</li> + +<li>Volunteers, organized, III, + +<a href="#page_152">152</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder Arango, <a href="#page_188">188</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">have Dulce recalled, <a href="#page_213">213</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cause murder of Zenea, <a href="#page_252">252</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">increased activities, <a href="#page_260">260</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of students, <a href="#page_261">261</a>.</span></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>War of Independence, IV, i, 8;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">circumstances of beginning, 9;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">finances, 14;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Republic of Cuba proclaimed, 15;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of Cuban people, 22;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">actual outbreak, 29;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">martial law proclaimed, 30;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish forces in Cuba, 31;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival and policy of Martinez Campos, 38;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gomez and Maceo begin great campaign, 53;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish defeated, and reenforced, 55;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign of devastation, 60;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">entire island involved, 61;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of Campos, 63;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weyler in command, 66;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">destruction by both sides, 68;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses, 90;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">entry of United States, 107;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of Cubans toward American intervention, 108;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of war, 116.</span></li> + +<li>Watling's Island. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li> + +<li>Wax, development of Industry, II, 132.</li> + +<li>Webster, Daniel, negotiations with Spain, III, + +<a href="#page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Weyler y Nicolau, Valeriano, Governor, IV, 65;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 66;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">harsh decree, 66;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquers Pinar del Rio. 83;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"concentration" policy, 85;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled, 88.</span></li> + +<li>Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, at Santiago, IV, 113, 115.</li> + +<li>White, Col. G. W., with Lopez, III, + +<a href="#page_040">40</a>.</li> + +<li>Whitney, Henry, messenger to Gomez, IV, 107.</li> + +<li>Williams, Ramon O., United States consul at Havana, IV, 32;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">acts in behalf of Americans in Cuba, 72;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes sending <i>Maine</i> to Havana, 100.</span></li> + +<li>Wittemeyer, Major, reports on Gomez revolution to Washington government, IV, 336;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers President Menocal aid of United States, 337.</span></li> + +<li>Wood, General Leonard, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Military Governor of Santiago, 135;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his previous career, 140;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unique responsibility and power, 141;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dealing with pestilence, 142;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes Rural Guards, 144;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 158;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Military Governor of Cuba, 158;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">well received by Cubans, 158;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of <i>La Lucha</i>, 158;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Cabinet, 159;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on his appointments, 160;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganization of school system, 161;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promotes public works, 166;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dady contract dispute, 171;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">applies Finlay's yellow fever theory with great success, 171;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reform of jurisprudence, 177;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes Provincial governments, 179;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">holds municipal elections, 180;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promulgates election law, 181;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">calls Constitutional Convention, 185;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">calls for general election, 240;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his comments on election, 245;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">announces end of American occupation, 246;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders government of Cuba to</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cubans, 249;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President Roosevelt's estimate of his work, 251;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of one of his mountain roads, facing 358.</span></li> + +<li>Woodford, Stewart L., United States Minister to Spain, IV, 103;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">presents ultimatum and departs, 106.</span></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Xagua, Gulf of, I, 21.</li> + +<li>Ximenes, Cardinal and Regent, gives Las Casas hearing on Cuba, I, 77.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Yanez, Adolfo Saenz, Secretary of Agriculture and Public Works, IV, 146.</li> + +<li>Yellow Fever, first invasion, II, 51;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dr. Finlay's theory applied by General Wood, IV, 171;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">disease eliminated from island, 176.</span></li> + +<li>Yero, Eduardo, Secretary of Public Instruction, IV, 254.</li> + +<li>Ynestrosa, Juan de, I, 207.</li> + +<li>Yniguez, Bernardino, I, 111.</li> + +<li>Yucatan, islands source of slave trade, I, 83;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">explored by Cordova, 84.</span></li> + +<li>Yznaga, Jose Sanchez, III, + +<a href="#page_037">37</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li>Zaldo, Carlos, Secretary of State, IV, 254.</li> + +<li>Zambrana, Ramon, III, + +<a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li>Zanjon, Treaty of, III, + +<a href="#page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Zapata, Peninsula of, visited by Columbus, I, 22.</li> + +<li>Zarraga, Julian, filibuster, IV, 70.</li> + +<li>Zayas, Alfredo, secretary of Constitutional Convention, IV, 189;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">compact with José Miguel Gomez, 265;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">spokesman of revolutionists against President Palma, 277;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected Vice President, 290;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes Vice President, 297;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 300;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Gomez, 306;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for President, 328;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hints at revolution, 330.</span></li> + +<li>Zayas, Francisco, Lieutenant Governor, I, 205;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 206.</span></li> + +<li>Zayas, Francisco, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.</li> + +<li>Zayas, Juan B., killed in battle, IV, 78.</li> + +<li>Zayas, Lincoln de, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Superintendent of Schools, 162.</span></li> + +<li>Zenea, Juan Clemente, sketch and portrait, III, + +<a href="#page_252">252</a>;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">murdered, <a href="#page_253">253</a>;</span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his works, <a href="#page_332">332</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Zequiera y Arango, Manuel, II, 274.</li> + +<li>Zipangu. See <span class="smcap">Cipanoo</span>.</li> + +<li>Zuazo, Alfonso de, appointed second Governor of Cuba, I, 100;</li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dismissed by King, 102.</span></li> +</ul> + +<hr /> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="errors" +style="border:dotted 3px gray;padding:2%;font-size:80%;"> +<tr><td align="center">The following typographical errors were corrected by the etext transcriber:</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">whereupon Castanada=>whereupon Castenada</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">General Caballere de Rodas=>General Caballero de Rodas</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">He had taken an active part in the revolution upon its inception=>He had taken an active part in the resolution upon its inception</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">wtih which to support their movement=>with which to support their movement</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">deserted and, approaching the Spanish=>deserted, and approaching the Spanish</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">their govermnents and to have interviews=>their governments and to have interviews</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Talon was an intense patriot=>Tolon was an intense patriot</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">quantiy of provisions=>quantity of provisions</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Cuba, vol. 3, by +Willis Fletcher Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 3 *** + +***** This file should be named 38139-h.htm or 38139-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/1/3/38139/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif, Broward County Library and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of Cuba, vol. 3 + +Author: Willis Fletcher Johnson + +Release Date: November 26, 2011 [EBook #38139] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif, Broward County Library and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Etext transcriber's note: + +Obvious typographical errors have been corrected; the original +orthography, including variation in the spelling of names, has been +retained. + +The Index included at the end of this etext (which includes volumes 1 +thru 4) appears at the end of volume four of The History of Cuba. It is +provided here for the convenience of the reader. + +[Illustration: JOSE CIPRIANO DE LA LUZ + +"The Socrates of Cuban youth," as he has often been called, Jose +Cipriano de la Luz y Caballero was born in Havana on July 11, 1799, and +was educated at the Convent of San Francisco, the University of Havana, +and the San Carlos Seminary where he was a pupil of his uncle, Jose +Agustin Caballero, and of Felix Varela. Later he travelled and studied +in the United States and Europe. In Germany he became intimately +associated with Baron Humboldt. Returning to Cuba in 1831, he gave +himself to the task of improving and promoting the educational interests +of his country. In 1843 he revisited Europe, but was recalled the +following year to answer an absurdly false charge of being implicated in +the Negro Conspiracy. He then founded and until his death conducted his +famous school of El Salvador, in which for a generation many of the +foremost Cubans were educated, and in which manhood and patriotism were +ever the foremost items of the curriculum. He was the author of a number +of standard educational works. He died on June 22, 1862.] + + + + +THE +HISTORY OF CUBA + +BY +WILLIS FLETCHER JOHNSON +A.M., L.H.D. + +Author of "A Century of Expansion," "Four Centuries of +the Panama Canal," "America's Foreign Relations" +Honorary Professor of the History of American Foreign +Relations in New York University + +_WITH ILLUSTRATIONS_ + +VOLUME THREE + +NEW YORK +B. F. BUCK & COMPANY, INC. +156 FIFTH AVENUE +1920 + +Copyright, 1920, +BY CENTURY HISTORY CO. + +_All rights reserved_ + +ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL +London, England. + +PRINTED IN U. S. A. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +PAGE + +CHAPTER I--1 + +Conditions at the Beginning of the Era of Revolution--Cuba's Commercial +Backwardness--Resources Unappreciated--Statistics of Imports and +Exports--The Sugar Trade--Burdensome Taxes and Tariffs--Restrictions on +Personal Liberty--Obstacles to Travel--Titles of Nobility--The Intendent +and His Powers--Authority and Functions of the Captain-General--District +Governments--Municipal Organization--The Courts--Control of the +Navy--Censorship of the Press--Adversion to Foreigners, Particularly to +Americans. + +CHAPTER II--23 + +Narciso Lopez and His Career--His Valor in the Venezuelan Wars--A +Soldier of Spain--Some Daring Exploits--With the Spanish Army in +Cuba--His Distinguished Career in Spain--A Leader Against the +Carlists--General and Senator--Important Office in Cuba--Alienation from +Spain--First Plans for Cuban Revolution. + +CHAPTER III--37 + +Betrayal of Lopez's First Revolutionary Venture--His Flight to New +York--Cuban Juntas in the United States--Lopez's Negotiations with +Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee--Unofficial American Aid--Strained +American Relations with Spain--Official Warnings Against +Filibustering--An Elaborate Expedition Prepared by Lopez in the United +States for the Freeing of Cuba--His Proclamation to His Followers--The +Voyage to Cuba. + +CHAPTER IV--49 + +The Landing of Lopez at Cardenas--The Flag of Cuba Libre for the First +Time Unfurled on Cuban Soil--Parleying and Fighting at Cardenas--Spanish +Treachery--Failure of the Cuban People to Rally to the Support of +Lopez--Retreat and Reembarcation of the Expedition--Mutiny of the +Crew--Landing at Key West--Spanish Wrath Against the United +States--Arrest of Lopez and His Comrades--Their Release. + +CHAPTER V--62 + +Administration of Concha and His Recall--Second Expedition of Lopez +Recruited in the United States--Men and Money Provided in the +South--Betrayal of the Scheme--Proclamation of the +Captain-General--Disturbances in Cuba--Third Expedition of Lopez +Organized--Aguero's Attempt at Revolution at Puerto Principe--His +Proclamation--Initial Victories Over the Spaniards--A Fatal +Mistake--Suppression of the Revolution by Overwhelming +Numbers--Execution of the Leaders--Suppression of Other Uprisings. + +CHAPTER VI--91 + +Another Expedition Organized by Lopez--Its Roster--Departure from New +Orleans--Colonel Crittenden--Arrival at Key West--The Landing in +Cuba--Lack of Cuban Support--Fatal Division of Forces--Desperate +Fighting with Spaniards--Crittenden's Mistake--Capture of the +Revolutionists by the Spaniards--Indignities and Tortures--Fifty-Two Put +to Death--Heroism of Crittenden--Ill Fortune of Lopez--Betrayal and +Capture of Lopez and His Comrades--His Death on the Scaffold. + +CHAPTER VII--116 + +Failure and Success of Lopez--Irrepressible Determination of Cuba to Be +Free--Crisis in the Affairs of Spain--Animosity Between Creoles and +Spaniards--Expressions of Cuban Sentiment and Determination--Profound +Impression Produced in the United States--Opposing Views of Pro-Slavery +and Anti-Slavery Men--Attitude of Great Britain and France--Anti-Spanish +Outbreak in New Orleans--Webster's Diplomacy--England and France Warned +Not to Meddle in Cuba--Spain's Appeal to England Against +America--Tripartite Pact Refused. + +CHAPTER VIII--132 + +American Overtures for the Purchase of Cuba--Some Early +Diplomacy--Change of Policy Under President Polk--Spain's Refusal to +Consider Sale--Pierre Soule's Extraordinary Negotiations--The Black +Warrior Controversy--Soule's Humiliation--The Ostend Manifesto--Marcy's +Shrewd Disposition of It--Buchanan's Futile Persistence. + +CHAPTER IX--145 + +Revolution in Peninsular Spain--General Prim's Proclamations--General +Response Throughout the Kingdom--Serrano's Entry Into Madrid--Flight of +the Queen--Republican Government Established--Downfall of Maximilian in +Mexico--Change in American Attitude Toward Cuba Because of the Civil War +and Abolition of Slavery--Organization of the Spanish "Volunteers" in +Cuba--The Moret Anti-Slavery Law--Cuban Interest in the Spanish +Revolution. + +CHAPTER X--155 + +Cuban Independence Proclaimed at the Outbreak of the Ten Years' +War--Provisional Government Organized--Carlos Manuel +Cespedes--Proclamation of Emancipation--Representative Government +Formed--Cespedes's Address--The First Cuban Constitution--The House of +Representatives--Presidential Proclamation--Proclamation of General +Quesada--Proclamation of Count Valmaseda--Request for Recognition--The +"Juntas of the Laborers"--Cuban Government and Laws--Organization of the +Cuban Army. + +CHAPTER XI--180 + +Beginning of Hostilities--Comparative Strengths of the Cuban and Spanish +Armies--The Spanish Navy--Pacific Measures First Tried by +Captain-General Dulce--Their Rejection by the Cubans--The First +Engagements--Cuban Victories--Destruction of Bayamo--Revolts in Many +Places--Murder of Cespedes's Messenger by Volunteers--Guerilla +Warfare--Havana in a State of Siege--Progress of the Insurrection +Throughout the Island--Dulce's Change of Policy--Sympathy and Aid for +the Revolution from the United States. + +CHAPTER XII--200 + +An Appeal to the United States for Recognition--President Grant +Overruled by His Secretary of State--Americans Stirred by News of +Spanish Cruelties--Cuban Disappointment at Non-Recognition--Progress of +the War--Spanish Reenforcements--Liberation of Slaves--Spanish +Successes--Controversies with the United States--Destruction of +Property--Arrival of General Jordan with Supplies--Dulce Forced Out of +Office by the Volunteers--Accession of Rodas and His Decrees--The +"Butcher of Cadiz"--American Protests Against Interference with +Commerce--Proposals of Mediation--More Aid from the United States. + +CHAPTER XIII--225 + +Great Increase of Revolutionary Strength--Spain's Enormous Force--The +Case of Napoleon Arango--His Extraordinary Manifesto--An Elaborate +Appeal for Betrayal of the Revolution--Designing Decrees of +Rodas--Emancipation Decree of the Spanish Government--Its Practical +Effects--Atrocities Practised by the Spanish--Downfall of Rodas and +Appointment of Valmaseda as Captain-General--Spanish Overtures to the +United States--Murder of Zenea by the Volunteers--Address by +Cespedes--Treachery in the Ranks. + +CHAPTER XIV--259 + +Counter-Revolution in Spain--Amadeus Made King--Increased Malignity of +the Volunteers--The Massacre of the Cuban Students--Death of General +Quesada--Reorganization of the Cuban Army--Campaign of Maximo +Gomez--Progress of the War with Varying Fortunes--Calixto Garcia at +Jiguani--Gradual Reduction of Cuban Strength--Valmaseda's Savage +Threats. + +CHAPTER XV--271 + +Spain's Desperate Efforts to Suppress the Revolution--Stubborn +Resistance of the Cubans--Valmaseda Opposed and Overthrown by the +Volunteers--Accession of Jovellar--Increasing Interest in Cuban Affairs +in the United States--Spain a Republic Again--Retirement of +Cespedes--The Seizure of the _Virginius_--Massacre of Many of Her +Passengers and Crew--Strenuous Intervention--Settlement of the +Affair--"The Book of Blood"--Spanish Confessions of Brutality. + +CHAPTER XVI--289 + +Renewed Cuban Successes--The Island in a State of Siege--Concha Again +Captain-General--Record of the Cost of the War--The United States +Threatens Intervention--Spanish Anger--A Protest to England Against +America--American Peace Proposals--Strength of the Spanish Army--A War +of Extermination--Martinez Campos Becomes Captain-General--His +Conciliatory Decrees--Surrender of Cuban Leaders--The Treaty of +Zanjon--End of the War--Campos's Explanation of His Course. + +CHAPTER XVII--305 + +Results of the Ten Years' War--Political Parties in Cuba--The Liberals, +Who Were Conservative--The Union Constitutionalists--A Third Party +Platform--Cubans in the Cortes--Failure to Fulfill the Treaty of +Zanjon--The Little War--Calixto Garcia's Campaign--Cuban Fugitives +Protected by England--Revolt of 1885--Custom House Frauds at Havana--A +Reign of Lawlessness--Tariff Troubles--The Roster of Rulers. + +CHAPTER XVIII--315 + +The Intellectual and Spiritual Development of Cuba--Some Famous Cuban +Authors--Jose Maria Heredia--Felix Varela y Morales--Jose de la Luz y +Caballero, "The Father of the Cuban Revolution"--Domingo del Monte and +the "Friends of Peace"--Jose Antonio Saco--Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces--Dona +Luisa Perez--Dona Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda--Nicolas Azcarate--Juan +Clemente Zenea--Rafael Merchan--The Distinguished Intellectual Status of +Cuba Among the Nations. + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +FULL PAGE PLATES + +_Jose_ Cipriano de la Luz y Caballero _Frontispiece_ + + FACING + PAGE + +The Old Presidential Palace 14 + +Falls of the Hanebanilla 110 + +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes 158 + +Ignacio Agramonte 258 + +Calixto Garcia 268 + +A Santiago Sunset 280 + +Jose Silverio Jorrin 308 + +Jose Maria Heredia 318 + +Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda 332 + + +TEXT EMBELLISHMENTS + + PAGE +Narciso Lopez 23 + +Ramon Pinto 62 + +Manuel Quesada 167 + +Francisco V. Aguilera 173 + +Bernabe de Varona 178 + +Miguel de Aldama 204 + +Domingo Goicouria 234 + +Nicolas Azcarate 251 + +Juan Clemente Zenea 252 + +Salvador Cisneros Betancourt 276 + +Felipe Poey 315 + +Antonio Bachiller 317 + +Felix Varela 320 + +Jose Agustin Caballero 321 + +Domingo del Monte 323 + +Jose Jacinto Milanes 324 + +Jose Manuel Mestre 326 + +Luisa Perez de Zambrana 328 + +Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces 330 + +Enrique Pineyro 334 + + + + +THE HISTORY OF CUBA + + + + +CHAPTER I + + +The revolutionary era in Cuban history had its rise amid circumstances +of both political and commercial dissatisfaction and protest, and it is +by no means impossible nor even improbable that the latter form of +discontent was the more potent of the two. The commercial and industrial +development of the island, despite its almost incredibly opulent +resources, had been very slow, because handicapped by selfish and sordid +misgovernment. The typical attitude of the Peninsular government and its +agents in Cuba had been to use and to exploit the island for the sole +benefit of Spain, and not to permit other nations to enter in +competition. Other countries, in fact, so great was the secrecy +maintained with regard to Cuba, knew but little of the vast wealth +contained in this small space of land. Consequently the island was +developed in accordance with the wishes, needs, and potentialities of +Spain and with one other point of view. Cuba was never exploited by +Spain for all its worth, and indeed there seems to be doubt as to +whether Spain ever grasped in full the future possibilities of the +island. Certain it is that she never actually realized them. And the +loss was in consequence as great to Spain as it was to Cuba. For had +Spain allowed herself to lose sight of the richness of present +extortions and aided Cuba to develop her resources for the future, the +whole story would have been far different. But the people of the United +States were beginning to recognize Cuba's possibilities. American +merchants began to flock thither. American money and American +resourcefulness opened new doors for Cuba's rich products. American +trade and enterprise contributed a great deal which made for Cuban +expansion and industrial development. In proof of this there is the fact +that the island towns on the north side, which is nearest the United +States, increased both in population and commercially, in striking +contrast to the slow growth of the towns on the south side of the +island. In 1850 these latter towns, with Santiago de Cuba as the chief +city, did not maintain more than twenty-five per cent. of the trade of +the island. + +In further proof of America's hand in the development of Cuba, we may +cite the following tables, in every one of which it is easy to see that +Cuba's trade was largely with the United States. Taking the records of +Cuban trade in 1828 as typical of the commerce of the early part of the +century, we get the following contrasts with the figures of the years +immediately preceding 1850: + +Cuban imports in 1828, $19,534,922; exports, $13,414,362; revenue, +$9,086,406. + +Cuban imports in 1847, $32,389,117; exports, $27,998,770; revenues, +$12,808,713. + +Cuban imports in 1848, $20,346,516; exports, $20,461,934; revenue, +$11,635,052. + +These statistics of the imports and exports of Cuba are divided +according to the chief countries concerned: + + 1847 Imports Exports + + United States $10,892,335 $8,880,040 + Spain 7,088,750 6,780,058 + England 6,389,936 7,240,880 + France 1,349,683 1,940,535 + + 1848 + + United States $6,933,538 $8,285,928 + Spain 7,088,750 3,927,007 + England 4,974,545 1,184,201 + +Entries and clearings of vessels from Cuba were as follows: + + 1847 1848 + + Entries Clearances Entries Clearances + + United States 2,012 1722 1733 1611 + Spain 819 751 875 747 + England 563 489 670 348 + France 99 81 85 63 + +Copper was at this time greatly exported from Cuba. Since its discovery +in 1530 comparatively little had been done until three centuries later. +In 1830 an English company commenced operating the copper mines and from +that time to 1870 had extracted this ore to the value of $50,000,000. + +Sugar had long been the greatest source of Cuban wealth. It was always +the sugar planter who had social as well as financial prestige on the +island. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century even the poorest and +smallest of sugar plantations had yielded a profit of $100,000 a year +while the larger and more prosperous ones had cleared even as high as +$200,000 annually. And all this had been accomplished with a minimum of +effort. Vast areas of Cuba at this period were given over to these +plantations. Some estates devoted themselves exclusively to raising the +cane, while others ran mills which ground the cane and prepared the +product for sale as sugar. Particularly with the soil as it was then, +unravished by revolution, with its original fertility unimpaired, it was +rarely necessary to replant the sugar cane. The old sprouts came up year +after year, yielding at least two crops a year without any necessity for +disturbing or enriching the soil. In 1800 Cuba exported 41,000 tons of +sugar; and in 1850 no less than 223,000 tons. + +From 1836 Cuba had no representation in the Cortes. Although Spain had +promised Cuba "special laws," these were not enacted, and such laws as +were put on the books were inimical to Cuban interests. Without +representation, Cubans were also denied free speech. To speak one's mind +against Spain meant to be thrown into a dungeon. If two or more persons +signed a petition to secure some slight betterment in conditions, it was +termed treason, and they were promptly apprehended. Business was under +control of the Captain-General. It had to pay him large sums to be +allowed to live, and it was compelled to conduct its affairs in +accordance with his ideas. The "Junta de Fomento" established by Arango +was no longer a factor in the improvement of Cuban affairs, but was +packed with creatures of the Captain-General, with favorites of the +court, and was used as a means of obtaining information and extorting +money from Cubans who were suspected of disloyalty to Spain. The public +offices were used to support additional taxation, and to strengthen the +despotic rule of the Captain-General. + +Under the decree of 1825 the Captains-General had taken unto themselves +the most autocratic power. Creoles were not allowed to serve in the +army, or in the treasury, customs or judicial departments. From these +last three they were excluded because such positions were lucrative, and +were desired by court favorites. The Captains-General financed and +fostered all kinds of nefarious schemes for extracting wealth from the +Cubans to pour it into their own pockets. The poor people were obliged +to police the rural districts, and to give up their own occupations to +work on the roads making repairs. The control of education in Cuba was +given--it hardly seems credible--into the hands of the military +functionaries to administer. The Spanish military authorities had a +well-organized system of blackmailing well to do citizens by threatening +to denounce them for sedition unless they paid hush money, which was +put at as large a sum as possible. Of course it did not matter whether +the victim was guilty or innocent. If the latter he would have no +opportunity of clearing himself. The only thing which the robbers took +into consideration was how much he could pay. Money was the open sesame +for prison doors, and the barrier which prevented their closing on the +unfortunate Cuban. + +Yet one would think he would have little left for bribery when he had +paid his taxes, for the subject of taxation was after all the most +grievous one, and was a direct cause of the various filibustering +expeditions which attempted to gain freedom for Cuba, and finally led to +the war of independence. + +The revenues from all sources, including export and import duties, +license fees, and the government lottery, for the year 1851 were +$12,248,712.06, which amounted to a tax of $20 for each free citizen. +The excess duties had a very deleterious effect on the commerce of Cuba. +The duty on goods shipped direct from Spain to Cuba was so much less +than the duty on goods shipped from other countries that it became the +custom to ship materials from the United States to Spain and from Spain +back to Cuba, since this cost less than a direct shipment. The direct +shipments of flour from the United States to Cuba decreased from 113,245 +barrels in 1826 to 100 barrels in 1852, while the imports of flour from +Spain, who could hardly produce enough for her own needs, increased from +31,749 barrels to 257,451 barrels in the same time. Of course, this was +the golden opportunity for the smuggler, who could slip across from +Florida and run his boat into one of the hundreds of little coves with +which the coast of Cuba is lined. + +Cubans might have more cheerfully rendered their tribute in taxes, but +unfortunately the huge sums were not expended for the good of their +country. An extravagant government had to be supported. In 1850 the cost +of maintaining the army and all expenses in connection with it were over +$5,000,000 and the navy cost more than $2,000,000, while the Spanish +legation in the United States was maintained from Cuban coffers. Writing +of such a state of affairs, Jose Antonio Saco said in 1835: + +"Enormous is the load of taxation which weighs upon us--perhaps there is +no people in the world which in proportion to its resources and +population pays as much as the island of Cuba, nor a country, perhaps, +where less care is taken to use on its own soil some part of its great +sacrifices." + +In 1851 the duty on sugar was raised from 50 cents a box to 87-1/2 +cents. Flour and hogs were more heavily taxed than any other imports. +Hogs carried a duty of six dollars each, while the tax on flour was so +enormous as to prevent its use by any but the very wealthiest +inhabitants. Foreign flour was discriminated against in favor of Spanish +flour; on the former the duty was $10 a barrel while on the latter it +was increased from $2.50 to $6 a barrel. The records show there +importations of flour to Cuba: + + 1847 1848 + + From Spain 175,870 bbls. 212,944 bbls. + From America 59,373 bbls. 18,175 bbls. + ------- ------- + Total 235,243 bbls. 231,119 bbls. + +Spain was favored in other ways in these taxes. Spanish vessels were +taxed only one-seventh of one per cent. on imports, while foreign +vessels were taxed 1.1 per cent, on the same goods. Nor were these taxes +the only ones which the people had to undergo. One of the most +pernicious of all taxes was the 1/10 of all farm produce which was +given to the church. The result of this tax was indirectly bad as well +as unjust, for it fostered a kind of priest in Cuba who could do little +for the moral and spiritual welfare of the people. + +The following table shows the revenue of the island in 1849-51: + + Import Export Other + Duties Duties Revenues Total + 1849 $5,844,783 $ 584,477 $4,782,226 $11,211,526 + 1850 5,639,225 757,071 3,655,149 10,051,443 + 1851 6,364,825 1,793,992 4,821,195 12,180,012 + +The currency of Cuba was gold and silver; and in 1842 she had a total +amount in her treasury of $12,000,000 in coin. + +An official statement compiled in 1844 lists a few of the taxes, and +gives some interesting figures as to the amounts collected. The Cubans +were taxed six per cent. of the selling price, on all sales of real +estate, or slaves, and on sales at auction and in shop. They were also +taxed on Papal Bulls, and there were brokers' taxes, cattle taxes, +shopkeepers' taxes, tax on mortgages, tax on donations, tax on +cockfighting, taxes on grants of crosses, insignia or use of uniforms; +taxes on promissory notes or bills of exchange, taxes on municipal +taxes, taxes on the death of all non-insolvent persons, taxes on +investments in favor of the clergy; the church did not escape, for there +were taxes on the property of the Jesuits. There were also taxes on +sales of public lands, taxes on the establishments of auctioneers, and +taxes on everything sold, water canal taxes, and customhouse duties on +imports and exports and the tonnage of vessels. Cubans were not only +taxed on the sale of lands, but of course on the land itself, and there +were state and municipal taxes, and they were taxed on their cattle and +all animals whether they kept them or sold them. Passports were taxed, +and as Cuba had a large transient population this tax brought in a +goodly sum. Public offices were privately sold to the highest bidder. +There were taxes on the sale of archives to notaries for the recording +of deeds. Small fines were being constantly imposed by grafting +officials, and the Captain-General's tribunal exacted a special fee, +which brought in large sums. Fees were demanded for marriages, both by +the church and the state. There was an inheritance tax; there were tolls +imposed on bridges; and large amounts were extorted for the nomination +to office of captains of districts, city ward commissaries, and +watchmen; gambling was licensed; and there were the taxes on sugar, on +pastures, on coffee and tobacco, and on minerals exported. The tax on +all crops, except sugar, when gathered was ten per cent. There was a tax +of $1.25 on every hundred weight of salt. Government documents were +required to be written on special paper, furnished by the government at +a high price. + +Worse than all this were the restrictions placed on personal liberty. No +private individual of a hospitable nature was allowed to give an +entertainment to his friends, even a small evening gathering, without +obtaining a license, for which he paid. If he neglected to do this he +was fined, and sometimes the license was declared invalid on some +pretext and he was fined anyway. + +No Cuban could move from place to place, or go on even a short journey, +without obtaining a license. If a man wanted to make an evening call on +a friend, he could not do so unless he carried a lantern, and obtained +from each watchman whom he passed permission to proceed. If he failed to +comply, he was arrested and fined $8. He could not entertain a guest in +his house over night, not even a neighbor, without informing the +authorities, under penalty of a heavy fine. The household goods of a +Cuban could not be moved from one house to another in the same town +without the consent of the authorities, and the penalty for failure in +this case was a fine. + +The cost of a passport, which was necessary before a foreigner could +enter any port in Cuba, and the proceeds of which went into the +treasury, was $2. The traveller was also obliged to give security for +good conduct, and his baggage was thoroughly searched. Particular care +was taken to see that he did not have any incendiary literature, and if +he had a Bible, which must have been considered a dangerous book, and +which, at any rate, came under the ban of both the church and the +government, it was promptly separated from his other effects and seized. +Unless he desired to remain in the seaport where he entered, he was +required to pay twenty-five cents more for a passport permitting him to +visit the interior. It seems to have been difficult enough to get into +Cuba, but like the proverbial church fair, it was even more expensive to +get out, for the privilege cost $7.50. + +Some authorities estimate that the taxes of Cuba averaged in 1850 $38 a +head, while in the United States, a republic and the nearest neighbor, +they amounted to only about $2. But then the people of the United States +were free, and were not paying tribute for the privilege of being +governed by royalty. The greater part of these taxes were exacted from +the Creoles, for the Spaniards made up only about 35,000 of the +population and there were estimated to be 520,000 Creoles at this +period. + +A large number of families came to Cuba from the Spanish colonies of +South America and Mexico, which had gained their independence from +Spain, and from Florida and Louisiana when they came into the +possession of the United States. These families were, of course, all +intensely loyal to Spain, and of the arrogant disposition which +naturally prevailed among men of such tendencies as led them to prefer +the autocracy of Spain to American democracy. In spite of this increase +in their number, the native white or Creole population of Cuba +outnumbered the Spanish by more than 10 to 1. + +In 1850 among the Cubans themselves there were 50 marquises and 30 +counts. These men were in the main wealthy planters who had bought their +titles from Spain for sums varying between twenty and fifty thousand +dollars. The fundamental reason for this expenditure on their part was +not wholly for social prestige but rather to enjoy the greater personal +freedom accorded to nobles. These latter could never be tried by +ordinary courts but only by tribunals, and they could not be arrested +for debt. + +Those Cubans who were hoping for better days for Cuba were eager that +their children should have opportunities not accorded them. They desired +to send them to the United States for education, in the hope perhaps +that they might imbibe some of the principles of liberty. But this did +not find favor with the Spanish authorities, and it was only by swearing +that the children were ill, that the climate did not agree with them, +and that they were being sent away for their health, that passports +could be obtained to get them out of the country. + +Many Cubans were persecuted by officials, high and low, falsely accused, +condemned without a hearing; shut up in fortresses without adequate +food, without the ordinary comforts of life, in solitary confinement, +often in dungeons; and frequently their own people were denied knowledge +of their whereabouts. They simply dropped out of sight and were gone. No +man knew when he opened his eyes in the morning whether that day might +be his last as a free human being--free so far as he might be with the +thousand and one restrictions imposed upon him. He was not sure that +some enemy, unwittingly made, might not inform upon him for some +imaginary action of disloyalty, or that he might not be falsely +denounced by hired spies. It was then no wonder that those who loved +their country, who had self-respect and affection for their families, +longed for freedom from Spain, and lived in the hope of emancipation +from what was virtual slavery. + +Under the Spanish rule the chief officer of government in Cuba was the +Captain-General, who after the promulgation of the decree of May 25, +1825, had absolute authority. Even prior to that time, because of the +long distance between Cuba and the mother country, the time consumed for +information and instructions to travel back and forth, and the fact that +Spain was more or less concerned with her own none too quiet domestic +affairs, the Captain-General was very powerful. + +There was another office under the crown which was much sought after, +that of Intendant. He controlled the financial affairs of the island, +and received his orders not from the Captain-General but direct from the +crown. In his own realm his power was equal to that of the +Captain-General, but he had no authority outside his own particular +domain. The title of Intendant was changed to Superintendent, in 1812, +at which time the financial business of Cuba had become so important +that it was impossible for it to be handled from one place, and +subordinate officers were placed in command at Santiago and Puerto +Principe, subject of course to the direction of the Superintendent. + +It is needless to say that the arrogant Spanish Captains-General did +not relish having anyone on the island who equalled them in rank, and +after much controversy at home and abroad the Captain-General in 1844 +was declared to be the superior officer, and later on, in 1853, the two +offices were united, under the title of Captain-General. The +Superintendent was head or chief of a "Tribunal de Cuentas" which had +judicial control over the treasury and its officers, was auditor in +chief of all accounts, and voted on all expenditures. Its rulings were +reviewed only by the Minister of Finance in Madrid, to whose direction +it was subject. + +The Captain-General was the presiding officer of the City Council which +had charge of the civic administration of Havana, but he had only one +vote, exactly as had every other member, and officially he had no power +except to carry out the resolutions of the juntas. Unofficially, he +controlled the city affairs absolutely. If occasion demanded he could +act as the presiding officer of any city council. This power was +exercised whenever he felt that the councils were growing too liberal in +their ideas and actions, and enabled him to exercise a despotic power +and coerce public opinion. + +Cuban leaders had no conception of the democratic form of government +which in the United States gave separate powers to the national, state +or province and city administrations. The national government was +closely linked with the provincial and with the city, and the functions +were so intertwined that it was hard to say where one left off and the +other began. The Captain-General always encouraged this close +amalgamation of governmental functions because it enabled him to keep in +close touch with all the branches of the government and to discover and +put down any movements which would tend to diminish the power of the +supreme officer. The Captain-General's power was civic, provincial, +national and indeed international. This enabled him very easily to line +his coffers, for he spent a great deal of time in signing papers of no +especial significance, except that to obtain his signature it was +necessary that he be paid a big fee. It was said that any +Captain-General who remained four years in Cuba, and did not take away +from the island with him when he departed at least a million dollars, +was a poor manager. + +The Captain-General had all prisons under his control; and the fate of +all prisoners, either those imprisoned for petty or state offenses, lay +in his hands. This did not mean that he personally supervised the +prisons, but that his creatures and officers were subject to his orders, +and the offices were within his gift. Thus he was able to extort fees +for various functions, as well as to demand largess for leniency +extended to state prisoners. Under Tacon's administration this power was +exercised to such an extent that it became a public scandal. + +The postal service also fell under the supervision of the +Captain-General, and there were many ways in which he could make this +office line his pockets. He acted as a police magistrate in the city of +Havana, another fruitful source of revenue, particularly as the office +was connected with that of president of the city council. + +Cuba was divided into three districts, the western, central and eastern. +Havana was the capital of the western district, Santiago de Cuba of the +eastern and Puerto Principe of the central district. Each district had +its governor who was directly under the Captain-General, and under the +governor, in charge of the affairs of the larger towns and their +out-lying districts, was a lieutenant-governor, who was president of the +local council and had control of military affairs for his district. +Under the lieutenant-governors were captains, who were located in +regions which were not very thickly settled, and who had absolute +military power--subject of course to commands emanating higher up--over +the affairs, lives and property of the people under their jurisdiction. +Each of these officers received his appointment from the Spanish crown, +but he was obliged to receive his nomination from the Captain-General, +so that these offices too were a source of revenue to that gentleman, +and his nominees, when appointed, were subject to his control. The +functions of the governors and lieutenant-governors were supposed to be +primarily military, and they received the salary which would naturally +attach to their rank, but since they also presided in civil and criminal +cases in their jurisdictions, as did the Captain-General in Havana, the +fees from these proceedings made very fat picking. Now the captains had +no salary at all, and the style in which they were able to live depended +on the number of fines they were able to impose, and therefore it is not +difficult to imagine that they were not easy on any Cubans who came +under suspicion of any offense. They received one-third of all fines +imposed by them. + +Each city in Cuba had its Ayuntamiento or council. In Puerto Principe +there seem to have been elections for membership to this body, but in +most cases seats were bought at enormous prices, and the receipts from +such sale went into the Spanish treasury, although the Captain-General +received his perquisite for allowing the transfer to be made. He also +seems to have had some power of appointment, which was seldom made +without pecuniary consideration, and there were some cases where members +had hereditary rights to their seats. Not every town had its +Ayuntamiento, but in most of the older towns they existed. The +Ayuntamiento elected its own mayor from among its members, but they were +all subject to the control of the Governor or Lieutenant Governor, who +was in line of course subject to the Captain-General. + +[Illustration: THE OLD PRESIDENTIAL PALACE + +The official residence of a long line of Spanish Governors and +Captains-General is a large and handsome building of stone, tinted white +and yellow, facing the Plaza de Armas from the east, and standing on the +site of the original parish church of Havana. Within its walls occurred +the memorable scene of the final abdication of Spanish sovereignty in +Cuba. It has now been replaced by the new Presidential Palace.] + +Early in the reign of the Spaniards in Cuba, courts called Audiencias +with both judicial and administrative functions had been established. +They were not at all pleasing to the more arbitrary of the +Captains-General for while they were subordinate to him, and their only +restriction on his power was in a kind of advisory capacity, yet they +often reflected public opinion, and too, if their conclusions differed +from that of the Captain-General, they were a moral curb upon his +actions which he resented. The most ancient and honorable of these +Audiencias was the one at Puerto Principe. It was the oldest in the +island, and it strove to uphold its dignity by conducting its +proceedings in the most formal and impressive manner, by adhering to the +most ancient customs. It was greatly reverenced by the people of the +district, and the Captain-General felt that somehow it detracted from +his glory, and from the respect which he felt should be accorded the +commands of his inferior officers. Various Captains-General strove to +abolish this court, and to turn its revenues into their own pockets. + +The judicial functions in criminal and civil suits were divided among +many bodies, and there must have been great confusion, overlapping of +authority, and consequent wrangling. Judicial powers were accorded to +the Alcaldes Mayors, to the Captains, Lieutenant Governors, Governors, +Captains-General, Audiencias, in some cases to juntas, and even to naval +officers. Judges could condemn, but they could not themselves be +condemned. There was no way of curbing a wrongful exercise of their +power, and even when their offenses were heinous they could not be +disciplined through any democratic measures. Civil prisoners were often +taken from the jurisdiction of the civil courts and tried by military +tribunals. In the last resort, the Captain-General could always +interfere, when he chose. + +The courts in Cuba at the middle of the nineteenth century were +notoriously corrupt, and while the people feared them, in their +gatherings in their homes they did not hesitate to condemn them. Justice +was almost a dead letter. When a well known offender against the laws +had influence with the Captain-General, or with some subordinate +official, the prosecuting attorneys would refuse to try him. The very +source of the pay of the captains made it impossible for them to make a +living without corruption, and an honest one would have been hard to +find, while the governors and lieutenant-governors were of opinion that +the only way to keep the people in subjection was to oppress and terrify +them, and the only way for governors and lieutenant-governors to return +to Spain with the proper amount of spoil was to exact it from the +unfortunate Cubans. + +While the Captain-General was the supreme military authority, he was not +the supreme commander of the naval forces, the latter being a separate +office. This was due principally at least to the fact that all the naval +forces of Spain in America were commanded from Havana, and all naval +expeditions for the defense of Spain in South America were commanded and +directed from that port. Therefore, it was necessary not only that the +naval officer should be a person of importance and ability, but also +that he should not be subordinate to the chief officer of any one of the +Spanish colonies. When Spain lost her large possessions in America, and +only Cuba remained to her, then the office of naval commander was +greatly curtailed in scope, and it was a matter of much irritation to +the Captain-General that there should be stationed in Cuba, or in Cuban +waters, an official of equal rank with himself. + +Over the army the Captain-General held undisputed sway. There were +quartered in Cuba in 1825 three regular army battalions, a brigade of +artillery and one cavalry regiment. This army was supposed to be +augmented by the local militia. In 1850 there were in the regular army +sixteen battalions, two picked companies of veterans, twelve squadrons +of cavalry, two brigades of artillery, and two light batteries. + +Cuba had reason to fear the success of an attack made from the southern +coast of Florida, from Hayti or from Yucatan. The island lies in the +midst of the gulf waters, long and narrow in outline, and with miles of +sea coast all out of proportion to its area. It was almost impossible +adequately to patrol the coast and it would have been easy for an enemy +to make a landing, provided the leader of an expedition was familiar +with the coasts. Means of communication were slow in those days, and +particularly slow in Cuba because of her geographical formation. If the +attackers once entrenched themselves in the mountains, they were in a +position to carry on an interminable guerrilla warfare. For these +reasons, Spain would have felt that Cuba should be heavily garrisoned, +even were it not also for the fact that the Cubans were growing so +restless and crying so vociferously for liberty that Spain had reason to +fear dangers both from within and without. + +People did not lightly express their opinions publicly in Cuba, +particularly if those opinions were unfavorable to the government. +Expressions unfavorable to the government were never allowed to leak +into print, for except for a short period in 1812, and another from 1820 +to 1823, the press was securely censored. The Captains-General who +reigned during the nineteenth century were particularly careful that +this censorship should be rigid and unbending. An American editor, Mr. +Thrasher, was more daring than the native Cubans and his paper, _El Faro +Industrial_, frequently contained matter which provoked the displeasure +of the Captain-General. He had powerful connections and he was therefore +unmolested until it was deemed that his comment on the death of General +Ena, during the Lopez uprising, was too offensive, and the paper was +suppressed. The Spanish interests conducted the largest newspaper in +Havana, _El Diario de la Marina_, which had a list of 6,000 subscribers. +Although this paper was avowedly Spanish in its sympathies and was +conducted with Spanish money, it too was carefully watched by the +censor. One day, it unguardedly, or through a misjudgment, accepted for +publication an article implying that the interests of Cuba and the +interests of Spain were not one and identical, and the entire edition +was promptly suppressed by the censor. + +Not only was the local press carefully muzzled, but a watch was kept +lest anything creep in from the United States, or from any other source, +which might put notions in the heads of the Cubans that would divert +their allegiance from Spain. The work of the censor was not an +acceptable one for the United States, and the American residents in Cuba +did not take pleasantly to the suppression of the American papers, and +friction on this score was constant. + +A paper called _La Verdad_, published in New York by Cuban sympathizers, +came under the especial displeasure of the Captain-General and of the +Spanish government in Madrid. Regarding it, the Spanish Secretary of +Foreign Affairs wrote as follows to Calderon de la Barca, the Spanish +minister at Washington, on January 2, 1848: + +"Your excellency knows that the paper called _La Verdad_, published in +New York, is printed with the specific object of awakening among the +inhabitants of Cuba and Porto Rico the sentiment of rebellion, and to +propagate the idea of annexation to the United States. The +Captain-General of the island, in fulfilment of his duty, prohibited the +entrance and circulation of this newspaper in the island, and tried to +investigate the ramifications in the island of this conspiracy against +the rights of Spain, and against the peace of the country. As a result +of the efforts made with this object, it was discovered that although +not numerous, there were in Havana some wicked Spaniards charged with +the task of collecting money to sustain the subversive publication, and +to distribute its copies to those who should care to read them." + +The Spanish government in Cuba did not look with favor upon foreigners. +It thought that other countries, especially those adjacent to Cuba, were +too tainted with liberal notions to render their inhabitants safe +associates for the already restless Cubans. It therefore preferred that +persons wishing to visit Cuba either remain quietly at home, or become +Spanish citizens, subject to Spanish rule, if they insisted on remaining +on the island. On October 21, 1817, a Royal Order was issued dividing +foreigners into three classes. First, transients, composed of those who +were merely enjoying the unwilling hospitality of Spain in Cuba. A +person could be regarded as a transient for a period of only five years. +After that he must either declare his intention of remaining in Cuba +permanently or depart. Second, domiciled foreigners, who must declare +their intention of remaining permanently in Cuba, must embrace the +church by becoming Roman Catholics, must forswear allegiance to their +native country in favor of allegiance to Spain, and must agree to be +subject to Spanish law exactly as native Cubans and Spaniards were +subject to it. Third, citizens by naturalization, who were regarded as +Spanish citizens in every sense of the word, and could be sure of the +same unjust treatment which Spain accorded all subjects in her +possessions. + +Now this subject of foreigners in Cuba was a complex one, because, +beside the tendency among Americans to settle on the island, now that +its rich resources were becoming recognized, there were, in the middle +of the nineteenth century, many Americans rushing to California to seek +their fortunes in the gold fields. The favorite route was via Havana and +Panama, and they naturally left their mark on the thought of the people +with whom they came in contact. Beside this each year during the sugar +harvest skilled mechanics came to work on the plantations. This did not +meet with the approval of those in command of the finances of the +island, because each of these visitors carried home with him every year +from $1,000 to $1,500 on which he had paid no taxes. Such conduct was +reprehensible, and it was entirely foreign to the policy or intent of +any Captain-General that anyone should get away with any money without +being either taxed or fined for it. Besides, these adventurers, as they +were contemptuously termed, were regular mouthpieces of treason, and +were said to talk of nothing else but freedom from Spain by annexation. +Naturally their coming was unpleasant to the high powers in Cuba. Now +under the treaty of 1795, between Spain and the United States, provision +was made that "in all cases of seizure, detention or arrest, for debts +contracted, or offenses committed by any citizen or subject of the one +party, within the jurisdiction of the other, the same shall be made and +prosecuted by order of the law only, and according to the regular course +of proceedings in such cases. The citizens and subjects of both parties +shall be allowed to employ such advocates, solicitors, notaries, agents +and factors as they may judge proper in all their affairs and in all +their trials at law in which they may be concerned before the tribunals +of the other party, and such agents shall have free access to be present +at the proceedings in such cases and at the taking of all examinations +and evidence which may be exhibited in the said trials." + +Americans charged with offenses against the Spanish government should +have had the benefits of the rights given them under this treaty, but +the government took refuge behind the fact that the Captain-General had +no diplomatic functions, and Americans were frequently thrust into +prison and allowed to remain there subject to much discomfort and to +financial loss until Washington and Madrid got the facts, and took the +time to arrange the matter. The Spanish Secretary for Foreign Affairs +wrote to Calderon de la Barca, on this matter, as follows: + +"Your Excellency knows that the government of Her Majesty has always +maintained the position with all foreign powers that its colonies are +outside of all the promises and obligations undertaken by Spain in +international agreements. With regard to Cuba, the discussions with +England to this effect are well known, in which the Spanish Government +has declared that the treaties which form the positive law of Spain had +been adjusted in times when the Spanish colonies were closed to all +foreign trade and commerce, and that when in 1824, these colonies were +opened to commerce of all other nations, they were not placed on equal +footing with the home country, but were kept in the exceptional position +of colonies. Of this exceptional position of that part of the Spanish +dominions, no one has more proof than the foreign consuls, since it is +evident to them that the Spanish government has only endured their +presence on the condition that they should not exercise other functions +than those of mere commercial agents. Thus in 1845 the English +government accepted formally the agreement that its consul should not +demand the fulfillment of treaties, not even of those which refer to the +slave trade." + +The natural inference to be drawn from this was that Spain considered +that foreigners who desired to live in Cuba must do so at their own +peril, and that the Captain-General was above the trammeling bonds of +international agreements in his dealing with interlopers who came to the +island. But it must be borne in mind that the government of Cuba was +administered not for the development of the island or the best good of +its inhabitants, but according to the short sighted and stupid policies +which seemed to Spain best calculated to prevent Cuba from slipping from +her grasp as had her other colonies. Therefore, the main solicitude of +each of the Captains-General was the subduing of the inhabitants by +force, if necessary, the defense of the island from an enemy who might +come by sea, and the lining of his own pockets while opportunity +offered. + + + + +CHAPTER II + + +Venezuela gave the struggling Spanish American colonies Bolivar, who was +their liberator and their savior. In the same country was born, at the +end of the eighteenth century, in 1798 or 1799, a child who fifty years +later was to lay down his life on the altar of freedom for Cuba. This +boy, like Bolivar, was of a wealthy and respected family. His father was +the proprietor of a large estate which was stocked with cattle and +horses and live stock of every kind. His mother had gentle and even +aristocratic blood in her veins and she endeavored to bring up her +children with high ideals of truth and honor. Narciso Lopez, who was to +fight so valiantly for enslaved Cuba, is reported to have been a boy who +was born to command. He roamed the plains with the men from his father's +ranch and they recognised him as a leader. He was a fine shot, a +fearless rider, brave, energetic, resolute and tireless. + +[Illustration: NARCISO LOPEZ] + +When he was a boy of fourteen or fifteen his family moved to Caracas. +His father had been stripped of his property by the wars by which +Venezuela was torn at that time, and consequently entered into +commercial life, and soon established a business with many nourishing +branches. Narciso must have been a lad of exceptional perspicuity and +judgment, for his father placed him in charge of a branch establishment +at Valencia. But a quiet commercial life, as quiet as the times would +permit, did not please a boy who had the instincts and tastes of a +soldier. Besides it probably would have been difficult for anyone with +any spirit to keep out of the turmoil which was threatening to engulf +Valencia at that time. For the place was armed and garrisoned against +the Spaniards, who under General Boves were advancing to attempt to take +it. The natural leader of the Venezuelans was Bolivar, and although he +had been routed, and had retired to reorganize his forces, he succeeded +in getting word through to Valencia to hold the town at any cost. The +Valencians were only too eager to obey these instructions, because they +well knew the devastation that inevitably followed in the wake of the +Spanish army. They could not view with equanimity the picture of their +town destroyed, their women ravished, little children killed, and men +massacred or led away into captivity, and so they laid plans for a brave +resistance. All of the valuable property was collected from the houses +into the public square. The town had no walls, so that the best that +could be done was to barricade the approaches to this square and strive +to defend it. + +The house where Lopez lived was situated in one corner of the square, +and he soon found himself not only in the centre of the preparations, +but, because of his resourcefulness and initiative, a recognized leader +in the defensive operations. The elder Lopez was in town at the time, +but while he did his part in preparing for the siege, it was the son who +took command and who issued the orders to the father. For three weeks +the little band of patriots held off the Spanish forces, sending runners +through, whenever this could be done, with messages asking Bolivar to +hasten to their aid, and each day praying that help might reach them. +But Bolivar was unable to do anything for them. Indeed his army was in +such straits that it was a relief to him to have the Spanish leader turn +his attention to the attack on Valencia and give an opportunity to rally +his own forces. At the end of the third week the victorious Spaniards +entered the town in triumph. The men were separated from the women, and +were marked for a general slaughter that night while the decree went +forth that the women were to be allowed to remain alive a little longer +so that they might serve the pleasure of their conquerors. Narciso was +not taken prisoner, because he was clever enough to hide himself with +some negroes, who it was expected would be taken away into captivity by +the Spaniards. Narciso was separated from his father, and was much +concerned for the latter's safety, for the son readily pictured the +horrible fate that might befall him; and finally his fears grew so +unbearable that he felt that anything rather than uncertainty would be +welcome. He therefore stole forth to reconnoiter and to see what he +could discover. With him he took two old colored men who had been family +servants. All night he searched, crawling from house to house, under +cover of the darkness, taking advantage of every bit of cover, lying +close to some friendly shelter to listen to the conversation of passing +soldiers in the hope that he might gather some news. He was later to +learn that his father had effected his escape, and that his own +fruitless search through the dark watches of that interminable night was +after all his own salvation. The next morning, when, worn out with +exhaustion and half dead with fatigue, he and his companions dragged +themselves back to the place where the slaves had been huddled, a +ghastly sight met their eyes. The Spaniards for once had been false to +their traditions. Perhaps they knew that these slaves had imbibed from +their masters too much of the spirit of liberty to make good Spanish +servants. At any rate there they lay upon the ground, eighty-seven of +them, each with his throat slit from ear to ear. + +Now we come to a period of Lopez's career which it is difficult to +harmonize with the whole story of his after life. The only plausible +explanation seems to be that he was only a boy, and that Bolivar's army +was suffering such reverses that the only way in which Lopez could save +his own life was by joining forces with the Spaniards, which he did. One +would have thought that after the valiant part he played in the defense +of Valencia, he would cast his lot with the insurgents. No writer of the +period gives us any real explanation of his course. But whatever the +motive, Lopez became a Spanish soldier, a fact which later was to be of +tremendous value to him, because it enabled him to visit Spain, to rise +high in the service, to hold exalted positions in the Spanish court, and +to obtain an insight into the cruelties and injustices perpetrated by +the men who were the oppressors of the country which he was to adopt as +his own, and the salvation of which he was to make his life work, which +he could have gained in no other way. His action may have been +precipitated by the fact that the people of Valencia did not understand +the straits in which Bolivar found himself, but felt that he had +deliberately deserted them. + +Through the long struggle which ended in the evacuation of Caracas by +Spain in 1823, Lopez fought with the Spaniards. So brilliant was his +service that he was at the age of twenty-three given the rank of major. +The story is told that early in the war, when he was a mere private, in +an attack against a position which was defended by field works, the +Spanish forces were divided, in an effort to take two bastions upon the +capture of which victory depended. But there was not sufficient +ammunition, and that of one of the divisions became exhausted, so that +it was necessary to obtain a fresh supply from the other division. This +information was signaled, and the leader of that portion of the +attackers which must now supply the other, called for volunteers. In +order to get the relief through it was necessary to lead three mules, +which were tied together Spanish fashion, the head of the second mule to +the tail of the first one, and the head of the third to the tail of the +second, past a position where they were exposed to the hot fire of the +opposing army. Lopez volunteered. When he reached the most dangerous +part of his course, the mule in the center was struck by the enemy's +fire and fell dead. Lopez did not hesitate, but with the bullets singing +about him--the insurgents in that party must have been singularly bad +marksmen, or perhaps their guns were not of an efficient pattern--he cut +out the dead animal and, tying the two remaining mules together, safely +reached his destination and delivered the ammunition to the commander. +He was not injured, but his gun had been broken by a chance shot, his +clothes were riddled with bullets, one of which had passed through his +hat within an inch of his head, and both of his mules were so severely +wounded that they had to be shot. His action gave the victory to the +Spanish. This exploit won for Lopez the offer of an officer's +commission, but he was modest in his estimate of his own ability, and he +felt that he was too young for the honor, and so he refused, with the +request that he might be taken from the infantry and placed in the +cavalry. So, in spite of his disposition to make light of his own +achievements, and almost against his own will, he found himself at +nineteen the commander of a squadron of horsemen. It was a force of +picked men, most of them older than Lopez, and it had the reputation of +never having shown its back to the enemy. From the command of this +company, Lopez was elevated to the rank of major. + +Now Lopez had made many friends in the Spanish army. All through his +career he had the ability to make men believe in him, love him and be +ready to follow wherever he led. The high honors which had fallen to his +lot seemed not to have incited jealousy among his companions; indeed on +the other hand he was urged by his friends to apply for the cross of San +Fernando, to which they believed he was entitled. Again that curious +quality in Lopez which did not make him shrink from deeds of bravery, +but which did make him draw back from demanding their reward, asserted +itself. The cross of San Fernando was a very great honor, and it was not +bestowed as a free gift, but when a man performed some action of unusual +courage he might publicly demand it, and anyone in the army who cared to +do so was free to enter their opposition, by proving, or trying to +prove, that the deed for which the cross was demanded was not of such a +character as to merit such a reward. In the whole Spanish army in Cuba +at that time, only one individual had succeeded in obtaining the cross +of San Fernando. While Lopez hesitated, his commander in chief, General +Morillo, had the application drawn up and personally insisted that Lopez +sign it. After a rigid inquiry into the merits of this petition, which +was backed up by the endorsement of his comrades and of Morillo himself, +the cross was granted. + +But it was no more than common justice that Morillo should take this +stand, for far better than anyone else had he cause to be grateful for +the bravery of this twenty-three year old boy. The larger part of the +Spanish army at this time was infantry, while the army of the insurgents +was largely cavalry. The natives knew the country, and were able to +carry on a successful guerrilla warfare, without allowing the Spaniards +to engage them in open battle. This harassed the Spaniards, wore down +their morale, and slowly but surely decimated their forces. Morillo, +well knowing this, was pursuing the insurgents, in a vain attempt to +join them in conflict. Lopez at this time was in charge of his cavalry +company, which had been almost exterminated in a conflict that morning. +Only a little band of thirty-eight men remained. Morillo was not aware +of the catastrophe which had overtaken Lopez's command, and did not know +how greatly it had been reduced in numbers. He therefore issued orders +that it gallop forward to attack the enemy in the rear, with an idea of +forcing them to face about and give battle. The engagement took place on +the plains, and the handful of men could be plainly discerned by the +enemy as they rode to obey their commanding officer. General Paez, who +was in command of the Venezuelans, sent a corps of 300 men to repel the +thirty-eight cavalrymen. Neither Lopez nor his men faltered, for they +must live up to their traditions. Lopez ordered them to dismount and +engage the advancing enemy on foot, using lances and carbines in the +attack. Morillo soon discovered what was in progress and sent +reinforcements, and Lopez's men held their position until aid reached +them. + +When this war was over and freedom had been won an extraordinary thing +happened. The patriot government invited this young man, who had fought +against them, to enter their service with the same rank which he had +held in the Spanish army. This he declined, and when evacuation took +place he retired with the Spanish army to Cuba, in 1823. + +Lopez married a very charming Cuban, adopted Cuba as his native land, +and gave up his position in the army. Perhaps the cruelty of the Spanish +government in Cuba may have awakened him to the nature of the +organization which he was serving. He was at heart a man who loved +freedom, who was impatient of unjust restraint, who loved his fellow men +and could not bear to see them suffer injustice. Spain was afraid that +her officers might be led away by the spirit of democracy which was +creating such havoc in her possessions in America. When absolutism was +again restored in Spain, and the constitution of 1812 was for the second +time overthrown, she required her officers in Cuba publicly to adjure +liberalism, and to take an oath to stand by the Spanish rule in the +colony. This Lopez could not bring himself to do, and so he remained in +retirement. + +Affairs in Spain underwent a change, for King Ferdinand died and +immediately a contest for the control of the government was on between +his widow, Maria Cristina, as regent for her infant daughter, Isabel, +and Don Carlos, who was the brother of the deceased king, and who +declared that under the Salic law the crown belonged to him. War between +the two factions seemed imminent, and the Spanish people were war weary, +when the Queen regent conceived a brilliant plan. She felt sure that the +will of the people was with her, since she represented the liberal party +as against Don Carlos who was at the head of the absolutists and whose +accession of power would mean new oppressions. Maria Cristina therefore +issued a proclamation calling on the people, if they loved their country +and wished to save her from civil war, to join in disarming the +absolutists. This movement was well organized and a day was set for the +disarmament to take place all over the kingdom. It seems almost +incredible, but it was successful, and from one end of Spain to the +other there were over six hundred thousand stacks of arms taken from the +Carlists by the people of the liberal party. + +Now while this action was being planned and executed, Lopez happened to +be in Spain. He had gone to the court at Madrid with his wife to +endeavor to have restitution made to her of large sums of money which +the government of Cuba had unjustly taken from her family. Unfortunately +there are no records which disclose whether his diplomacy was great +enough to persuade Spain to return any money which had once gotten into +her coffers. However, Lopez had grown to understand Cuban affairs by +this time well enough to know that if the liberals were successful it +might mean the reestablishment of the constitution of 1812, and the dawn +of better days for Cuba; but on the other hand, should the Carlists +triumph, Cuba was bound to be more fiercely ground beneath the heel of +tyranny and oppressions. Lopez loved his adopted country, and so he at +once took command of a body of liberals who were being hard pressed by a +company of the national guard, part of which had sided with Don Carlos. +He rallied the little band, filled them with new courage and enthusiasm, +and all day he worked with them, sometimes in company with other men and +often alone, driving before him companies of Carlists, forcing them to +go to the guardhouse of the liberals and surrender their weapons. When +news of this conduct reached royal ears, Lopez was made first +aide-de-camp to General Valdez, who was commander in chief of the +liberal forces, that same Valdez who was destined later to become +Captain-General of Cuba. A strong friendship sprang up between the two +men, a bond which was never broken, and which Lopez respected so much +that he later deferred action against the Spanish government in Cuba +until after Valdez had relinquished the office of Captain-General. +Indeed, it was through the influence of Lopez at the court of Spain that +Valdez became Captain-General. + +Valdez had many reasons for being grateful to Lopez, for during the war +which followed between the forces of the queen and those of Carlos, at +one crisis--a surprise attack when the troops were about to flee--Lopez +placed himself in command and led them to victory. On another occasion +Valdez, who had his headquarters in the little village of Durango, had +dispatched the main portion of his army against the forces of the enemy, +retaining with him only a few picked men. Suddenly he found himself +almost surrounded by the Carlists, who had seized the hills by which the +village was enclosed. It was necessary that someone carry news of the +situation to the main army and obtain relief. Lopez, who was then a +colonel, signified his willingness to undertake the task, and indeed +claimed that it was his right as first aide-de-camp to command the +rescuing party which he intended to bring back with him. Valdez was +loath to let him go, for he felt that success was problematic, and that +the expedition meant almost certain death for his friend. But there was +no alternative, and so at last he consented. Lopez set forth on +horseback with one servant attending him. When they approached the +enemy, they signalled that they were deserters, with valuable +information to impart. They were allowed to approach without being fired +on, and when they came abreast of the opposing forces, they set spurs to +their horses, ran the gauntlet of a shower of bullets, and escaped +unhurt, bearing the news of Valdez's perilous position to his main army. + +So great was Lopez's valor and fearlessness, and so high a reputation +had he for honor and fair dealing, that he was respected by the Carlists +as well as by his own party. At the end of this struggle he was accorded +the rank of General in the Spanish army, and was loaded with honors, +having the crosses of Isabella Catolica and St. Hermengilda bestowed +upon him, and being appointed commander in chief of the National Guard +of Spain. He stood high in the regard of the Queen Regent, but he grew +to know her as she was, a cold, selfish plotter, and when she was +finally expelled from the regency Lopez regarded it as a cause for +rejoicing, even though his own career might be expected to suffer. But +the regard in which he was held was too great for this to come to pass, +and after the insurrection which deposed Maria Cristina he was offered +and accepted the post of Governor of Madrid. + +Lopez also served Spain as a senator from the city of Seville. He was +present in the Cortes when the Cuban delegates who were elected during +the conflict of wills between General Lorenzo and Captain-General Tacon, +and who escaped to Spain and attempted to claim their seats in the +Cortes, were rejected. Perhaps more than anything else in his career, +Lopez's service as senator opened his eyes to the vile condition of +Spanish politics, and the methods which were used in ruling the +colonies. He was always on the side of the oppressed, he hated +injustice, and so, then and there, the love of liberty which had always +been a part of his character took concrete form in a resolve to be the +liberator of Cuba. + +When Valdez set forth to take over the command in Cuba, he had +earnestly requested that Lopez be allowed to accompany him, but on the +plea that there was important work for him to do in Spain, Lopez was not +allowed to depart. It may be that in spite of the fight which he had +made to maintain the unity of the Spanish kingdom, the astute and crafty +Spanish statesmen suspected his loyalty, for it was reported that during +Tacon's administration in Cuba, Lopez had entered into a conspiracy to +obtain freedom for the island, and had publicly toasted "free Cuba" at a +banquet. This seems more like a story which might have been born of +Tacon's mean jealousy and fear for his own power, and nurtured by his +vivid imagination when he sought to harm an enemy. It does not seem +credible that Lopez, who had not yet openly thrown in his fortunes with +the liberals in Cuba, would have been so foolish as to expose himself to +the vengeance of a Captain-General who he had good reason to know would +let nothing stand in his way when he sought to tear a rival in court +favor from a high place. Be this as it may, the story was current in +Spain, and while it seems not to have harmed Lopez's popularity with the +people or with the court, it did prevent his accompanying Valdez to Cuba +at this time. Lopez's ability to make friends, however, a little later +stood him in good stead. He had won the liking and indeed the warm +affection of Espartero, the leader at this time of the liberal party in +Spain, and the influence of Espartero finally made it possible for Lopez +to return to Havana, in 1839. + +The friendship between Valdez and Lopez remained warm, and Valdez +appointed Lopez President of the Military Commission, Governor of +Trinidad, and Commander-in-chief of the Central Department of the +Island. Now rumors that a revolution was imminent began to be generally +circulated. No one could tell the source from which they sprang, but +they seemed to be in the atmosphere, and were the constant subject of +whispered conversations in the cafes and restaurants and in the houses +of the liberals. + +When Valdez relinquished the Captain-Generalship, and O'Donnell began +his infamous rule, Lopez felt himself released from all obligations to +the government. Every particle of Spanish sympathy had long since been +purged from his heart, and his honors from such a source had become +irksome. He had refrained from actively plotting against Spain while +Valdez was ruling over Cuba, his friendship for Valdez making him +unwilling to embarrass him. This curb removed, Lopez gladly relinquished +his offices and retired to his own estates. He was not nearly so +successful as a business man as he was as a soldier, and the business +enterprises which he undertook proved to be failures. But he took over +the management of some copper mines and these were used as bases for the +organization of the attempt to free Cuba which was now beginning to take +form and shape in his mind. He mingled with the people quietly and +endeavored, successfully, to win their esteem and liking. The district +in which the mines were located was settled mainly by men who were +always in the saddle. Now Lopez was a fine horseman. There were no deeds +of horsemanship which they might perform which he could not duplicate or +improve upon. He thus soon won a popular following, and this curiously +enough without attracting the particular attention of the +Captain-General or his spies, and became a hero to the men among whom he +dwelt. They were all indebted to him for deeds of kindness, for no man +in difficulties ever appealed to Lopez's purse in vain. Thus he +acquired an influence which made him confident that should he speak the +word the countryside would rally with him under the banner of revolt +against Spain. + +Now Lopez was not particularly interested in the emancipation of the +slaves. He thought that they were necessary for the successful +cultivation of the island, and he could not successfully visualize a +free black population. He felt that a Cuba unbound by any ties to any +other nation meant free blacks. He therefore favored annexation to the +United States. He took the American Consul at Havana, Robert Campbell, +into his confidence, and asked his advice. Campbell was in favor of +annexation by the United States and expressed his opinion that the +majority of the American people, especially those in the southern +states, were heartily in favor of the United States taking over Cuba; +but he also called Lopez's attention to the numerous treaty obligations +binding the United States and Spain together, and assured him that +whatever secret support he might hope to gain from that country, he +(Campbell) certainly would not officially come out and sanction any +movement to free Cuba from Spain. He felt that if Lopez by revolution +could perform the operation and sever the bonds which bound Cuba to +Spain, the United States might reasonably be expected not to refuse the +gift of the island were it offered to her. + +Lopez at once began actively to outline his plans for a revolution, and +secret headquarters were established at Cienfuegos, while the +organization was extended to other parts of the island. + + + + +CHAPTER III + + +Lopez planned to begin the uprising for the freedom of Cuba on June 24, +1848. He had enlisted the sympathy and secret cooperation of many men in +the United States, chiefly in the southern part of that country, and +looked to them to provide him with the needed arms and ammunition. There +was no lack of readiness on their part to respond to his needs in this +respect, but there was much difficulty in transporting such supplies +from the United States to Cuba. Whatever the personal sentiments of the +officers of the American government, they were required publicly to do +all in their power to prevent illicit traffic; while of course the +Spanish officials in Cuba were vigilant to prevent the landing of any +such cargoes. The result was that sufficient supplies did not reach Cuba +in time for an uprising on the appointed date. + +The delay was fatal. It afforded opportunity for betrayal. Among the +followers of Lopez in Cuba was one Jose Sanchez Yznaga, a mere lad of +tender years. He could not resist the temptation to boast to his mother +of the great enterprise in which he was to take part, and she, drawing +from him all the details of the conspiracy, repeated the story to her +husband. Forthwith he gave information of it to the authorities; +reputedly in order to prevent his son from getting into mischief. Lopez, +unconscious of what had happened, was "invited" by the Governor of +Cienfuegos to call upon him, on a matter of important business, and was +actually on his way to keep the engagement when he learned of the +betrayal. Instantly he changed his course, and instead of going to +Cienfuegos he took train for Cardenas and thence a coasting vessel for +Matanzas. At the latter port he was so fortunate as to find the steamer +_Neptune_ just starting for New York. She had room for another passenger +and he got aboard without detection by the Spanish officers who were in +quest of him. The boy Yznaga also escaped arrest. Apparently the names +of the other conspirators were not disclosed, or else there was no +convincing evidence against them. At any rate, none of them were +imprisoned or punished in any way. But Lopez himself was tried _in +absentia_ and was condemned to death, on March 2, 1849; and Yznaga, also +absent, was condemned to six years' imprisonment. + +It was in July, 1848, that Narciso Lopez reached New York, a fugitive +from Spanish wrath. There he found that various Cuban Juntas had been +formed in the United States, and that a well-organized campaign for the +annexation of Cuba was being pushed. This movement was not, of course, +approved officially by the United States government; but neither were +any extraordinary efforts made to suppress or to discourage it. Several +Senators of the United States did not hesitate to make speeches in the +Senate in favor of annexation; some of them advocating its forcible +achievement if Spain declined to make the cession peacefully. Several of +the foremost newspapers also openly espoused the cause. Improving the +opportunity presented to him by these circumstances, Lopez sought some +prominent American, politician or soldier, who would identify himself +with the Cuban revolution and would place himself at its head. Some of +his first and strongest efforts were directed toward getting Jefferson +Davis, then a Senator and afterward President of the Confederate States, +to take command of the expedition which he purposed to fit out; and he +offered to place the sum of $100,000 in a New York bank to the credit +of Mrs. Davis as an inducement. Davis considered the offer and then +declined it; sending Lopez, however, to Major Robert Edward Lee, of the +United States army, afterward of the Confederate army, as a more likely +candidate. Lee, however, also refused the invitation, for reasons which +Jefferson Davis afterward set forth as follows: + +"He came from Mexico crowned with honors, covered by brevets and +recognized, young as he was, as one of the ablest of his country's +soldiers, and to prove that he was estimated then as such, I may mention +that when he was a Captain of engineers, stationed at Baltimore, the +Cuban Junta in New York selected him to be their leader in the +revolutionary effort on that island. They were anxious to secure his +services, and offered him every temptation that ambition could desire, +and pecuniary emoluments far beyond any which he could hope otherwise to +acquire. He thought the matter over, and, I remember, came to Washington +to consult me as to what he should do. After a brief discussion of the +complex character of the military problem which was presented he turned +from the consideration of that view of the question by stating that the +point on which he wished particularly to consult me, was as to the +propriety of entertaining the proposition which had been made to him. He +had been educated in the service of the United States, and felt it wrong +to accept place in the army of a foreign power while he held a +commission." + +Contributions to the amount of $70,000 were made in the United States to +help to finance the expedition, and $30,000 more was sent from Cuba. +Lopez had long interviews with many men who stood high in American +affairs, and he was assured by them that if the semblance of a real +revolution was created, the United States might be expected to +intervene and to annex the island. Recruiting was quietly going on in +several parts of the United States. There was little concealment about +the methods or plans, and Spanish spies who were closely following the +leaders in the movement were able to report very accurately to the +Captain-General in Cuba and to the Spanish minister at Washington, Senor +Calderon de la Barca, exactly what was going on. These two gentlemen +organized a small counter movement and expended large sums of money +extracted from the Cuban treasury to balk the plans of the +revolutionists. Promises of generous pay, however, lured large numbers +of adventurers into the ranks of Lopez's party. Those who enlisted were +promised $1,000, and five acres of land, if the expedition was +triumphant, and pay equal to that of a private in the United States army +in any event. + +Headquarters for the recruits were established at Cat Island, but the +little army was dispersed by the United States authorities, and then the +gathering place was changed to Round Island, near the city of New +Orleans, where Col. G. W. White, a veteran of the Mexican war, was in +charge. The number of men who were assembled under Col. White, ready to +sail for Cuba, was reported to be from 550 to 800. + +While all these preparations were going on, there was an incident in +Havana which threatened seriously to embroil Spain with the United +States. The prison at Havana was holding two men, Villaverde, who was +under arrest for sedition against Spain, and Fernandez, who had been +condemned to imprisonment for fraudulent acts in connection with a +bankruptcy proceeding. One of the jailors was Juan Francisco Garcia Rey, +an American citizen, and he aided these prisoners to escape, Villaverde +going to Savannah, while Fernandez went with Rey to New Orleans. Rey +was soon trailed by Spanish spies and he was either tricked into going +on board a Spanish sailing vessel or else he was forced to do so, and +hurried off to Cuba with no property but the clothes which he wore. When +the vessel reached Cuba, the United States consul went on board, but the +men who were guarding Rey forced him to state that he had arrived in +Cuba voluntarily. The vessel was held in quarantine for some time, and +immediately after it was released, Rey was placed in solitary +confinement; from which however he managed to get a letter through to +the American consul, which read as follows: + +"My name is Juan Garcia Rey; I was forced by the Spanish consul to leave +New Orleans. I demand the protection of the American flag and I desire +to return to the United States. + +"P.S. I came here by force, the Spanish consul having seized me under a +supposed order of the Second Municipality and having had me carried by +main force on board a ship at nine in the evening. + +"P.S.--I did not speak frankly to you because the Captain of the port +was present." + +The request which the American consul promptly made for an interview +with Rey was denied, and at this point the United States government +interested itself in the case and made an official demand for the return +of Rey. Relations between the United States and Spain were growing very +much strained and it looked as if the United States were soon to have an +excuse to fight Spain and to annex Cuba, when the Spanish government +suddenly suffered a change of heart, and Rey was pardoned and released. + +Meanwhile the plans for the invasion of Cuba were being carried out so +openly that the Spanish minister protested, and Zachary Taylor, then +President of the United States, being unwilling openly to affront +Spain, through his Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, issued on August +11, 1849, a proclamation which ran as follows: + +"There is reason to believe that an armed expedition is about to be +fitted out in the United States with an intention to invade the Island +of Cuba, or some of the provinces of Mexico. The best information which +the executive has been able to obtain, points to the Island of Cuba as +the object of this expedition. It is the duty of this government to +observe the faith of treaties, and to prevent any aggression by our +citizens upon the territories of friendly nations. I have, therefore, +thought it necessary and proper to issue this proclamation, to warn all +citizens of the United States who shall connect themselves with an +enterprise so grossly in violation of our laws and treaty obligations, +that they will thereby subject themselves to the heavy penalties +denounced against them by our Acts of Congress, and will forfeit their +claim to the protection of their country. No such persons must expect +the interference of this government in any form on their behalf, no +matter to what extremities they may be reduced in consequence of their +conduct. An enterprise to invade the territories of a friendly nation, +set on foot and prosecuted within the limits of the United States, is in +the highest degree criminal, as tending to endanger the peace and +compromise the honor of this nation, and therefore I exhort all good +citizens, as they regard our national reputation, as they respect their +own laws and the laws of nations, as they value the blessings of peace +and the welfare of their country, to discountenance and prevent, by all +lawful means, any such enterprise; and I call upon every officer of this +government, civil or military, to use all efforts in his power to arrest +for trial and punishment every such offender against the laws providing +for the performance of our sacred obligations to friendly powers." + +This proclamation did not find favor in the Southern States, where +sentiment was strongly in favor of the annexation of Cuba as a bar +against the freeing of the slaves. All the while the United States +government was officially discountenancing the expedition, private +citizens were aiding it, and again Spain protested and the American +government dispatched the steamer _Albany_ with officers to investigate +the state of matters at Round Island, to see that no supplies reached +the island, and to prevent the expedition from starting. Two ships, the +_Sea Gull_ and the _New Orleans_, had been purchased in New York to take +the expedition to Cuba, and these were promptly seized, but the fifty +men on one of them were not prosecuted, and while warrants were issued +for the five leaders they were never apprehended, and the ships were +simply returned to their owners. Public opinion was too much in favor of +aid for Cuba to make it feasible for the United States government to +place itself in the position of being inimical to Cuban interests, while +on the other hand that Government felt that it could not afford openly +to antagonize Spain. + +The Cuban organization in New York presently showed signs of +discouragement and disintegration, and Lopez in consequence transferred +his operations to the south, principally to New Orleans, where sentiment +was warmly in favor of his plans. There the next year he renewed his +efforts to organize an expedition to Cuba. Even more generous offers of +bounty were made than in the previous case. Recruits were promised +$4,000, and when they had served a year they were to be rewarded by a +grant of land in Cuba; this in addition to their regular pay. Those who +should attain the rank of officers were promised up to $10,000, and also +high rank in the new government which the revolutionists were to +organize in Cuba. Lopez was always conscious of the advantage of having +men of prominence connected with his enterprises, and he endeavored to +persuade Governor Quitman of Mississippi to take command, but that +gentleman expressed himself as believing that only an internal +revolution could be effective in Cuba and that any invasion from without +must fail, and, accordingly, he declined the invitation. + +Numerous recruits were obtained in various parts of the United States. +While interest in it was strongest in the South, many men in the North +and West were ready, for one reason or another, to cast in their lot +with Lopez. An important rallying point was Cincinnati, Ohio, and from +that city a party of 120 men started southward on April 4, 1850, on the +river steamer _Martha Washington_, which had been chartered for the +purpose. A stop was made at a point on the Kentucky shore, and more men +were there taken aboard. The trip down to New Orleans consumed a week, +which time was spent by the men in card-playing, carousing and indeed +almost everything save serious reflection upon the momentous undertaking +before them. There were a few among them of earnest purpose; and when +the expedition was completed at New Orleans it comprised a number of men +of high character and standing, members of some of the foremost families +of that part of the United States. But the majority of the recruits were +adventurers of the type familiar in most such undertakings. To them the +enterprise meant not so much the freeing of Cuba from Spanish oppression +as it meant getting "easy money," the fun of seeing a new country, good +food, and if the worst happened ... it was on the knees of the gods. + +It was April 11 when the boat reached Freeport, a town a few miles up +the river from New Orleans, where the men were hidden; or supposed to be +hidden, for little secrecy was attained, Spanish spies and United States +citizens being equally aware of their presence. There were two hundred +and fifty men in the party, and on April 25 they set sail for Cuba on +the Steamer _Georgiana_, with a supply of muskets and 10,000 rounds of +ammunition, which however did not come on board until after the mouth of +the Mississippi was passed. Lopez himself was not with this company, for +his work of organization was not completed, and he remained behind to +join them later. + +A second company of about 160 men was organized in New Orleans, and set +sail on May 2, on the _Susan Loud_, and a third company was to follow on +the _Creole_. On May 6 the _Susan Loud_ reached the place where she was +to meet the _Creole_, and she raised the new flag of Cuba for the first +time on the Gulf of Mexico. Here she was joined the next day by the +_Creole_ and another day was taken up in transferring the men from one +vessel to the other, the _Creole_ being much the faster of the two; the +idea being that the slower boat could follow at leisure. On the _Creole_ +there were only 130, making 290 men in this portion of the expedition. +The newcomers on the _Creole_ were for the first time introduced to +their commander, Lopez, and it is recorded that he promptly won all +hearts by his pleasing personality. + +A light-hearted spirit of adventure at first prevailed among the crews +and the men, until a storm arose on May 12, and the company began to be +less cheerful; many were sick, and the wind and clouds had a depressing +effect on the others. To add to the general dismay and discomfort, a gun +was accidentally discharged, and one of the company was killed. An +unpleasant foreboding began to cast a blight over the gay company. Evil +days had also attended the _Georgiana_. She met with foul weather, and +had great difficulty in reaching the island of Contoy, about ten miles +off the coast of Yucatan. This island was uninhabited and without +vegetation, a blank waste of sand, with no water for drinking purposes. +The men were discontented and mutiny seemed imminent. An unsuccessful +attempt was made to reach Mujeres, and then mutiny in earnest broke out, +led by Captain Benson, one of the leaders of the company. He instigated +the circulation of a petition for a return to New Orleans, and between +fifty and sixty signatures were obtained. Fortunately Lopez had one +faithful follower in the company, an eloquent and brave man. This was +Colonel Theodore O'Hara, a veteran of the Mexican War and author of the +classic poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead." He assembled the men and asked +them to agree to wait eight days longer, and spoke so feelingly that +finally the promise was given with cheers for Lopez, for Cuba, and for +the annexation of the island. Before further trouble could come to pass, +the _Creole_ was sighted. When she reached the island it was thought +best that she should proceed to Mujeres, obtain water, and return the +next day. This was done, and when he returned, Lopez issued the +following proclamation to his men: + +"Soldiers of the liberating expedition of Cuba! Our first act on +arriving shall be the establishment of a provisional constitution, +founded on American principles, and adopted to the emergencies of the +occasion. This constitution you will unite with your brethren of Cuba in +swearing to support in its principles as well as on the field of battle. +You have been chosen by your officers as men individually worthy of so +honorable an undertaking. I rely implicitly on your presenting Cuba to +the world, a signal example of all the virtues, as well as the valor of +the American citizen soldiers; and I cannot be deceived in my confidence +that by our discipline, good order, moderation in victory, and sacred +respect for all private rights, you will put to shame every insolent +calumny of your enemies. And when the hour arrives for repose on the +laurels which await your grasp, you will all, I trust, establish +permanent and happy homes in the beautiful soil of the island you go to +free, and there long enjoy the gratitude which Cuba will never fail +generously to bestow on those to whom she will owe the sacred and +immeasurable debt of her liberty." + +Now the _Creole_ was not a new vessel, and was sadly in need of repairs. +When the nearly six hundred men from the three boats were all on board +her--for the plan was that only one ship should be actively engaged in +the invasion--she took water, and some of the men were afraid. There +were desertions at Mujeres and Contoy which reduced the force to five +hundred and twenty-one. The men were packed in all parts of the ship, on +deck, in the cabin, in the hold, in every available corner. It was +impossible to keep discipline, to say nothing of holding drill practice. +The _Creole_ was fortunate enough to be driven by adverse winds far +north of the course which she had planned, because she thus escaped two +Spanish war ships which had been sent out to apprehend and sink her. +Thus from near the shore of Yucatan the adventurers sailed over +practically the same course which in the days of Cortez had been +traversed by the Spanish treasure ships from Mexico to Cuba and to +Spain. The plan was to land at Cardenas, and march at once to Matanzas, +thirty miles distant, which it was believed could be reached in 24 hours +and where the railroad was to be seized. It was here that it was +expected that the recruiting would be heaviest, for Lopez believed that +the Cubans would recognize them as liberators, welcome them with +rejoicing, and at once enlist under the new banner of freedom. One +hundred picked men would promptly be despatched to blow up an important +bridge, nine miles from Havana, and meanwhile Lopez expected his force +of five hundred to be swelled to five thousand. Indeed he dreamed of +attacking the city of Havana with an armed force of 30,000. He had +plenty of ammunition and guns and he anticipated no difficulty in +enlisting an army from among the Cubans who desired freedom from Spain. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + + +Cardenas was chosen as the place of landing probably for two reasons. +First, because the Cubans of this district were supposed to be +exceedingly dissatisfied with Spanish rule--more disgruntled than the +inhabitants of the other parts of the island, because the people of +Cardenas had been given their own particular grievances by the Spanish +garrison; and in the second place, the garrison at this point was +exceedingly small, and the town was situated on a bay the entrance to +which, like the coast for many miles, was undefended by fortifications. +Lopez therefore believed that he could penetrate the harbor with little +difficulty and no opposition. + +It was half past two in the morning when the _Creole_ entered the bay of +Cardenas, and her progress was not altogether free from difficulties. +The captain of the _Creole_ was unfamiliar with the waters of the bay, +and found it difficult to steer a safe course. As a matter of fact, the +vessel was grounded, and delayed for nearly an hour, during which time +her presence was observed by Spanish patrols, and the alarm given. Dawn +was breaking in the east when the landing was made. It bade fair to be a +beautiful morning. The air was soft and clear, and the first rays of +sunshine, brightening the roofs of the houses, sent a note of cheer into +the hearts of the little army of those who were seeking to deliver Cuba, +and seemed an omen of good fortune. + +Reports differ as to their reception. One account tells of a large +Spanish force drawn up on the shore, through which they had to fight +their way, but which they quickly dispersed. It is more in accord with +the events which followed to give credence to another story, which has +it that the Spanish troops took refuge in the barracks, while a smaller +number were quartered in the Governor's palace. + +The Kentuckians, soldiers of fortune, descendants of pioneers, whose +valor had been tested and not found wanting in the warfare which had +taken place from time to time in their own state, were the first to +land. There were sixty of them, under the command of Lieut. Col. +Pickett, and their instructions were to proceed at once to the railroad +station. Lopez knew that large bodies of Spanish troops were quartered +at Matanzas, which was connected by railroad with Cardenas, and his +purpose was to destroy the station, and if possible the line of the +railroad for some distance, to prevent the arrival of reinforcements to +the Spaniards, should the news of the coming of the filibusters be sent +to Matanzas. This action would also necessitate communications by +courier, which, of course, would be productive of a delay which would be +advantageous to Lopez's plan. + +The station was captured without any difficulty, indeed without +opposition, and the little body of Kentucky soldiers began their work of +destruction. That because of lack of numbers, or lack of equipment, they +did not accomplish this efficiently enough to prevent the arrival of +Spanish troops at Cardenas, we shall see later. But at any rate, they +proceeded with zeal and enthusiasm to the work which was allotted to +them, and held the station against the few Spanish troops from the +Cardenas garrison which later attempted to wrest it from them, and when +they relinquished it they did so voluntarily, to join their comrades in +retreating to the _Creole_. Indeed they manfully held their positions, +long after many of the other regiments had been withdrawn, in order to +cover the retreat. + +The moment Lieutenant Colonel Pickett and his Kentuckians were clear of +the vessel, General Lopez and his staff, and Colonel O'Hara, with the +remainder of the Kentucky regiment, disembarked, and with great +ceremony, for the first time, the flag of Cuba Libre was unfurled on +Cuban soil. General Lopez remained with his ship, to oversee the landing +of the remainder of his little army, while Colonel O'Hara, under orders, +advanced to take the barracks where four hundred Spanish troops were +garrisoned. The Kentuckians under Colonel O'Hara numbered one hundred +and eighty, and in addition he was reinforced by the Louisiana regiment +of one hundred and thirty, and the Mississippi regiment of one hundred +and forty-five, so that he had in all, for the business in hand, four +hundred and fifty-five men, thus outnumbering the Spanish force which +they were to oppose, by about fifty-five men. They advanced rapidly and +charged the garrison, which promptly opened fire, and Colonel O'Hara was +wounded, not seriously, but sufficiently so that he was obliged to +surrender his command to Major Hawkins. The engagement was resumed, but +only for a short time, when General Lopez came up and at once directed +the firing to cease. He then proceeded to do a thing which plainly +showed the spirit of the man, his resourcefulness and his undaunted +courage. He marched up to the barracks and demanded its unconditional +surrender. + +The Spanish soldiers evidently were not altogether whole hearted in +their defence, but their leaders were crafty. A long parley ensued, +during which the Spanish troops were hastily and quietly withdrawn +through a side door, with the intention of making their escape to the +Governor's palace. When the barracks had been in this manner all but +abandoned, the Spanish commander agreed to surrender, and it can be +imagined that he enjoyed the chagrin of Lopez when he discovered that +his prize was an almost empty building. + +But the Spanish troops were not destined to escape so easily. Colonel +Wheat, with the Louisiana regiment, had been the last to leave the +_Creole_. As he approached the barracks he heard the firing, but +supposing that Lopez had only to put in an appearance to be greeted with +loud acclaim as a deliverer, he decided that the Spanish troops had laid +down their arms to join the revolutionists and that the sound of guns +marked a salute to Lopez. He went around the barracks, toward the +square, and was just in time to intercept the flying Spaniards. +Instantly he grasped the situation, and a skirmish ensued. The Spaniards +at length made good their retreat to the Governor's palace, but not +without leaving some dead and wounded behind them. + +Lopez and his men at once advanced on the palace, where the Governor had +taken refuge with his forces, now reinforced by those who had made good +their escape from the barracks. Soon Lopez distinguished a white flag of +truce floating from one of the windows, and as he approached nearer +received word that the Governor was ready to surrender. Overjoyed, the +revolutionists rushed up to the palace only to be greeted in a manner +quite in keeping with Spanish treachery, for they were promptly fired +upon by the Spaniards, and before they could rally several of the +attacking party were wounded, including General Gonzales. Lopez's anger +at this violation of the rules of decent fighting was at white heat. +While the main division of his troops were returning the fire from the +palace, he took a small body of men to reconnoiter, and finding an +unguarded portion of the building, he set fire to it; indeed, with his +own hand he applied the torch. All this had taken much more time than +does its relating, and the forces in the palace were enabled to hold out +until between eight and nine o'clock in the morning, when they +surrendered, driven out by the flames and smoke, and the Governor and +the commander of the garrison were taken prisoners, while such troops as +had not found refuge in the palace fled to the outlying country, and +couriers hurried to carry the news of the Spanish disaster to Matanzas. + +Lopez was now in possession of the town. There was the work of caring +for the dead and wounded to be done, and besides this he wished to make +an appeal to Cuban residents who sympathized with the cause of freedom +to aid him. This was not so easy as it seemed. Lopez to his chagrin +found that reports which had reached him in the United States of the +willingness of the Cubans to join a revolution had been grossly +exaggerated. That there were a great many who sympathized with Lopez's +purpose there can be no doubt. But they had to deter them the memory of +other uprisings, in which the attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke had +utterly failed. They had also before them the courage-shaking memories +of the horrors which had befallen those who had participated in the +rebellions. It is ever a fact that while oppression always creates +leaders whose valor and daring will not stop at any obstacles, it also +makes the masses of the people timid, afraid of the punishment which is +bound to follow defeat. Spain had long held the Cubans in bondage. She +had meted out to them the most cruel injustices, and had taken +unspeakable revenge not only on those who had opposed her, but even on +those who were under suspicion of such opposition. Besides this, on this +May morning, things had been happening very fast. Lopez's little +victories had been won in whirlwind succession. This should have +inspired sympathizers with confidence, but there were in that town some +private persons who were in sympathy and in league with the Spanish +rulers. They now resorted to propaganda. They spread the report that +Lopez's band had no real intention of trying to free Cuba, that their +real object was plunder, that when they had subdued the garrison, they +intended to put the patriotic Cubans to new sufferings for their own +aggrandisement. Long years of injustice had made the Creoles wary of +asserting themselves openly against their Spanish tyrants. While those +who had been leaders in the town in the organization on Cuban soil of +the revolution tried to reassure the frightened people, they were far +from successful. A mob spirit of fear is not easily conquered. + +Aside from this Lopez's force, worn out with their efforts, tired and +hungry, and for the time idle, while the leaders were planning the next +move, dispersed through the town. It seemed necessary and expedient in +any event that they should be quartered on the citizens, and now they +sought the homes of the Creoles in search of food. They were met by a +frightened hospitality. Food and wine were set before them, with the +result that those of them who were merely adventurers lost sight of +their purpose and seized the opportunity to court intoxication. This +conduct did not increase the confidence of the Creoles, and so hopes of +support from the native Cubans proved delusive. + +To make matters worse, disquieting rumors were circulated that in spite +of the efforts of Pickett's men to disable the railroad, a large body of +Spanish troops was on its way from Matanzas. There seemed to be no doubt +as to the truth of these reports; indeed a message reached Lopez late +in the afternoon, containing unmistakable confirmation to the effect +that couriers had carried the news to Matanzas and that three thousand +Spanish troops were on their way to Cardenas. Lopez was now in a triple +quandary. He could advance against this huge force, which would of +course be joined by those of the Cardenas garrison who had escaped into +the country, and give battle against frightful odds. His own forces had +been depleted by losses and had failed to be swelled by the enlistment +of sympathizing Creoles. He would leave behind him a frightened and +almost hostile city, and a port unguarded against the landing of Spanish +troops from ships cruising in nearby waters, in the event of which he +would be subject to attack from both front and rear, and would be not +only in great danger, but almost in certainty of being surrounded. He +might remain where he was and entrench himself against the impending +attack, but this offered no better possibilities than the former plan, +for he had not enough men to defend both the town and the harbor and he +was in constant danger of betrayal by Spanish sympathizers, who were of +course cognizant of his every move. He had been told that at Mantua +large bodies of Creoles stood ready to revolt and join him. Of course, +he had no more accurate confirmation of the truth of this rumor than he +had had of the verity of the assurances which, before he had set out on +his expedition, he had received of the willingness of the inhabitants of +Cardenas to join him; and yet this plan last outlined seemed to hold +better possibilities than either of the others. He decided, therefore, +to adopt it, and while making a show of resistance, he began quietly to +assemble his baggage and equipment on board the _Creole_, and to make +ready for the re-embarkation of his men. + +Although the forces at the station, and indeed other small bodies of +his troops who had not been demoralized by the delights of the table, +sought to cover his retreat, and the former did render effective service +against the Spaniards, yet his movements did not escape observation, and +were hailed with delight and with renewed aggressions by the Spanish +troops. The retreat was not easy to effect, and when he had assembled +his scattered forces, his movements were halted from time to time by the +necessity of erecting temporary barricades, from which to cover the safe +return to the _Creole_. This was finally effected, and at nine in the +evening the vessel once more set out to sea. On board her, besides Lopez +and his men, were the Spanish governor and the commander of the +garrison, and they were retained as hostages until the ship cleared the +harbor. This was not accomplished without mishap, for the captain, again +hampered by navigating in what to him were uncharted waters, once more +grounded the ship, which caused some delay. At length they were on the +high seas, and just before they quit the shores of Cuba, they landed the +discomfited governor and the garrison chief. What would have happened, +had Lopez been in the governor's predicament, indeed what did happen, +when Lopez and his men finally fell into the hands of the Spaniards, is +another story. But Lopez was too high a type of gentleman to mete out to +the Spanish high commanders the fate to which they would too gladly have +consigned him. + +Lopez has in many quarters been most severely censured for his quick +abandonment of his plans and his hasty retreat from Cuba, but in the +cold light of reason, we hardly see how he could have pursued any other +course. Had his expectation of aid from the Creoles been realized, he +might then, as he had planned, have left Cardenas in their hands, and +with his little band strengthened by a large body of revolutionary +sympathizers he might have advanced against the Spanish army at Matanzas +with some hope of success. As it was, he could only make the best of a +bad situation, and depart, with the faint hope of better fortune at +Mantua, and at least with the nucleus of an organization which later +might be more effective in another expedition of greater scope for the +freeing of Cuba. Thus, when we review his action, after the passage of +many years, he seems to have taken the only sane course that lay open to +him. Any other would have meant even greater disaster. Lopez had lost, +in this short time, of his Louisiana regiment, twenty killed and +wounded, including those basely slaughtered through the Spanish +treachery before the Governor's palace; of his Kentucky regiment, forty +killed and wounded, including such men of high standing as Captain John +A. Logan, Lieutenant James J. Garrett, the Rev. Louis McCann and +Sergeant Harry Cruse, besides ten privates; while his Mississippi +regiment suffered five or six killed. The Spanish losses were greater +than those of the revolutionists and numbered over one hundred. + +But an even greater misfortune had overtaken Lopez. When the _Creole_ +had grounded, near the entrance to the harbor, while he was making his +hasty departure from Cardenas, it had been impossible to float her free +without lightening her, and to do this not only were provisions thrown +overboard, but large quantities of precious arms and ammunitions, and so +his men now found themselves insufficiently armed for any stubborn +resistance to Spanish troops, particularly should the odds be heavy. +Lopez was still bent on his purpose of making a landing at Mantua, but +while his gallant officers in the main supported him, he found himself +surrounded by a dissatisfied, angry, mutinous crew, who were for +abandoning the whole matter, and steaming for the United States with +all possible speed. Lopez addressed them, and tried to stir within them +a realization of what such action meant, and how fatal it might be to +the cause of Cuban liberty to abandon so easily an expedition so +propitiously and even gaily undertaken, but they were deaf to his +entreaties. At the suggestion of one of his officers the matter was put +to vote, and to his dismay Lopez found that only fifteen stood with him +on the Mantua project. He would not consent to abandon it, however, even +against such odds, and declared that he would himself make the landing, +taking with him the loyal few who were willing to stay with him. This, +however, he was prevented from doing by the fact that the majority saw +to it that the captain did not approach Mantua, but steered a course +which had as its object the port of Key West, Florida. + +Evidence soon was not lacking that theirs had been the part of wisdom if +not of valor, and indeed that there were some odds against their +reaching any port at all, for news of the expedition had not only been +carried to Matanzas, but it had somehow reached the Spanish ship +_Pizarro_, and she was soon in hot pursuit of the _Creole_. This soon +became a most serious situation; again and again it seemed as if the +_Creole_ were about to be overhauled, with the probable result that her +men would be taken prisoners and executed, and she would be sunk, or +taken to port a prize of war. Fate, however, intervened in favor of +Lopez, for the pilot on board the Spanish vessel was in sympathy with +the filibusters, and when, on nearing Key West, the _Pizarro_ seemed +about to overtake the _Creole_, at the peril of his own life he steered +such an eccentric course that the _Creole_ escaped, and made a landing +at Key West, while the Spanish ship put out to sea once more. + +Lopez and his men were welcomed at Key West with shouts of applause. +Sympathizers with his expedition refused to consider it a failure. They +declared that it had served to open the eyes of the Cubans to the fact +that their deliverance was near, and that when Lopez once more set out +with a larger force--as they assured him, with the assistance of the +people of the south in the United States, he would--victory would be +certain to spread her wings over his banner. So great was the popular +clamor in favor of Lopez, that the United States authorities did not +deem it prudent to arouse the ire of the mob, and therefore no attempts +at arrest were then made. Indeed, little chance was given before +debarkation, because in hardly more than ten minutes after the vessel +had docked, the work of removing the wounded had been completed, and her +decks were cleared of all men but seamen. The vessel was, however, +seized by the authorities. + +When news of Lopez's exploits reached Madrid, the government was thrown +into a great state of indignation, and promptly urged upon the United +States the punishment of the offenders, stating: + +"If contrary to our expectations the authors of this last expedition +should go unpunished, as did those who last year planned the Round +Island expedition, the government of Her Majesty will find itself +obliged to appeal to the sentiments of morality and good faith of the +nations of Europe to oppose the entrance of a system of politics and of +doctrines which would put an end to the foundations on which rests the +peace of the civilized world. If Europe should sanction by her silence +and acquiescence the scandalous state of affairs by which the citizens +of the United States (or those of any power whatever) might freely make +war from their territory against Spain, when the latter is at perfect +peace officially with the Union; if it should be tolerated or looked on +with indifference that the solemn stipulations which bind the two states +should be with impunity made hollow by mobs and that the laws of nations +and public morality should be violated without other motive than the +selfishness of the aggressors, and with no other reliance than force, +then civilized nations ought to renounce that peace which is based on +the laws of nations and the terms of treaties and make ready for a new +era in which might will be right, and in which popular passions of the +worst kind will be substituted for the reason of states." + +Even with the government in Washington practically controlled by the +pro-slavery interests, and with feeling in that quarter running high in +favor of the filibusters, the United States, for the sake of +preservation of peaceable relations with Spain, could hardly afford to +ignore this protest. Hence, Lopez was arrested at Savannah, whence he +had gone immediately upon his arrival on American soil, and a number of +the leaders of his expedition were apprehended. + +Indictments were returned against Lopez, Theodore O'Hara, John F. +Pickett, R. Hayden, Chatham R. Wheat, Thomas T. Hawkins, W. H. Bell, N. +J. Bunce, Peter Smith, A. J. Gonzales, L. J. Sigur, Donahen Augusten, +John Quitman, Cotesworth Pinckney Smith (a Judge of the Supreme Court of +Mississippi), John Henderson (a former United States Senator), and J. L. +O'Sullivan (a former editor of the _Democratic Review_, which had been +loud in its support of the filibustering expeditions). But great +difficulty was experienced in obtaining evidence against the prisoners. +This might seem extraordinary, in the light of the fact that there could +be no denial that the expedition had taken place, and that these men +had been prominent in its organization. But at the trial all the +witnesses by common agreement refused to answer any but the simplest and +least important questions, on the ground that they might thus +incriminate themselves. Three men were tried and three juries disagreed. +The matter seemed so hopeless of solution that the indictments were +allowed to languish without prosecution, and were finally dismissed and +the prisoners released. Everywhere the filibusters were received with +acclamations, and all the South joined in declaring Lopez a hero. + +The New Orleans _Bee_ at this time thus described Lopez: + +"General Lopez has an exceedingly prepossessing appearance. He is +apparently about fifty years of age. His figure is compact and well set. +His face which is dark olive, and of the Spanish cast, is strikingly +handsome, expressive of both intelligence and energy. His full dark +eyes, firm, well-formed mouth, and erect head, crowned with iron grey +hair, fix the attention and convince you that he is no ordinary man. +Unless we are greatly mistaken in the impression we have formed of him, +he will again be heard of in some new attempt to revolutionize Cuba. He +certainly does not look like a man easily disheartened." + +The _Bee_ was a true prophet; it was far from being "greatly mistaken" +about Lopez. The after events proved that it had judged him justly. No +sooner was he released than he began to lay his plans for a new +expedition, and since New Orleans had long been the stronghold of his +sympathizers, he went to that place to complete his organization. + + + + +CHAPTER V + + +[Illustration: Ramon Pinto] + +Spain was now thoroughly alive to the danger which threatened her future +retention of Cuba, and in the face of an emergency she vacillated. Her +high officials began to wonder if after all their policy of extreme +oppression and suppression had not been in a measure the wrong one to +pursue with the Cubans. Roncali, who had been so pleasing to the +Peninsulars, or Spanish party in Cuba, and so unpopular with the +patriots, was recalled and Don Jose Gutierrez de la Concha was +dispatched to take his place as Captain-General. He took over the +affairs of the island on November 10, 1850. Concha was as unwelcome to +the Peninsulars as his predecessor had been to their liking. He was a +man who had at least some regard for justice, and who, if given a free +hand, might have governed Cuba with a degree of wisdom and fairness. He +was not a believer in liberty for the Cubans, but at least he had some +conception of what constituted equity. He publicly stated his ideal of +his office, as "a government of justice" and might have worked out +something like a solution of Spain's problems in Cuba, unless, as we +think it fair to believe, it was now much too late to quell the +revolutionary spirit which had grown to such great proportions; with "a +government of force," no matter what its purpose, the Cubans were all +too familiar, and they had plainly shown how much they hated it and +despised its administrators. + + RAMON PINTO + + An early martyr to the cause of Cuban freedom, Ramon Pinto, was + born in Cataluna, Spain, in 1802, and engaged in the revolution of + 1820-23 in that country. Then he fled to Cuba and became a + brilliant writer in behalf of philanthropic works. In 1853 he + became director of the Havana Lyceum, and later was a close friend + and adviser of Captain-General Concha. In 1855 he was charged with + being engaged in a revolutionary conspiracy, was convicted on + dubious testimony, and died on the scaffold in March of that year. + +One evil this new Captain-General did earnestly try to overcome. He +endeavored to do away with the fee system which had caused so much +unjust imprisonment and suffering. He made an effort to obtain fixed +salaries for all government officials instead of fees, but at every turn +he was balked by the Peninsulars. There is some reason to believe that +he was not altogether sincere; that he was a fair spokesman, but an evil +performer; that he did not allow his right hand to know the injustice he +was planning to do with his left. At any rate, at the very time when he +was offering such cheering words of hope to the Cubans, he was putting +into operation a regular line of vessels from Cadiz, Spain, to Havana. +He offered various excuses--of course, expansion, and many others--for +this action, but thinking Cubans well knew that his real purpose was +that communications might be more easy and frequent with the Spanish +court, and that news of uprisings, and the dispatching of troops to +suppress them, might be less delayed. He also--but, of course, this was +done under orders of the Spanish government, induced, we are told, by +his recommendations--increased and strengthened the fortifications of +the island, and asked for and received a greater number of troops to man +them. + +However, there must have been some ground for the belief that Concha in +some ways favored the Cubans for in no other manner could he have +raised such a storm of dislike among the Peninsulars as constantly +whistled about his head, and finally resulted in his recall. + +While these events were taking place in Cuba, Lopez, in the United +States, was far from idle, and he was not lacking in friends who sought +to aid him. Singularly enough those in the South who were numbered among +his supporters seemed not to be disheartened by the failure of the +Cardenas expedition, and, of course, the juntas were active in stirring +up popular opinion in favor of filibustering, and in obtaining both +moral and financial support for another enterprise. But with it all +money was woefully lacking. + +General Henderson, who had been a member of the first expedition, and +had been one of those indicted and tried, at this time wrote to a +friend: + +"I need not tell you how much I desire to see him (Lopez) move again, +and it is more useless to tell you how wholly unable I am to assist him +to make this move. With my limited means, I am under the extremest +burdens from my endeavors on the former occasion. Indeed I find my cash +advanced for the first experience were over half the cash advanced to +the enterprise, and all my present means and energies are exhausted in +bringing up the arrearages. Yet I still believe in the importance, the +morality and the probability of the enterprise; and I believe it is one +the South should steadfastly cherish and promote. I feel it is more +especially incumbent on us who have once failed to retrieve ourselves +from so much of the opprobrium and reproach as the defeat has cast upon +us. For we know that, could we succeed, we should win all those triumphs +which success in such enterprises never fails to command. And would not +such triumph be glorious! I believe you yield equal consideration to +the importance of this subject as I do; and as a Southern question, I do +not think, when properly viewed, its magnitude can be overestimated." + +When a leader is able to enlist the sympathies, and drain the purse, of +a man so intelligent and of such high standing as John Henderson, former +Senator of the United States, and when he can bind such a man to him by +even stronger ties in defeat than in victory, the personality of that +leader must be one of extraordinary strength, courage and probity. It +speaks well for Lopez that all through his career he gathered around him +men of the finest families in the South, and indeed some of equally high +standing from the North which was not particularly in favor of his +venture, and those men fought for him and with him, and remained loyal +until the greater portion of them paid the penalty of their lives for +their devotion. + +Now recruiting began in earnest. Everywhere in the South agents of Lopez +were busy, but the headquarters of this new movement seem to have been +at Savannah. Spain, of course, was not unaware of what was taking place +and was on the alert. Spanish spies were everywhere watching the +plotters against Spanish dominion in Cuba, and reporting their findings +to the Spanish legation at Washington. The Spanish minister had in his +employ a man who called himself at times Burtnett. (He had many +aliases.) He was more clever than the rank and file of the Spanish +agents, and by associating himself with the filibusters, he was able to +learn their plans. Lopez's followers were not rash; they tried very hard +to cover their activities; but in any undertaking in which a number of +people are concerned, anything like complete secrecy is absolutely out +of the question. Burtnett represented himself as a sympathizer; he +joined the filibusters and wormed himself into the confidence of the +leaders. He learned that the plan was to assemble on the coast of +Florida, and from there to set sail for Cuba. The filibusters would +themselves circulate rumors that the attack would be made on the south +coast of Cuba, but Burtnett discovered that in reality the forces would +be divided, and while the Spanish troops were mustered to repel an +attack in the south, several small bands would land, organize the +friendly Cubans, and give battle if necessary to what depleted Spanish +forces might be located on the north coast. This would preclude the +chance of such a disaster as the Cardenas expedition, and the Cubans, +uncowed by the presence of large bodies of governmental soldiery, would +hasten to the aid of Lopez. Even the Spanish troops, some of whom were +supposed to be in sympathy with the revolution, might be hoped to mutiny +and join the Cubans. Thus this time there could be no thought of +failure. + +Meanwhile Southern gentlemen of wealth and family were eagerly supplying +funds to the enterprise. It is even said that some planters mortgaged +their estates to obtain funds to give to the expedition, in the +expectation that when rich Cuba was once acquired for the United States, +they would receive back a reward far greater than the amount which they +were contributing. Bonds of the proposed revolutionary government were +printed, and sold; arms and ammunition were purchased and stored in +readiness for the expedition. It was planned that the first consignment +of arms was to be conveyed to the steamer _Cleopatra_, which had been +purchased to carry the filibusters, by means of two small vessels, the +sloop _William Roe_, and the steamer _Nahantee_, which were to steal +respectively from the ports of New York and South Amboy, New Jersey, and +meet the _Cleopatra_ just beyond quarantine. When the details were +completed, Burtnett revealed the whole plan to the Spanish minister, +who lost no time in laying it before the United States government at +Washington. Now no matter what the sympathies of this government might +be, it could not be placed under the odium of giving its official +sanction to such an enterprise; indeed that would probably have resulted +in war with Spain. Its action was slightly delayed, and the expedition +might even yet have gotten off without interference had it not been that +the _William Roe_ was detained on account of a flaw in her papers, and +the _Cleopatra_, on which provisions were already stored, was delayed in +putting to sea to wait for the _William Roe_ and the _Nahantee_ because +at the last moment some of her crew went on shore and became +intoxicated. This slight postponement of her sailing gave an opportunity +for her attachment--at whose instigation it is not clear--for a writ for +$3,000, to cover repairs made by a former owner, and for which the +filibusters could hardly be held responsible. Nevertheless, they raised +the money, but before its transfer could be completed and the +_Cleopatra_ cleared on April 26, 1851, the leaders were arrested. + +Things looked black for Lopez and his followers, but they still had the +influence of the South behind them, and for this reason or some equally +effective one, again the courts failed to convict them, and to add to +their good fortune the government did not confiscate the _Cleopatra_ and +the provisions with which she was loaded, and she was afterward sold and +the proceeds used as a nest-egg toward financing another expedition. + +Spain was now thoroughly aroused to her danger, and determined to put +down the threatened revolution at any cost. Through her mouthpiece, the +Captain-General of Cuba, she issued a proclamation to the Governors and +Lieutenant Governors on the island: + +"It has come to the knowledge of the Government that a new incursion of +pirates is preparing, similar to the one which took place at Cardenas +during the past year. It is proposed, without doubt, as it was then, to +sack defenseless towns and to disturb the order which reigns in this +beautiful part of the Spanish monarchy. But the loyalty of its +inhabitants, the valor and discipline of the troops, and the measures +taken by the government, are the surest guaranty that its destruction +will follow immediately the news of its disembarkation. You must, then, +above all else see to it that the news of this invasion produces no +alarm in the district which you command. + +"To exterminate the pirates, whatever be their number, it is not +necessary to have recourse to extraordinary means; the ordinary means on +which the government can count are enough and even more than enough. Any +act, on the other hand, which is unusual would produce anxiety and +uneasiness among the peaceful inhabitants; it might cause, perhaps, an +interruption of business, and would thus occasion a real and important +loss for public and private interests. It is necessary, therefore, to +avoid any measures which may remove from the towns of that district the +confidence and sense of security which the government inspires. The +actual situation, however, imposes on the authorities the double duty to +cause order to reign, and not to appear to obtain it by unaccustomed +means which are only expedient when circumstances are really dangerous. +And this double object will be achieved if that vigilance, activity and +prudence are in evidence on which I should be able to count from you. +But you must not forget that in these circumstances, one of the most +important duties of the authorities is to quiet minds, and hush +suspicions, to take care, finally, that in not a single instance there +should be disturbed that harmony which now more than ever ought to +reign among the inhabitants of the island. Working to this end, I have +the most confidence that this event will end fortunately, making certain +the peace which the island needs to continue on the path of prosperity +which it has so far followed." + +The foregoing gives a very adequate idea, cleverly cloaked under soft +and reassuring words, of the panic under which the authorities were +laboring. Only too well they knew the danger of "any unusual +disturbance," and of the exciting of the populace, for in it dwelt the +menace that that same excited mob might turn and rend their masters. + +The Captain-General soon had another circumstance brought to his +attention which was a tremendous shock to his sensibilities, seeming as +it were a bomb placed at the very bulwarks of his authority. Puerto +Principe had been more or less a danger point, and harsh measures had +been used to put down the incipient rebellion there. The people had an +inkling that it was the intention of the Captain-General to deprive them +of their Audiencia. This would eliminate the cost of its maintenance, +and also keep the legislative or advisory power more closely +concentrated in Havana, where the Captain-General could keep a watchful +eye on proceedings. A petition was received by Concha requesting that +they be not deprived of their Audiencia, but when he examined it closely +he was shocked to observe that it was dated a month previous, and that +it had evidently been sent directly to the Spanish government at Madrid, +without the official sanction and endorsement of the Captain-General, +and this circumstance was aggravated by the fact that the Petition bore +the signature of the Commanding General. Things were coming to a pretty +pass if the Captain-General, the highest official in the land, was to +be ignored by his subjects. Concha made a great to-do about the matter, +and obtained the dismissal from office of the offending Commanding +General, at the same time securing the appointment of a close friend, +Don Jose Lemery, on whom he could depend to do his bidding. Lemery began +his tenure of office by using the most harsh and unwarranted methods of +suppressing what he termed an impending uprising, and by ordering the +arrest of a large number of the members of old Creole families--persons +who were known to have revolutionary sympathies--on suspicion of being +about to incite a rebellion. Among these were many members of the city +council under the old Commanding General, and one of the number, Don +Joaquin de Aguero, was later to figure as the leader of the most +successful revolution which Cuba had yet known. + +Meanwhile Lopez, not disheartened, was once more planning an invasion of +Cuba, with belief unshaken, in spite of his discouraging experiences, in +the real desire of the Cubans for liberty and in their purpose to join +the revolutionary movement, if they could only be brought to emerge from +the deadening stupor of acquiescence into which fear of Spanish +vengeance seemed to have plunged them. This belief was strengthened by +the correspondence, which by an underground method he was carrying on +with Cuban patriots--men who he expected would be leaders in future +revolutions. They all assured him that if he could only start a real +movement for revolt, which promised actual deliverance, the Cubans would +no longer hesitate but would rush to his support. The fact that a price +had now been set on his head, should he set his foot on Cuban soil, and +be so unfortunate as to fall into the hands of the Spaniards, had no +deterring power on Lopez's purposes. He was above suspicion of a +personal axe to grind, and there was never any question of his courage +and perseverance. + +Lopez was emboldened by the support which the Cuban juntas promised him, +but he did not find all of the men who had accompanied him on the +Cardenas expedition as confident as he was himself. Some of the less +daring spirits prepared a statement to their leader, setting forth their +viewpoint, in substantially the following language: + +"The people of Cuba charge us with endeavoring to create a revolution +for the sake of pillage; they state that the Cubans do not desire +freedom; if they did they would strike for themselves. We will not waste +any more time, nor take another step until we see something more on the +part of the Creoles besides promises. We took the first step at +Cardenas, and gave them an opportunity to show their hands, which they +did not. They must take the next, and then we will go to their +assistance; otherwise we shall not budge an inch." + +Naturally enough, upon consideration, this impressed Lopez and his more +loyal followers as embodying some pretty sound common sense. It seemed +to be logical that the Cubans themselves should make the next move, and +back up their assertions by action. This ultimatum was conveyed to them, +by the same devious ways in which their promises had gotten by the +Spanish spies, and the effect was miraculous. They rose to the +situation, and announced that they would bring about a revolution, and +that the first steps would be taken sometime between July 1 and 4. That +Lopez and his friends were astonished at this show of spirit in those +who had so sadly demonstrated their lack of grit at Cardenas a short +time before, is not beyond the realm of belief, nor is it necessary to +relate how delighted they were that at last the Cubans were about to +move in their own behalf. The time was then so near, and Lopez's own +preparations had made so little practical progress, that there was not a +sufficient period between the date on which he received this information +and the day set for the revolutionary movement to enable him to send any +aid, except cheering words. + +On the morning of July 3, 1851, Don Joaquin de Aguero led a small band +of patriots to the public square at Puerto Principe, all of them +shouting in loud tones: "Liberty! Freedom for Cuba! Death to the +Spaniards!" Now Aguero had been promised that at least four hundred +patriots would join him on this occasion, at the place appointed, and +give battle to the Spanish troops, which they well knew would be called +upon to put down the demonstration. But the Cubans had not yet found +themselves; it was still difficult for them to shake off the spell which +the Spaniards seemed to have cast upon them, and to come out into the +open and fight for their freedom. The promised four hundred were +represented by a pitiful fifteen, and the little band naturally had +small chance against the overwhelming forces which were sent against +them immediately the alarm was given. They fought bravely, but there +could be only one result, against such odds. They were routed and their +leader was captured. Aguero succeeded, however, in escaping from the +Spaniards, and went into hiding until the next day, when the patriots +again made a demonstration for freedom at Najassa. Here, for the second +time, the flag of Cuba Libre was flung to the breeze, and with shouts +and cheers, the following Declaration of Independence for Cuba was read +to a great multitude which had assembled in the square: + +"To the inhabitants of the Island of Cuba, Manifesto and Proclamation of +their independence by the Liberating Society of Puerto Principe. + +"Human reason revolts against the idea that the social and political +condition of a people can be indefinitely prolonged, in which man, +stripped of all rights and guarantees, with no security of person or +property, no enjoyment in the present, no hope in the future, lives only +by the will, and under the conditions imposed by the pleasure of his +tyrants; where a vile calumny, a prisoner's denunciation, a despot's +suspicion, a word caught up by surprise in the sanctuary of home, or +from the violated privacy of a letter, furnishes ample grounds for +tearing a man from his hearth, and casting him forth to die of +destitution or despair in a foreign soil, if he escapes being subjected +to the insulting forms of a barbarous and arbitrary tribunal, where his +persecutors are themselves the judges who condemn him, and where, +instead of their proving his offence, he is required to prove his +innocence. + +"A situation so violent as this, Cuba has been for many years enduring; +and, far from any promise of remedy appearing, every day adds new proof +that the policy of the mother-country and the ferocity of her rulers +will grant neither truce nor rest till she is reduced to the condition +of an immense prison, where every Cuban will be watched by a guard, and +will have to pay that guard for watching him. In vain have this people +exhibited a mildness, a prudence, and even a submission and loyalty, +which have been proverbial. + +"When the iniquity of the government has not been able to find any +ostensible grounds for persecution, it has had recourse to cowardly arts +and snares to tempt its victims into some offence. Thus were various +individuals of Matanzas entrapped into an ambuscade of the soldiery, by +the pretext of selling them some arms, under circumstances which made +them believe those arms were necessary for self-defence, against +threatened attacks from the Peninsulars. Thus have sergeants and even +officers been seen to mingle among the country people, and pass +themselves off as enemies of the government, for the purpose of +betraying them into avowals of their sentiments to the ruin of many +persons so informed against as well as to the disgrace of military honor +on the part of those who have lent themselves to so villainous a +service. + +"If the sons of Cuba, moved by the dread of greater evils, have ever +determined to employ legitimate means of imposing some law, or some +restraint upon the unbridled excesses of their rulers, these latter have +always found the way to distort such acts into attempts at rebellion. + +"For having dared to give utterances to principles and opinions, which, +to other nations, constitute the foundation of their moral progress and +glory, the Cubans most distinguished for their virtues and talents have +found themselves wanderers and exiles. For the offence of having +exhibited their opposition to the unlawful and perilous slave trade, +from which the avarice of General O'Donnell promised itself so rich a +harvest of lucre, the latter satiated his resentment with the monstrous +vengeance of involving them in a charge of conspiracy with the free +colored people and the slaves of the estates; endeavoring, as the last +outrage that an immoral government could offer to law, to reason, or to +nature, to prove the object of that conspiracy, in which they implicated +whites of the most eminent virtue, knowledge, and patriotism, to have +been no other than the destruction of their own race. + +"All the laws of society and nature trampled under foot--all races and +conditions confounded together--the island of Cuba then presented to the +civilized world a spectacle worthy of the rejoicings of hell. The +wretched slaves saw their flesh torn from them under the lash, and +bespattered with blood the faces of their executioners, who did not +cease exacting from their tortures denunciation against accomplices. +Others were shot in platoons without form of trial, and without even +coming to understand the pretext under which they were massacred. The +free colored people, after having been first lacerated by the lash, were +then hurried to the scaffold and those only escaped with life who had +gold enough to appease the fury of their executioners. And nevertheless, +when the government or its followers has come to fear some rising of the +Cubans their first threat has been that of arming the colored people +against them for their extermination. We abstain for very shame from +repeating the senseless pretences to which they have had recourse to +terrify the timid wretches! How have they been able to image that the +victims of their fury, with whom the whites of Cuba had shared in common +the horrors of misery and persecution, will turn against their own +friends at the call of the very tyrant who has torn them in pieces? If +the free colored people, who know their interests as well as the whites, +take any part in the movement of Cuba, it certainly will not be to the +injury of the mother who shelters them in her bosom, nor of those other +sons of hers who have never made them feel the difference of their race +and condition, and who, far from plundering them, have taken pride in +being their defenders and in meriting the title of their benefactors. + +"The world would refuse to believe the history of the horrid crimes +which have been perpetrated in Cuba, and would reasonably consider that +if there have been monsters to commit, it is inconceivable that there +could so long have been men to endure them. But if there are few able to +penetrate to the truth of particular facts, through all the means +employed by the government to obscure and distort them, no one will +resist the evidence of public and official facts. + +"Publicly and with arms in his hands, did General Tacon despoil Cuba of +the constitution of Spain, proclaimed by all the powers of the monarchy, +and sent to be sworn to in Cuba, as the fundamental law of the whole +kingdom. + +"Publicly and by legislative act, was Cuba declared to be deprived of +all the rights enjoyed by all Spaniards, and conceded by nature and the +laws of nations the least advanced in civilization. + +"Publicly have the sons of Cuba been cut off from all admission to the +commands and lucrative employments of the State. + +"Publicly are unlimited powers of every description granted to the +Captains-General of Cuba who can refuse to those whom they condemn even +the right of a trial and the privilege of being sentenced by a tribunal. + +"Public and permanent in the island of Cuba, are those courts martial +which the laws permit only in extraordinary cases of war, for offences +against the State. + +"Publicly has the Spanish press hurled against Cuba the threat +converting the island into ruin and ashes by liberating the slaves and +unchaining against her the hordes of barbarian Africans. + +"Publicly are impediments and difficulties imposed upon every +individual, to restrain him from moving from place to place, and from +exercising any branch of industry--no one being safe from arrest and +fine, for some deficiency of authority or license, at every step he may +take. + +"Public are the taxes which have wasted away the substance of the island +and the project of other new ones, which threaten to abolish all the +products of its riches--nothing being left for the opinions and +interests of the country. + +"Outrages so great and so frequent, reasons so many and so strong, +suffice not merely to justify, but to sanctify, in the eyes of the whole +world, the cause of the independence of Cuba, and any effort of her +people, by their own exertions, or with friendly aid from abroad, to put +an end to the evils they suffer, and secure the rights with which God +and nature have invested man. + +"Who will in Cuba oppose this indefeasible instinct, this imperative +necessity of defending our property, and of seeking in the institutions +of a just, free and regulated government conditions on which alone +civilized society can exist? + +"The Peninsulars (natives of Spain) perhaps, who have come to Cuba to +marry our daughters, who have here their children, their affections and +their property, will they disregard the laws of nature to range +themselves on the side of a government which oppresses them as it +oppresses us, and which will neither thank them for the service nor be +able, with all their help, to prevent the triumph of the independence of +Cuba? + +"Are not they as intimately bound up with happiness and interest of Cuba +as those blood-natives of her soil, who will never be able to deny the +name of their fathers, and who, in rising up today against the despotism +of the government would wish to count upon their co-operation as the +best guaranty of their new social organization and the strongest proof +of the justice of their cause? + +"Have they not fought in the Peninsula itself, for their national +independence, for the support of the same principles for which we, the +sons of Cuba proclaim, and which, being the same for men in all +countries, cannot be admitted in one and rejected in another without +doing treason to nature and to the light of reason, from which they +spring? + +"No, no--it cannot be that they should carry submissiveness to the point +of preferring their own ruin, and the spilling of the blood of their +sons and brothers, to be triumph of the holiest cause ever embraced by +man--a cause which aims to promote their own happiness and to protect +their rights and properties. The Peninsulars who adorn and enrich our +soil, and to whom the title of labor gives as high a right as our own to +its preservation, know very well that the sons of Cuba regard them with +personal affection--have never failed to recognize the interest and +reciprocal wants which unite the two--nor have ever held them +responsible for the perversenesses of the few, and for the iniquities of +a government whose infernal policy alone has labored to separate them, +on the tyrant's familiar maxim--to divide and conquer. + +"We, who proceed in good faith and with the noble ambition of earning +the applause of the world for the justice of our acts--we surely cannot +aim at the destruction of our brothers, nor at the usurpation of their +properties; and far from meriting that vile calumny which the government +will endeavor to fasten upon us, we do not hesitate to swear in the +sight of God and of man that nothing would better accord with the wishes +of our hearts, or with the glory and happiness of our country, than the +co-operation of the Peninsulars, in the sacred work of liberation. +United with them, we could realize that idea of entire independence +which is a pleasing one to our minds; but if they present themselves in +our way as enemies, we shall not be able to answer for the security of +their persons and properties, nor when adventuring all for the main +object of the liberty of Cuba, shall we be able to renounce any means of +effecting it. + +"But if we have all these reasons to expect that the Peninsulars, who +are in nowise dependent on the government and who are so bound up with +the fate of Cuba, will at least remain neutral, it will not be supposed +that we can promise ourselves the same conduct on the part of the army, +the individuals composing which, without ties or affections, know no +other law nor consideration than the will of their commander. We pity +the lot of those unfortunate men, subject to a tyranny as hard as our +own, who, torn from their homes in the flower of their youth, have been +brought to Cuba to oppress us on condition of themselves renouncing the +dignity of men and all the enjoyments and hopes of life. If they shall +appreciate the difference between a free and happy citizen and a +dependent and hireling soldier, and choose to accept the benefits of +liberty and prosperity, which we tender them, we will admit them into +our ranks as brethren. But if they shall disregard the dictates of +reason and of their own interests and allow themselves to be controlled +by the insidious representations of their tyrants, so as to regard it as +their duty to oppose themselves to us on the field of battle as enemies, +we will then accept the combat, alike without hate and without fear and +always willing, whenever they may lay down their arms, to welcome them +to our embrace. + +"To employ the language of moderation and justice--to seek for means of +peace and conciliation--to invoke the sentiments of love and +brotherhood--befits a cultivated and Christian people, which finds +itself forced to appeal to the violent recourse of arms, not for the +purpose of attacking the social order and the loves of fellow beings, +but to recover the condition and the rights of man, usurped from them by +an unjust and tyrannical power. But let not the expression of our +progress and wishes encourage in our opponents the idea that we are +ignorant of our resources, or distrustful of our strength. All the means +united, at the disposal of the Peninsulars in Cuba against us, could +only make the struggle more protracted and disastrous; but the issue in +our favor could not be any the less sure and decisive. + +"In the ranks of independence we have to count all the free sons of +Cuba, whatever may be the color of their race--the brave nations of +South America, who inhabit our soil and who have already made trial of +the strength and conduct of our tyrants--the sturdy islanders of the +Canaries, who love Cuba as their country, and who have already had an +Hernandez and a Monies de Oca, to seal with the proof of martyrdom, the +heroic decision of their compatriots for our cause. + +"The ranks of the government would find themselves constantly thinned by +desertion, by the climate, by death, which from all quarters would +spring up among them in a thousand forms. Cut short of means to pay and +maintain their army, dependent on recruits from Spain to fill up their +vacancies without an inch of friendly ground on which to plant their +feet, or an individual on whom to rely with security, war in the field +would be for them one of extermination; while, if they shut themselves +within the defences of their fortresses, hunger and want would soon +compel them to abandon them, if they were not carried by force of arms. +The example of the whole continent of Spanish America, under +circumstances more favorable for them, when they had Cuba as their +arsenal, the benefit of her coffers, and native aid in those countries +themselves, ought to serve them as a lesson not to undertake an +exterminating and fratricidal struggle, which could not fail to be +attended with the same or worse results. + +"We, on the other hand, besides our own resources, have in the +neighboring States of the Union, and in all the republics of America, +the encampments of our troops, the depots of our supplies, and the +arsenals of our arms. All the sons of this vast New World, whose bosom +shelters the island of Cuba, and who have had, like us, to shake off by +force the yoke of tyranny, will enthusiastically applaud our resolve, +will fly by hundreds to place themselves beneath the flag of liberty in +our ranks, and there trained to experienced valor will aid us in +annihilating, once and for always, the last badge of ignominy that still +disgraces the free and independent soil of America. + +"If we have hitherto hoped, with patience and resignation, that justice +and their own interests would change the mind of our tyrants; if we have +trusted to external efforts to bring the mother country to a negotiation +which should avoid the disasters of war, we are resolved to prove by +deeds that inaction and endurance have not been the results of impotence +and cowardice. Let the government undeceive itself in regard to the +power of its bayonets and the efficiency of all the means it has +invented to oppress and watch us. In the face of its very +authorities--in the sight of the spies at our side--on the day when we +have resolved to demand back our rights, the cry of liberty and +independence will rise from the Cape of San Antonio to the Point of +Maysi. + +"We, then, as provisional representatives of the people of Cuba, and in +exercise of the rights which God and Nature have bestowed upon every +freeman, to secure his welfare and establish himself under the form of +government that suits him do solemnly declare, taking God to witness the +ends we propose, and invoking the favor of the people of America, who +have preceded us with their example, that the Island of Cuba is, and, by +the laws of nature ought to be, independent of Spain; and that +henceforth the inhabitants of Cuba are free from all obedience or +subjection to the Spanish government and the individuals composing it; +owing submission only to the authority and direction of those who, while +awaiting the action of the general suffrage of the people, are charged, +or may provisionally charge themselves with the command and government +of each locality, and of the military forces. + +"By virtue of this declaration, the free sons of Cuba, and the +inhabitants of the Island who adhere to her cause, are authorized to +take up arms, to unite into corps, to name officers and juntas of +government, for their organization and direction, for the purpose of +putting themselves in communication with the juntas constituted for the +proclamation of the independence of Cuba, and which have given the +initiative to this movement. Placed in the imposing attitude of making +themselves respected, our compatriots will prefer all the means of +persuasion to those of force; they will protect the property of +neutrals, whatever may be their origin; they will welcome the +Peninsulars into their ranks as brothers and will respect all property. + +"If, notwithstanding our purposes and fraternal intentions, the Spanish +government should find partizan obstruction bent upon sustaining it, and +we have to owe our liberty to the force of arms, sons of Cuba, let us +prove to the republics of America, which are contemplating us, that we +having been the last to follow their example does not make us unworthy +of them, nor incapable of receiving our liberty and achieving our +independence. + + JOAQUIN DE AGUERO AGNEW, + FRANCISCO AGNERO ESTRADA, + WALDO ARETEACA PINA. + +"July 4, 1851." + +Immediately upon the reading of this the wildest excitement ensued. The +Cubans began to believe that at last deliverance was near. They flung +their hats into the air, while tears streamed down their faces, and they +shouted "Cuba Libre! Down with the Spaniards!" until hoarseness +compelled them to stop. Then an ominous noise, low at first, but growing +nearer and nearer, broke in upon their rapturous demonstrations. Well +they knew that sound, for they had heard it only too often. The Spanish +soldiers were approaching, and turning, those on the outskirts of the +crowd beheld column after column of infantry advancing from one +direction, while a troop of cavalry was apparently about to charge the +crowd from the opposite side of the square. Aguero knew that a crisis +had been reached and that on the work done in the next few moments +depended victory or defeat. He called upon those closest in his +confidence to organize the crowd. Plans for this action had previously +been completed, and the assembled people were quickly grouped into +divisions each containing one hundred men. By this time the Spanish +troops were only about a hundred yards distant, and they at once opened +fire on the revolutionists. Aguero's company was armed, and they had +brought with them extra equipment, which had been distributed among the +people. The revolutionists were by no means poor marksmen; they had long +been practicing in private for this very hour. They proved that they +were more skilled than the picked troops of Spain, and for a time they +showed astonishing efficiency in thinning the ranks of the Spanish +infantry. But the cavalry now charged the crowd, and this was more +serious than an infantry attack because the revolutionists were not +prepared to return it in kind. They stood their ground bravely, firing +at the horses, thus seeking to dismount and confuse the enemy, and +strange as it may seem they were successful. The cavalry commander +ordered a retreat, which was accomplished in great disorder, and under a +withering fire from the revolutionists, while the infantry, amazed and +alarmed to find themselves no longer able to rely on the support of the +cavalry, broke and fled toward Puerto Principe, from which place they +had come. The little army at Najassa well knew that no help could be +expected from their comrades at Puerto Principe, and therefore it seemed +the part of discretion to allow the Spanish army to retreat unmolested, +and for the revolutionists to take refuge in the interior of the island, +where it would be more difficult to apprehend them, and where they hoped +to find sympathy and support. They made their way to Guanamaquilla, +where they decided to make a stand, and where, after effecting a better +organization, they entrenched themselves. + +On July 6 at this place they were attacked by six hundred Spaniards +under General Lemery, and the Spanish troops were again routed, again +retired in disorder, and once more the revolutionists celebrated a +victory. Not only did the Spanish troops beat a hasty retreat, but they +left behind them, on the field of battle, forty dead and dying. + +It can be imagined with what elation the patriots celebrated this second +victory. They could hardly believe in their good fortune. It was +incredible that they should have prevailed against the trained forces of +Spain. It was not for them, at such close contact with events, to +realize that while they were fighting for their homes, for freedom, for +their families, for their very lives,--for capture meant as sure death +as any bullet of the enemy could bring,--after all the Spanish troops +were only hirelings, fighting for pay and not for a principle, and that +it has been the history of the world, since its beginning, that when +the home is at stake sooner or later victory comes to its defenders. + +Now the little bands of one hundred separated, and the mistake was made +which proved fatal to the cause for which they had already sacrificed so +much, and which seemed about to triumph. They should have waited until +news of their triumph penetrated to other patriots, and until their +forces had been greatly swelled in volume, before any division was made. + +Meanwhile, immediately after their first victory, they had sent a +courier to bear word to Lopez, through their mysterious channels of +communication, of their success, urging him to communicate the good news +to the junta in New York, and to hasten to their aid with a new +expedition, and promising that meanwhile they would spread the +revolution to all parts of the island, so that when he came again he +would have no cause to complain of lack of support. + +The companies of one hundred each went in a separate direction, each +bent on conquest and propaganda among timid sympathizers. One party, +which was led by Aguero himself, made its way to Las Tunas, and arrived +there late in the evening. Aguero divided his little band into two parts +and approached the town from opposite directions, sounding the cry of +the revolution, "Cuba Libre!" and calling upon all good patriots to join +their forces. But Spanish spies, always active, had preceded them and +the garrison of five hundred soldiers was already alert. Then a +catastrophe happened. The two bands of patriots, in the midst of the +great confusion which their arrival occasioned, met in a dark, unpaved +street, and not recognizing one another, each believed the other to be +the Spaniards, and each opened fire upon the other. Too late the error +was rectified. Some of the patriots had been injured by their own +comrades, and the organization was in confusion; before order could be +educed from this chaos, the Spanish troops were upon them, and this time +it was the patriots who were put to rout. + +Another of the bands of one hundred had proceeded, meanwhile, to the +plains of Santa Isabel. Large numbers of patriots rallied to their +assistance, but the attacking Spanish force, nearly a thousand strong, +and consisting of both cavalry and infantry, cast far too great odds +against them. The patriots again suffered defeat, and their losses were +twenty killed and forty captured by the enemy, while the Spanish +casualties were one hundred and thirty, fifty of whom were killed +outright. + +A third band of one hundred, which had as its commander Don Serapin +Recio, made its way to Santa Cruz. They were more fortunate than had +been their comrades, for when they were attacked by four companies of +Spanish infantry, under Colonel Conti, they not only were victorious, +but they took Colonel Conti prisoner. This triumph, however, was short +lived, for Spanish reinforcements, consisting of four hundred +cavalrymen, were rushed to the scene of battle, and the tide turned +against the patriots. Recio was captured, fifty six revolutionists soon +lay dead or dying, and as the others sought to escape a large proportion +of them were taken captive. + +Still a fourth band, advancing on Punta de Grandao, met with disaster, +as did the fifth division which had gone toward La Siguanea in the hope +of taking that place. + +Only one little division of patriots, one hundred strong, remained +unconquered. Aguero, who had made his escape after the defeat at Las +Tunas, took command of this company. The city of Nuevitas was entered in +triumph, amid shouts of welcome from the people, who in large numbers +threw in their fortunes with the revolution. Don Carlos Comus led the +Spanish forces against the city, and a desperate battle which raged for +over three hours was fought. The ammunition of the patriots was +exhausted, and fighting against frightful odds, they were almost +exterminated; fewer than the original one hundred remained alive. They +fled, and were speedily captured by the pursuing Spaniards. + +Complete defeat had now overtaken the revolutionists, who so boldly on +July 3 had declared their independence of Spain, and thrown a defiant +gauntlet before the Spanish power. By the end of July not a single one +of the original army remained at large to tell the story; they had all +been killed, captured, or frightened into cowed and silent obedience to +Spanish rule. Of those who had fallen into the hands of the Spaniards, +every one was tried by military tribunal, and sentence passed upon them. +Two courts sat in judgment on the offenders, one at Puerto Principe and +the other at Trinidad, at which latter the Captain-General, Jose de la +Concha, presided. Under his dictation sentence of death was pronounced +upon Jose Isidore Armenteros, Fernando Hernandez and Rafael Arcis, all +recognized as prime movers in the revolution. Ignacio Belen Perez, +Nestor Cadalso, Juan O'Bourke, Abeja Iznaga Miranda and Jose Maria +Rodriguez were sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, which was to be +suffered abroad, and they were forever banished from Cuba, while the +same terms were imposed on Juan Hevia and Avelind Porada, whose +sentences, however, were shortened to eight years each, and Pedro Jose +Pomarcz, Foribio Garcia, Cruz Birba and Fernando Medinilla were also +banished, and condemned to two years' imprisonment. All sentences went +into effect on August 18. It is interesting to note in passing a fact +which seems quite in keeping with the Spanish character as demonstrated +by the administration of the island; the men who were condemned to death +were led out into a field by the name of Del Negro, near the city of +Trinidad, and _shot in the back_. + +The court which sat in judgment at Puerto Principe tried the leader of +the revolutionists, and brave Joaquin Aguero was condemned to die by the +garrote. The same sentence was imposed on Jose Thomas Betancourt, +Fernando de Zayas and Miguel Benavides; while Miguel Castellanos and +Adolfo Pierre Aguero were sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, which +sentences were all decreed to take effect on August 12. + +It was impossible, even with the strict censorship which the Spanish +Captain-General maintained over the island, to keep reports of the +stirring events which were taking place from leaking forth into the +outer world. Of course, Lopez and the junta at New York learned of them +through the channels known only to themselves, and the news, spreading +to all parts of the United States, caused tremendous excitement. Great +interest was manifested, particularly in the southern states, and in New +York City, where the members of the Cuban junta had begun to stir up a +considerable amount of interest in and sympathy for the Cubans. The New +York papers dispatched correspondents to obtain the true story of the +rebellion, but the reporters had difficulty in getting into the country, +and encountered still greater obstacles in dispatching what news they +could gather to their respective sheets. They were hampered in their +efforts by Spanish officials and Spanish spies were always at their +heels. + +While the main uprising had been in the vicinity of Puerto Principe, +incipient rebellions and sympathetic insurrections occurred in other +parts of the island, which were quickly quelled by overwhelming forces +of Spaniards, and the news of which was confined as much as possible to +the immediate vicinity of the uprisings. At Trinidad a mob assembled on +horseback, crying vengeance on the Spanish oppressors, but they were +soon driven from the city and obliged to take to cover on a densely +wooded hill, where their movements were so hampered by underbrush that +they were perforce compelled to abandon their mounts, and soon +surrendered to superior numbers. It was suspected that the inhabitants +of Havana, or rather the revolutionary sympathizers in that place, were +about to revolt, but the guard was redoubled, the crowd was overawed by +numbers of well armed troops, and the movement, if it ever had been +contemplated, never materialized. However, many of the wealthy +inhabitants, fearing that they might be seized on suspicion of +complicity with the revolutionists, hastily fled to their estates in the +country. + +The New York _Herald_, which for a long time had been sympathetically +inclined toward the revolutionary party in Cuba, on July 16, 1851, +printed the following report, which was based on facts gathered by its +correspondent: + +"I consider that, in a political point of view, this island was never in +a more critical state than it is at this present moment. The Creoles of +Cuba have at length thrown down the gauntlet of defiance to the +authority of Spain." + +This statement was followed by a long account of the engagements between +the revolutionists and the forces of Spain. On July 22 the same paper, +under the guise of reporting conditions, issued what was really a call +of "The United States to the rescue," which in part read as follows: + +"The revolution of Cuba has changed from chrysalis to full grown fly. +The first blood has been spilled. Cuba, some seem to think, has had her +Lexington.... The revolution having begun, it cannot go backward and it +is more than probable that the days of Spain's rule are at least to be +much embarrassed. The government counts 14,000 troops, and no more, in +all the island, and may, perhaps, be able to raise as many more from the +Spanish population; but their fleet is a good one, comprising some +twenty vessels, of which six are steamers. _Whether the struggle be a +long one or a short one, will depend on the 'aid and comfort' the Cubans +receive from the United States, in the shape of guns, pistols, powder, +ball and men that can teach them to organize and manoeuvre._" + + + + +CHAPTER VI + + +It will be recalled that the Cubans, in the first flush of victory, had +dispatched the good tidings to the Cuban Junta in New York City. These +reports were so sanguine of victory that even though later rumors of +defeat at the hands of the Spaniards did reach that body, they were +regarded as Spanish propaganda and suppressed. These adverse rumors were +vague, and unsupported by confirming data, and Spanish spies had been +for some time active in dispensing unreliable news favorable to their +country, so it is not strange that little credence was given to such +advices as came to the Junta from Spanish sources. Lopez himself was +overjoyed at the tidings from the patriots and began eagerly to organize +another expedition. The greatest enthusiasm prevailed among Cuban +sympathizers in the United States. In some places, particularly in the +south, public meetings were held, and proclamations of the liberty of +Cuba were read to the assembled crowds. Men crowded to enlist and +$50,000 was quickly raised to finance the expedition. The new recruits +to the ranks were of by far the best character yet enlisted. They seem +to have been, for the most part, actuated by the highest motives, and +aflame with zeal for the cause of Cuban liberty. Garibaldi, who was then +in the United States, is reported to have been approached to be the +leader of the new expedition, but because he had his own Italian matters +to attend to, he declined with regret. + +The United States Government, of course, gave no official sanction to +the project, but it was deterred by the preponderance of favorable +public opinion from putting more than nominal obstacles in its way; +avoiding on the one hand the storm of protest which was bound to be +raised by Cuban sympathizers at any marked interference with their +plans, and on the other the anger of Spain and thus an international +complication. Spanish spies were as heretofore dogging the steps of the +conspirators and reporting their findings to the Spanish minister at +Washington, so that the United States Government found itself in an +exceedingly difficult position. However, preparations went on apace. A +steamer, the _Pampero_, was purchased by the Junta, and well stocked +with provisions. Arms and ammunitions were also procured, but these +were, as was usual, to be delivered to the steamer on the high seas. + +At daybreak, on the morning of April 3, the _Pampero_ slipped from its +dock at the foot of Lafayette Street in New Orleans, and made its way +down the river. At the mouth of the harbor the difficulties of the +filibusters began. The vessel was overloaded, and Captain Lewis in the +interests of safety declined to proceed further until some of the party +had been sent ashore. A landing was made that night, and one hundred men +were detailed to be left behind. They protested vigorously against this +action. The plan was that the _Pampero_ was to be only one of many +vessels to be sent within the next month to the relief of the Cubans, +and that she was to return, immediately her company had been landed in +Cuba, for reinforcements which would be assembled and be in waiting to +sail. However, none of the company on the _Pampero_ desired to await +another sailing, and when she once more put out to sea it was discovered +that the number on board her had not been perceptibly lessened, since +many of those put on shore had, in the confusion, and under the cover of +darkness, stolen back on board and hidden themselves securely until she +was once more on her way. + +The expedition thus auspiciously started was made up of the following +men and officers: + + 6 Companies of Infantry, including officers--219 men + 3 " " Artillery, " " --114 men + 1 Company " Cuban patriots (domiciled + in the United States) -- 49 men + 1 " " Hungarian recruits -- 9 men + 1 " " German recruits -- 9 men + +The command of this little army was distributed as follows: + + General-in-Chief Narciso Lopez + Second-in-Command and Chief-of-Staff John Pragay + _Officers of Staff_ + Captain Emmerich Radwitch. + " Ludwig Schlessinger. + Lieutenant Joseph Lewohl. + " Jigys Rodendorf. + " Ludwig. + " Miller. + Adjutant Colengen. + " Blumenthal. + Surgeon Hega Lemmgue. + Commissary G. A. Cook. + _Staff of the Regiment of Infantry_ + Colonel R. L. Dorman. + Lieutenant Colonel W. Scott Harkness. + Adjutant George A. Graham. + Commissary Joseph Bell. + Adjutant of Regiment George Parr. + _Company A._ + Captain Robert Ellis. + Lieutenant E. McDonald. + + Sub-Lieutenant J. L. LaHascan. + " R. H. Breckinridge. + _Company B._ + Captain John Johnson. + First Lieutenant James Dunn. + Second " J. F. Williams. + Third " James O'Reilly. + _Company C._ + Captain J. C. Bridgham. + First Lieutenant Richard Vowden. + Second " J. A. Gray. + Third " J. N. Baker. + _Company D._ + Captain Philip Golday. + First Lieutenant David Rassan. + Second " James H. Landingham. + Third " James H. Vowden. + _Company E._ + Captain Henry Jackson. + First Lieutenant William Hobbs. + Second " J. A. Simpson. + Third " James Crangh. + _Company F._ + Captain William Stewart. + First Lieutenant James L. Down. + Second " John L. Bass. + Third " Thomas Hudwall. + _Regiment of Artillery--Officers of Staff._ + Chief--William S. Crittenden. + Adjutant R. L. Stanford. + Second Master of Commissariat Felix Hustin. + Surgeon Ludovic Vinks. + _Company A._ + Captain W. A. Kelly. + + First Lieutenant N. O. James. + Second " James A. Nowens. + Third " J. O. Bryce. + _Company B._ + Captain James Saunders. + First Lieutenant Philip VanVechten. + Second " Beverly A. Hunter. + Third " William H. Craft. + _Company C._ + Captain Victor Kerr. + First Lieutenant James Brandt. + Second " William T. Vienne. + _Regiment of Cuban Patriots._ + _Company A._ + Captain Ilde Foussee Overto. + First Lieutenant De Jiga Hernandez. + Second " Miguel Lopez. + Third " Jose A. Plands. + Fourth " Henry Lopez. + _Regiment of Hungarians._ + Major George Botilla. + Captain Ladislaus Polank. + Lieutenant Semerby. + " Johan Petroce. + " Adambert Kerskes. + " Conrad Richner. + _German Regiment._ + Captain Pietra Muller. + " Hugo Schlyct. + Lieutenant Paul Michael. + " Biro Cambeas. + " Giovana Placasee. + +This seems perhaps an elaborate organization for so small a force, but +it must be borne in mind that Lopez and his followers firmly believed +that this time there was to be no repetition of the former lack of +enthusiasm on the part of the Cubans, but that they had only to land to +be greeted with rejoicing, and to have flock to their assistance a great +number of Cuban patriots. This impression was increased by forged +letters--which Lopez, however, accepted as genuine--which were waiting +for them at Key West and which are now believed to have been written by +a follower of Lopez in Havana, under duress and intimidating threats of +Captain-General Concha, for the latter having learned of the expedition +resorted to treachery to thwart the plans of the filibusters. These +letters intimated that Pinar del Rio and many cities in that vicinity +were in open revolt against Spanish rule, and prayed that Lopez come +quickly to the aid of the rebels, who were eager to join him. + +Colonel Crittenden, in command of the artillery regiment, was a man of +the highest connections in the United States. He was a seasoned soldier, +being a veteran of the Mexican war, and having received his training at +West Point. In Lopez's band were also several officers from the United +States Custom House at New Orleans, and many men from the best families +of the South. + +On April 7 the smoke of a steamer was seen in the distance, and it soon +seemed to indicate that the _Pampero_ was being pursued. Her course was +changed, and she either succeeded in outdistancing her pursuer, or the +latter decided that a mistake had been made in the identity of the +vessel, and abandoned the chase. The expedition neared Key West, and +they expected to find there United States vessels of war, and a strong +garrison. Therefore an attempt was made to disguise the character of the +_Pampero_ and her purpose, and the men were all ordered below. Lopez was +delighted to find that his anticipations were wrong, for there were no +men of war in the harbor and the barracks were empty. As the _Pampero_ +docked, and the men came on deck, they were greeted by a shouting mob of +enthusiastic people. They were welcomed as heroes, and the inhabitants +came on board bearing food of the most tempting variety and cases of +champagne. A feast followed, at which the health of the filibusters and +the success of the expedition was drunk with shouts of approval. + +Now the expectation had been to go up the St. John's River, where a +quantity of artillery for Colonel Crittenden's regiment had been hidden, +but the false reports in the forged letters made Lopez anxious to be on +his way to Cuba, and it was argued that the artillery would be +ineffective in the first engagements, for the roads were very bad, and +Lopez hoped to take to the mountains and conduct a sort of guerrilla +warfare. The St. John's River was some distance away, and there was +always fear of interference from the United States Government; and +besides, since this was merely a vanguard for a much greater invasion of +Cuba, and was intended to pave the way for the coming forces, why not +proceed to the rescue of the Cuban insurgents and let those who would +follow bring the artillery? Consequently, after consultation with his +officers, Lopez decided to sail for Cuba by the shortest route. + +On nine o'clock of the morning of August 11, the filibusters found +themselves about ten miles from the harbor of Havana. Off Bahia Honda +they took on a pilot. Meanwhile, two vessels were sighted, and were +believed to be Spanish ships lying in wait for the expedition. A contest +of wits ensued, in which Lopez was victorious, and the _Pampero_ +successfully evaded her pursuers. At eight o'clock that night they +neared Morillo, and Lopez decided there to make his landing. At eleven +o'clock this was accomplished, and while the provisions, arms and +ammunition were being brought ashore, the men were given permission to +lie down on their arms and rest for two hours. It can be imagined that +they were in the highest state of excitement and in no condition to +sleep, even if the attacks of mosquitoes had not made this impossible. + +Now the information which Captain-General Concha had received concerning +the expedition had led him to believe that the landing would be made at +Mantua, and he was delighted when information reached him, as it +speedily did, that the filibusters had gone ashore at Morillo. He +quickly dispatched Colonel Morales by rail to Guanajay, where he +collected a Spanish force of about four hundred men, who were instructed +to attack from the front; while General Ena from Bahia Honda and Colonel +Elezalde from Pinar del Rio were to join forces to cut off retreat, if +the filibusters attempted to escape by sea, and thus Concha hoped to +surround and destroy the army of invasion. + +Meanwhile, the _Pampero_ had been cleared, and under orders from Lopez +set out on a return trip to Key West to bring reinforcements, and Lopez +decided to march his forces to Las Pozas, ten miles away. Contrary to +their expectations, the filibusters had found the town of Morillo +practically deserted, and there were no enthusiastic patriots to welcome +their would-be deliverers. Now difficulty arose as to transportation of +the provisions, and the main portions of the military supplies. There +was no practical means of conveying them to Las Pozas, and in +consequence Lopez made a mistake which afterward proved his undoing. He +concluded to divide his forces, leaving Crittenden, with a hundred and +twenty men, to guard the supplies, and himself, with the remainder of +his army, to push on to Las Pozas. + +He reached this objective without mishap, but again found conditions +very different from what he had been led to expect. This town, too, was +almost deserted, and there was the same disheartening lack of support, +and failure of the Cubans to join his expedition. Lopez determined that +on this occasion there should be no occasion to bring against his army +the accusations which the Spaniards had made at Matanzas. He therefore +ordered his men to accept nothing in the way of food for which they did +not pay, and he stationed guards at places where liquor was sold to +prevent any drunkenness on the part of his men. In consequence the best +of order prevailed. + +An attack from the Spaniards was momentarily expected, and Lopez +maintained a careful watch for the approach of the enemy. This was +delayed until the next morning, when, in spite of his precautions, he +was taken virtually by surprise. A portion of his forces were eating +their breakfast, while others were bathing in a nearby stream, when word +came that the Spanish had overpowered the outposts, were then within two +hundred yards of the village, and that the attacking force was estimated +to be twelve hundred strong. Lopez hastily issued the call to arms, and +his men were arrayed to meet the on-coming Spaniards. A hot battle +ensued, in which, in spite of the fact that they were so largely +outnumbered, the filibusters were victorious and forced the Spaniards to +retire. However, Lopez suffered a very great blow in the death of +Colonel Dorman, who was the best disciplinarian and most efficient +organizer and drill-master in the army, while Colonel Pragay, Lopez's +chief adviser--who, however, had been responsible for persuading Lopez +to make the mistake of leaving Crittenden behind--was also killed, as +was Captain Overto. The other casualties amounted to fifty killed and +wounded. Even the fact that the Spanish losses were far heavier did not +compensate for the loss to Lopez of his three brave commanders. + +Lopez's army had been increased by only a few stray Cubans, whom they +had encountered on their march to Las Pozas, and who had joined fortunes +with them. He now had fifty-three less men that at first, and besides he +was separated from his stores. Unless they were promptly brought +forward, or unless he returned to Morillo and Crittenden, he would be in +a serious situation, since help from the natives was not materializing. +While he was contemplating this situation, a messenger arrived from +Crittenden, asking permission to join Lopez, and the messenger was +promptly ordered to return with orders to Crittenden to march his forces +to Pinar del Rio to join Lopez there, and Lopez headed his men toward +the mountains, with the intention of pushing on to Pinar del Rio. + +Promptly on receipt of the desired permission from Lopez, Crittenden, +with his one hundred and twenty men, set out to join him. They had +proceeded only three miles when the little band was attacked by a body +of five hundred Spaniards. Crittenden's men quickly took to cover, and +fought so desperately that in spite of the fact that they were so +greatly outnumbered, they killed a large number of the Spanish forces, +and put the others to rout. But Crittenden, it would seem, had not +learned the proper lesson from the earlier division of Lopez's forces, +and his own plight in consequence, for he now decided to make the +mistake a second time. The little band had made slow progress, because +of the necessity for transporting the supplies in carts, and Crittenden +made up his mind to leave Captain Kelly for the time with forty men to +defend the supplies, and with the remaining eighty himself to lead an +attack against the Spaniards who were now rallying. But the Spanish +soldiers were better trained than were Crittenden's men, and the Spanish +leader was cleverer in manoeuvres and had a greater knowledge of the +country. He had no difficulty in effecting a separation between the two +bodies of Crittenden's men, and he forced those under Crittenden to flee +for their lives. They took refuge in a wooded ravine, where they +remained for two days and nights without food and without water, in +constant terror of a Spanish attack. Realizing that if they stayed where +they were they faced no better fate than slow starvation, they finally, +under cover of the night, emerged from their hiding-place and made their +way to the coast, where they took possession of four small boats and set +out to sea, in the hope of reaching Key West, or of being picked up by +some other expedition, since they had no doubt that several were already +on their way from the United States. Two days later, starving, and +almost mad for want of fresh water, driven by the tides back to the +shore and aground on the rocks, they were captured and taken to Havana. + +The Spanish General Bustillos, gives the following account of their +apprehension: + +"Your Excellency: I started yesterday from Bahia Honda, in the steamer +_Habanera_, with a view to reconnoiter the coast of Playitas and +Morillo, in order to remove all the means by which the pirates could +possibly escape; or in case of more expeditions to these points, to +remove the means of disembarkation. At seven o'clock in the morning, I +communicated with the inhabitants of Morillo, and was informed by the +inhabitants that, at 10 o'clock on the preceding night, one part of +them embarked in four boats. Having calculated the hour of their sailing +and distance probably made in 10 hours and supposing they had taken the +direction of New Orleans--I proceeded in that direction 18 miles, with +full steam, but after having accomplished that distance, I could not +discover any of those I pursued. Believing the road they had followed +was within the rocks, I directed my steamer to that point, and made the +greatest exertions to encounter the fugitive pirates. At 10 o'clock I +detected the 4 boats navigating along the coast and I could only seize +one. Two others were upon the rocks of the island, the fourth upon the +rocks of Cargo Levisa. When I seized the men of the first boat, I armed +the boats of the ship in order to pursue the second and third, which +were on the rocks, but the officers of the army who were in the boats, +as well as the troops and sailors, the commander of the boat, Don +Ignacio de Arrellano and the captain of the steamer _Cardenas_, Don +Francisco Estolt threw themselves in the water to pursue the pirates of +whom two only escaped. Having left their arms we did not pursue them in +order to occupy ourselves with the boat in Cargo Levisa, for it was one +of the largest and contained more men. These, twenty-four in number, +were hidden within a small neck, having the boat drawn up among the +rocks; and here the pirates were seized. The number of prisoners was +fifty well armed men, headed by a chief and five officers." + +When the captives reached Havana, they were brought up on deck, stripped +except for their undershirts and trousers, and before the people who had +assembled at the dock they were made to undergo the greatest +indignities. Not only were they grossly insulted by word of mouth; they +were spit upon, and railed at, kicked and assaulted; nothing seemed too +harsh or vile for their captors to do in venting their spleen. + +Meanwhile, when the Captain-General was apprised of their arrival, he +sent spies to them to take down their statements and farewell messages, +promising to transmit these to their families, but in reality his agents +were instructed to use every effort to influence each man to inform on +the others. In this, however, they were entirely unsuccessful. Concha +announced his intention of dealing summarily with the offenders, as a +warning to others who might contemplate an invasion of Cuba. Therefore, +without even the pretense of a trial, the following decree was issued +against them: + +"It having been decreed by the general order of April 20 last, and +subsequently reproduced, what was to be the fate of the pirates who +should dare to profane the soil of this island, and in view of the +declarations of the fifty individuals who have been taken by his +Excellency the Commander-General of this naval station, and placed at my +disposal, which declarations establish the identity of their persons, as +pertaining to the horde commanded by the traitor Lopez, I have resolved +in accordance with the provisions of the Royal Ordinances, General Laws +of the Kingdom, and particularly in the Royal Order of the 12th of June +of the past year, issued for this particular case, that the said +individuals, whose names and designations are set forth in the following +statement, suffer this day the pain of death, by being shot, the +execution being committed to the Senor Teniente de Rey, Brigadier of the +Plaza. + + "JOSE DE LA CONCHA." + +Attached to this document was the following list of names. Since it is +known that fifty-two men were shot, the list is accordingly incomplete: + +"Colonel W. S. Crittenden; Captains F. S. Sewer, Victor Kerr, and T. B. +Veacey; Lieutenants James Brandt, J. O. Bryce, Thomas C. James, and M. +H. Homes; Doctors John Fisher and R. A. Tourniquet; Sergeants J. +Whiterous and A. M. Cotchett; Adjutant B. C. Stanford; Privates Samuel +Mills, Edward Bulman, George A. Arnold, B. J. Wregy, William Niseman, +Anselmo Torres, Hernandez, Robert Cantley, John G. Sanka, James Stanton, +Thomas Harnett, Alexander McIllger, Patrick Dillon, Thomas Hearsey, +Samuel Reed, H. T. Vinne, M. Philips, James L. Manville, G. M. Green, J. +Salmon, Napoleon Collins, N. H. Fisher, William Chilling, G. A. Cook, S. +O. Jones, M. H. Ball, James Buxet, Robert Caldwell, C. C. William Smith, +A. Ross, P. Brouke, John Christides, William B. Little, John Stibbs, +James Ellis, William Hogan, Charles A. Robinson." + +On August 16, early in the morning, the prisoners were taken from the +vessel and brought to the Castle of Atares for execution. An appeal was +made to the American Consul at Havana, F. A. Owens, to use his influence +with the Captain-General to obtain some clemency for the condemned men, +but he not only declined on the ground that they had been declared +outlaws by the American Government, but he seemed to be utterly lacking +in kindness of heart or compassion, for he refused to see the men, or to +make any attempt to transmit their last messages to their friends and +families. + +An eye witness thus describes the execution: + + + "Havana, August 16, 4-1/2 P. M. + + "I have this day been witness to one of the most brutal acts of + wanton inhumanity ever perpetrated in the annals of history. Not + content was this government in revenging themselves in the death of + those unfortunate and perhaps misguided men, and which, it may even + be said, was brought upon themselves; but these Spanish + authorities deserve to be most severely chastised for their + exceedingly reprehensible conduct in permitting the desecration, as + they have done, of the senseless clay of our brave countrymen. This + morning forty Americans, four Irish, one Scotch, one Italian, one + Philippine Islander, two Habaneros and two Germans or Hungarians, + were shot at 11 o'clock; after which the troops were ordered to + retire and some hundreds of the violent rabble, hired for the + purpose commenced mutilating the dead bodies. Oh! the very + remembrance of the sight is frightful. + + "I never saw men--and could scarcely have supposed it + possible--conduct themselves at such an awful moment with the + fortitude these men displayed under such trying circumstances. They + were shot, six at a time, i.e., twelve men were brought to the + place of execution, six made to kneel down and receive the fire of + the soldiers, after which the remaining six were made to walk + around their dead comrades and kneel opposite to them, when they + were also shot. They died bravely, those gallant and unfortunate + young gentlemen. When the moment of execution came, many, Colonel + Crittenden and Captain Victor Kerr among them, refused to kneel + with their backs to the executioners. 'No,' said the chivalrous + Crittenden, 'an American kneels only to his God, and always faces + his enemy!' They stood up, faced their executioners, were shot down + and their brains then knocked out by clubbed muskets. After being + stripped and their bodies mutilated, they were shoved, six or seven + together, bound as they were, into hearses, which were used last + year for cholera cases. No coffins were allowed them. + + "A finer looking set of young men I never saw; they made not a + single complaint, not a murmur, against their sentence, and + decency should have been shown their dead bodies in admiration for + the heroism they displayed when brought out for execution. Not a + muscle was seen to move, and they proved to the miserable rabble + congregated to witness the horrible spectacle that it being the + fortunes of war that they fell into the power of this government, + they were not afraid to die. It would have been a great consolation + to these poor fellows, as they repeatedly asked, to see their + consul, and through him to have sent their last adieus, and such + little remembrances as they had, to their beloved relations in the + States. But Mr. Owens, the American Consul, did not even make + application to the Captain-General to see these unfortunate + countrymen in their distress, and their sacred wishes in their last + moments have been unattended to. Lastly, at the very hour of + triumph, when the people of the Spanish steamer _Habanero_ knew + that the execution of the American prisoners, whom they had taken + to Havana, had taken place, two shots were fired across or at the + steamer _Falcon_ off Bahia Honda; and notwithstanding that this + vessel was well known to them, having as she had the American flag + hoisted, etc., she was detained and overhauled by these Spanish + officers." + +Another reliable source, the report of an American naval officer, +furnished the information, that after the prisoners had been shot, their +bodies were mutilated; they were dragged by the heels, and outraged in a +manner which would make the most unenlightened savage shudder; their +ears and fingers were cut off, and portions of these, together with +pieces of skull, were distributed to the Spanish officers as souvenirs, +while some of these grim relics were afterward nailed up in public +places as a warning against attempts to revolt against the Spanish +Government. Ten of the bodies were placed in coffins, and the rest were +merely thrown into a pit. + +When Captain Kelly and his forty followers had been separated from +Crittenden, they managed in some manner--the details of which have not +come down to us--to evade the Spaniards and to escape with such supplies +as they could carry. They took to the cover of the woods, and being +unfamiliar with the country wandered around, until they fell in with a +loyal negro who undertook to act as guide for them. He led them to a +dense wood, in sight of Las Pozas, and they sent him on ahead to report +conditions. He returned, stating that Lopez was in possession of the +town, and so they joined him, just as he was about to lead his men into +the mountains. Captain Kelly's men had been so engrossed with their own +predicament that they had remained in ignorance of the fate of +Crittenden's force, and they were therefore unable to give Lopez any +definite information concerning them, and he treasured the hope that +they too had escaped the Spaniards, and would be able to join him at +Pinar del Rio, in accordance with the original plan. + +Lopez's forces were now reduced to about three hundred men, and they +found themselves obliged to leave their wounded behind them. They pushed +forward all night, and until about nine in the morning, covering a +distance of twelve miles. They shot a cow, and roasting the meat on the +points of their bayonets, ate it without bread or salt. They then +continued their march until eight in the evening, when, utterly worn +out, they lay down and slept on their arms until midnight. + +The moon was now shining brightly, and Lopez awakened his tired army, +and again they were on their way. Shortly after dawn, they reached a +plantation, where they were received with kindness by the owner, who +was in sympathy with the cause of Cuban freedom. Two cows were killed, +and some corn roasted, and once more the little band was refreshed. But +now Lopez discovered that in the absence of a guide or a compass they +had been traveling almost in a circle, and instead of going southwest +toward San Cristobal and Pinar del Rio, they were within only three +miles of their original landing place, where there was a large Spanish +force. He immediately assembled his footsore companions, who were now +almost barefoot because the rough and stony passes had worn the shoes +from their feet, and led them on a forced march. Many had already +dropped out by fatigue, and the others were almost exhausted, but Lopez +realized that safety could only be assured by putting many miles between +his men and the Spanish garrison, and reaching, before they were +overtaken, some place of strong vantage. + +The Spaniards seem, however, to have been thoroughly puzzled by Lopez's +circuitous course, and they sent word to the Captain-General that since +they despaired of capturing him, they felt the best measure to take was +an effort to induce his men to desert him. Concha, therefore, issued the +following proclamation, which was posted in conspicuous places all over +the vicinity where Lopez was supposed to be hiding: + +"Proclamation! + +"The Most Excellent Senor, the Captain-General, has seen proper to +direct, under this date, to the chiefs of columns in the field and to +the Lieutenant-Governors of Bahia Honda, Mariel, San Cristobal and Pinar +del Rio, the following circular: + +"The greater part of the pirates who dared to invade the island have +been destroyed by the valiant troops of that army to whom the lot fell +of being destined to pursue them, as well as by the not less decided and +active cooperation of all the loyal inhabitants of the district they had +sought to make their den. Considering, at once, the unanimous confession +of all those who have been taken and executed, that they had been +brought here into a foreign territory through a complete deception, +having been made to believe that the country called them, that the army +would make common cause with them, and that triumph would be as easy as +it was certain, such being the promise of the traitor who led them; and +that the directors of such a foolish and disorderly enterprise could not +in any other way have got together the multitude connected herewith, and +also that public vengeance has already been satisfied by the severe +chastisement inflicted on those individuals hitherto captured, as well +as those that have perished by the balls or the bayonets of our gallant +troops; and that finally, the time has arrived to make use of clemency, +according to the dictates of humanity, I have determined: + +"I. That quarter shall be given to every individual belonging to the +band under command of the traitor Lopez who shall surrender or be taken +by the troops of His Majesty within four days from the publication of +this resolution in the respective districts; it being well understood +that after the expiration of that period the general army order of April +20 last will remain in full force as it has up to now. + +"II. The individual or individuals belonging to said band who shall +surrender said leader, Lopez, shall be free from all punishment, and if +he be a foreigner, shall be restored to his own country. + +"This I communicate to you for your exact observance, ordering that it +be immediately published in all the district under your command. God +guard your Excellency many years! + + "JOSE DE LA CONCHA. + +"Havana, Aug. 24, 1851." + +Meanwhile stragglers who fell by the wayside, and afterward fell into +the hands of the Spaniards, were brutally treated, and murdered in the +most revolting manner, their bowels being ripped open by bayonets after +they had been practically flogged to death. + +A native guide who offered his services to Lopez, now led him to a +coffee plantation near Las Frias. He represented to Lopez that the owner +was a sympathizer, and that the wanderers would be given rest and +shelter, and a place to hide until the arrival of reinforcements from +the United States. This guide is believed to have been a Spanish spy, +for while Lopez and his men were received with the greatest courtesy, +and entertained for two days by the planter, their host secretly +dispatched a courier to the Spanish leaders, and presently a Spanish +army arrived to attack the filibusters. Lopez dispersed his men, who hid +themselves behind the trunks of mango trees, and picked off the Spanish +soldiers, with the result that the Spaniards were put to flight, and +when word presently came that General Eno was advancing to the rescue of +his compatriots with a force of two thousand men Lopez retreated to a +high hill, with the remainder of his army, now reduced to two hundred +and twenty men, many of these disabled by wounds. Lopez was in a +position of vantage, and small parties of his men fired on the advancing +Spaniards, wounding their commander, and several of their number. + +[Illustration: FALLS OF THE HANEBANILLA + +Each of the Provinces of Cuba has its own characteristic charms of +scenery; among which it would be rash to attempt to choose. Santa Clara +boasts the great falls of the Hanebanilla River, a scene of majestic +splendor. This is one of numerous cataracts on the rivers of Cuba, +enriching the scenic attractions of the island, and at the same time +suggesting immense value as sources of industrial power.] + +Lopez now endeavored to reach a plain near San Cristobal, but his men +were worn out, their clothes torn, their flesh bruised and +bleeding, and their feet lacerated so that they could hardly walk. +Dissatisfaction and dismay was rife among them, and presently they sent +a committee to Lopez, asking him to advise them just what he intended to +do, and what he expected to accomplish, and stating that unless he had +some good plan, they were unwilling to proceed further. Lopez listened +to them attentively, and asked for suggestions. They were all for hiding +in the mountains, until relief should be sent to them from the country +which they all now sorely regretted leaving. While putting this project +into execution, they were again attacked by the Spaniards, three or four +of them were killed, and a number taken prisoners, and immediately +executed. One hundred and forty men escaped with Lopez through the +woods. Many of them had lost their arms; only sixty-nine guns remained, +while on most of these the bayonets were broken. They had no food and +they killed Lopez's horse and ate it. Open dissension broke out among +them. Lopez was, as will be recalled, under sentence of death, having +been condemned, after the betrayal of the first plans to free Cuba, to +be killed should he ever again be apprehended on the island. A price had +been set on his head, and now, with characteristic self-abnegation, he +besought his men to deliver him up to the enemy, securing clemency for +themselves in return for such action. To do them justice, they were +heartily ashamed, and repudiated the suggestion. Finally after a long +discussion it was decided to stake all on one attempt against the +Spaniards, and consequently they made their way again to the plain near +San Cristobal and there attacked a force of five hundred Spanish troops. +They were charged by the Spanish cavalry, and all but six were taken +prisoners. Lopez and his remaining six followers took refuge upon a +plantation. They were received with cordiality and assured of the +sympathy of their owner, Senor Castenada, who offered to hide them until +their friends, whom they believed to be even then on the ocean, or +perhaps making a landing on the island, should rescue them. He gave them +good food and drugged wine, and took them to the upper part of the +house, to his bedrooms, that they might sleep. They were utterly +exhausted, and soon fell into deep slumber, whereupon Castenada notified +the Spanish authorities, who at once sent troops to take the little +company prisoners. So profound was their sleep that they were securely +bound before they realized what had happened. They were at once taken to +Havana, where the Captain-General was so delighted at the turn events +had taken that he issued a proclamation complimenting his brave officers +on their capture "of this dangerous traitor." + +Concha did not accord Lopez a trial, but at once issued a proclamation +ordering his execution. It was dated October 31, 1851, and ran as +follows: + +"By a superior decree of the Most Excellent Senor, the Governor and +Captain-General, Don Narciso Lopez, who commanded the band of pirates +that disembarked at the place called Playitas, to the leeward of the +capital on the morning of the 12th instant, has been condemned to the +infamous punishment of the garrote. The execution is to take place at +seven o'clock in the morning of September 1st. The troops of all arms +composing the garrison of the town, and the forces from elsewhere, will +assemble at sufficient time beforehand, at the camp of the Punta, where +the scaffold is placed, around which they will form a square. The +regiment of Galicia will take its station in front with a banner +displayed. The other corps will be present with all their disposable +force. The artillery will take the right, with the engineers next them; +the other forces without distinction will occupy the places assigned to +them. The cavalry will be stationed according to the direction of the +Brigadier, the Royal Lieutenant commanding the town, who will command +the troops, having under his orders the staff officers of the army, and +an equal number of town adjustants. A true copy. + + "ZURITA." + +The Spanish archives contain the following names of members of the Lopez +expedition who were taken prisoners about this time and who witnessed +the execution of their leader. Most of these men after a long +imprisonment were finally pardoned, through the intervention of powerful +friends, and returned to their homes: + +Elias Otis, Michael O'Keenan, John Danton, First Lieutenant P. S. +VanVechten, M. L. Hefren, Captain Robert Ellis, W. Wilson, W. Miller, P. +Lacoste, M. Lieger, P. Coleman, Henry Smith, Thomas Hilton, First +Lieutenant E. H. McDonald, D. D. Waif, H. D. Thomason, Charles A. +Conunea, Emanuel R. Wier, First Lieutenant J. G. Bush, Conrad Taylor, +Thomas Denton, C. A. McMurray, J. Patan, Conrad Arghalir, Jose Chiceri, +G. Richardson, John B. Brown, Thomas S. Lee, Captain James Aquelli, +Franklin Boyd, Thomas Little, Commissary J. A. Simpson, George Wilson, +First Lieutenant D. D. Rousseau, First Lieutenant Robert McGrier, J. D. +Hughes, William H. Vaugale, Francis B. Holmes, Malbone H. Scott, First +Lieutenant W. H. Craft, J. D. Prenit, Julio Chasagne, John Cline, George +Forster, C. Knoll, Nicholas Port, Patrick McGrath, Charles S. Daily, +James Fiddes, S. H. Prenell, W. L. Wilkinson, C. Cook, James Chapman, +James Brady, Henry B. Hart, Jacob Fonts, Preston Esces, William +Cameron, Thomas Mourou, Isaac Fresborn, Cornelius Derby, Peter Falbos, +Benjamin Harrer; + +_From England_: William Caussans, John Nowes; + +_From Ireland_: Henry B. Metcalfe, George Metcalfe, James Porter, Thomas +McDellans; + +_From Cuba_: Bernardo Allen, Francisco Curbiay Garcia, Ramon J. Arnau, +Jose Dovren, Manuel Martinez, Antonio Hernandez, Martin Milesimo; + +_From Germany_: Johannes Sucit, Edward Wisse, Wilhelm Losner, Robert +Seelust, Ciriac Senelpi; + +_From Matanzas_: Ramon Ignacio Amaso; + +_From Hungary_: George Baptista; + +_From New Granada_: Andres Gonzales; + +_From Alquizar_: Francisco A. Leve; + +_From Bayamo_: Manuel Diaz; + +_From Navarre_: Antonio Romero; + +_From Spain_: Francisco J. Zamaro; + +_Nationality not Stated_: Antonio L. Alfonso, Manuel Aragon, Jose +Bojanoti y Rubina, Joaquin Casanova, Miguel Guerra, William MacKinney, +Dandrig Seay, Leonardo Sugliorti, J. D. Baker and Luis Bander. + +In accordance with the Captain-General's proclamation, the execution of +Lopez took place on the morning of September 1. The scaffold was erected +on a platform ten feet high, in a flat space opposite Morro. The garrote +consists of a post, and a stool on which sits the prisoner, while a +metal collar is passed around his neck and fastens him securely to the +post. A screw having long arms is attached to the post, by means of +which, at one turn, metal points are thrust into the victim's neck, +causing dislocation and death. + +There were present on this occasion, three thousand infantry, two +hundred cavalry and twenty thousand witnesses. Lopez presented a calm +and dignified appearance. With his hands tightly bound he walked to the +front of the platform and said in a strong, clear voice: + +"I pray the persons who have compromised me to pardon me, as I pardon +them. My death will not change the destinies of Cuba." + +Then as the executioner bade him be quick, he exclaimed: + +"Adieu, my comrades! Adieu, my beloved Cuba, adieu!" + +Thus died a man, as brave in his last hours as he had been during all +the strange fortunes and vicissitudes of his adventurous life, who had +sacrificed everything for a principle which seemed to him dearer than +all the material benefits which the world might have conferred upon him. +The Spanish leaders destroyed his body, but they could never destroy +that far more precious thing, the spirit of freedom which he had +instilled in the minds and the hearts of the Cubans, and which was to +live after him and at last lead Cuba to victory. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + + +Lopez had failed. Such was the obvious judgment of the world. Upon the +face of the matter, his expedition had ended in disaster and utter +tragedy. The first serious attempt to achieve the separation of Cuba +from Spain had come to naught. It had been completely suppressed and its +promoters had been destroyed. + +In a broader, deeper and more significant sense, however, the enterprise +and sacrifice of Lopez and his comrades had splendidly succeeded. That +valiant pioneer of Cuban liberation had indeed "builded better than he +knew." For his enterprise marked an epoch in Cuban history; the most +important since Columbus's discovery of the island. The abortive +attempts at emancipation, which had been sporadically but feebly active +since the days of the emulators of Bolivar, had by Lopez's efforts been +marvelously and effectively resuscitated. The movement which had been +nurtured by the "Soles de Bolivar," but which its members had been +unable, because of smallness of numbers and lack of funds and of +leadership, to make much more than a cherished ideal--for the attempts +at revolt had been still-born, choked almost on their conception--had +under Lopez been imbued with lusty life, and was never again to +languish. A force had been set in operation which could not and did not +cease its action until, though many weary years afterward, the end which +Lopez had foreseen was attained, and Cuba was securely placed among the +independent nations of the world. We say that Lopez "builded better than +he knew." That was literally true because his plans were merely for the +transfer of Cuban sovereignty from oppressive and reactionary Spain to +liberal and progressive America; building upon the foundation thus +outlined by him, subsequent bolder spirits constructed the triumphant +edifice of complete independence of which he had not so much as dreamed. + +The immediate results of the Lopez expedition were prodigious. It is not +easy, at this time and distance, to appreciate fully the tremendous +sensation which was caused, not only in Cuba and in Spain, but, to a +considerable extent, throughout the world, or at least, throughout that +most important portion of the world which had its frontage upon the +Atlantic Ocean, and which possessed more or less direct interests in the +countries of the Caribbean Sea. For a full appreciation of this, it is +necessary to take into consideration certain circumstances which are now +almost forgotten. + +We must remember that down to this time the world at large had been +profoundly ignorant of Cuba, save in the most general and external +manner. Spain, as we have already indicated in these pages, had long +pursued a persistent policy of secrecy and isolation. Cuba was not +allowed to know much of the outside world, and the outside world was not +allowed to know much of Cuba. A strict censorship was maintained over +information both entering and leaving the island. Marked inhospitality +was shown to travelers and visitors to discourage them from penetrating +the island or acquainting themselves with the real condition of its +affairs. Practically Cuba remained, so far as its social, economic and +political conditions were concerned, a _terra incognita_. The world knew +almost nothing of its natural wealth and its inestimable resources, its +potentialities of greatness. + +Now, in the baleful light of a great tragedy, the island was suddenly +thrust forward into the world's most intense publicity. From being a +minor colonial possession of a decadent power, it was transformed into +one of the foremost international issues. The eyes of two continents +were fixed upon it, while the hands of those continents involuntarily +reached for sword hilts in preparation for a decisive conflict which +might shake the foundations of the civilized world. + +Let us consider first the interests and sentiments of Spain at this +great crisis in her affairs. Hitherto she had regarded Cuba as a +helpless province, politically negligible, although economically of +immense value as the "milch cow of the Peninsula." The several +insurrections which had occurred had indeed been annoying, and, at +times, costly, but they had been suppressed with little difficulty, and +there had never been a thought of their really menacing Spain's +sovereignty over the island. Nor had there been any fear of losing the +island through alien aggression or intervention. Spain's title to Cuba +had been repeatedly underwritten by the United States of America, at the +hands of John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John Forsyth; as we have +hitherto seen. For a full generation Spain had confidently depended upon +both the purpose and the power of the United States to protect her in +her ownership of Cuba. But now came a revolt which in itself was +immeasurably more formidable than all the slave insurrections put +together, and which was, most ominous of all, operated from the United +States, with the obvious sympathy, if not with the actual aid, of the +people of that country. This powerful protector of Spain in Cuba was +assuming the character of a possible conqueror. The troubles of Cuba +were, therefore, no longer merely local, nor even national; they had +risen to international proportions. They menaced not only the domestic +tranquillity of Spain, but also her international relations with that +power from which, of all in the world, she had cause most to fear. + +No less marked was the effect of these events upon the Cubans. They were +made to feel that at last "the die was cast." An irrevocable step had +been taken. The dreamer had awakened; plans and conspiracies had been +transmuted into militant action. It is true that comparatively few of +the Cubans had been directly concerned or, at least, could be proved to +have been directly concerned in the undertakings of Lopez, but it was +quite certain that thereafter they would all be regarded as having +sympathized, and as being potential insurgents, with arms as well as +with ideas. Nothing thereafter could ever be as it had been before. The +Cuban people were vicariously committed to the policy of forcible +separation from Spain. War was begun and it would be war to the knife, +and the knife to the hilt. + +In Cuba, the Spanish authorities realized this change in Cuban +sentiment, and kept a sharp outlook for any signs of uprising. They also +"made examples" of any and everyone who came under suspicion of having +been in sympathy with Lopez, or of having any plans for starting a +similar movement. Thus some boys, who were outspoken in their +expressions of sympathy with the cause of freedom from Spain, were +seized and summarily executed without trial. Feeling ran high; native +born Cubans refused to associate with those of Spanish birth, and in +many cases even to speak of them. A carnival was about to be celebrated +in Santiago de Cuba, but it was abandoned, and the city went into +mourning. + +To retaliate some Spaniards sent out invitations for a ball at the +Filarmonia, the famous theatre in Santiago where, years afterward, +Adelina Patti made her debut. This was resented as an insult by the +native Cubans of the city. Some hot-blooded young men forced an entrance +into the hall where the ball was being held, and rushing forward +destroyed a picture of Queen Isabella which hung at one end of the room. +Immediately everything was in an uproar, men were shouting and fighting, +and women were fainting. In the melee the disturbers escaped, and the +matter was hushed up, for the Spanish authorities feared that the +trouble might be made the occasion of another uprising, and so made no +attempt to secure the names of the culprits. + +But this was just the prelude for worse disaster. A wealthy Cuban woman, +with more money than judgment, decided to act as mediator and bring the +enraged parties together. She took a strange means for accomplishing her +object, issuing invitations for a party to both prominent Spaniards and +Cubans of the best families. When the ball took place it is difficult to +say who were the more dismayed and astonished, the Cubans when they saw +who had been invited to meet them, or the haughty Spanish grandees, who +hated the Cubans. An even wilder scene than that at the Filarmonia took +place. Women were thrown to the floor, their clothing torn, and their +bodies trampled on. The chandeliers were torn from the ceiling, many +windows were broken, men fought in hand to hand combat, and when it was +all over the injured had been removed, the hall which had been intended +for a scene of pleasure was wrecked and rent beyond description. Six +people were killed on this occasion, including one Spanish woman of high +rank, and over a hundred were more or less seriously injured. Arrests +were promptly made, but it was the Cubans who suffered, for no Spaniards +were apprehended. Several boys from the best Creole families were thrust +without trial into the dungeons of Morro Castle, from whence they were +transported to the Spanish penal institution at Ceuta, and never again +heard of. Those who were quick enough made their escape to the United +States, and the woman who was so foolish as to give the party hastily +left the island, without heralding her going. + +The Cubans were thoroughly aroused against Spain, and more and more +there began to grow within them the desire not for annexation to the +United States but for complete independence, and a government of their +own making. At last the people were finding themselves, and higher +aspirations and new longings were stirring in their souls. + +The Captain General, fearing new uprisings, began to get the island in +better shape for defense from aggression from within. He strengthened +the fortifications, and established a more central control over the army +and navy, so that from headquarters all army posts and the movement of +all vessels might be more easily governed. To further this end he built +new roads, and improved old ones, and he took into his own hands as +Captain-General a closer control and supervision of matters military. + +Perhaps nothing could be more indicative of the Cuban feeling and of the +conditions on the Island at this time than are contained in the +following letter written by a prominent Cuban--a man of the highest +intelligence and from one of the best known families--to a friend: + +"The cause of the liberty of nations has always perished in its cradle +because its defenders have never sought to deviate from legal +paths,--because they have followed the principles sanctioned by the laws +of nations, while despots, always the first to exact obedience to them +when it suited their convenience, have been the first to infringe them +when they came into collision with their interests. + +"Their alliances to suppress liberty are called _holy_ and the crimes +they commit by invading foreign territories and summoning foreign troops +to their aid to oppress their own vessels, are sacred duties, +compliances with secret compacts; and, if the congresses, parliaments +and Cortes of other nations, raise the cry to Heaven, they answer, the +government has protested--acts have been performed without their +sanction--there is no remedy--they are acts accomplished. + +"An act accomplished will shortly be the abolition of slavery in Cuba, +and the tardy intervention of the United States will only have taken +place when its brilliant constellation lights up the vast sepulchre +which will cover the bodies of her sons, sacrificed to the black race as +a regard for their sympathies with American institutions, and the vast +carnage it will cost to punish the African victors. What can be done +today, without great sacrifice, to help the Cubans, tomorrow cannot be +achieved without the effusion of rivers of blood, and when the few +surviving Cubans will curse an intervention which, deaf to their cries, +will only be produced by the cold calculations of egotism. Then the +struggle will not be with the Spaniards alone. The latter will now +accede to all the claims of the cabinet at Washington, by the advice of +the ambassadors of France and England, to advance, meanwhile, with surer +step to the end--to give time for the solution of the Eastern question, +and for France and England to send their squadrons into these waters. +Well may they deny the existence of secret treaties; this is very easy +for such beings, as it will be when the case of the present treaty comes +up, asserting that the treaty was posterior to their negative, or +refusing explanations as inconsistent with their dignity. But we witness +the realization of our fears, we see the Spanish government +imperturbably setting on foot plans which were thought to be the +delirium of excited imaginations doing at once what promised to be +gradual work; and hear it declared, by distinguished persons who +possessed the confidence of General Pezuela, that the existence of the +treaty is certain, and that the United States will be told that they +should have accepted the offer made to become a party to it, in which +case the other two powers could not have adopted the abolition scheme. +But supposing this treaty to have no existence, the fact of the +abolition of slavery is no less certain. It is only necessary to read +the proclamation of the Captain-General, if the last acts of the +Government be not sufficiently convincing. The result to the Island of +Cuba and the United States is the same, either way. If the latter do not +hasten to avert the blow, they will soon find it impossible to remedy +the evil. In the Island there is not a reflecting man--foreigner or +native, Creole or European--who does not tremble for the future that +awaits us, at a period certainly not far remote." + +Thus did the Cubans look forward with hope to, and at the same time +fear, the future. And meanwhile the tragedy of Lopez was having a +wide-spread effect on the feeling of the people, and on political +conditions in other countries. + +In the United States a profound impression was produced of a triple +character. There was, in the first place, the international point of +view. It was realized that the United States was being brought +uncomfortably near the possibility of a serious controversy, if not of +actual war with Spain. The neutrality laws had been evaded, and there +was every prospect that such evasions would thereafter be repeated. The +whole question of American relations with Cuba was acutely reopened, and +both those who favored and those who opposed the acquisition of that +island by the United States were made to realize that a momentous +decision might be called for at any moment. + +There was, in the second place, the point of view of the pro-slavery +states of the South, and their leaders, who were generally in control of +the national government at Washington. The South strongly favored Cuban +annexation, either voluntary or forcible. The island was wanted as Texas +and other Mexican territories had been wanted, to provide for the +extension of slave territory and for the addition of new slave states to +the union to counter-balance the new free states which were about to +seek admission at the north. There was also a passionate desire to avoid +the calamity of having Cuba made, as the other Spanish-American +countries had been made, free soil, thus encircling the slave states +with an unbroken ring of anti-slavery territory. Moreover, at this time +the spirit of conquest and of expansion was very much abroad in the +land. The lust for territory which had prevailed in the Mexican War was +by no means satisfied. Men still regarded it as the manifest destiny of +the United States to "lick all creation." In the geography of the +popular mind, the United States was, or was destined to be, "bounded on +the north by the aurora borealis, on the south by the precession of the +equinoxes, on the east by primeval chaos, and on the west by the day of +judgment." Under such circumstances, the attitude of the people of the +United States south of Mason and Dixon's line was unmistakable. + +There was also the point of view of the increasingly anti-slavery north. +During the Mexican war a strong aversion to territorial expansion by +conquest for the sake of slave soil had been manifested, and this +feeling was steadily increasing in extent and in influence. It +manifested itself by opposition to Cuban annexation. At the same time, +the commercial instinct was strong in the great cities of the north, and +there was an earnest desire to do nothing which might interfere with the +profitable trade which already existed between this country and Cuba, +and which it was hoped greatly to expand. + +The interest of Great Britain in Cuban affairs was scarcely less than +that of Spain or the United States. That country had once, for a time, +possessed Cuba, and had never forgotten that fact nor ceased to +entertain the desire to renew that possession as a permanent state of +affairs. That country also had very important colonial holdings in the +West Indies, and on the adjacent mainland; being, indeed, an American +power second only to the United States itself. It owned the Bahamas, +Jamaica and other islands, and colonies on the South and Central +American coast, which latter it was at that very time seeking greatly to +extend. It was keenly desirous of enlarging its possessions and forming +a great colonial empire in tropical America, and it realized that +nothing could conduce to that end more than the acquisition of Cuba. In +the prosecution of this policy, a certain "jingo" faction actually went +so far as to pretend that upon the acquisition of Cuba depended Great +Britain's retention of Canada, if not, indeed, of her entire American +holdings. It was represented that if Great Britain did not intervene to +prevent it, the slave-holding South was certain to annex Cuba, and that +this would provoke the abolitionist North into seizing Canada, in order +to provide in that direction free soil to counter-balance the slave soil +of Cuba. Thus, with Canada gone, and Cuba in the hands of the United +States, the remainder of the British holdings in the western hemisphere +would be in deadly jeopardy. Such visions seem at this time fantastic, +and it may be that they were then thus regarded by serious statesmen; +yet they were cherished and were not without their influence. + +Nor was France less deeply and directly interested in Cuba. She, too, +had colonies in the West Indies and on the South American coast. She had +never forgotten her former vast empire in North America, nor ceased to +regret its loss. She was soon to enter upon a campaign of conquest in +Mexico. She had at various times, both during and since the Napoleonic +era, entertained designs upon peninsular Spain itself, and she had +repeatedly made direct overtures for a protectorate over Cuba. + +These circumstances caused international relations to be ominously +strained in more than one direction, and as soon as news reached the +United States of the execution of those companions of Lopez who were +members of prominent families in the southern states, there arose a +widespread and furious storm of wrath. The center of this was, +naturally, at New Orleans, where the majority of Lopez's followers had +been recruited and where their families resided, and in that city an +infuriated mob stormed and destroyed the Spanish consulate, publicly +defaced a portrait of the Spanish queen, and, in some respects worst of +all, looted a number of shops owned by Spanish merchants. This was most +unfortunate from more than one point of view. It was not only +indefensible and inexcusable in itself, but it put the United States so +much in the wrong as to deter it from taking any action, or indeed +making any protest to Spain on account of the putting to death of the +American prisoners. + +The American Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, made, however, the best +of an unfortunate situation. He took a straightforward course by +immediately apologizing to the Spanish government for the New Orleans +outrages, and recommended to Congress the voting of an adequate +indemnity for the damage which had been done. Having done this, he was +enabled to secure the release of some American members of Lopez's +expedition who had not yet suffered the death penalty. + +Despite this settlement, the Spanish government continued to cherish +much resentment against the United States, partly for the participation +of so many of that country's citizens in the expeditions of Lopez, and +partly because of the outrages in New Orleans, and its Cuban +administration thereafter exhibited an increasing degree of animosity +against Americans. Numerous harsh impositions were put upon American +citizens, for which no redress could be had; and this caused resentment +throughout the United States, in the commercial North as well as in the +slaveholding and expansionist South, and relations between the two +countries steadily drifted from bad to worse. + +Candor compels the frank statement that there was much fault on both +sides. Spain was tremendously at fault because of her misgovernment of +Cuba, and indeed her whole policy in relation to that island, which was +quite unworthy of a civilized power in an enlightened age. A generation +before Spain had practically sacrificed her right to continued +possession of Florida by her maladministration of that territory, which +had made it an intolerable nuisance to the neighboring United States. +She was now making of Cuba a scarcely less international nuisance and +scandal. + +On the other hand, the United States, or some of its people, undoubtedly +gave Spain cause for grievance. The intentions and the conduct of the +United States government were beyond reproach. At the same time, they +were entirely insufficient for the prevention of serious wrongs to +Spain. Webster himself confessed that the United States government had +no power to protect Spanish subjects from such outrages as those which +had just been committed in New Orleans. There was no doubt that the +intentions and conduct of a large portion of the American people were +not only hostile to Spain, but were quite lawless in the manifestation +of that feeling. Among the offenders, moreover, were some men who stood +high in official life and who exerted much political influence. Nor +could these things be so well understood in Spain as in the United +States. Spain could scarcely be expected to distinguish between the case +of a man in his private capacity as a citizen and in his public capacity +as a member of Congress or other official of the government. When she +saw public officials participating in the organization and operations of +the "Order of the Lone Star," the confessed purpose of which was to take +Cuba from Spain by force, and without compensation, she very naturally +assumed that such things were being done with the permission and +sanction of the United States government, if not at its direct +instigation. + +At this point, moreover, a serious complication was injected into the +problem of Spanish-American relations by the attempted intervention of +Great Britain and France. Both these powers sought to persuade Spain +that they were better friends to her, especially in relation to Cuba, +than the United States. They impressed upon her the idea that the United +States intended to take Cuba away from her, while they were willing to +respect her title to it, and to protect her in possession of it. + +These suggestions were followed by the menace of overt acts which, if +committed, would have had very serious results. In 1851, the British and +French governments let it be known that instructions had been given to +their naval commanders to increase their forces in the waters adjacent +to Cuba, and to exercise guardianship over the shores of that island to +prevent the landing of any more filibustering expeditions from the +United States or elsewhere, such as those of Lopez. It does not appear +that this was done at the request of Spain. It was probably an entirely +gratuitous performance intended partly to ingratiate the Spanish +government, and partly to prevent the possibility of the seizure by the +United States of Cuba. But it was certainly a most unwarrantable +meddling in affairs which concerned only the United States and Spain. No +possible justification for it could be found in international law. In +the absence of a state of war, it was intolerable that vessels under the +United States flag should be subjected to search upon the high seas, +while, when they reached Cuban territorial waters, no other power than +Spain had any right to interfere with them. + +Daniel Webster was at that time ill and unable to perform the duties of +his office, but J. J. Crittenden, who was acting as Secretary of State, +made a forcible protest against any such action by Great Britain and +France, and gave warning in the plainest terms that it would not be +tolerated by the United States, and that any interference with American +shipping between the United States and Cuba would be resented in the +most vigorous manner. The result was that the British and French navies +refrained from the contemplated meddling. + +Following this, however, Spain made a direct appeal to the British +government for protection against American aggression. The request was +not so much for immediate military intervention as for securing treaty +guarantees. The British government was in a receptive mood, and, in +consequence, in April, 1852, it proposed to the United States that that +country should join it and France in a tripartite convention, +guaranteeing to Spain continued and unmolested possession of Cuba, and +explicitly renouncing any designs of their own for the acquisition of +that island. It may be recalled that a similar proposal had been made by +Great Britain and France in 1825, and that its acceptance had been +favored by no less an American statesman than Thomas Jefferson, +although, under the wiser counsels of John Quincy Adams, it had been +rejected. + +At this renewal of the proposal, in 1852, rejection was prompt and +emphatic. Edward Everett was then the Secretary of State, under the +Presidency of Millard Fillmore, and he refused positively to enter into +any such compact. His ground was that American interests in Cuba and +American relations toward that island were radically different, in kind +as well as in degree, from those of any other power. That was of course +a perfectly logical and sincere application of the principles of the +Monroe Doctrine, and of the traditional policy of the United States in +refusing to permit European intervention in the affairs of the United +States or in affairs exclusively concerning the United States and a +single European power. + +It may be assumed that Everett had in mind at the time, also, the +exceedingly unsatisfactory results of an attempt to establish just such +a tripartite protectorate guarantee over the Hawaiian Islands. + +There was still another reason for the refusal of the United States to +enter into such a compact. That country had already and repeatedly +guaranteed the Spanish possession of Cuba as against the aggressions of +any other power, but it had not guaranteed and would not guarantee her +possession of Cuba against the self-assertion of the Cuban people. It +recognized the right of revolution. It knew that the Cubans were +dissatisfied, and that with good reason, with Spanish rule, and that +sooner or later they would successfully revolt and establish their +independence, and it had no thought of making itself the accomplice of +Spain in repressing their aspirations for liberty. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + +The United States government, both before and immediately after the +expeditions of Lopez, exhibited an increasing desire to acquire +possession of Cuba by purchase or otherwise. We have already referred to +the historic expression of John Quincy Adams upon this subject. It is +also to be recalled that in 1823, in commenting upon the prospective +results of the Monroe Doctrine, Thomas Jefferson looked upon Cuba as the +most interesting addition that could be made to the United States. The +control which, with Florida, this island would give the United States +over the Gulf of Mexico, and all the countries bordering thereon, as +well as all those whose waters flowed into the Gulf, would well be, he +thought, the measure of American well-being. Such an end could be +attained, he added, by no other means than that of war, and that was +something to which he was reluctant to resort. He was, therefore, +willing to accept the next best thing, to wit, the independence of Cuba, +and especially its independence of England. James Madison, at the same +time, and discussing the same general subject, expressed much curiosity +to know what England's attitude toward Cuba would be, and what the +rights of the United States toward that island would be, under the +Monroe Doctrine. John C. Calhoun was willing to pledge the United States +not to take Cuba, although he had already expressed a desire for such +acquisition, and Monroe himself would have adopted Calhoun's policy, had +it not been for the resolute opposition of John Quincy Adams. That +strenuous patriot was for reserving the plenary rights and powers of +the United States, and for permitting Europe to have nothing whatever to +do in the matter, and his counsel fortunately prevailed. + +A little later, after the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine and in the +course of Congressional discussion of the Panama Congress, it was +emphatically stated in the Senate that, because of the great interest in +the United States in Cuba, there ought to be no discussion with other +powers concerning the destiny of that island, particularly with Colombia +and Mexico, which were then contemplating the invasion of Cuba in order +to take her forcibly from Spain. The British government, in August, +1825, proposed to the United States government, through its minister in +London, that the United States, Great Britain and France should unite in +a treaty engagement that none of them would take Cuba for itself or +permit of the taking of it by either of the others. This proposal was +promptly rejected by the United States. One of the grounds for her +rejection of it was that such action guaranteeing Spain her possession +of Cuba would encourage her to prolong indefinitely her struggle with +her other American colonies. Another was that this country had already +declared that it did not mean to seize Cuba for itself, and that it +would not permit its seizure by any other power. The United States +apparently did not fear that Great Britain would attempt to seize the +island, since for her to do so would mean a rupture with the United +States, which was at that time the last thing that the British +government desired. There was much more cause to fear that France might +attempt to take forcible possession of Cuba, and the suspicion that she +might do so was strengthened by the fact that while, at first, she +indicated a willingness to enter into the arrangement proposed by Great +Britain, she suddenly changed her attitude, and refused to do so. As a +result of this change of front on the part of France, the United States +government, in September, 1825, instructed its minister at Paris to +inform the French government that under no contingency, either with or +without the consent of Spain, would the United States permit France to +occupy Cuba. + +Scarcely less marked was the opposition of the United States to any +scheme for the acquirement of Cuba by any of the American republics. It +was notorious that both Colombia and Mexico had designs upon Cuba. These +were not so much that either of these countries should acquire the +island for itself, but that Cuba and Porto Rico should, nilly willy, be +taken away from Spain and made independent, and that thus Spain should +be deprived of her last foothold in the Western hemisphere. This purpose +was cherished, not only as a matter of sentiment, but as one of +prudence. Spain was still trying to reconquer her revolted American +provinces, and her possession of Cuba, of course, afforded her an +admirable base for such operations. But the United States government +took the ground that any such intervention in Cuba would make it much +more difficult to secure Spanish recognition of the independence of the +Central and South American States. In addition, there was +undoubtedly--indeed it was very openly, emphatically and repeatedly +expressed--the unwillingness of the slaveholding southern states of the +United States to see Cuba made free soil, as the other Spanish colonies +had been. It was because of the former consideration, however, that the +American Secretary of State, Henry Clay, immediately after the rejection +of the British proposal for a tripartite guarantee, addressed a note to +the governments of Colombia and Mexico, urging them to refrain from +sending the expeditions which they were fitting out against the Spanish +power in Cuba. To this request, the Colombian government promptly +acceded, and so informed not only the United States, but also the +government of Russia, which was, at that time, endeavoring to mediate +between Spain and her late American colonies. The Mexican government did +not receive the request so favorably, though it did withhold the +threatened expedition. + +With such antecedents set forth, we can more perfectly understand the +attitude of the United States toward Cuba at the time of which we are +now writing. In 1848 a change of policy occurred, and the United States +entered upon a new attitude. At that time James K. Polk was President of +the United States, and James Buchanan was his Secretary of State; both +men of southern, proslavery and expansionist proclivities. The American +minister to Spain was Romulus M. Saunders, of North Carolina, also a +proslavery expansionist. He was instructed by Polk and Buchanan to sound +the Spanish government as to the terms on which it would sell Cuba to +the United States. The response to his overtures was immediate and left +no room for doubt as to Spain's position. It was to the effect that Cuba +was not for sale. Under no circumstances would the Spanish government so +much as consider the sale of the island at any price whatever. No +Spanish Minister of State would venture for a moment to entertain such a +proposal. Such was the feeling of the Spanish government and of the +Spanish nation, that they would rather see Cuba sunk in the depths of +the sea, if it were possible, than transferred to the sovereignty of any +other power. Cuba was the "Ever-Faithful Isle." She was the last +remnant, the priceless memento of Spain's once vast empire in America, +and as such she would be forever retained and treasured. Although not +openly expressed, there was undoubtedly the additional feeling that +Spain had already suffered too much spoliation at the hands of the +United States. The United States, under Jefferson, had practically +compelled Spain to sacrifice her vast Louisiana territory by nominally +selling, but really giving it outright, to France. It had next taken +West Florida from her without compensation. Following this, under the +Monroe Doctrine, it had compelled her to sell it East Florida for a +pitifully inadequate sum, not one dollar of which had ever found its way +into the Spanish treasury. It had aided, abetted, and protected the +Central and South American provinces in their revolt. Certainly, after +such a record, it would be unthinkable to permit the United States to +proceed with the acquisition of the last remaining portion of the +Spanish American empire. The overtures for the United States purchase of +Cuba were, therefore, for the time being, abruptly abandoned, but it was +significant that they were promptly followed by the expeditions of Lopez +and the widespread and intense manifestations of American interest +therein. + +There next occurred one of the most noteworthy and it must be confessed +least creditable episodes in the whole story of the relations between +the United States, Cuba and Spain. Franklin Pierce became President of +the United States, and the active and aggressive William L. Marcy was +his Secretary of State. Because of the strained relations between Spain +and the United States, growing out of the Lopez expeditions, there was a +well defined expectation that Marcy would pursue a vigorous policy +leading to the annexation of Cuba, even at the cost of war with Spain. +Marcy was an expansionist, and would doubtless have been glad to have +annexed Cuba, but he was something more than an expansionist. He was a +statesman. He therefore considered the subject from its various aspects +with a prudence and conservatism which were probably not at all pleasing +to the impetuous proslavery propagandists of the south, but which were +in the highest degree creditable to his good sense and to the honor of +the United States. Unfortunately not even Marcy could remain entirely +exempt from political and partizan considerations. He was practically +compelled to acquiesce in the appointment as his minister to Spain of +one of the more egregious misfits that ever disgraced American +diplomacy. This man was Pierre Soule. He was of French origin, and had +been a political conspirator and prisoner in that country. He had come +to the United States as a refugee, but had continued there his political +intrigues and revolutionary designs. Settling in New Orleans, he had +been in active sympathy with the filibustering enterprises of Lopez and +others against the Spanish rule in Cuba; he was suspected of having +incited the anti-Spanish mob in that city; and he was known to be an +ardent advocate of the annexation of Cuba by any means which might prove +effective. The choice of such a man as American minister to Spain was +certainly extraordinary. It must be assumed that Marcy agreed to it only +with great reluctance and under protest; while it is plausible, and +indeed permissible, to suspect that some ulterior influence dictated it +for the deliberate purpose of provoking trouble with Spain. + +In these circumstances, Marcy did his best. He instructed Soule to +repress his anti-Spanish zeal, to do nothing which would irritate +Spanish susceptibilities, and especially to be particularly cautious in +making any suggestions or overtures concerning a change of relations in +Cuba. He instructed him, however, to seek reparation for the gross +injuries which Americans had undoubtedly suffered in Cuba, and to +suggest to the Spanish government that it would greatly facilitate the +friendly conduct of affairs for it to invest the Captain-General or +other governor of Cuba with a degree of diplomatic authority and +functions so that complaint could be addressed to him, and indeed all +such matters could be negotiated with him directly, instead of their +being referred to the government at Madrid. He did not urge Soule to +seek the purchase of Cuba, but he did authorize him to enter into +negotiations to that end, if the Spanish government should manifest a +favorable inclination. + +Despite these wise instructions and admonitions, Soule promptly entered +upon a career of the wildest indiscretion. He went to Spain by way of +France, where he was under political proscription, and this gave offence +to the government of that country. On arriving at Madrid, he immediately +quarreled with the French party there, and fought a duel with the French +ambassador in which the latter was crippled for life. + +Then word came to him that the Spanish authorities at Havana had seized +an American steamer, the _Black Warrior_. That steamer had, for a long +time, been plying regularly between the United States and Cuba in a +perfectly legitimate way. There was not the slightest proof or +suggestion that she had ever engaged in filibustering or in any +illegitimate commerce. Indeed she was not accused of it. But she was +seized and her cargo was condemned simply for alleged disregard of some +insignificant port regulation which, as a matter of fact, had not been +enforced or observed by any vessel for many years. The master of the +vessel resented and protested against the seizure and when the Spanish +authorities arbitrarily persisted in it, he abandoned the vessel +altogether, and reported the circumstances to the United States +government. The President promptly laid the matter before Congress at +Washington, stating that a demand for redress and indemnity was being +made. Passions flamed high in Congress, and southern members made +speeches demanding war and the conquest of Cuba. Marcy, however, +retained his sanity of judgment, and contented himself with instructing +Soule at Madrid to demand an indemnity of $300,000 and to express the +hope that the Spanish government would disavow and rebuke the act which +it was confidently assumed had not been authorized and could not be +approved. This gave Soule a fine opportunity to show himself a capable +diplomat and to do a good stroke of work, for Spain was manifestly wrong +and a proper presentation of the case would doubtless have caused her to +accede pretty promptly to Marcy's reasonable demands. + +Soule began well. He followed Marcy's instructions closely at the +outset, and had a friendly and temperate interview with the Spanish +Minister for Foreign Affairs; but when three days thereafter had passed +without a complete settlement, he seemed altogether to lose his head. He +sent to the minister a peremptory note, demanding payment of the +indemnity, and the immediate dismissal from the Spanish service of all +persons in any way responsible for the seizure of the _Black Warrior_. +If this was not done within forty-eight hours, he added, he would +immediately demand his passports and sever diplomatic relations between +the two countries. With customary arrogance, he instructed the messenger +by whom he transmitted the note to call the attention of the Spanish +minister to the exact hour and minute at which the messenger should +deliver the note into his hands, and to remind him that an answer would +be expected, under penalty, within forty-eight hours after that precise +moment of time. Worst of all, perhaps, this occurred during Holy Week, +when it was not customary for the Spanish government to transact any +business which could possibly be deferred. + +The Spanish Minister for Foreign Affairs was Calderon de la Barca, who +had formerly been Spanish minister to the United States, and with whom +Soule had personally very violently quarrelled at Washington. With +characteristic Spanish courtesy, he very promptly, within twenty-four +hours, replied to Soule that the matter would be most carefully +considered at the earliest possible moment, but that it manifestly would +not be practicable, and indeed would not be just, to dispose of so +important a matter so hastily, and upon the hearing of only one side of +it. He also added, quite properly, that the Spanish government was not +accustomed to being addressed in so harsh and imperious a manner, and +that he could not regard such a mode of procedure as calculated to +facilitate the amicable settlement which both parties undoubtedly +desired. + +Thus placed, through his own folly, at a hopeless disadvantage, Soule +abandoned the case. He sent to Marcy his own absurd and unauthorized +ultimatum, together with Calderon's dignified and statesmanlike reply, +possibly in the vain hope that Marcy would back him up in the impossible +attitude which he had assumed. Of course, Marcy did nothing of the sort. +As a matter of fact, it was not necessary for Marcy to pay any attention +whatever to Soule's report, since, before it reached Washington, the +Spanish authorities in Cuba had restored the _Black Warrior_ to her +owners, with the amplest possible amends for their improper seizure of +her, and the whole incident was thus happily ended. + +The project of acquiring Cuba for the United States continued to be +cherished by the American government. It must be supposed that the +Secretary of State appreciated the immense value of Cuba, both in its +resources and in its strategic position and so, for that reason, was +desirous of acquiring the island. It must also be believed that he was +to a degree moved by a desire to get rid of what he plainly saw would be +a perennial cause of annoyance and even of danger. Since the beginning +of the nineteenth century, Cuba had been a cause of anxiety to the +United States, and since the beginning of insurrections in that island, +and especially insurrections looking to the United States for sympathy +and aid, there was a constantly increasing danger of unpleasant and +possibly hostile complications with Spain. There is no indication, +however, that Marcy ever had any other thought than that of the peaceful +acquisition of the island through friendly negotiations. It was most +unfortunate that because of the political conditions which prevailed +during that administration, he was compelled to act through unfit and +indeed unworthy agents. + +At the beginning of 1854, Mr. Marcy directed the United States ministers +to Spain, France and Great Britain to confer among themselves as to the +best means, if indeed any were practicable, to persuade Spain to sell +Cuba to the United States, and at the same time to avoid or to overcome +objections which France and Great Britain might make to such a +transaction. That was a perfectly legitimate proposal, and indeed, under +the circumstances, was desirable and should have been productive of +excellent results. Its fatal defect lay in the personality of the men +who were called upon to put it into execution. The minister to Spain was +Soule, of whom we have already heard enough to indicate his very +conspicuous unfitness for the task assigned to him. The minister to +France was James M. Mason, a Virginian, and one of the most aggressive +and extreme Southern advocates of the extension of slavery. The +minister to Great Britain was James Buchanan, who was afterward +President of the United States, a northern man with strong southern +sympathies and in complete subservience to the slaveholding interests of +the south. The result of a conference among these three was practically +a foregone conclusion. + +They came together at Ostend in the summer of 1854, and a little later +concluded their deliberations at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the result of +their conference was embodied in that extraordinary document known to +history as the Ostend Manifesto. + +That document, which was drawn up in October, 1854, and was signed by +these three ministers and sent by them to Mr. Marcy, was written chiefly +by Soule. It set forth the various reasons why, in the opinion of Soule +and his colleagues, Cuba ought to belong to the United States. A variety +of reasons was set forth, but chief among them was this, that such +acquisition of Cuba was necessary for the security and perpetuity of the +slave system in the United States. Then Soule went on to tell why Spain +ought to be willing to sell the island, and why Britain and France ought +to be willing for her to sell it to the United States. The price to be +paid for Cuba was not stated. It ought not, however, Soule said, to +exceed a certain maximum sum to be prescribed by the United States; and +there are reasons for believing that the price which Soule had in mind +was $120,000,000. All this was bad enough. It was far removed from what +Marcy had intended. But the worst was to come. With astounding +effrontery and cynicism, the manifesto proceeded to say that if Spain +should be so swayed by the voice of her own interest and actuated by a +false sense of honor as to refuse to sell Cuba, then, by every law, +human and divine, the United States would be justified in taking Cuba +forcibly from her, on the ground that such seizure was necessary for the +protection of the domestic peace of the United States. This Manifesto +was sent by the three ministers to Marcy, with a memorandum written by +Soule, suggesting that that would be a good time to start a war with +Spain for the seizure of Cuba, because France and Great Britain were +just then engaged in fighting Russia in the Crimea, and therefore would +not be able to interfere with Spain's behalf. + +Marcy never for a moment, of course, thought of acting upon these +abominable recommendations. The overwhelming sentiment of this nation +would have been against it. Even in the South, the majority of +thoughtful men held that Soule and his colleagues had gone too far, +while throughout the North, the Manifesto was scathingly denounced as a +proposal of international brigandage. Not only in Spain, but almost +equally in France and Great Britain, American diplomacy and the honor of +the American government were regarded as seriously compromised. In these +circumstances Marcy, to whom the Manifesto must have been revolting, +very adroitly declined to recognize its real purport, but insisted upon +interpreting it in an entirely different way from that which its authors +had intended. The result was that the note was practically pigeonholed. + +Soule was so chagrined and enraged at this disposition of a favorite +child of his mind that he resigned his office as Minister to Spain, to +the unmistakable relief both of Marcy and of the Spanish government. +Buchanan, another of the signers, became President of the United States +a couple of years later, and in his second annual message, in December, +1858, sought to revive the Manifesto, referring to the possibility of +its sometime being necessary for the United States to seize Cuba under +the law of self-preservation. He also requested Congress to appropriate +$30,000,000 for the purchase of the island, and a bill to that effect +was introduced, but it was never pressed to final passage. Again in 1859 +he referred to the subject, being still apparently obsessed with the +idea that the conquest of Cuba was necessary for the preservation of the +United States, but on this occasion his reference to the subject was +entirely ignored by Congress. Then came the Civil War in the United +States, which, for a number of years, debarred that country from paying +any attention to the affairs of its southern neighbor. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + + +The years following the close of the Civil War in the United States were +marked with momentous occurrences in various other countries, +particularly in Cuba, and the two nations with which she had long been +intimately connected, Mexico and Spain. + +The beginning of the year 1866 in Peninsular Spain saw General Prim +heading a revolutionary body of troops at Aranjuez and at Ocana. These +operations caused great excitement, and feeling ran high throughout the +kingdom, for they were generally regarded as indicative and provocative +of a radical change of government. Martial law was, however, promptly +proclaimed at Madrid, and thus countless sympathizers with the +revolution were restrained from taking an active part in it. The army of +the government, under General Zabala, hastened to the scene of the +insurrection, and pursued the revolutionary troops with such vigor that +the latter, including General Prim himself, were compelled to retreat +across the Portuguese frontier near Barracas, since they were, in fact, +only about six hundred strong and were not prepared to make a resolute +stand. In the same month, January, 1866, other revolutionary bodies were +dispersed in Catalonia and Valencia. + +So confident was the royal government of its security, and of the +completeness with which the incipient revolution had been quelled, that +on March 17 it repealed the decree of martial law at the capital. It +was, however, cherishing a fool's paradise. The spirit of revolution was +at work, and was bound soon to reassert itself. Its next manifestation +occurred in June, when two regiments of soldiers in Madrid itself +mutinied and repudiated their officers, who had refused to join them in +their action. These troops were well armed, having twenty-six cannon, +and were soon reinforced by large numbers of volunteers from the +populace, so that it was only by a supreme effort that the government +troops were able to defeat and disperse them. + +At the same time, a corresponding movement took place in the garrison at +Gerona, where a considerable body of troops revolted and, when attacked +by government forces, conducted a successful retreat across the French +frontier. Having crossed the boundary, they laid down their arms, but +the larger proportion of them soon found their way back into Spain to +join the impending revolution. Other outbreaks occurred at other points, +all of which were suppressed with difficulty, but with great severity, +many of the leaders being summarily shot as a deterrent example. But +this action instead of being deterrent was provocative. The next +revolutionary manifestation was the formation of a junta at Madrid, +which issued a proclamation setting forth the complaints of the +insurgents against the government, in part as follows: + +"Savage courts have led hundreds of victims to sacrifice, and a woman +has contemplated passively and even with complacency, the scaffold which +has been erected. + +"The Cortes have abjectly sold to the government the safety of the +individual, the civil rights and the well-being of the commonwealth. The +government has overthrown the press and rostrum, and has entrusted the +administration of the provinces to rapacious mandarins and sanguinary +generals; military tribunals have despoiled the rich and transported the +poor to Fernando Po and to the Philippines. + +"The laws of the Cortes have been replaced by decrees squandering the +resources of the country by means of obscure and ruinous laws, trampling +under foot right and virtue, violating homes, property and family; and +during all this time, Isabella II, at Zuranz, and Madrid, meditating a +plot against Italy, our sister, for the benefit of the Roman curia, +participating meanwhile in the depredations of violence of the pachas in +Cuba, who tolerating the fraudulent introduction of slaves, are +outraging public sentiment both in the Old and in the New World, and +causing an estrangement between Spain and the great and glorious +Republic of the United States." + +Thereafter, a reasonable degree of quiet prevailed throughout the +Kingdom, which was merely a lull before the renewal of the storm. On New +Year's day of 1867, the Junta at Madrid issued another proclamation, +announcing to the people of Spain that another revolutionary movement +was about to begin, and inviting them to join it, and share its success. +To this there was not apparently a sufficient response to seem to +warrant action, and it was not until the following August that anything +more was heard of the revolution. The revolutionists, however, were +merely outwardly quiet. Propaganda and organization were being +systematically carried on, and the way was being paved for a really +effective revolt, which would have widespread and far-reaching results +in purging Spain of a tyrannous rule and substituting in its place +republican justice. When the time seemed propitious, in August, General +Prim issued a third proclamation, calling the people to arms, the chief +result of which was an increased degree of vigilance and severity on the +part of the government. Many of the revolutionary leaders were +apprehended and expelled from Spain on suspicion of sympathy and +complicity with the revolution. Among this number were Generals +Serrano, Cordova, Duke, Bedoya, and Zebula, and persons of no less high +standing than the Duke and Duchess of Montpensier. + +It is curious that all through history, movements like that which had +gained such force and impetus in Spain have been met with the high hand +of oppression. Instead of endeavoring to get at the root of the evil, to +realize that since there was so persistent a dissatisfaction there must +be real causes for grievance the removal of which would work toward a +harmonious solution, it has seemed to be impossible for those born in +the purple to understand the problems of the common people, and so when +the latter have risen in revolt, cruelty and injustice, if not actual +outrages, have marked the attempts to extinguish the trouble. The result +has ever been the same. The story of the attempts to suppress the revolt +in Spain differs not at all from the same story written on the pages of +the history of other nations. The increased oppression on the part of +the government only served to fan the smouldering fire into flame. The +popular wrath and indignation against the queen and her underlings bade +fair to burst into a huge conflagration. + +In consequence, when the next overt act of insurrection occurred, at +Cadiz, on September 17, there was a very general response throughout the +Kingdom. General Prim was again at the head of the movement, supported +by General Serrano and the other officers, to whom the sentence of +banishment had not proved effective, since they had found their way back +into Spain. Revolutionary Juntas were formed in almost all of the +provinces, and in a number of the most important cities, and in the +course of a few days the insurgents were in control of a considerable +part of the Kingdom. + +The City of Santander was seized for the revolution on September 21, but +they were obliged to relinquish it to superior forces on September 24. +However, the revolutionists were far from discouraged by this momentary +reverse, and four days later they rallied for their first important +victory, which was followed by a general revolt of the troops in and +about Madrid, and General Concha, the commander of the royal forces, was +compelled to resign. The revolution was now in full swing and gaining +impetus and strength every hour. General Serrano at the head of a +revolutionary army entered Madrid in triumph, followed four days later +by General Prim. Their reception exceeded their wildest expectations. +The city was on fire with revolt. The people greeted them with the +warmest fervor, with shouts of welcome and rejoicing. They were hailed +as the saviors of the nation, as the embodiment of Spain's hope for the +future, and hourly their forces were increased by the addition of +volunteers from all walks of life. + +It is evident that Queen Isabella had not found Madrid a comfortable +abiding place. There is no doubt that she entertained fears for her +personal safety long before it was actually in jeopardy. Some time +previous to these happenings she had, on some pretext, removed the court +from Madrid to San Sebastian, in the Pyrenees, near the French frontier, +and when news of the capture of the Spanish capital reached her, she +lost no time in making her escape across the frontier into France, where +she was met and welcomed by Emperor Napoleon III, at Hendye. Queen +Isabella had good reason to fear the vengeance of the Spanish mob, for +she had long been unpopular, an object of widespread hatred. She +therefore had no intention of returning to Spain while matters were in +such a turbulent condition, and shortly after her arrival in France, +she proceeded to Paris, where she decided to make her home. + +The Juntas which had been established throughout the Kingdom of Spain +were amalgamated by the formation of a National Junta, on October 8, at +Madrid, and a ministry was organized with General Serrano as Prime +Minister, General Prim as Minister of War, Admiral Topete as Minister of +Marine, Senor Figueroa as Minister of Finance, Senor Lorensano as +Minister of Foreign Affairs, Senor Ortiz as Minister of Justice, Senor +Sagasta as Minister of the Interior, Senor Ayala as Minister for the +Colonies and Senor Zorilla as Minister of Public Works. + +The next day, the United States Minister at Madrid, Mr. Hill, notified +General Serrano that his government has given official recognition to +the new order of affairs in Spain, being the first in the world to take +this action. Such was the state of affairs in Spain at the beginning of +the great struggle in Cuba known as the Ten Years' War. + +Conditions in Mexico likewise deserve passing attention. For a number of +years that country had been in a greatly troubled state. Years of +successive revolutions had been followed by the military intervention of +France, and the creation, under the protection of the French army, of a +pinchbeck "empire," with the Archduke Maximilian of Austria as Emperor. +The Mexican people, under the leadership of one of their greatest +statesmen, Benito Juarez, never gave their allegiance to this usurping +government, but maintained a more or less open resistance to it, and it +was sustained for a few years only by the presence of a considerable +French army. + +The United States of America, at this time, was engaged in its great +Civil War, and was therefore unable to do more than to register a formal +protest against French aggressions, which were recognized as a great +violation of the Monroe Doctrine. But when, in the spring of 1865, the +Civil War ended, the triumphant federal armies were moved toward the +Mexican frontier, and the United States Government sent to the French +Government what was practically an ultimatum, requiring it to withdraw +its forces from Mexico. Napoleon III demurred, temporized, and at length +offered to withdraw if the United States would recognize Maximilian as +the lawful emperor of Mexico. This the United States, with great +promptness, refused to do, and the French army was thereupon +unconditionally withdrawn, and the capture and military execution of +Maximilian soon followed, the final tragedy occurring on June 19, 1867. +This left the United States with its prestige immeasurably enhanced and +free to pay such attention as might be necessary to the affairs of Cuba, +the only part of the western hemisphere in which European despotism was +still maintained. + +The policy of the United States Government, and the sentiment of the +people of that country toward Cuba, had been materially modified by the +Civil War and its results. There was, of course, no longer any thought +of acquiring Cuba for the sake of expanding and fortifying the slave +power, but on the contrary, American influence was now exerted, so far +as it could properly be, toward prevailing upon the Spanish Government +to abolish slavery in Cuba. The Cuban revolutionists were almost without +exception in favor of such emancipation of the negroes, and that fact +caused them to be regarded with increased favor in the United States, +both officially and popularly. American influence was also exerted +toward the persuasion of Spain to give Cuba a more liberal and +beneficent government and to improve the commercial relations between +that island and the United States, for the benefit of both parties. +There was some expectation in both Cuba and the United States--a very +plausible belief--that the revolutionary movement in Spain, liberal and +democratic in character, and aiming at the establishment of a republic +in place of the Bourbon monarchy, would be accompanied by the grant of +liberal institutions and democratic freedom to Cuba; but such was not +the case. + +During the Civil War, because of the suspension of the sugar industry in +the southern part of the United States, there had been a vast and +immensely profitable development of the sugar industry in Cuba, and this +seemed to be dependent for its success upon the continuance of slave +labor. These conditions strengthened the Spanish party in Cuba, which +was equally devoted to the maintenance of slavery and to Spanish +domination in the Island. + +The Spanish party in Cuba, at this time, as we have seen, was known as +the "Peninsulars," and it comprised a great majority of the office +holders and wealthy planters and slave-holders. It was well organized +throughout the Island for the assertion of political influence, and for +the suppression of insurgent movements. Its central authority was in a +wealthy club at Havana, called the "Casino Espagnol," and similar clubs +on a more modest scale, existed in other cities and important towns +throughout Cuba, and from these, and under their control, there arose a +body known as the "Volunteers." This was ostensibly a military +organization to whose battalions all white men in the Island were +eligible, but as a matter of fact, membership in the Volunteers was +substantially confined to conservatives, loyalists and Spanish +sympathizers. The Volunteers, except in a few special cases, did not go +into the field, but left the actual fighting with insurgents to be done +by regular Spanish troops. They gave their own attention chiefly to the +overawing of the inhabitants of the cities and towns, and to +restraining them from joining the revolutions. They also acted as spies, +discovering and reporting to the Spanish Government the doings of Cuban +patriots. The leaders of the organization formed a "Council of +Colonels," meeting at the Casino Espagnol, and forming a sort of +_imperium in imperio_. + +During the progress of the Ten Years' War, however, the Volunteers were +organized and placed under the command of General Lersuno, and +thereafter exerted a much more militant power than ever before. They +were not under the direct orders of the Captain-General, but enjoyed an +independent authority, and yet they were presently entrusted with the +garrisoning of forts and cities, so that the regular Spanish troops +could go into the field. They exercised far more military, naval and +civil authority than the Captain-General and other royal officials. They +actually compelled the retirement of General Dulce from the +Captain-Generalship because they regarded him as too kindly disposed +toward the Cubans. They similarly drove Caballero de Rodas from office, +and they gave Valmaseda and Ceballos, who followed, to understand that +the success of their administration depended upon their compliance with +the demands and policies of the Volunteers. + +It was due to their opposition that the so-called Moret law, which +provided for the gradual abolition of slavery in Cuba, remained a dead +letter, and was not even published in the Island for several years after +the outside world had supposed it to be in force. The Volunteers were +also responsible for the numerous cases of violence against the patriot +party, the most flagrant of which was the execution of eight Cuban +students of the University of Havana. + +There is no reason to suppose that there was any complicity or +cooperation between the revolution in Spain and the outbreak of the Ten +Years' War in Cuba. Nevertheless, the former practically gave the +signal, for the result of the Spanish revolution was indeed regarded by +Cuban patriots with much satisfaction and enthusiasm. Cries of "Hurrah +for Prim!" "Hurrah for Serrano!" and "Hurrah for the Spanish +Revolution!" were mingled with cries of "Viva Cuba Libre!" and it did +not take long for the disappointed realization to dawn upon Cuba that +liberalism in Spain did not necessarily imply the granting of freedom to +Cuba, but that on the contrary the "Peninsular" revolutionists were +scarcely less intent that the Bourbons had been upon retaining Cuba as +an appanage, and especially as a source of revenue for Spain. + + + + +CHAPTER X + + +Cuban independence was proclaimed on October 10, 1868, at the Yara +plantation. That was the natal date and that was the natal place of the +Republic of Cuba. The event was made known to the world in a Declaration +of Independence, which was issued at Manzanillo, and which was as +follows: + +"In arming ourselves against the tyrannical Government of Spain we must, +according to precedent in all civilized countries, proclaim before the +world the cause that impels us to take this step, which though liable to +entail considerable disturbances upon the present, will insure the +happiness of the future. + +"It is well known that Spain governs the Island of Cuba with an iron and +blood-stained hand. The former holds the latter deprived of political, +civil, and religious liberty. Hence, the unfortunate Cubans being +illegally prosecuted and thrown into exile or executed by military +commissions in times of peace. Hence, their being kept from public +meetings, and forbidden to speak or write on affairs of state; hence, +their remonstrances against the evils that afflict them being looked +upon as the proceedings of rebels, from the fact that they are bound to +keep silence and obey. Hence, the never-ending plague of hungry +officials from Spain to devour the product of their industry and labor. +Hence, their exclusion from public stations and want of opportunity to +skill themselves in the art of government. Hence, the restrictions to +which public instructions with them is subjected, in order to keep them +so ignorant as not to be able to know and enforce their rights in any +shape or form whatever. Hence, the navy and standing army, which are +kept upon their country at an enormous expenditure from their own wealth +to make them bend their knees and submit their necks to the iron yoke +that disgraces them. Hence, the grinding taxation under which they +labor, and which would make them all perish in misery but for the +marvelous fertility of the soil. + +"On the other hand, Cuba cannot prosper as she ought to, because white +immigration that suits her best is artfully kept from her shores by the +Spanish Government, and as Spain has many a time promised us Cubans to +respect our rights without having hitherto fulfilled her promise, as she +continues to tax us heavily and by so doing is likely to destroy our +wealth; as we are in danger of losing our property, our lives, and our +honor under further Spanish domination; as we have reached a depth of +degradation utterly revolting to manhood; as great nations have sprung +from revolt against a similar disgrace, after exhausted pleadings for +relief, as we despair of justice from Spain through reasoning and cannot +longer live deprived of the rights which other people enjoy, we are +constrained to appeal to arms and to assert our rights in the +battle-field, cherishing the hope that our grievances will be a +sufficient excuse for this last resort to redress them and to secure our +future welfare. + +"To the God of our conscience, and to all civilized nations, we submit +the sincerity of our purpose. Vengeance does not mislead us, not is +ambition our guide. We only want to be free and to see all men with us +equally free, as the Creator intended all mankind to be. Our earnest +belief is that all men are brethren. Hence our love of toleration, order +and justice in every respect. We desire the gradual abolition of +slavery, with indemnification; we admire universal suffrage, as it +insures the sovereignty of the people; we demand a religious regard for +the inalienable rights of men as the basis of freedom and nation +greatness." + +Following the Declaration of Independence, the provisional government of +the Republic of Cuba was organized at Bayamo. The most prominent figure +in the organization of the Cuban revolutionists and the first really +constructive leader of the Cuban insurrection was Carlos Manuel +Cespedes, a native of Bayamo. At this time he was in the prime of life, +being forty nine years of age, a man of brilliant intellect and of fine +culture, for he had been educated at the University of Havana, and had, +in 1842, received his degree and license in law from the University of +Barcelona, in Spain. + +Cespedes's openly expressed zeal for the emancipation of the oppressed +Cubans, and the earnest efforts which he had long exerted in their +behalf, had won for him such widespread recognition as a patriot that he +was, without a dissenting voice, chosen for the head of the provisional +government. By nature and training he was admirably suited for the +position, for from boyhood he had been not only enthusiastically devoted +to the cause of Cuban independence, but he had more than once, under +circumstances where his outspoken advocacy of his principles actually +placed his life in jeopardy, proved himself a worthy champion of +freedom, not only for his fellow citizens, but for Spanish subjects +wherever they were being trodden beneath the iron heel of Spanish +oppression. His love of liberty was not a mere enthusiasm, something +superficial and acquired, but it was inborn, a fundamental part of his +character, firmly knit into the very fibre of his life and its +activities. + +While a student in Spain, he had joined the forces of General Prim, +during the latter's first attempt to establish a republic in that +country, and because of his complicity in that revolt, Cespedes had been +banished from Spain. Returning to Cuba, in 1844, he settled at Bayamo, +and took up the practice of law, where his skill as an advocate soon won +him recognition as one of the foremost lawyers of the Island. But again +his hatred of tyranny thrust him forth from the peaceful occupation of +amassing a fortune in the pursuit of jurisprudence. He could not +tranquilly pursue his daily course when he saw injustice and misrule +rampant around him, and so, in 1852, he made a speech, fervidly +denouncing Spain, and calling on high Heaven to aid the independence of +Cuba, which was considered by the authorities to be so incendiary that +he was arrested as a dangerous character, and subsequently suffered a +five months' imprisonment in Morro Castle, at Havana. + +Opportunity soon came to Cespedes to give actual proof that his +principles were not abstract but concrete. The acid test was to be +applied and he was not to be found wanting, for immediately upon the +declaration by the Cuban republic of its principles of freedom and equal +rights for all men, he voluntarily exemplified their operation, so far +as lay in his individual power, by emancipating all the slaves on his +own estate. + +[Illustration: CARLOS MANUEL DE CESPEDES + +The supreme chieftain of the Cuban patriots in the Ten Years' War was +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes y Borges, who before becoming a soldier was +eminent as an advocate, poet, and man of letters. He was born at Bayamo +on April 18, 1819, and completed his education at the University of +Barcelona, Spain. Then he settled in Madrid, became associated with +General Prim, and was implicated in his first attempt at revolution. For +that he was banished to France, and later he was imprisoned for his +Liberal utterances. Returning to Cuba, he personally started the Ten +Years' War, with the story of which as elsewhere related he was +inseparably identified as President of the Cuban Republic. On February +27, 1874, he was betrayed to the Spaniards by a servant who thus sought +to save his own life, and after desperate resistance was wounded, +captured, and put to death.] + +The first decree of the provisional government was issued by General +Cespedes on December 27. It was a proclamation of emancipation, as +follows: + +"The revolution of Cuba, while proclaiming this independence of the +country, has proclaimed with it all the liberties, and could not well +commit the great inconsistency, to restrict them to only one part of the +population of the country. Free Cuba is incompatible with slave +Cuba, and the abolition of the Spanish institutions must include, and by +necessity and by reason of the greatest justice does include, the +abolition of slavery as the most odious of all. Abolition of slavery +has, therefore, been maintained among the principles proclaimed in the +first manifesto issued by the revolution, and in the opinion of all +Cubans, truly liberal, its entire realization must be the first of the +acts for which the country employs its conquered rights. But as a +general measure it can only be fully effected when the country in the +full use of its conquered rights can, by means of universal suffrage, +make the most suitable provision for carrying it through to real +advantage, both for the old and the new citizens. The subject of the +present measure is not, nor can it be, the abrogation of a right which +those who are at present directing the operations of the revolution are +far from believing themselves entitled to invade; thus participating the +solution of so difficult a question. On the other hand, however, the +provisional government could not in its turn oppose the use of a right +which our slaveholders possess in virtue of our laws, and which many of +them wish to exercise, namely, to emancipate their slaves at once. It +also sees how desirable it is to employ at once in the service of the +country the freedmen, and how necessary to make haste to prevent the +evils which they and the country might receive from a failure to employ +them immediately. The government, therefore, urges the adoption of +provisional dispositions, which are to serve as a rule for the military +chiefs in the several districts of this department, in order to solve +the questions presented to them. Therefore, availing myself of the +faculties with which I am invested, I have now resolved that the +following articles be observed. + +"I. Free are the slaves whom their masters at once present to the +military chief for this purpose, the owners reserving, if they choose, a +claim to the indemnification which the nation may decree. + +"II. The freedom shall, for the present, be employed in the service of +the country in such a manner as may be agreed upon. + +"III. To this end a committee shall be appointed to find for them +employment, in accordance with regulations to be issued. + +"IV. In other cases, the slaves of loyal Cubans and of neutral Spaniards +and foreigners shall continue to work, in accordance with the principle +of respect for property proclaimed by the revolution. + +"V. The slaves of those who have been convicted of being enemies of the +country and openly hostile to the revolution, shall be confiscated with +their other property and declared free without a right to indemnity, +utilizing them in the service of the country. + +"VI. The owners who shall place their slaves in the service of the +revolution without freeing them for the present, shall preserve their +right as long as the slaving question in general is not decided. + +"VII. The slaves of the Palisades, who may present themselves to the +Cuban authorities, shall at once be declared free, with a right either +to live among us or to remain among the mountaineers. + +"VIII. The isolated refugees who may be captured, or who may, without +the consent of their masters, present themselves to the authorities or +military chiefs, shall not be received without consulting their +masters." + +Now this first government, of which Cespedes was made the chief, was +merely, after all, a temporary affair, organized to provide ways and +means for creating a more permanent body. Accordingly, on October 30, +1868, less than a month after the Declaration of Independence, Cespedes +issued a proclamation declaring that his election to office had been +only to provide for the time being an acting head of the provisional +government; that he believed that the organization should at once take +on the character of permanency; that he had no thought of imposing his +will upon Cuba; that he realized that he had not been elected to his +place by the suffrage of the Cuban people, and that he had no assurance +that, had they been given an opportunity to individually express +themselves, he would have been their choice; and that, therefore, since +it was practicable for all loyal Cubans to assemble in their respective +communities and by their suffrage constitute a permanent government, he +would gladly abide by their decision, and, if they desired, relinquish +the power with which they had entrusted him. + +In response to this patriotic utterance, a convention was called, on +April 10, 1869, at Guaimaro. The leaders of this first representative +body of the Cuban people were the following: Miguel Gutierrez, Eduardo +Machado, Antonio Lorda, Tranquilino Valdez and Arcadio Garcia, +representing Villa Clara; Honorato Castillo, representing Sancti +Spiritus; Jose Maria Izaguirre, representing Jugari; Antonio Alcada and +Jesus Rodriguez, representing Holguin; and Salvador Cisneros, Francisco +Sanchez, Ignacio Agramonte Loynaz, Miguel Betancourt Guerra and Antonio +Zambrana, representing Camaguey. + +At this convention, Cespedes resigned his position as provisional head +of the government and commander-in-chief of the army, in order that some +one might be regularly elected in his place, and in doing so he +addressed his colleagues in the following memorable terms: + +"Now that the House of Representatives, gathered from all parts of the +Island, has been happily inaugurated in Guaimaro, it becomes from the +moment of its organization the supreme and only authority for all +Cubans, because it constitutes the depository of the people's will, +sovereign of the present and controller of the future. All temporary +power and authority ceases to have a rightful voice in Cuba from the +very moment in which the wise democratic system, laying its solid +foundations beneath the gigantic shadow of the tree of liberty, has come +to endow us--after suffering the most iniquitous rule--with the most +beautiful and magnificent of human institutions--a republican +government. + +"Unfeigned gratitude I owe to the destiny which afforded me the glory of +being the first in Yara to raise the standard of independence, and the +still greater though less merited satisfaction, to see crowded around me +my fellow-citizens in demand of liberty, thus sustaining my weak arm and +stimulating my poor efforts by their confidence. But another glory was +reserved for me, far more grateful by my sentiments and democratic +convictions--that of also being the first to render homage to the +popular sovereignty. + +"This duty fulfilled, having given an account to the fatherland of its +most genuine representation of the work which with the assistance of its +own heroic sons I had the good fortune to have commenced, it still +behooves me, fellow-citizens, to fulfill another, not less imperious to +my heart, of addressing my gratitude to you--to you, without whom my +humble, isolated efforts would not have produced other fruit than that +of adding one patriot more to the number of preceding martyrs for +independence--to you, who, recognizing in me the principle rather than +the man, came to stimulate me by your recognition of myself as chief of +the provisional government and the liberating army. + +"Fellow citizens of the Eastern Department, your efforts as initiators +of the struggle against tyranny, your constancy, your sufferings, your +heroic sacrifices of all descriptions, your privations, the combat +without quarters which you have sustained and continue to sustain +against an enemy far superior in armament and discipline, and who +displays, for want of the valor which a good cause inspires, all the +ferocity which is the attitude of tyranny, have been witnessed by +myself, and so will remain eternally present to my heart. You are the +vanguard of the soldiers of our liberties. I commend you to the +admiration and to the gratitude of the Cubans. Continue your abnegation +of self, your discipline, your valor, and your enthusiasm, which will +entitle you to that gratitude and that admiration. + +"Fellow citizens of the Western Department, if it has not been your good +fortune to be the first in grasping arms, neither were you among the +last in listening to the voice of the fatherland that cried for +revolution. Your moral aid and assistance responded from the very outset +to the call of your brethren of the Eastern and Central Departments. +Many of you hastened to the scene of revolution to share our colors. At +this moment, despite the activity displayed by the Spanish Government in +your districts, where its resources and the number of its hosts render +more difficult the current of the revolution, that same Government +trembles before your determined attitude, from the Las Villas to Havana, +and from Havana to the western boundary, and your first deeds of arms +were the presage to you and the brave and worthy sons of the Eastern and +Central Departments of new and decisive triumphs. + +"Fellow citizens of all the Island: The blood of the patriots who have +fallen during the first onset of the struggle has consecrated our +aspirations with a glorious baptism. At this moment, when destiny has +been pleased to close the mission of him who was your first leader, +swear with him by that generous blood, that in order to render fruitful +that great sacrifice you will shed your own, to the very last drop, in +furtherance of the consummation of our independence, proclaimed in Yara. +Swear with me to give up our lives a thousand times over in sustaining +the republic proclaimed in Guaimaro. + +"Fellow citizens, long live our independence. Long live the popular +sovereignty! Long live the Cuban Republic! Patria and liberty!" + +The convention before proceeding to the election of officers of the +Republic, drafted and adopted the first Constitution of Free Cuba, as +follows: + +"Article I. The legislative power shall be vested in a House of +Representatives. + +"Article II. To this body shall be delegated an equal representation +from each of the four states into which the Island of Cuba shall be +divided. + +"Article III. These states are Oriente, Camaguey, Las Villas and +Occidente. + +"Article IV. No one shall be eligible as representatives of any of these +states except a citizen of the Republic, who is upward of 20 years of +age. + +"Article V. No representative of any state shall hold any other official +position during his representative term. + +"Article VI. Whenever a vacancy occurs in the representation of any +state, the executive thereof shall have power to fill such vacancy until +the ensuing election. + +"Article VII. The House of Representatives shall elect a President of +the Republic, a General-in-Chief of its Armies, a President of the +Congress and other executive officers. The General-in-Chief shall be +subordinate to the Executive, and shall render him an account of the +performance of his duties. + +"Article VIII. The President of the Republic, the General-in-Chief and +the Members of the House of Representatives are amenable to charges +which may be made by any citizen to the House of Representatives, which +shall proceed to examine into the charges preferred; and if in their +judgment it be necessary the case of the accused shall be submitted to +the Judiciary. + +"Article IX. The House of Representatives shall have full power to +dismiss from office any functionary whom they have convicted. + +"Article X. The legislative acts and decisions of the House of +Representatives, in order to be valid and binding, must have the +sanction of the President of the Republic. + +"Article XI. If the President fails to approve the acts and decisions of +the House, he shall, without delay, return the same with his objections +thereto, for the reconsideration of that body. + +"Article XII. Within 10 days after their reception, the President shall +return all bills, resolutions and enactments which may be sent to him by +the House for his approval, with his sanction thereof, or with his +objections thereto. + +"Article XIII. Upon the passage of any Act, Bill or Resolution, after a +reconsideration thereof, by the House, it shall be sanctioned by the +President. + +"Article XIV. The House of Representatives shall legislate upon +Taxation, Public Loans, and Ratification of Treaties; and shall have +power to declare and conclude War, to authorize the President to issue +letters of marque, to raise troops and provide for their support, to +organize and maintain a Navy, and to regulate reprisals as to the +public enemy. + +"Article XV. The House of Representatives shall remain in permanent +session from the time of the ratification of this fundamental law by the +People until the termination of the war with Spain. + +"Article XVI. The Executive Power shall be vested in the President of +the Republic. + +"Article XVII. No one shall be eligible to the Presidency, who is not a +native of the Republic, and over 30 years of age. + +"Article XVIII. All treaties made by the President may be ratified by +the House of Representatives. + +"Article XIX. The President shall have power to appoint Ambassadors, +Ministers-plenipotentiary, and Consuls of the Republic, to foreign +countries. + +"Article XX. The President shall treat with Ambassadors, and shall see +that the laws are faithfully executed. He shall also issue commissions +to all the functionaries of the Republic. + +"Article XXI. The President shall propose the names of the members of +his Cabinet to the House of Representatives for its approval. + +"Article XXII. The Judiciary shall form an independent co-ordinate +department of the Government, under the organization of a special law. + +"Article XXIII. Voters are required to possess the same qualifications +as to age and citizenship as the members of House of Representatives. + +"Article XXIV. All the inhabitants of the Republic of Cuba are +absolutely free. + +"Article XXV. All the citizens are considered as soldiers of the +Liberating Army. + +"Article XXVI. The Republic shall not bestow dignities, titles, nor +special privileges. + +"Article XXVII. The citizens of the Republic shall not accept honors nor +titles from foreign countries. + +"Article XXVIII. The House of Representatives shall not abridge the +Freedom of Religion, nor of the Press, nor of Public Meetings, nor of +Education, nor of Petition, nor any inalienable Right of the People. + +"Article XXIX. The Constitution can be amended only by the unanimous +concurrence of the House of Representatives." + +[Illustration: MANUEL QUESADA] + +The next day the Convention proceeded to the election of officers of the +House of Representatives. Salvador Cisneros was elected President; +Ignacio Agramonte Loynaz and Antonio Zambrana were elected Secretaries, +and Miguel Betancourt and Eduardo Machado, Vice-Secretaries. + + MANUEL QUESADA + + Manuel Quesada, for a time military head of the Ten Years' War, was + born in Camaguey in 1830. He was banished for political reasons and + went to Mexico, where he fought under Benito Juarez. In 1868 he + joined the patriot army and became one of its leaders; in 1870 + being its commander in chief. Failing to carry the war into Pinar + del Rio, he went on a trip to Venezuela, and trying to return was + pursued by a Spanish cruiser and took refuge in Santo Domingo. On + his final return to Cuba he was deposed from his command for being + too ambitious and autocratic, whereupon he went to the United + States and thence to Venezuela, where he died in 1886. + +The seventh article of the Constitution was immediately put into +practice, when the convention, constituting itself a House of +Representatives, confirmed the confidence of the Cuban peoples in +Cespedes, by appointing him President of the Republic of Cuba, while +Manuel Quesada was made Commander-in-Chief of the Army. President +Cespedes immediately assumed his office and issued this proclamation: + + "To the People of Cuba: + + "Compatriots: The establishment of a free government in Cuba, on + the basis of democratic principles, was the most fervent wish of my + heart. The effective realization of this wish was, therefore, + enough to satisfy my aspirations and amply repay the services + which, jointly with you, I may have been able to devote to the + cause of Cuban independence. But the will of my compatriots has + gone far beyond this, by investing me with the most honored of all + duties, the supreme magistracy of the Republic. + + "I am not blind to the great labors required in the exercise of the + high functions which you have placed in my charge in these critical + moments, notwithstanding the aid that may be derived from other + powers of the state. I am not ignorant of the grave responsibility + which I assume in accepting the Presidency of our new-born + Republic. I know that my weak powers would be far from being equal + to the demand if left to themselves alone. But this will not occur + and that conviction fills me with faith in the future. + + "In the act of beginning the struggle with the oppressors, Cuba has + assumed the solemn duty to consummate her independence or perish in + the attempt, and in giving herself a democratic government she + obligates herself to become Republican. This double obligation, + contracted in the presence of free America, before the liberal + world, and, what is more, before our own conscience, signifies our + determination to be heroic and to be virtuous. + + "Cubans! On your heroism I rely for the consummation of our + independence, and on your virtue I count to consolidate the + Republic. You may count on my abnegation of self. + + "CARLOS DE CESPEDES. + + "Guaimaro, April 11, 1869." + +This was followed two days later by General Quesada's proclamation: + + "Citizen Chiefs, Officers and Soldiers of the Liberating Army of + Cuba: When I returned to my country to place my sword at your + service, fulfilling the most sacred of duties, realizing the most + intense aspiration of my life, the vote of the Camagueyans, to my + surprise, honored me by conferring on me the command of their army. + Notwithstanding my poor merits and capacity, I accepted the post + because I expected to find and did find in the Camagueyans civic + virtues well established, and this has rendered supportable the + charge of the responsibility which I assumed. + + "Now the legislative power of the Republic has filled me with a + greater surprise, promoting me to the Command-in-Chief of the + liberating army of Cuba. The want of confidence in my own resources + naturally moves me anew upon stronger grounds, although it also + strengthens the conviction that the patriotism of my brethren will + supply the insufficiency of my capacity. + + "Camagueyans! You have given me undoubted proofs of your virtues. + You are models of subordination and enthusiasm. Preserve and extend + your discipline! + + "Soldiers of the East! Initiators of our sacred revolution! + Veterans of Cuba! I salute you with sincere affection, counting on + your gallant chiefs, in order that they may aid me in realizing the + eminent work which we have undertaken, and I hope that union will + strengthen our forces. + + "Soldiers of the Villas! You have already struggled with the + despot. I felicitate you for the efforts made and invite you to + continue them. You are patriots. You will be victors. + + "Soldiers of the West! I know your heroic exploits, and venerate + them. I am well aware of the disadvantage of the situation in which + you find yourselves, in contrast with our oppressors, and it is our + purpose to remedy this. Accept the homage of my admiration and the + succor of my arms. + + "Citizen chiefs, officers, and soldiers of the Cuban Army! Union, + discipline, and perseverance! + + "The rapid increase which the glorious new Cuba has taken frightens + our oppressors, who now are suffering the pangs of desperation, and + carrying on a war of vengeance, not of principles. The tyrant + Valmaseda rages with the incendiary's torch and the homicidal knife + over the fields of Cuba. He has never done otherwise, but now he + adds to his crime the still greater one of publishing it by a + proclamation, which we can only describe by pronouncing it to be a + proclamation worthy of the Spanish Government. Thereby our property + is menaced by fire and pillage. This is nothing. It threatens us + with death; and this is nothing. But even our mothers, wives, + daughters, and sisters are menaced with resort to violence. + + "Ferocity is the valor of cowards. + + "I implore you, sons of Cuba, to recollect at all hours the + proclamation of Valmaseda. That document will shorten the time + necessary for the triumph of our cause. That document is an + additional proof of the character of our enemies. Those beings + appear deprived even of those gifts which Nature has conceded to + the irrationals--the instinct of foresight and of warning. We have + to struggle with tyrants, always such; the very same ones of the + Inquisition, of the Conquest, and of Spanish dominion in America. + In birth and in death they live and succeed; the Torquemadas, the + Pizarros, the Boves, the Morillos, the Tacons, the Conchas, and the + Valmasedas. We have to combat with the assassins of old women and + of children, with the mutilators of the dead, with the idolaters of + gold! + + "Cubans! If you would save your honor and that of your families; if + you would conquer forever your liberty, be soldiers. War leads you + to peace and to happiness. Inertia precipitates you to misfortune + and to dishonor. Viva Cuba! Viva the President of the Republic! + Viva the Liberating Army! Patria and Liberty! + + "MANUEL QUESADA." + +The proclamation of Count Valmaseda, to which General Quesada referred, +had been issued at Bayamo on April 4, and was as follows: + + "Inhabitants of the Country-- + + "The forces which I expected have arrived. With them I will afford + protection to the good and summarily punish all those who still + rebel against the government of the metropolis. + + "Know ye that I have pardoned those who have fought against us, + armed; know ye that your wives, mothers and sisters have in me + found the protection they admired and which you rejected; know, + also, that many of the pardoned have turned against me. After all + these excesses, after so much ingratitude and so much villainy, it + is impossible for me to be the man I was heretofore. Deceptive + neutrality is no longer possible. 'He that is not with me is + against me,' and in order that my soldiers may know how to + distinguish you, hearken to the orders given them: + + "Every man from the age of 15 upward, found beyond his farm, will + be shot, unless a justification for his absence be proven. + + "Every hut that is found uninhabited will be burned by the troops. + + "Every hamlet where a white cloth in the shape of a flag is not + hoisted in token that its inhabitants desire peace, will be reduced + to ashes. + + "The women who are not found in their respective dwellings, or in + those of their relatives, will return to the towns of Jiguani or + Bayamo, where they will be duly provided for. Those who fail to do + so will be taken by compulsion. These orders will be in force on + and after the 14th inst.! + + "COUNT VALMASEDA. + + "Bayamo, April 4, 1869." + +General Cespedes about this time sent to the Government of the United +States, in his name and in that of the Provisional Government of Cuba, a +request for recognition, as belligerents. His letter contained these +references to the strength of the movement in Cuba: + +"We now hold much more than fifty leagues of the interior of this Island +in the Eastern Department, among which are the people (or communities) +of Jiguani, Tunas, Baire, Yara, Barrancas, Datil, Cauto, Embarcadero, +Guisa, and Horno, besides the cities of Bayamo and Holguin, in all +numbering 107,853 inhabitants, who obey us, and have sworn to shed to +the last drop of blood in our cause. + +"In the mentioned city of Bayamo, we have established a provisional +government, and formed our general quarters, where we hold more than +three hundred of the enemy prisoners, taken from the Spanish Army, among +whom are generals and governors of high rank. All this has been +accomplished in ten days, without other resources than those offered by +the country we have passed through, without other losses than three or +four killed and six or eight wounded." + +However this impressed the Government at Washington, and notwithstanding +the marked sympathy in the United States for the cause of the Republic, +the desired recognition was not obtained. + +The impression of the revolution and its leaders which was given to the +people of the United States may be judged from what was written by an +authoritative correspondent of the New York _Tribune_: + +[Illustration: FRANCISCO V. AGUILERA] + + FRANCISCO V. AGUILERA + + One of the organizers of the Ten Years' War, Francisco V. Aguilera + was born at Bayamo in 1821, of a wealthy and distinguished family, + and was finely educated in America and Europe. Although married to + the daughter of the Spanish Governor of Santiago, General Kindelan, + he was an ardent patriot, liberating his slaves and giving his + great fortune to the cause of independence. He served in the Ten + Years' War as Secretary of War and as Commander in Chief in + Oriente; and succeeded Salvador Cisneros Betancourt as President of + the Revolutionary government. He died in New York on February 22, + 1877, and though his government had not been officially recognized, + full honors as to a Chief of State were paid at his funeral. + +"General Cespedes, the hero and chief of the revolt--is a man of good +appearance, fifty years of age, and has traveled in the United States. +His second in command, Arango, the Marquis of Santa Lucia, is a native +of Puerto Principe, and at taking part in the insurrection emancipated +his slaves. General Aguilera was a man of great wealth, and had once +held under the Government the office of mayor over the town of Bayamo +just burnt by the rebels. He too released his slaves. General Donato +Marmol bears the repute of having genuine military talent, as he is +said to have defeated his opponents in most of their encounters with +him, and signally at Bairi, in the Eastern District. He is admired for +the ready invention of a new weapon of defence in war, which is called +the horguetilla, and is a kind of hook to resist bayonet charges. The +hook, which can be made without much trouble, of wood, is held with the +left hand to catch the bayonet, while with the right the rebel brings +his rude machete, a kind of sword, down upon his Spanish foe. General +Quesada, the other mentionable Cuban leader, served with credit on the +side of Juarez during the intervention in Mexico. The soldiers of the +revolt are of the rawest kind. A good part of them have been recruited +from the emancipated slaves of Cespedes, Arango, and Aguilera. Many of +the weapons are of the poorest kind, but I have heard that a certain +number of Enfields have been furnished them, and lately some hand +grenades. It is told me that no help, or exceedingly little, has reached +them from the North. Among some other things of their own device, they +have been employing wooden cannon, good for one shot and no more." + +The insurrection was eagerly supported by the "Juntas of the Laborers." +These societies, formed at the suggestion of Rafael Merchan, issued a +proclamation which enumerated the wrongs and insults endured by them +under the Spanish rule of Cuba, and stated the principles for which they +were willing to fight: + +"The Laborers, animated by the love for their native land, aspire to the +hope of seeing Cuba happy and prosperous by virtue of her own power, and +demand the inviolability of individuals, their homes, their families, +and the fruits of their labor, which they would have guaranteed by the +liberty of conscience, of speech, of the press, and of peaceful +meetings. In fact, they demand a government of the country for and by +the country, free from an army of parasites and soldiers that only +serves to consume it and oppress it. And, as nothing of that kind can be +obtained from Spain, they intend to fight that power with all available +means, and drive and uproot its domination from the face of Cuba. +Respecting above all and before all the dignity of man, the association +declares that it will not accept slavery as a forced inheritance of the +past. However, instead of abolishing it as an arm by which to sink the +Island into barbarity, as threatened by the government of Spain, they +view abolition as a means of improving the moral and national condition +of the working men, and thereby to place property and wealth in a more +just and safe position. + +"Sons of their times, baptised in the vivid stream of civilization, and, +therefore above preoccupation of nationality, the laborers will respect +the neutrality of Spaniards, but among Cubans will distinguish only +friends and foes, those that are with them or against them. To the +former they offer peace, fraternity, and concord; to the latter, +brutality and war--war and brutality that will be more implacable to the +traitors to Cuba, where they first saw the day, who turn their arms +against them, or offer any asylum or refuge to their tyrants. We, the +laborers, do not ignore the value of nationality, but at the present +moment consider it of secondary moment. Before nationality stands +liberty, the indisputable condition of existence. We must be a people +before becoming a nation. When the Cubans constitute a free people they +will receive the nationality that becomes them. Now they have none." + +The Captain-General replied to this in January, 1869, with a +proclamation, full of promises which, however, were never fulfilled. It +said: + +"I will brave every danger, accept every responsibility, for your +welfare. The revolution has swept away the Bourbon dynasty, tearing up +by the roots a plant so poisonous that it polluted the air we breathe. +To the citizen shall be returned his rights, to man his dignity. You +will receive all the reforms which you require. Cubans and Spaniards are +all brothers. From this day, Cuba will be considered a province of +Spain. Freedom of the press, the right of meeting in public, and +representation in the national Cortes, the three fundamental principles +of true liberty, are granted you. + +"Cubans and Spaniards! Speaking in the name of our mother, Spain, I +adjure you to forget the past, hope for the future, and establish union +and fraternity." + +Cuba had declared herself to be an independent state, but that was +merely the first step in establishing her independence, and a long and +bitter struggle lay before her before she could hope to accomplish in +fact that for which her loyal citizens had armed themselves and which +they were determined to achieve. + +The first regularly elected House of Representatives took their seats at +Guaimaro, whereupon the members of the former convention resigned their +seats to their successors. In the new House, Jorge Milanes was elected +from the District of Manzanillo, Manuel Gomez Silva from Camaguey, +Manuel Gomez Pena from Guantanamo, Tomas Estrada from Cobre, Pio Posada +from Santiago de Cuba, Fernando Fornaris from Bayamo, and Pedro Aguero +from Las Tunas. Later sessions of the House of Representatives were held +at Cascorro and at Sibanico. These towns, held sacred by Cubans as the +birthplaces of liberty, were stoutly defended during the revolution, and +in spite of repeated efforts the Spaniards were never able to effect +their capture, although they used their most highly trained troops, and +most efficient officers in their attacks. + +Beginning with August 6, 1869, the Assembly began to organize the +government along the most enlightened lines, and provided for the +administration of justice by establishing a Judiciary Department with +the following branches: + +1. A Supreme Court. + +2. Criminal Judges. + +3. Civil Judges. + +4. Prefects and sub-prefects. + +5. Court Martial. + +The Supreme Court was composed of a presiding officer, two judges and a +judge-advocate. Each of the states of the Republic was divided into +districts, and a civil and criminal judge as well as an attorney for the +Commonwealth were appointed for each district. + +Each state was to be ruled by a Civil Governor, and each district by a +Lieutenant-Governor, while the districts were divided into prefects and +sub-prefects, each with its appropriate ruler. The officers in question +were in every case to be elected by popular suffrage. + +A chronological enumeration of the laws enacted by the Congress during +1869 is not only pertinent, but it divulges their evident intention to +administer the government of the island, should they obtain the power to +do so, along the most humane and enlightened lines. + +On May 11, 1869, an amnesty was granted to all political prisoners, who +had not already been sentenced. + +On June 4, much needed provisions for civil marriages, and regulations +concerning the same, were enacted. + +On June 7, the commerce of the Republic was declared free to all +nations. + +The enactment of June 15, while a customary proceeding, would have a +touch of irony connected with it, if it were not almost pathetic, as +revealing the sturdy belief of these officials of the young Republic in +the ultimate triumph of their cause. It was an authorization of the +issue of $2,000,700 of legal tender paper money, to be redeemed by the +Republic in coin, at par, when circumstances enabled them to do so--that +is when they had conquered the enemy and established their Republic on a +lasting basis. The bills thus issued had already reached the officers of +the Republic, having been engraved in New York, and sent to Cuba by the +New York Junta. + +[Illustration: BERNABE DE VARONA] + +On July 9, the army was definitely organized, and this organization +remained in force until the capture and death of General Quesada. It was +as follows: + + Commander-in-Chief General Manuel Quesada + Chief-of-Staff General Thomas Jordan + Chief of Artillery Major Beauvilliers + Brigadier-Major of Orders Major Bernabe Varona + Sanitary Department Adolfo Varona + + _First Division_ _Army of Camaguey_ + Major General Ignacio Agramonte + Commanding 1st Brigade Colonel Miguel Bosse + " 2d Brigade General Francisco Castillo + " 3d Brigade Colonel Cornelio Porro + " 4th Brigade Colonel Lope Recio + " 5th Brigade Colonel Manuel Valdes Urra + " 6th Brigade Colonel Manuel Agramonte + " 1st Battalion Colonel Pedro Recio + " 2d Battalion Colonel Jose Lino Cica + " 3d Battalion Colonel Rafael Bobadilla + + _Second Division_ _Army of Oriente_ + Major General Francisco Aguilera + Commanding 1st Brigade General Donate Marmol + " 2d Brigade General Luis Marcano + " 3d Brigade General Julio Peralta + + _Third Division_ _Army of Las Villas_ + Commanding 1st Brigade General C. Acosta + " 2d Brigade General Salome Hernandez + " 3d Brigade General Adolfo Cabada + +A law was enacted providing that every citizen of the Republic, between +the ages of 18 and 50 years, must under compulsion take up arms for the +cause of liberty. + + BERNABE DE VARONA + + Bernabe de Varona, a brilliant writer and devoted patriot, was born + at Camaguey in 1845, a member of a distinguished family. He entered + the Ten Years War with much zeal and displayed exceptional military + skill. He went on various patriotic missions to New York, to France + and to Mexico, and was instrumental in securing much aid for the + patriot cause. His last expedition was on the ill-fated + _Virginius_, on which he was captured and shot to death at Santiago + de Cuba on November 4, 1873. + +On August 7, the powers of the various officers of the Government, +including the Secretaries of State, were described and fixed. + +From the foregoing it will be seen that the officers of the new Republic +had high aspirations for an orderly government, and for the just +administration of wise laws for the benefit of the people. +Unfortunately, in a large measure, the Republic of Cuba established at +that time was a government only in name, and was not destined to take +the reins in administering the affairs of the Island, except in a more +or less theoretical way. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + + +A revolution usually involves fighting as well as the organization of a +government. In the case of Cuba, this was especially inevitable. It was +realized by the patriots in advance that the redemption of Cuba from the +tyranny of Spain could only be accomplished by force of arms, and +consequently plans to that effect had been carefully perfected in +advance. It was highly creditable to the Cubans that they so promptly +organized a dignified and worthy government, and adopted a constitution +favorably comparable with that of any other republic in the world. It +was no less creditable to their judgment and their earnestness that they +had already prepared for extensive military operations, and that they at +once entered upon these in a vigorous and systematic manner. Plans for +the uprising had indeed been matured before the breaking out of the +revolution in Spain, but the latter event undoubtedly hastened the +execution of their designs. + +At the outset, before complete organization was effected, the insurgents +at Bayamo were under the leadership of Francisco V. Aguilera, Manuel A. +Aguilera and Francisco M. Osorio; at Manzanillo the leader was Carlos +Manuel Cespedes; at Holguin, Belisario Alvarez was in command; at Las +Tunas, Vincente Garcia; at Jiguani, Donato Marmol; and at Santiago, +Manuel Fernandez. + +When Cespedes issued his proclamation on October 10, the insurgents had +only 147 men in their ranks, armed with forty-five fowling pieces, four +rifles, and a few pistols and machetes--not enough arms to provide one +weapon apiece. But volunteers began to flock to their standards and in +two days the army had increased to over twenty-six times its original +strength, and numbered upwards of four thousand men, while at the end of +the month it had more than doubled, and had grown to nine thousand seven +hundred. By November 8, the revolutionary army contained twelve thousand +men, and at the end of 1868, it had grown to twenty-six thousand. + +But even this growth did not give them anything like the strength of the +Spanish Army in Cuba. In October, 1868, Spain had in Cuba twelve +regiments of infantry, one corps of engineers, one regiment of +artillery, two regiments of cavalry, one section of civil guards, one +regiment of armed firemen, one regiment of prison guards, and five +regiments of infantry and cavalry militia, amounting to the following: + + Regular troops of all kinds, including officers 14,300 + Civil guards 640 + Prison guards 120 + Armed firemen 1,000 + Infantry and cavalry militia 3,400 + Soldiers who had served their time but had been + kept in service 300 + ------ + 19,760 + +These troops were distributed to the proportion of three-fifths of them +in the Western Department, and the remainder divided between the Central +and Eastern Departments. They were amply armed and munitioned, although +it must be admitted that not all of their armament was of the newest +pattern. It was, however, in excellent condition and they had six +thousand of the latest model Remington rifles. + +At the end of the year, the Spanish troops had been augmented by large +reinforcements from the mother country, so that Spain had in the field a +thoroughly organized and abundantly equipped army of about 110,000 men, +which, of course, was capable of being greatly increased. She also had +in Cuban waters the following men of war, at the beginning of October, +1868: + + 2 Steam frigates 91 guns + 2 2d class steamers 12 guns + 5 3d class steamers 10 guns + 5 screw steamers, schooner rigged 15 guns + -------- + 128 guns + +Of course, she at once added to this navy, and it soon grew to +formidable proportions, while the revolutionists had no navy at all, +with which to repel Spanish attacks from the sea. + +Despite the great preponderance of forces in its favor, the Spanish +government did not at first depend upon military prowess for the +suppression of the insurrection and the retention of Cuba as its colony. +This was perhaps, in a measure, because of the revolution in Spain, +which was keeping the Government well occupied with its internal +affairs, and also because of the desire of some of the liberal leaders +in Spain to avoid endless strife and bloodshed. Therefore at first, +pacific measures were contemplated. It had been thought that General +Dulce, as Captain-General of the Island for his third term, would be +able to effect a compromise with the Cubans, because of his kindly +disposition, and the good feeling which prevailed between him and the +Cubans. His good offices were greatly hampered and off-set by the +arrogance of the Volunteers, who did not hold him in high regard, since +they thought him much too gentle with the Cubans, and who were not in +sympathy with his mediations. Perhaps the flame of revolution had now +grown too hot to be quenched by soothing measures. At any rate, the hope +of the Spanish Government proved delusive. On the one hand, the patriot +leaders were outspoken in their unwillingness to accept Dulce's +proposals of an amicable settlement, based on compromise; and on the +other, the Volunteers frankly opposed making any concessions to the +Islanders, and directed all their influence against every measure which +Dulce offered as a solution. In this they had the ulterior motive of +driving Dulce from office, so that there might be placed in his position +a more arbitrary and ruthless man, one of their own kidney. + +In reviewing the state of affairs in Cuba at this early stage of the Ten +Years' War, and comparing the strength and composition of the contending +forces, it should be borne in mind that the Cuban army in the field was +a mere fragment of the potential strength of the Cuban people. There +were probably 150,000 Cubans, able bodied and of military age, who were +both willing and eager to enter the war, but who were restrained from so +doing for fear of what would befall their families if they identified +themselves openly with the patriot cause. If they left their homes to +take the field, their wives and children would be at the mercy of +Spanish troops or of the still more to be dreaded and pitiless +Volunteers. If we add to this the not unnatural doubt of the possibility +of succeeding in the revolt against the formidable power of Peninsular +Spain--a doubt fostered and confirmed by the failure of the former +attempts--we cannot blame the Cubans for not more generally +participating in active operations. Their absentation from so doing is +to be charged not, certainly, to cowardice or to lack of patriotism, +but to an excess of prudence. + +In these circumstances, the numerical odds were at the beginning, and +remained all through the war, tremendously against the Cubans. Besides +this their army in a large measure, particularly at the beginning, +consisted of men who had had no experience in warlike manoeuvres, and +who lacked military drilling, for while preparations for uprisings had +been as constant as had been the uprisings themselves, naturally the +revolutionists, when their revolt was in an incipient stage, did not +wish to call attention to what they were planning by putting their +sympathizers through military tactics. The Cuban Army also lacked a +tremendous stabilizer of morale, in not being properly uniformed, but +rather presenting a motley appearance on the field. In fact there were +many times when they were so hard put that they were not only +inadequately clothed, but suffered for lack of food. The fact that they +were able so frequently to defeat the highly trained and well equipped +Spanish forces, and to hold their ground as successfully, as they did +year after year, is the highest possible tribute to their valor, their +intelligence in military matters, and their patriotic devotion. + +The earliest engagements between the opposing forces occurred on October +13, 1868, at three places, not widely separated; Yara, Bairi and +Jiguani; in all of which the Cuban patriots were successful. The last of +the three named was considered by the patriots to be an extremely +important victory, and was accomplished by troops under the command of +General Donato Marmol. Heartened by this good fortune, the patriots on +October 15 laid siege to Bayamo, and three days later effected its +capture; whereupon that place was made the temporary seat of the Cuban +Government. These victories were all the more creditable and encouraging +because, we must remember, while the Spanish Army numbered many +thousands--scattered it is true in various parts of the Island--the +Cuban Army was only one-fourth as large and poorly armed and equipped. +At all times during the first engagements, the patriots were +outnumbered, but they made up in courage what they lacked in numbers, +and their enthusiasm and zeal for the cause for which they were fighting +carried them safely against tremendous odds. + +Late in October--on the 26th to be exact--the patriots attacked the +Spanish troops at Las Tunas, and also at Villa del Cobre at the foot of +Monte Alta Garcia, between Puerto Principe and Nuevitas, and at Moran. +In all these engagements the Cubans were greatly hampered by the serious +lack of arms and munitions, but if they were not entirely successful +they were far from routed, they lost little ground, and maintained very +complete control over those portions of the Central and Eastern +Departments which were in sympathy with them. + +By the early part of November, 1868, the Cubans had thoroughly beaten +the troops under the command of the Spanish Colonel Demetrio Quiros, and +forced him to retreat, and were thus enabled to advance into the very +suburbs of Santiago de Cuba, the ancient capital of the Island, and at +this time the capital of the Eastern Department. They promptly cut the +aqueduct which supplied that city with water, and thereby caused not +only great discomfort but something resembling panic among the +inhabitants. The patriots were naturally reluctant to resort to such +measures, because of the suffering which it caused to their own friends +and sympathizers; yet if the Spanish garrison in Santiago was to be +brought to terms, any strategic advantage which the Cubans could +acquire must be used to the utmost. + +The third week in November found them in possession of the towns of El +Caney and El Cobre; the latter famous as the site of the first copper +mines opened in Cuba, and the former as the scene of one of the sharpest +engagements of the United States war with Spain in 1898. The patriots +kept control of these two places for several weeks, and then deeming it +inexpedient to undertake any further operations against Santiago, which +was not only garrisoned by the Spanish Army but also protected by the +Spanish fleet, they withdrew their forces to the defense of Bayamo, +which was now being seriously threatened by the troops of Count +Valmaseda, reenforced by those under Colonel Lono, who had come thither +from Manati, under Colonel Campillo from Manzanillo, Colonel Mana from +Puerto Principe, and Colonel Quiro, who had hastened to Bayamo from +Santiago. With all these Spanish troops, well armed and abundantly +supplied with ammunition concentering upon the place, President Cespedes +realized that it would be impolitic to attempt to resist a siege. After +consultation with his associates, the result of which was a unanimous +decision, he set fire to the city and withdrew his troops. In +consequence, when Valmaseda arrived a little later, he found nothing +left of Bayamo but ruins. + +This loss of their temporary capital did not perceptibly weaken the +Cuban position; indeed the patriot cause steadily grew in strength and +numbers. The entire jurisdiction of Holguin revolted against Spanish +authority, on October 28, and the inhabitants, in large numbers, rushed +to take up arms with the patriots. A week later Camaguey followed the +example of Holguin. The Spanish government both at home and in Cuba was +in the position of a man sitting on a couch under which had been stored +a quantity of bombs, all timed to go off at irregular intervals, and +from which position there was no escape. They did not know which way to +jump. The high officials in both countries lived in an uncertainty as to +events in Cuba which must have been nerve racking. Indeed--to mix our +metaphors--they never knew where the fever of revolutions was scheduled +to break out next. If they succeeded in getting it under control in one +place, and began to feel a bit secure against an epidemic, the next +morning they found what to them seemed a new eruption, and one which +they had not been able to anticipate. They conquered, or apparently +subdued, the patriots in one portion of the Island, and immediately +those in another burst forth into active opposition to what the Spanish +government would have termed law and order, but which the insurgents +called by the less pleasant terms of cruelty and unjust oppressions. And +occasionally, as we have seen, there glimmered in some Spanish +intelligence a faint doubt as to the efficacy of their usual methods, +and then for a very short time the authorities would try temporizing. +But the patriots had not suffered for generations from Spanish misrule +without having learned to mistrust the wiles of their oppressors, and +they viewed with more or less cynicism any surface indications of a less +tyrannous rule. + +With the revolts of Camaguey and Holguin, the Spanish authorities came +to the conclusion that it was about time to try temporizing, and to +endeavor in some way to pacify the patriots. It may be that they would +have actually made concessions--we have it from one authority that they +were willing at this time to grant almost anything but the one thing +which was the single desire of the patriots. At any rate, on January 19, +1869, they made a formal proposal for a meeting between representatives +of the belligerents for the discussion of the issues between them, and +for a serious attempt to effect a compromise. President Cespedes felt +that the time for compromise had passed, long years before. The die had +been cast. The revolution had one aim, complete freedom, and that was +above all things the one concession which the Spaniards would not make. +But he was too clever not to realize that after all something might be +gained by compliance, if no more than a chance to feel out the mettle +and present designs of the Spaniards. It was possible that if he sent a +clever enough envoy he might learn much that would be to his advantage +in future negotiations. He was under no obligation to consent to or even +to consider seriously any terms which the Spaniards might offer, so that +he had nothing to lose by such a proceeding, and it was barely possible +that he might gain valuable information. + +So he assented to the proposal, and sent his representative, Augustin +Arango, to Puerto Principe, under safe conduct issued by the Spanish +Government at Manzanillo. It is probable that the safe conduct would +have been respected by the Spanish authorities and Spanish troops. But +unfortunately, not only for the innocent envoy, and for the patriots, +but also for any hope that the Spaniards may have entertained--if indeed +their offer had been made in good faith, and there is always a measure +of doubt, in the face of their usual trickery--of an amicable +understanding, Arango fell into the hands of the Volunteers, who, in +quite characteristic manner, contemptuously disregarded the credentials +of their own government, and cruelly and brutally murdered General +Cespedes's messenger, immediately upon his entrance into Puerto +Principe. + +It is not difficult to picture the rage and disgust of the patriots at +this new example of Spanish perfidy, which so clearly demonstrated the +futility of attempting any negotiations of any kind whatever with an +enemy capable of such lack of honor. The death of Arango, therefore, put +an end to the farce of Spanish pretended repentance. And this +circumstance did not pass without the news being spread all over the +island. Patriots who had been timidly balancing themselves in outward +neutrality, were so aroused with indignation that they began boldly to +plunge into the maelstrom of civil war. On February 9, 1869, the entire +district of Las Tunas revolted and cast its lot with the insurgents. +Each new act of injustice emanating from the Spaniards was like removing +the supports of a dam behind which had been restrained the waters of +patriotism. The Spaniards had killed one Cuban patriot in cold blood; +the cause of revolutions had gained thousands, each fired with +enthusiasm. + +Thus far General Quesada had been waging an almost exclusively irregular +or guerrilla warfare. This was because of the smallness of his army, the +lack of arms and equipment, and the unfamiliarity of his men with +military tactics. Indeed, such methods of warfare were in a large +measure continued throughout the entire Ten Years' War. But by the time +of which we now write he was able on some occasions and at some places +to array his troops in orderly fashion and to conduct his campaign in +much the same manner as the Spaniards themselves. Thus, he was able to +carry on regular siege operations against Colonel Mena, and his garrison +of three thousand Spaniards, at Puerto Principe. Colonel Prieto with +several thousand Cubans busied himself with cutting the railroad lines +which the Spanish authorities had constructed for strategic purposes, +and destroying communications between Villa Clara and Cienfuegos. A +strong Spanish force was sent against him, and a serious engagement +occurred at San Cristobal, where the patriots were entirely successful. +The Spanish troops retreated to Guanajay, a short distance from Havana, +closely pursued by the patriots, and when forced to give battle, the +Spaniards were once more put to rout, with heavy losses. + +Havana was now practically in a state of siege, with a patriot army in +possession of Guanajay, and small bands constantly harassing the Spanish +troops at different points in the vicinity of the city. The Spanish +Captain-General, Dulce, was still nursing the idea that some sort of an +agreement might be reached, and at least a truce declared, and he +therefore refused to officially declare the besieged condition of the +city, and endeavored to placate the patriots by leniency toward the +sympathizers in the city, and a conciliatory attitude toward the +revolutionists. However, his efforts had little effect on the Cubans. +Their forces pressed forward against Santiago de Cuba, and disaster for +the Spanish garrison at that city was only averted by the timely arrival +of Count Valmaseda with reinforcements. Las Tunas was still in the hands +of the revolutionists, who were divided into small parties and were +conducting a guerrilla warfare throughout practically the entire Island, +attacking whenever it seemed to be to their advantage, and dispersing +when the forces sent against them were sufficiently large to give the +odds to the Government. Trinidad was practically segregated from the +outside world so far as communications by land were concerned. The +patriots had stopped the mail service, and had cut the telegraph wires. +The city was in a turmoil of fear and apprehension, sending requests +for aid whenever they could get word through, which was not frequently, +since the patriots took a cynical delight in having so far turned the +tables on their oppressors, and in detaining and making prisoners the +couriers who tried to reach the Spanish lines with news of Trinidad's +predicament. + +The patriots did not confine their efforts to any part of the Island, +although the major part of them were east of Havana, and only that small +stretch of territory embracing the province of Pinar del Rio was +comparatively free from trouble. The insurgents were insufficiently +provisioned, and so they resorted to pillage. This was particularly true +of the bands in the vicinity of Nuevitas, where attacks were constantly +being made on the plantations, and the farmers lived in a state of +alarm, never knowing when a patriot band might descend upon them +demanding food for the present and for the future, and proceeding to +take it by force, if necessary. Frequently those who were not in favor +of the cause of liberty extended a frightened hospitality, rather than +to excite the wrath of their hungry visitors, and resorted to treachery +to carry the news of the marauders to some nearby Spanish camp, only to +have the rescuing forces chagrined to find, when they arrived, that the +birds were not "in the hand," but had been fed, and had fled with their +booty. Nuevitas was well garrisoned, and therefore the patriots confined +their operations to a region sufficiently remote from the outskirts of +the town, so that reprisals would be slow and difficult. + +The Cubans were strongly entrenched at San Miguel, where, on February 7, +they were attacked by the Spaniards. When other means failed, the +Spanish forces tried to "smoke out" the insurgents by burning the city, +but while this dislodged them from the city itself, it failed to drive +them from the vicinity, where they took up an advantageous position and +held it against assault. + +Puerto Principe was surrounded; the aqueduct was cut, and food was +scarce and growing scarcer. The inhabitants clamored for succor, when +starvation seemed imminent. Their cries for aid became too insistent to +be disregarded, and therefore a body of troops was dispatched from +Santiago de Cuba toward Jiguani, whither the main body of the Spanish +troops under Count Valmaseda, had retired. The patriots were apprised of +this manoeuvre, and the Spanish troops were constantly harassed by bands +of Cubans, and it was only after several severe engagements, and +considerable losses, that they succeeded in joining Valmaseda at +Jiguani. + +In the sort of warfare which they were now waging, the advantages were +all with the revolutionists. They were thoroughly acquainted with the +country, and knew well how to take advantage of its natural defenses, +while the Spanish forces, especially those imported from Spain for the +purpose of putting down the rebellion, lacked such knowledge, and in +strategy were always at a disadvantage. The Cuban leaders were not only +exceedingly clever in their manoeuvres, but they seemed to have a sense +of humor, and to take a grim delight in fooling the Spanish commanders, +and luring them on a fool's errand. The patriots, whenever the tide of +battle went against them, retreated to fastnesses in the interior, well +known to them, and uncharted by the enemy, from whence they would sally +forth, when opportunity presented, harass the Spaniards, and again +retire to their lair, whither the enemy feared to follow them, lest they +might fall into a trap. + +The Cubans had a particularly annoying practice of spreading reports +that a large revolutionary force had assembled in a certain place, and +enticing the Spaniards to that location, when the latter would only +discover, to their chagrin, that the report had been "grossly +exaggerated," and that in reality there was only a handful of men +instead of the large number which they expected; and to this would be +added the further annoyance of having the little body of Cubans melt as +if by magic in retreat to some position unknown to the Spanish or +practically impenetrable by them, with their lack of information as to +its potentialities, and their fear that it might prove their undoing. If +this were not sufficiently annoying, the Cubans had a habit of sending +out anonymous and misleading information, to the effect that an attack +on the Cubans at a particular point would have felicitous results for +the Spaniards, since it was believed that that position was inadequately +defended, and upon acting on this information, the Spaniards would be +baffled by discovering that the supposed forces, if indeed there had +been any previously present, had long since departed, leaving the place +deserted. Again and again the Spaniards were thus decoyed and beguiled, +and yet they continued to act on the misleading advices, because failure +to do so might lose them a real victory, should one message out of the +many really prove reliable. + +Thus were the patriots learning to match Spanish cunning with a new, +peculiar and ironic brand of their own, and were turning the tables on +the tormentors who had for so many years mistreated them and laughed at +their protests. It will be recalled that Bayamo had been burned by the +revolutionists, when it seemed apparent that their capital city was +about to fall in to the hands of the Spaniards, or at least, when it +seemed the part of prudence to surrender it. In spite of the fact that +this meant that the inhabitants would be rendered homeless, so strong +was the patriotic feeling in that city, that the destruction was done +with the consent of the populace. A thousand of these people now fell +into the hands of the Spaniards, and on February 14 were taken to +Manzanillo. The next day long expected reinforcements arrived from +Spain. They were small in number, it is true, only a thousand strong, +but conditions in Spain made it difficult for her to spare large numbers +of troops, and this was most fortunate for the cause of freedom, for +thus Spain was unable to send to Cuba a sufficient number of drilled +soldiers to offset the advantage which the little Cuban army had in its +acquaintance with the geography of the Island, and the physical +possibilities which it afforded for scattered and sporadic attacks in +unexpected quarters. + +Captain-General Dulce, alarmed at the conditions which existed, and at +the failure of the Spanish army to subdue the revolution, and +undoubtedly spurred on by the Volunteers, who had no patience with his +conciliatory methods, changed his policy, and issued a proclamation, +thoroughly muzzling the press, to avoid the spreading of the news of the +extent of the revolution and the success of the revolutionists, and thus +endeavored to stem the influx of recruits into the Cuban Army. He also +established a military court martial, which planned to deal summarily +with the leaders of the revolution should any fall into their hands. +Next he proclaimed the expiration of the amnesty previously granted, +while he--true to type--softened this decree, probably as a bit of +insidious strategy, by offering to pardon all insurgents who would +surrender themselves, excluding the leaders, and those who had been +convicted--unrepresented at the trials, of course--of the crimes of +murder, arson and robbery. The underlying thought of this proclamation +probably was that the rank and file of the insurgents might surrender +and deliver their leaders into his hands for punishment. This was +accompanied by a demand upon the citizens of Havana for the sum of +$25,000,000 to support the government, and to aid it in carrying on its +campaign against the revolutionists. + +He only too well knew that the sympathy of the people of the United +States, if not the secret sympathy of the government at Washington, was +with the Cubans, and not only Dulce himself but indeed all the leaders +of the Spanish cause lived in constant fear of private aid to the +insurgents from the United States, if not of possible governmental +intervention in their behalf. They well knew also that the Americans who +had made their homes on the Island, and who were deeply interested in +its commercial salvation, were all sympathizers in the cause of the +revolution, and felt that only through freedom from Spanish rule and a +resumption of peace could they hope to retrieve the fortunes which they +had invested, and now apparently sunk, in Cuban business ventures. That +these Americans, despite the censorship, were in communication with +their friends in their own country Dulce did not doubt, and that they +would urge the sending of relief to Cuba he felt certain. He therefore +applied to the United States Consul at Havana for the names of all +American residents of Cuba, that he might keep them under surveillance, +check up their movements, and act, if necessary, to prevent them from +either personally, or through their influence in the United States, +lending any material aid to the revolutionists. + +In spite of the Captain-General's precautions, his fears were realized. +Aid did reach the revolutionists from the United States, in the shape of +guns and ammunition, accompanied by American sympathizers, who in some +fashion ran the gauntlet of the Spanish navy in Cuban waters. The Cuban +Army advanced against La Guanaja, wrested it from the Spaniards, and +proceeded to fortify it with American guns, manned by American gunners. +The town was believed by both of the belligerents to be impervious to +attack from the land, and the Spanish commanders therefore dispatched a +naval force to conquer it from the sea. The bombardment which ensued +dashed the hopes of the revolutionists, so far as the effectiveness of +their fortifications were concerned, as against a naval attack. The +Spanish shells wrought great damage, and when they had reduced the +defenses, a landing was made and the town was retaken by assault. The +Cubans were therefore forced to beat a hurried retreat to the +surrounding country, and the Spaniards were left in complete control of +the city. Now they had a decided advantage, for from this vantage-point +they were able to send aid to Puerto Principe, and, on February 23, two +battalions were hurried thither. Meanwhile, General Lesca, who had been +stationed at La Guanaja, set out to attack the Cuban Army at Colonia de +Santo Domingo and in this expedition he was reinforced by the troops +under General Puello. The Spanish army in this encounter greatly +outnumbered the patriots but the latter fought with the courage of +desperation; a wholesale slaughter ensued in which both sides suffered +enormous losses; and when, worn out, the Cubans withdrew, the result +might well be termed a draw, for neither side could justly claim +victory. + +During the month of February, the revolutionists harassed the Spaniards +in the vicinity of Santa Cruz, but not with their usual success, the +odds being largely in favor of the latter. On February 25, a band of +revolutionists surprised the town of La Lujas, situated only a short +distance from Cienfuegos. Before opposition could be mustered, they took +possession of the town, and with it the uniforms of the city guards, and +all the arms, ammunition and horses which they could find, and they also +burned the police archives, thus destroying any records at that place +which might later be used against individual revolutionists, in the +event of an ultimate Spanish victory. + +But, with it all, neither army was making any particular progress toward +a decisive victory. The balance of advantage swung first one way and +then the other. The Spanish found their well drilled troops unable to +match themselves with any degree of effectiveness against the +resourcefulness of the revolutionists, and their methods of warfare. The +attempts at mediation had failed; indeed had been thwarted by the +treacherous action within their own body--by the murder which was staged +by the Volunteers' faction. On the other hand, as yet Cuba had been able +to secure but little aid from the one country on the sympathy of the +citizens of which she might count. The United States had far from come +up to expectations in the assistance she had thus far unofficially +rendered. Perhaps this was because the authorities in that country had +no desire to embroil themselves with Spain, and kept a close watch on +the movements of suspected Cuban partisans. The Cubans were able to make +life exceedingly uncomfortable for the Spanish forces, and for Spaniard +sympathizers throughout the country, but with their present numbers and +equipment they had little hope of gaining a decision of the hostilities +in their favor. The best they could do was to keep the country in a +state of uproar, gaining what little advantage they could, and meanwhile +the inhabitants were facing starvation, the destruction of their +holdings, the burning of their buildings, and the devastation of a +fruitful country. The constant operations of marauders, who took +advantage of the Cuban method of warfare, to pillage and steal and lay +in ruin various portions of the country, as well as the fear of attack +from the guerrillas, were driving the farmers and their families to the +protection of the cities, and thus farms were standing idle and +uncultivated, and there was bound to be an even greater food shortage. +The Government was being aided by the church, and the neutrals, +despairing of any change in conditions for the better, were, whenever +the opportunity presented itself, emigrating from the Island to regions +less tumultuous, where living conditions were not so uncertain and +dangerous. + +The Government was finding conditions intolerable, and decided to make a +strenuous effort to dislodge the revolutionists from their inland +strongholds and thus to compel them to abandon their badgering methods, +and to come forth into the open and give battle, well knowing that, if +this could be accomplished, the odds would all be in favor of the +Spaniards. Therefore, a special company of Volunteers was assembled, +with fresh reinforcements direct from Spain, and they were sent into the +fastnesses of the interior, in a strong endeavor to drive out the +Cubans. Simultaneously General Letona conducted a vigorous campaign in +relief of Cienfuegos, and General Puello organized small parties which +were sent out on marauding expeditions. But the principal result of +these efforts was to throw the Island into a still greater state of +excitement, and to encourage robbers and bandits, who, taking advantage +of the consequent uproar, seized the favorable opportunity for pillage. +Thus their devastation was added to the troubles of the already much +tried farmers in Cuba. The country around Holguin and Gibara was in a +state beyond description, and the life of every citizen, no matter what +his sympathies, was in constant danger. + +Then a very serious battle took place between the forces under General +Lesca, and an army of four thousand Cubans. The Spaniards were advancing +from La Guanaja to the succor of Puerto Principe, when the two forces +met. The Cubans were well entrenched on the Sierra de Cubitas. They were +principally infantry, and they had the Spanish at a disadvantage. The +engagement might have ended in an utter defeat for that portion of the +Government Army, had it not been that they were well supplied with +artillery, which did effective work against the Cubans, and therefore +the Spaniards were able to escape, though with heavy losses. + +Early in the next month, March, 1869, the Cubans obtained--from what +source is not disclosed, but it may be that their American sympathizers +were responsible--large accessions of artillery, with a goodly supply of +ammunition, which a small body of not over a hundred men, under +Cisneros, were able to convey to Mayari, where General Quesada was +stationed with seven thousand Cubans. When we consider that heretofore +the revolutionists had been much more blessed with enthusiasm and belief +in the ultimate triumph of their just cause than they had with the +material means for accomplishing that end, it is not difficult to +picture with what new hope and confidence this much needed assistance +was received. Now more than ever they began to feel the certainty of +final success, and to be imbued with a steadfast purpose to fight to the +last ditch for the cause of freedom. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + + +At the time of the beginning of the Cuban insurrection the United States +was undergoing one of its quadrennial political campaigns, and March 4, +1869, saw General Ulysses S. Grant inducted to the Presidency--the man +who had led the nation to victory in the Civil War and had thus +maintained the union of the United States of America; a soldier of the +highest character, and one whose sympathies were keenly enlisted in +behalf of the Cuban revolution. When this news reached the Cuban leaders +they at once addressed to him an appeal for recognition, which ran as +follows: + + * * * * * + +"To his Excellency, the President of the United States: + +"Sir: + +"The people of Cuba, by their Grand Supreme Civil Junta, and through +their General-in-Chief, Senor Cespedes, desire to submit to your +Excellency, the following among other reasons, why your Excellency, as +President of the United States, should accord to them the belligerent +rights and a recognition of their independence. + +"Because from the hearts of nineteen-twentieths of the inhabitants of +the island go up prayers for the success of the armies of the republic; +and from the sole and only want of arms and ammunition these patient +people are kept under the tyrannical yoke of Spain. + +"Because the republic has armies numbering over 70,000 men, actually in +the field and doing duty. These men are organized and governed on the +principles of civilized warfare. The prisoners whom they take--and so +far they have taken three times as many as their enemies have taken from +them--are treated in every respect as the prisoners of war are used and +treated by the most civilized nations of the earth. In the hope of +recognition by the United States, they have never yet in a single +instance retaliated death for death, even in cases of the most provoking +nature. + +"Because the Spanish authorities have almost invariably brutally +murdered the soldiers of the armies of the republic who have surrendered +to them, and have recently issued an official order requiring their +military forces hereafter instantly to kill and murder any prisoner of +the republic who surrenders. This is due, the order cheerfully tells us, +to save trouble and vexation to the Spanish civil authorities. This is +an outrage the civilized nations of the earth ought not to allow. + +"Because the United States is the nearest civilized nation to Cuba, +whose political institutions strike a responsive chord in the hearts of +all Cubans. The commercial and financial interests of the two peoples +being largely identical and reciprocal in their natures, Cuba earnestly +appeals for the unquestionable right of recognition. + +"Because the arms and authority of the Republic of Cuba now extend over +two-thirds of the entire geographical area of the island, embracing a +very great majority of the population in every part of the island. + +"Because she has a navy in course of construction which will excel in +point of numbers and efficiency that heretofore maintained by the +Spanish authorities in these waters. + +"Because these facts plainly show to the world that this is not a +movement of a few discontents, but the grand and sublime uprising of a +people thirsty for liberty and determined with this last effort to +secure to themselves and their posterity those unquestioned +rights--liberty of conscience and freedom of the individual. + +"Finally, because she is following but in the footsteps of Spain herself +in endeavoring to banish tyrannical rulers, and in their stead place +rulers of her own choice, the people of Cuba having a tenfold more +absolute and potent right than Spain had, because Cuba's rulers are sent +without her voice or consent by a foreign country, accompanied by and +with swarms of officials to fill the various offices created only for +their individual comfort, drawing their maintenance and support from the +hard earnings of the natives of the soil. + +"Allow us to add, with the greatest diffidence and sensitiveness, that +the difference between the rebellion in the United States and the +present revolution in Cuba is simply that in the former a small minority +rebelled against laws which they had a voice in making, and the +privilege of repealing; while in the case of Cuba, we are resisting a +foreign power in crushing us to the earth, as they have done for +centuries, with no appeal but that of arms open to us, and appointing +without knowledge, voice, advice or consent, tyrannical citizens of +their own country to rule us and eat our substance. + + "Patria y Libertad! + "Approved by the Supreme Junta and ordered approved + By SENOR GENERAL CESPEDES, + Commander in Chief Republican Forces in Cuba. + Headquarters in the Field, March 1, 1869." + +President Grant was strongly inclined to grant this petition, and in +this he was upheld by his most trusted friend and advisor, General +Rawlins. In consequence, he prepared on August 19, 1869, a proclamation +by which he recognized the insurgents as belligerents, the result of +which would have been to legalize the shipment of arms to them. +Unfortunately for the Cuban cause, though doubtless fortunately for the +United States, there was at the head of the State Department of the +United States a man of cooler judgment than General Grant, and one whose +emotions of pity were not so easily moved. This was the Secretary of +State, Hamilton Fish. Before Grant's proclamation could become +effective, it was necessary for the Secretary of State to sign, seal and +publish it, and this Mr. Fish refused to do. He felt that to do so would +constitute a grave error in diplomacy, and one which might have +far-reaching detrimental effects for the United States. It was his +judgment that the President had been betrayed by his sympathies, and he +felt it incumbent upon himself, as chief of the Department of State, to +restrain him from making a bad mistake. There was to be taken into +consideration the fact that the United States, in the war so recently +fought for the maintenance of the Union, had made vigorous protests +against the recognition of the Confederacy by foreign powers, and +Secretary Fish felt that the proclamation in favor of the Cuban +revolutionary government would stultify the course of the United States +government in that matter. Indeed, in sound judgment, it was impossible +to deny that the Confederates of the South were more justly entitled to +recognition, under all the circumstances of both cases, than were the +Cuban revolutionists. Fish felt that the condition in Cuba, at that +time, at any rate, did not merit the official recognition of the United +States government, and he was not backward in conveying his conviction +to General Grant. Then he simply pigeon-holed the proclamation and let +it die a natural death in musty obscurity. Upon second thought, General +Grant saw the soundness of Fish's conclusions, and not only did not +register a protest, but took occasion some months later to thank Fish +for his intervention, and the suppression of the proclamation. + +[Illustration: MIGUEL DE ALDAMA] + + MIGUEL DE ALDAMA + + A man of letters and of great wealth and social leadership, Miguel + de Aldama was a native of Havana and one of the foremost citizens + of that capital when the Ten Years' War began. He at once placed + his fortune and himself at the disposal of his country, and was + appointed by President Cespedes to be Agent of the Cuban Republic + in New York. To that place he was reappointed by President Cisneros + Betancourt. He served in that capacity throughout the war, to the + great advantage of the patriot cause. + +Meanwhile, reports of the cruelties of Spanish soldiers began to +penetrate the ears of American citizens. It was reported, and pretty +well authenticated, that disgusting atrocities were the order of the +day, when the Spanish troops found in their path anyone, male or female, +who was not in a position to resist them. There were stories of the +raping of little children before the eyes of their mothers, and of +mothers in the presence of their children, of the crucifixion, and +hanging by the thumbs of old men, and even of able bodied persons, who +happened to fall defenseless into the hands of the Spaniards. Tales of +barbarity to prisoners, even to the extent of roasting them alive, fired +the rage of justice-loving American citizens, and again touched the kind +heart of their President. To these reports were added others, less +revolting, but touching the commercial sense of the nation. American +property in Cuba was being destroyed, and American citizens were being +molested and restrained from the peaceful pursuit of their business. +American commerce was impeded and losses were suffered. It was recalled +that Spain had been prompt to recognize the Confederacy as a +belligerent power, and it seemed but the irony of justice, and a fair +sort of retaliation, that now the United States should give recognition +to those who were rebelling against Spain's misrule. But Fish was deaf +to all pleas in behalf of the Cubans, and resolutely blocked all +attempts to secure recognition for them. He argued and pleaded with the +President with such eloquence that presently he seemed to have him +convinced that the cause of freedom in Cuba was not yet worthy of the +recognition of the United States. In consequence, in his annual message, +in December, 1869, President Grant, less than four months after his +unpublished proclamation of recognition, declared that "the contest has +at no time assumed the conditions which amount to a war in the sense of +international war, or which would show the existence of a political +organization of the insurgents sufficient to justify a recognition of +belligerency." He added that "the principle is to be maintained, +however, that this nation is its own judge when to accord the rights of +belligerency either to a people struggling to free themselves from a +government they believed to be oppressive, or to independent nations at +war with each other." + +It is needless to say that this position was a great disappointment to +the Cubans, and seemed to them utterly at variance with what they might +have expected from a nation so lately torn by Civil War, and which had +shown such keen individual sympathies with the cause of the freedom of +Cuba. However, from that time on, the United States, officially, at +least, showed the greatest patience--a patience which seemed almost +unbelievably enduring--toward the hardships which the Spanish +authorities put upon innocent Americans, and was indefatigably zealous +in its efforts to prevent violations of neutrality on the part of +sympathetic United States citizens. That there was some bitterness in +the hearts of the Cuban leaders, who felt they had a right to expect the +support of their sister republic, and a country which had against such +odds won her own independence, it is easy to believe, and there were +many who felt that this was a righteous indignation. + +But during the months in which the Secretary of State and the somewhat +unwilling President of the United States were shaping this policy, the +war in Cuba was continuously waged. On March 7, 1869, a few days after +the Cubans addressed their petition to the United States government, the +Spanish attacked a strong Cuban position at Macaca, and were successful +in ousting the revolutionists. This disheartening occurrence was +followed by defeats for the Cubans, first at Mayari, where Spanish +forces under General Valcosta were victorious over a small army of which +General Cespedes was in command--General Cespedes, however, effecting a +withdrawal with safety to his own person and a part of his +supporters--and again at Jiguani, where it was the Cubans who made the +attack upon a Spanish force under General Valmaseda, only to meet defeat +at the hands of the Spaniards, and to be forced to flee in disorder to +their mountain fastnesses. + +Meanwhile reinforcements came from Spain; this time as before, not a +large number, being only about twelve hundred men, but enough materially +to aid the governmental army, and to strengthen its morale. The +Captain-General also endeavored to win the hearts of the timid by +issuing a proclamation which declared important concessions in tax +regulations. A fifty per cent reduction was made in the direct taxation +on plantations, on cattle and on country real estate, as well as in +those taxes only recently levied on merchants and tradesmen. As a +crowning concession the taxes due for the last quarter of the year +1868-1869 were nullified. But it was apparently impossible for Spain to +make concessions without accompanying them with demands of some sort to +offset her seeming generosity. Therefore the Captain-General took +occasion to levy some new duties: On muscovado sugar, if shipped under +the flag of Spain, a tax of 16c a hundred weight, while shipment under a +foreign flag called for an additional 4c duty; on boxed sugar shipped +under the Spanish flag, a tax of 75c a box, while if under a foreign +flag, 12c additional; on every hogshead of sugar shipped under the flag +of Spain a tax of $1, and if under a foreign flag, 75c additional; a tax +on molasses of 50c a hogshead, and on rum of $1 for an equal quantity. + +It will be recalled that the Cuban patriots had by their proclamation of +December 27, 1868, granted freedom to all slaves on the island. They now +began a campaign to enforce this decree by removing, from all +plantations of which their armies were able to take possession, the +slaves for service in the Cuban army, and to make their liberation +doubly sure, burning the buildings, and laying waste to the crops. In +the districts around Sagua and Remedios there were nine thousand +insurgents engaged in this work. This action it would be hard to excuse, +if there were not taken into consideration the fact that the Cubans had +endured such grievous wrongs at the hands of the Spaniards that they +would have been much less than human if they had not had some desire to +retaliate; and, after all, the retaliation which spoke most forcefully +to the Spaniard was that which attacked his worldly goods and his +pocketbook. + +But to offset these actions, the Spanish at the same time proved +themselves victorious in several engagements. On March 18, at Alvarez, +they defeated the Cuban forces; at about the same time, at Guaracabuya, +they won another victory, with Cuban losses numbering one hundred and +thirty-six killed outright; and two thousand Cubans, under Generals +Morales and Villamil, were routed by the Spaniards at Potrerillo. In +this last affair the patriots suffered severe losses; three hundred +wounded, two hundred and five killed, and twenty-one taken prisoners, +together with many horses killed or captured. They were also obliged to +retreat in such haste that they had to abandon a considerable quantity +of ammunition, which was seized by the enemy. It is only necessary to +add that the Spanish lost but one officer, one private and one of their +number taken prisoner, to demonstrate the disheartening nature of the +encounter. But the Cubans were, as has been stated, drafting large +quantities of slaves into their army, and this victory for the Spaniards +was a signal proof that the slaves were not good material for soldiers. +Besides this, the patriots who took part in this engagement suffered +severely a lack of proper equipment. + +The tide seemed to be turning against the Cubans, and in the days that +followed they were to face still further losses. The quality of the +recruits which were being added to the patriot army did not increase its +valor, skill or morale. They lacked guns, and those which they had were +of antiquated pattern; there was a woeful scarcity of larger arms and +ammunition, and the troops were weary and poorly fed. Against that +portion of the Cuban army stationed in the Villa Clara district the +Spanish now began to concentrate a large army, pouring troops into that +district until they were ten thousand strong. The Cubans were +outnumbered, and lacked the weapons of warfare, they had been +outmanoeuvred, and suffered tremendous losses, and yet another crushing +defeat lay before them, for on March 20, two thousand Cubans who were, +as they fondly believed, strongly entrenched at Placitas, were put to +flight by a small body of Spanish troops, highly skilled and well armed +it is true, but numbering only three hundred regulars and a small +company of the much feared Volunteers. + +Emboldened by these successes, the Captain-General again shifted his +position, and issued an order, to be made the excuse for an outrage +against American shipping, which was severely to tax the friendliness of +international relations. The Spanish government was ever haunted by the +bugbear of American intervention, and doubtless the decree in question +was issued as a preventive against such action, for the Spanish well +knew that should such intervention once take place their cause would be +irrevocably lost, and with it their dominion over Cuba. The decree +provided for the confiscation on the high seas of any and all vessels +carrying either men, arms or ammunition or all three, or indeed anything +which might be construed as intended for material aid to the +revolutionists, and further provided that "all persons captured on such +vessels without regard to their number will be immediately executed." +Viewed in the calm light of history this decree would seem bound, if +enforced, to be almost suicidal to the Spanish interests, being in +opposition to law and justice, and in express violation of existing +treaty obligations between Spain and the United States, and thus bound +to bring a storm of protest from the United States government. + +As if this were not enough, Dulce followed this action by another +decree, promulgated on April 1, which prohibited the transfer of +property, except by the direct consent of the government, and this +prohibition included the sale of produce of all sorts, stocks, shares in +mercantile projects, and real estate, together with many minor +provisions; while by a third decree, which shortly followed, he ordered +the confiscation of the estates of American citizens who were suspected +of sympathy or complicity with the revolutionists. Naturally, the United +States government made a strong protest against such summary action, +rightly declaring it to be in violation of the provisions of the treaty +of 1795. + +The Cuban troops now began a more or less concentrated attack on +Trinidad, and to relieve the pressure at this point, the Spanish sent a +large force toward Puerto Principe, hoping to weaken the Cuban army at +the former place, because of the necessity of withdrawing men to combat +the Spanish army at the latter. The Spanish government also sought to +offset the damage and destruction done by the insurgents to property of +loyalists by issuing a decree proclaiming their intention to confiscate +the property of all individuals who were absent from home without a +governmental excuse--which would of course include all landowners who +were fighting in the Cuban army--and providing for a detail of men to +protect against the revolutionists every estate thus taken. + +On April 17 battle was again joined by the Cubans under Colonel +Francisco Rubalcava and a Spanish force under the combined leadership of +Generals Letona, Escalante and Lesca. The fighting which ensued taxed +the Cuban resources to the utmost. All day long the battle raged, and +when both sides were worn out with combat, the result was not decisive +for either army, while one hundred and eighty Spanish troops and two +hundred Cubans lay dead under the stars. + +For nearly two weeks thereafter there was a period of quiet and +recuperation on the part of the Cubans, with the exception of a number +of minor skirmishes, but on May 3 the belligerents again met in battle +at Las Minas, when twelve hundred Spaniards, under the command of +General Lesca, and a large Cuban force under General Quesada, fought in +the most violent of hand to hand conflicts. Frightful butchery ensued, +for this time victory again returned to the Cuban standards, and the +Spanish were forced to retreat in disorder, leaving behind them one +hundred and sixty killed and three hundred wounded, while the Cuban +losses were two hundred killed and an equal number wounded. + +To add to the rejoicing over this victory, small as it was, a few days +previous the Cubans had had a practical demonstration of the sympathy of +United States citizens for their cause, and of the ability of those +citizens to evade the drastic provisions of the government against any +display of that feeling. On May 1 there arrived at Mayari a body of +three hundred Americans, under the leadership of General Thomas Jordan, +a tried veteran of the Civil War, in which he had been an officer in the +Confederate Army. He was an experienced soldier, who had had a fine +military training and had been graduated from West Point. This in itself +might have been quite enough to put new heart into the Cuban leaders, +but General Jordan had brought with him not only reinforcements but +arms, ammunition, clothing, medical supplies and food. A detailed list +of this material included four thousand long range rifles, three hundred +new pattern Remington rifles, five hundred revolvers, twelve pieces of +artillery of various sizes including twelve, twenty-four and thirty-two +pound cannon, and a large supply of ammunition for these arms. And the +relief did not stop here, for there were a thousand pairs of shoes, and +clothing for one thousand persons, two printing-presses, medical +supplies, and quantities of rice, tinned biscuits, salt meat, flour and +salt. This meant food and arms for at least six thousand men, and there +is no wonder that there seemed to be occasion for the wildest rejoicing +on the part of those who were so manfully and against such great odds +engaged in upholding the cause of freedom in Cuba. Now the patriots +might oppose the Spanish with at least six thousand well equipped men, +and they had also acquired in the person of General Jordan an officer +whose aid in drilling raw recruits could not be overestimated. + +The Cubans did not get their booty to headquarters without some +opposition from the Spaniards. That was hardly to be hoped, since their +every movement was reported to the government by Spanish spies, and it +would have been impossible for an expedition like the one in question to +land without detection. But they were able to resist all attempts to +wrest their supplies from them. + +Around Trinidad and Cienfuegos fighting was constant. Each day saw its +skirmishes, and there were some violent engagements, all of which left +matters pretty much as they had been so far as any victory of a decisive +character for either side was concerned. The Cubans were, however, able +to disperse a body of Spanish troops which were advancing toward Las +Tunas in the hope of relieving the citizens of that place, which was +also in a state of siege. The Spaniards were bearing a quantity of +provisions for the city, and in their flight these were abandoned and +fell into the hands of the Cubans. + +When matters were succeeding in a manner more or less favorable to the +Spanish cause, the Volunteers were quiet and inclined to discontinue +temporarily their opposition to Dulce, but when things took a turn for +the worse he was always made the scapegoat. Hence the Volunteers were +renewing their attacks on his policies, although for the time being he +had been suffering one of his periodic reversions to severity. This +time, the Volunteers were successful in obtaining the recall of Dulce as +Captain-General. They simply drove him out by mob force, on June 4, and +put into his place one Senor Espinar. This appointment was an arbitrary +act, which the Spanish government refused to confirm, and therefore +Espinar's political life was cut short almost at its inception, and +General Caballero de Rodas became Captain-General of the island. Now +Rodas should have been a man entirely to the liking of the Volunteers. +He had won for himself a reputation for cruelty toward the republican +insurgents in Spain while he was stationed at Cadiz, which had caused +him to be called "the butcher of Cadiz." He evidently felt it incumbent +to live up to his title, for now the Spanish troops were incited to +unspeakable cruelties. + +Promptly on taking office, Rodas began his career with the decree of +July 7, 1869, which he fondly hoped would prevent further aid from +reaching the revolutionists from the United States or from any other +country. The proclamation was as follows: + +"The custody and guardianship of the coasts of this island, of the keys +adjacent, and the waters appertaining to the territory, being of the +greatest importance, in order to suppress the insurgent bands that have +hitherto maintained themselves by outside assistance, and determined as +I am to give a vigorous impulse to the pursuit of them, and with a view +of settling the doubts entertained by our own cruisers as to the proper +interpretation of the decree promulgated by this superior political +government under dates of November 9, 1868, and February 18 and 26 and +March 24 last, I have decided to amplify and unite the aforesaid orders +and substitute for them the following, which, by virtue of the authority +vested in me by the nation, I decree: + +"Article I.--All parts situated between Cayo Bahia de Cadiz and Point +Maysi on the north side, and from Point Maysi to Cienfuegos on the +south, with the exception of Sagua La Grande, Caibarien, Nuevitas, +Gibara, Baracoa, Guantanamo, Santiago de Cuba, Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, +Zaza, Trinidad and Cienfuegos, where there are custom houses, will +continue closed to the import and export trade, both by foreign and +coasting vessels. Those who may attempt the entry of any closed ports, +or to open communications with their coasts, will be pursued, and, on +being captured, are to be tried as violators of the law. + +"Article II.--Vessels carrying gunpowder, arms and warlike stores, will +likewise be judged in accordance with the law. + +"Article III.--The transportation of individuals in the service of the +insurrection is by far more serious than that of contraband of war, and +will be deemed an act of decided hostility, and the vessel and crew +regarded as enemies to the state. + +"Article IV.--Should the individuals referred to in the foregoing +article come armed, this will be regarded, _de facto_, as proof of their +intentions, and they will be regarded as pirates, as will also be the +case with the crew of the vessel. + +"Article V.--In accordance with the law, vessels captured under an +unknown flag, whether armed or unarmed, will also be regarded as +pirates. + +"Article VI.--In free seas adjacent to those of this island, the +cruisers will limit themselves to their treatment of denounced vessels, +or those who render themselves suspicious, to the rights given in the +treaties between Spain and the United States in 1795, Great Britain in +1835, and with other nations subsequently; and if, in the exercise of +these rights, they should encounter any vessels recognized as enemies of +the integrity of the territory, they will carry them into port for legal +investigation and judgment accordingly. + + "CABALLERO DE RODAS." + +Of course this action was incited and backed by the Volunteers, and met +with their heartiest approval, but if either they or their mouthpiece, +Rodas, had any real idea that such a decree would act as a deterrent +against aid being sent to the Cubans, they misjudged the temper of the +friends of the revolution in America. It simply made them aware of the +necessity of increased secrecy and caution, but did not one whit curtail +their enterprises. + +To reinforce his action, Rodas promptly issued another decree against +the insurgents in the following contemptuous terms: + +"The insurrection, in its impotency, being reduced to detached bands, +perverted to the watchword of desolation and daily perpetrating crimes +that have no precedent in civilized countries, personal security and the +rights of justice, the foremost guarantees of person and property, +imperiously demand that said insurrection be hastened to its end, and +without consideration toward those who have placed themselves beyond the +pale of the law. The culprit will not be deprived of the guarantee of +just impartiality in the evidence of his crime, but without delay +admissible in normal periods, which would procrastinate or paralyze the +verdict of the law and its inexorable fulfilment. + +"As the guardians of the national integrity, the protection of the +upright and pacific citizen, fulfilling the duties of my office, and in +virtue of the authority conceded to me by the Government of the nation, +I hereby decree: + +"Article I.--The decrees promulgated by this superior political +government under date of the 12th and 13th of February last shall be +carried out with vigor. + +"Article II.--The crimes of premeditated incendiarism, assassination and +robbery, by armed force and contraband, shall be tried by a council of +war. + +"Article III.--The courts of justice will continue in the exercise of +their attributes, without prejudice, however, of having submitted to me +such cases as special circumstances may require. + + "CABALLERO DE RODAS." + +Thus, in high-sounding phrases and treacherous hypocrisy, did the +"butcher of Cadiz" proclaim himself the guardian of persons and +property. If his pronouncements had not had too grim a significance, +they might have filled the Cuban patriots with the spirit of ironical +laughter, such a divergence was there between his character and his past +record, and the new role which he now announced himself as about to +play. + +Naturally this action did not pass unnoticed by the United States +government. On July 16, the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish, informed +the Spanish minister at Washington that Rodas's decree of July 7 +interfered with the commerce of the United States in a manner which +could only be tolerated in times of war; that the United States would +maintain her right to carry contraband in times of peace, and would +permit no interference with her vessels on the high seas, except in time +of war; that if Spain was in a state of war with Cuba it was incumbent +on her to proclaim the fact; and further adding that the United States +would regard any attempt to enforce Rodas's decree as a recognition by +Spain of the existence of a state of war in Cuba, and would govern +itself accordingly. Spain was in no position and had no desire to +declare Cuba in a state of war. Such action would wrest from her certain +advantages which in her present ambiguous position she was prepared to +enjoy to the utmost. She at once recognized that Rodas's action was +entirely too arbitrary, and might be productive of a most embarrassing +situation, and therefore acting under instructions from the Spanish +government, he at once receded from his arrogant position and his decree +was materially modified. + +American commerce with Cuba had been exceedingly profitable to those +engaged in it, and, under the disturbed condition of affairs in the +island, not only did it suffer, but the commercial interests of American +residents in Cuba were badly jeopardized. General Grant still nursed his +secret good will toward the cause of the revolutionists, although the +advice of his Secretary of State had put a temporary restraint on it. It +may be that this new indignity which Spain had sought to impose not only +on the insurgents but also on American interests spurred him to action. +However, that may be, when Daniel E. Sickles was appointed United States +Minister to Spain, on June 29th, 1869, he was instructed at once on his +arrival in Madrid to offer to the Spanish government the good offices of +the United States in an effort to bring about an understanding and +adjustment between the revolutionists and the governmental party and to +effect a cessation of the hostilities which were rapidly ruining both +the Creoles and the Spanish landowners alike. Sickles received the most +careful instructions to proceed in a conciliatory fashion, and in no +manner to imply any recognition by the United States of the belligerency +of Cuba. To guide him in his work, terms were drafted as a basis for the +negotiations and they embodied the following points: + +1. The acknowledgment by Spain of the independence of Cuba. + +2. Cuba to pay Spain an indemnity under conditions to be thereafter +agreed upon. In case such sum could not immediately be paid in full, the +unpaid portion to be secured by the pledge of export and import duties, +in a manner to be agreed upon. + +3. The abolition of slavery in the island of Cuba. + +4. The declaration of an armistice pending negotiations for a final +settlement. + +And, furthermore, Sickles was empowered, if necessary, to suggest that +the United States would guarantee the payment by Cuba of the indemnity. + +Sickles took up the negotiations with the Spanish government at Madrid +in accordance with his instructions, and after much consideration the +Spanish government agreed to accept the good offices of the United +States government, provided it was not required to treat with the +revolutionists on a basis of equality--that would be too galling to the +sensitive Spanish dignity--but that it would be allowed to take the +position of making concessions to a rebellious people, such concessions +of course to be couched in legal terms, and carried out in accordance +with constitutional forms and with all due solemnity. Above all, the +result of the negotiations was not to be regarded as a treaty between +armed powers on an equal footing. In support of her position, Spain made +the following demands, as constituting the basis of settlement to which +she would agree: + +1. The revolutionists to lay down their arms and return to their homes. + +2. Whereupon, Spain would grant a full and complete amnesty. + +3. The question of the independence of Cuba to be submitted to vote by +their own vote whether they desired independence or not. + +4. Provided a majority vote was cast for independence Spain would grant +it, the Cortes consenting, upon the payment of a satisfactory sum by +Cuba, or the partial payment and guarantee by the United States of the +remainder. + +When Sickles submitted the result of his efforts to the government of +his own country, that government, well knowing that the Cubans would +never consent to the first two stipulations laid down by Spain, promptly +rejected them. Sickles again took up the matter with the Spanish +government, but they stood firm, and since there seemed no hope of an +agreement on any terms which would be acceptable to the revolutionists, +the matter was finally dropped. + +Meanwhile Spain had been sending considerable reinforcements to Cuba, +and commenced an active campaign against the force under the command of +the American General Jordan. These were probably the best equipped and +best trained troops which the Cuban army had at its command, and they +were well fitted to administer a rebuff to the Spaniards, which they +did. The attacks of the Spaniards were all unsuccessful, and the Cubans +were elated by the certainty that in bravery and resources they were +more than a match for the Spanish army, and that, when they were +properly equipped they seemed to have the advantage. In these different +battles--none of them of very large scope--the Spanish lost four hundred +killed, wounded and taken prisoners. Meanwhile the Cubans attacked the +Spanish forces near Baja, a small town on the bay in the vicinity of +Nuevitas, and defeated three hundred marines under General Puello, +killing eighty of the enemy. + +But the rainy season was approaching and soon caused a halt in +hostilities, while both armies were strengthening their positions +looking forward to the time when weather would permit a resumption of +the warfare. If the Spanish were obtaining reinforcements, the Cubans +also were, in spite of the Spanish blockade and the decrees of the +Captain-General, as well as the activities of the United States +officials, constantly receiving aid from the United States. This mainly +took the form of small expeditions from the southern states. However, at +the close of July there arrived a company of two hundred and +seventy-five recruits from the states of Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky, +bringing with them large stores of food, clothing, arms and ammunitions. +So it appeared that faith in the righteousness of the Cuban cause was +not confined to what were known as the southern states. + +These men were placed under the direct command of General Quesada, and +thus reinforced he decided to make an effort to subdue and capture the +besieged Las Tunas. He set out to go thither with twelve hundred men. +All night long the fight raged on the outskirts of the town, and just as +the morning was breaking the Cubans made a triumphal entry. By two +o'clock the next afternoon the town was completely under their control. +When news of this victory reached the Spanish headquarters, a large +force was immediately dispatched to dislodge the Cubans, and spies +reporting to General Quesada that the Spanish troops sent against him +not only largely outnumbered his own, but also were bringing large +quantities of heavy artillery with them, he decided that to hold the +town would not be of sufficient importance--if indeed he could do so +against such odds--to risk an engagement. He, therefore, again retired. +He had been welcomed as a deliverer by the inhabitants of Las Tunas, +for they had suffered gross indignities under Spanish occupation, and +now many of them enlisted in the Cuban army, and accompanied General +Quesada on his retreat. + +It may have been that the attempted intervention of the United States +government at Madrid led the Spanish government to believe that the time +had again arrived to temporize; at any rate, several concessions were +made in an attempt to pacify the insurgents, but without any perceptible +effect. + +Not every attempt to bring aid from the United States to Cuba was +productive of results, and during the summer there had been a number of +efforts which were abortive, or which failed of execution. But just as +hope of a successful relief expedition was dying in the hearts of the +Cubans, a party of six hundred men with a quantity of rifles and a large +amount of ammunition arrived from that stronghold of Cuban sympathizers, +New Orleans. Meanwhile General Jordan communicated a request for aid to +his compatriots who composed the Cuban Junta in the City of New York. He +reported that the Cuban army was composed of twenty six thousand eight +hundred men, besides whom there were at least forty thousand freed +slaves, who were armed merely with machetes. He requested that seventy +five thousand stands of arms be in some manner dispatched to the Cubans, +and expressed the opinion that if this could be accomplished, in ninety +days the war would be determined in favor of the patriots. + +Small bodies of Cubans were still carrying on guerrilla warfare wherever +it seemed most effective, and the plantations belonging to Spanish +sympathizers were suffering in consequence. The idea of this action was +not wanton destruction. The Cubans argued that it was from such sources +as the rich Spanish planters that Spain, by taxation, obtained revenues +which were enabling her to continue the war, and thus their own country +was being used to supply funds for her own destruction; and therefore +when they destroyed Spanish holdings, they were not only wreaking +vengeance on their tormentors, but they were also reducing the resources +which made the prosecution of the war possible. To offset these actions, +the Spanish commanders were countenancing the most scandalous +conditions, and allowing most wholesale torture and butchery of such +luckless patriots as fell into their hands, in which they could have had +no motive except to terrorize the Cubans, and to enjoy that peculiar +pleasure which they seemed to take in cruelty and murder. However, in +the month of November alone, the patriots were able to burn the +buildings on and destroy the productiveness of over a hundred and fifty +sugar plantations, which the Spanish government had confiscated under +the order which Dulce had promulgated. These were plantations which +belonged to soldiers in the Cuban army, and which had been seized by the +Spaniards in the absence of their owners, and the revenues of which had +been flowing into the Spanish treasury. + +This work of destruction had the approval of General Cespedes, for he +felt that it was necessary to cut off every possible source of revenue +for Spain from the island, and so, in December, he issued a proclamation +calling on all loyal patriots to see that it was made impossible for +Spain to collect revenue from sugar and tobacco plantations on the +island, when by any action of patriots this could be avoided. + +The revolutionists had been encouraged, not only by their friends in the +United States, but also by the sympathetic expressions of former Spanish +colonies in South America, who were now enjoying their own freedom. As +early as May 15, 1869, the President of the Republic of Peru expressed +to General Cespedes his good wishes, in a letter couched in the +following terms: + +"The President of Peru sympathizes deeply with the noble cause of which +your Excellency constitutes himself the worthy champion, and he will do +his utmost to mark the interest that island, so worthy of taking its +place with the civilized nations of the world, inspires him with. The +Peruvian Government recognizes as belligerents the party which is +fighting for the independence of Cuba, and will strive its utmost to +secure their recognition as such by other nations; and likewise that the +war should be properly regulated in conformity with international usages +and laws." + +This action on the part of Peru was followed by recognition of the +revolutionists on the part of other South American states of Spanish +origin. Action was taken on this subject in Colombia, in June, 1870, +when a bill was introduced into the House of Representatives proposing +that all the Spanish-American republics form a combination for the +active promotion of aid to Cuba, material and political, in her struggle +for independence. This bill was reported out of Committee, with the +following comments: + +"1. The cause for which Cuban patriots fight is the same for which +Colombia fought incessantly from 1810 to 1824. + +"2. The interests of self-preservation, and our duty as a civilized and +Christian nation, justify in the most complete manner Colombian +intervention. + +"3. The aggressions of monarchial Europe against the liberty and +independence of America always have had and will have for a base Spanish +dominion in Cuba. + +"4. The policy of the United States cannot serve as a guide to Colombia +on this occasion. + +"5. The resources we may need for this war are not beyond our means. + +"6. The time has arrived when Colombia should assume in the politics of +South America the position to which she is called by her topographical +situation, her historical traditions, her population, and her political +conquests." + +In spite of this favorable report, and the fact that the bill passed the +House, the Senate rejected it. + +Thus the struggle went on, the patriots fighting almost with the courage +of desperation, gaining a little here, and losing there, but always +holding before them the justice of their cause, and resolutely refusing +to admit the possibility of failure. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + + +With the opening of the year 1870, the revolutionists had in the field +forty thousand well disciplined, and for the time being at least well +armed troops, who were under the command of efficient officers, and a +competent military organization. The movements of the troops were, so +far as possible, directed according to a concerted plan, and their +distribution through the island was governed in the same manner. + +Spain had also increased her regular army, and her navy had been greatly +augmented, for she now had in Cuban waters, in addition to the +men-of-war which had at the beginning of the war been stationed there, +the following: + + 2 iron-clad vessels 48 guns + 2 1st class wooden steamers 85 guns + 6 2nd class wooden steamers 69 guns + 1 3rd class wooden steamer 2 guns + 4 steam schooners 11 guns + 6 gunboats 6 guns + 13 armed merchantmen 41 guns + 2 sailing gunboats 2 guns + 1 transport 4 guns + 1 schoolship 6 guns + +About the middle of April, 1870, an occurrence happened of which the +Spanish made great capital, spreading the tidings throughout the world. +Connected with it is one of the illustrious names in Cuban history--a +name which has been borne by some of the most famous Cuban patriots. +However, it has been said that there is no family which has not its +black sheep. + +Augustin Arango gave his life for his country, when he was murdered by +the Spaniards, while on the way to the conference at Puerto Principe, +under safe conduct from the Spanish leaders. Two other members of the +Arango family were prominent in the support of the revolution. It +remained for Napoleon Arango to disgrace his family. He had taken an +active part in the revolution upon its inception, but had not been +accorded a high place in the revolutionary government, or the rank which +his ambition craved in the army, because his loyalty had been suspected. +Angry and disgruntled, he made an attempt to betray his friends to the +Spanish troops. His action was, however, discovered in time, and he was +arrested, tried, found guilty and sentenced to death. The high standing +of the Arango family, and the fact that his brother had given his life +for the cause of liberty, were urged as reasons for commuting his +sentence, and he was finally taken from confinement, and driven outside +the Cuban lines, with orders never to return under penalty of having the +death sentence executed. He quickly made his way to the Spanish army. + +All this happened in 1869, and for almost a year Arango had been living +under Spanish protection. Suddenly, in April, 1870, the Spanish +authorities caused the report to be circulated that Arango had +surrendered himself to them, bringing with him a large force of Cubans, +who had declared their allegiance to Spain, and the Spanish Government +in Cuba cited this as an indication of the weakness of the patriots, and +as an augury of their approaching dissolution and of the ultimate +triumph of Spain. As a matter of fact, Arango had always been a trouble +maker and a potential traitor; he had been characterized by one Cuban +officer as a "poor, despised, worthless creature," and it is needless to +say that the whole story was false from beginning to end. However, +Arango issued a grandiloquent statement, in which he explained his +supposed action, and urged the Cuban revolutionists to lay down their +arms and follow his example. His open letter to Cuban patriots is to be +recalled as one of the curiosities of treason. It ran as follows: + +"Cubans!" + +"When Carlos Manuel de Cespedes thought of raising the cry of +Independence and expected the other cities of the Island to second him, +he received as a reply, from the jurisdiction of Holguin and Puerto +Principe, _that they would not support him_; and the Cinco Villas and +other towns maintained an attitude of expectancy. Notwithstanding this, +Cespedes said that he had no need of the _reminder_ and that he _would +pronounce_ on the 14th of October as he did in fact but somewhat in +advance of that date. Having so many reasons, as I have, to know the +country as well as the character and tendencies of its inhabitants; and +also what Spain would do and what was to be _expected of the people_ on +the Island; knowing moreover the policy of the United States and the +effects as well as the consequences that must follow a revolution +especially when it was an _extemporaneous outburst_; and being convinced +besides that owing to the heterogeneous nature of our population and to +the little _enlightenment_ of the masses, _nothing but extermination_ +could be expected for Cuba, I took part in framing the reply given to +Cespedes by Puerto Principe, stating that _since he took pains to carry +out so wicked an idea, he should not be seconded by us_; and _we made +him responsible_ before posterity for the evils which he was about to +bring on Cuba. + +"Cespedes and his inexperienced fellow-believers proclaimed Independence +at Yara without any supply of arms or munitions of war, without +provisions, clothing, etc., etc., with which to support their movement. +Ignorant of what revolution is, they bunched forth just like children +who heedlessly play with a wild beast, in entire ignorance of its +nature. The first movement of enthusiasm on the part of the people, and +of surprise on the part of the Government gave them the victory at +Bayamo; and they at once thought that the Independence of Cuba was +already secured. This was a fatal error, a sad illusion, which blunted +the common sense and gave _loose rein to their passions_. It was the +fatal error of those men who had not sufficient strength of will to be +able to wait. Ah! how fatal it is not to know when to wait! + +"The Camagueyans were aroused at the enthusiastic shout for liberty, and +they wished to help their brethren of Bayamo, driven on by a sentiment +of fraternity and by their yet stronger love of liberty;--that noble +aspiration which God has imbued in the hearts of all men. I shared not +in these desires, although I did really in their sentiments, but I was +restrained by experience and by my knowledge of the situation. Anxious +to be of service to my country, I offered to go to Bayamo as a +representative from Puerto Principe, which I did. + +"From my first steps into the Eastern Department, I was _convinced of +the error_ into which the people had fallen, and the _impossibility_ of +keeping up so unequal a contest. Moreover after studying the revolution +and sounding the feelings of the people, I discovered that they _did not +desire_ the movement but had been dragged into it; without noticing in +the beginning, owing to their blind precipitation, that they were not +prepared to receive a successful issue. + +"In some private circles I spoke of the propriety of _changing_ the cry +for Independence into an acceptation of the _Cadiz programme_;--an idea +which was _well received_ and seemed so to change the course of affairs, +that I saw a great risk, being threatened by the few who persisted in +their original intention. I spoke to Cespedes and made known to him the +untimeliness of the revolution; that if he really desired the welfare of +Cuba, this latter consisted in withdrawing from a war that must be +ruinous and unsuccessful in the end; that the liberties offered in the +Cadiz programme _were perhaps even more than would suit Cuba_, etc., +etc. Cespedes, _convinced_ by my reasoning _agreed to my proposals_; and +if he then failed to follow my advice it was, to use his own words, +because he feared that he would not be obeyed by those who had already +proclaimed for Independence. They did not understand the true policy +that should be followed in the guidance of returns. They began badly and +will end worse. + +"On my return to Puerto Principe I found the country in insurrection, +_dragged on_ by two or three men who were led wrong by their +ill-digested ideas of liberty or by their own _private interest_, and +whose only wish was _revolution in whatever way it could be brought +about_. I grieved at this mistake, but without losing heart, and always +firm in advancing the prosperity of Cuba, I called a meeting which was +held at Clavellinas. There I made known the result of my observations +during my trip to Bayamo; and after some discussions, the force of my +arguments _prevailed_. With _one_ exception all agreed that we should +_adhere to the Cadiz programme_. I was afterwards appointed +General-in-Chief with _especial charge_ (thus it was set forth in the +record) _that I should have an interview with General Valmaseda for the +purpose noted above_. + +"In a conversation with that gentleman he manifested the _best of +intentions_ in favor of a pacification, but stated that he was not +empowered by his government to make any concession. He offered +nevertheless to grant _effectual ones_, so soon as he could obtain the +power. He called my attention to this; that whatever the liberties which +should be granted to Cuba, the rights of the Cubans would have to be +regarded as attacked if they did not _send representatives_ to have a +hand in everything that might be done in regard to this country. + +"I knew too well the _reasons_ of General Valmaseda, but fearing that my +fellow countrymen might not seize the force of his reasoning, we agreed +upon a truce for four days which I requested in order to call another +meeting more numerous and one which should decide the matter. This +meeting _took place_ at _Las Minas_; and there as well as at +Clavellinas, the majority was _not for a continuation of the war_ but +for _accepting the Cadiz programme_. Had a vote been taken, it is +certain that this choice _would have carried_; but I refrained from +calling a vote in order to be consistent with the Caunao district which +had made known through its delegate, Don Carlos L. Mola, Junior, that it +wished to have no voting; because in case thereof they would be bound to +its result; and that district was only in favor of _accepting_ whatever +the government _chose to grant them_. + +"An _immense majority_ was in favor of the _programme_, and, +nevertheless, the war was kept up because those bent upon it spared no +means nor suggestion to entice away those in favor of the _Cadiz +programme_. That is to say that, taking advantage of family ties, of +friendships, and of an ill comprehended association, etc., etc., they +dragged along with them the _unwary_ and the _inexperienced_, who were +_reluctant_ enough and who now know their error, as I never wished to +force upon anyone (not even on my own brothers) my own ideas, nor to +make use of any other means than persuasion, in accordance with reason. +I confined myself to simply resigning the rank that had been conferred +on me and withdrew to my plantation. From that time forward, I busied +myself merely with enlightening the people, showing them the mistakes +into which they were led by those who were interested in the continuance +of the war. + +"I have not sought to impose my notions upon anyone, but I do not any +the more accept those of others when my reason and my conscience reject +them. And I believe there is no right, nor law, nor reason to support +those who willingly, or through force, wish to force upon others their +own ideas however good or holy these may be. + +"Those who are at the head of the Cuban government and guide the +revolution believe their triumph possible; they think their ideas are +correct and their way a good one. Very well; but not believing as they +do, I move aside from that government, whose _pressure and +arbitrariness_ are such, that it will not even admit neutrality in +others. I will not wage war against you; I will not take up arms against +you except in personal defence; but I separate from men who wish to +_impose_ their own notions on others _through force_. You are free to +think and act as you like, and I reserve to myself the same right and +act in accordance therewith. + +"But there is more. In the position where, unfortunately and much +against my will, events have placed me, I occupy a place as a public +man, as a politician in Cuban politics; and I should not remain inactive +while I behold the destruction of Cuba and look out merely for my +personal safety under the protection of the Spanish government. No, +Gentlemen, I would then be a bad patriot, and I love my country before +liberty or rather I do not understand the former principle as divorced +from the latter. Both are intimately bound together; and in order that +the first be worthy, honorable and beneficial to humanity it cannot be +separated from the second. + +"I am a Cuban, the same as yourselves, and I have consequently the same +right to busy myself with the welfare of my country. Let everyone have +his method; you pretend that you obey the popular will; that you are at +the head of government, because the will of the people and popular +choice; that you act in uniformity with ideas and sentiments of the +Cubans; and finally that you are provoking the welfare and prosperity of +Cuba. _I shall prove entirely the contrary._ + +"The favorable reception with which my ideas were met at Bayamo, the +meeting at Clavellinas, that at Las Minas, and the desire--almost +unanimous--to accept the _concessions_ offered by General Dulce, prove +sufficiently that the country wanted peace, nevertheless you maintain +war. Hence, popular suffrage in the country is but a chimera. + +"Let us see how the actual government was formed. On the one side, +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes who, _for himself_ and in _his own name set +himself up_ as the _dictator_ of Cuba, _appointed_ a certain number of +deputies for the cast, at the famous meeting in Guaimaro. That is a fine +representation of popular will and an admirable republic, when the +deputies are not elected by the people! On the other hand, the assembly +at Puerto Principe was _illegally constituted_ and _entirely +unauthorized_; and, finally, some deputies from the Cinco Villas--the +only ones which perhaps held a legitimate representation--met together +and formed the actual government, which they should have called the +_Venetian_ rather than a _Cuban Republic_. They formed the government by +_sharing with each other the offices_, and they propose thus to shape +the destiny of Cuba. A _handful of men_ thus representing over a million +souls, who _have had no share_ in their nomination, does not assuredly +constitute popular election. + +"The Cubans want the liberty of assemblage, freedom of speech, respect +of property, personal security, the liberty to leave the territory of +the Republic,--which is a right secured in all nations of the world to +every individual, they want, in fine, to be governed as the majority +choose, and not according to the will of a few. But _nothing of all this +is done_. Whoever puts forth ideas _contrary_ to those of the government +or any of its _functionaries_, is _threatened_ with four shots, +_property is a prey to the first comer_, who, with arms in hand can take +_possession_ of what suits him; the _lives_ of men are _sported_ with, +just as children sport with flies; and in fine whoever attempts to +abandon the government, even without intruding to wage war on it, is +persecuted to death. Hence the conduct of said government is not in +conformity with the ideas and sentiments of the country. + +"If to all this be added the _arsons_ and the complete _destruction_ of +Cuban wealth, the _demolition of towns_ and--what must follow in the +end, can there be one sensible man who will maintain that all this +constitutes the prosperity and well-being of Cuba? Assuredly not. + +"You employ _force, deceit, terror_ to _drag the masses_ on and carry +out whatever you judge beneficial for the cause of Cuba; I use only +reason, truth and the irrepressible logic of facts and of experience, +not the material argument of arms. + +[Illustration: DOMINGO GOICOURIA] + +"Well, then, knowing as I do that the country _does not want war_, and +that it continues therein under the _pressure_ of the Cuban government +in the one hand and on the others out of fear of the punishment which +the Spanish government might inflict, knowing as I do that nothing is to +be expected from the United States as it was attempted to make the +people believe; knowing that since the beginning of the Insurrection, +40,000 men have come from Spain, and that many more will come--a fact +generally unknown in this country; aware, as I am, that over 100,000 men +are under arms; that the coasts are well watched, and that the New York +Junta lacks resources to send material aid to the Insurrection; aware +moreover that the _Cuba_, the _Lillian_, the expedition of Goicouria and +others are lost resources; that the Insurrection is almost stifled in +the East and in the Cinco Villas; that in the Vuelta-Abajo far from +there being any secessionists, it is the country people themselves who +pursue the insurgents, as has taken place in Guines; knowing as I do +that the families to be met with in the fields are anxious to return to +the towns; and aware of the importance attached to my conduct, both in +the Island and abroad, I have made a new sacrifice for my country. I +have come forward with my family to prove by my example that I do not +believe in the triumph of the Insurrection, nor do I fear the Spanish +government; which animated as it is with the best of wishes is ready to +draw a veil over the past, provided the country can be pacified and many +tears, much blood and loss of property be spared. + + DOMINGO GOICOURIA + + General Domingo Goicouria, one of the pioneers of Cuban + independence was born in 1804, and was an active participant in the + Lopez expeditions and other uprisings. He was one of the leaders in + the beginning of the Ten Years' War, but was captured by the + Spaniards, at Cayo Guajaba, and was put to death at Havana on May + 14, 1870. + +"It is a sacrifice indeed, Gentlemen, for I expose my name to the +evil-tongued and make it the butt of false interpretations. + +"I believe firmly that the happiness of Cuba and the welfare of humanity +consists in the pacification of this beautiful country, and maintain +this in the presence of the whole universe with my hand on my conscience +and head erect as becomes a man of honor. + +"There is no man who is infallible, and perhaps my opinions and +determination may be wrong; but I can at least affirm that I am acting +in good faith, having for sole object in view the welfare of my country +and of humanity and making total abstraction of my own personality, as +well as of my own interests. + +"I am not a time server but a man of fixed principles; I am convinced of +my opinions and feel the energy of my convictions. I now maintain what I +have maintained since the beginning of the revolution, even previous +thereto. My actual conduct is not therefore an apostasy but the +energetic continuance in my opinions and principles. These I do not mean +to impose on any one; merely make them known, inviting all to examine +them in every detail, and I am sure that they will follow my example. +But if blind to reason and unmindful of the events which for a year and +a half have supported my predictions, they persist in a struggle which I +believe hopeless, let them keep on, but without _extending the horrors +of war to families_. Let the women and children whom _government_ wishes +to _foster_ and _daily supports_ with rations of bread, rice, butter, +etc., come to the city; and let you keep on, if unfortunately you refuse +to listen to the voice of reason and patriotism, in that senseless +contest, which you must later repent having ever begun. + +"Reflect a moment; examine thoroughly, and not merely the appearances of +the situation, and you will see that the existing strife is an +unqualifiable mistake, and its continuation an unparalleled +blindness.... What has become of the intelligence of Cubans? Where are +the energy and the influence of men of intelligence and character? + +" ...Cubans! You have seen that I have always been a protector to the +people; that I have tried to enlighten them, that they might have a +participation in everything and know what they were doing, so as to +follow their own ideas and not be carried off by others; but what has +been the result? I was treacherously and illegally arrested, at the +request of those who wish to rule the masses; I was sentenced to death, +and over twenty times they have tried to put an end to my life.... +Natural sense shows clearly that when an attempt is made to annihilate +him who speaks the _truth_, who _enlightens_ and never _deceives_; who +instead of speculating on his fellow countrymen and growing rich on the +revolution makes use of his own means to succor the masses (let all +Yaguajey speak); who never makes use of any pressure to enforce his +ideas, who allows himself to be ruined from the neglect of his own +interests, in order to give himself up solely to the welfare of his +country; does it not show clearly, I say, that the attempt is made only +because his adversaries have different pretensions and a different line +of conduct from his? Now what is this difference? It consists in +_violence, deceit_, the use of _force, spoliation_ of the neighbor for +_his own benefit_; it is despotism, based on the ignorance in which the +people are kept. I have sought to have the country governed as it is its +wish to be governed, in accordance with universal suffrage; your +government, _on the contrary_, pretend to rule it as they see fit. They +state that they want liberty for the people whilst the most _cruel +despotism_ weighs upon you.... + +"The people are told that from the United States will come reinforcement +and resources; that there are elements to spare for the continuation of +the war; that the Spanish soldier carries a cartridge-box and wears +shoes of rawhide and is short of provisions; that there are _no troops_ +nor will _any come_ from Spain; that the _taxes are ruining_ the +country, etc., etc. Well, I ... tell you all this is _illusion, deceit_, +and a fatal chimera. + +"The government of the United States does not busy itself nor can it +with the Cuban Insurrection. Look at Article 16 of the Treaty of 1797 +and you will learn that they cannot favor the Cubans in the least +efficacious way without failing in national dignity and exposing +themselves to a coalition against themselves. That government is too +polished and financially shrewd to compromise itself in a war that would +entail serious mischief upon its commerce; and moreover there are other +motives that would be too lengthy to detail.... + +"I have just read a manifesto of Manuel Quesada, published in New York +under date of the 8th inst., in which he sets astray entirely the +opinion that should be formed of the state of insurrection. I shall tear +off the bandage. He states that the Cuban army numbers 61,000; that +there are here five powder factories; that firearms are manufactured +here as well as swords and bayonets; that there are thirteen public +schools and thirteen churches; that three thousand shoes are made every +week and four thousand hides tanned every month; that the soldier +receives for daily ration, beef, sugar, coffee, vegetables and rice at +his discretion, tobacco, etc.; that there are many sugar mills grinding +for the state; that several warehouses are filled with tobacco, sugar, +hides, etc., to the value of many millions of dollars, that the +territory which is occupied by the Cubans in insurrection is in a +cultivated and producing condition, such as has never before been +witnessed, even during years of the greatest abundance; that thousands +of percussion caps are daily made; that he (Quesada) left here under +commission of importance after having temporarily put Jordan in command +under instructions, as well as the other leaders, etc., etc., to an +endless length. I address you, fellow countrymen, who are there on the +ground of this insurrection, whence I have lately come. You all, as well +as myself, know that all these things are _false_, entirely _false_. + +"Quesada states that he has gone to seek means and bring arms, with +which to end the insurrection, but for what _does he need them if he has +61,000 men_? Is it possible that it should not occur to the inhabitants +of New York to ask him _what need he has of more means when he has so +many thousand men? When he has over 20,000 arms and can make more as +well as powder and caps?_ Why has not _that soldier of fourteen years' +campaigning_ taken possession with that army of _one single town_ at +least wherein to _locate the government_ of the republic? Why has he not +_captured one single port_ through which to get aid, export the +productions of the country to the value of millions, and thus acquire a +right to recognition as belligerents? _Where are schools? Where are +those churches?_ Have those at Guaimaro and Sibarncu, which _were +burned_ by that renowned general been perchance rebuilt? Why are the +soldiers _unshod_ or wearing _strips of raw hide_ if there are three +thousand shoes made weekly and four thousand hides tanned per month? +_Where is the abundance_ for the soldier? _Where has he got coffee, +rice, tobacco, etc.? Where are those sugaring mills_ in regular running +order?... Then as to the commission of Manuel Quesada and his separation +from command, do you know as well as I do that he was _ignominiously +deposed by the Chamber_, and that _during his stay_ in Cuba, from his +first arrival his conduct has been _blameworthy under all aspects_? + +"Well, then, Cubans, this is the plan followed from the beginning of the +revolution. They are deceiving you and our brethren in New York as well +as the whole world. For these reasons I say that the edifice is raised +on insecure and imaginary foundations. For these reasons have I always +tried to undeceive the country and let them see clearly, so as to +prevent Cuba from sinking into the abyss wherein she is intended to be +cast. Withal I have not been understood. There has been no lack of +someone who, out of exaltation and under pressure of some sad aberration +has qualified my conduct as treasonable. Ah! Whoever stated that knows +not even the meaning of his words! When did I ever recognize this +government? Never; but rather have I always been in opposition thereto. +For as I wish my country's welfare I could not second an _illegal, +arbitrary, despotic_ government that is _annihilating_ our land. + +"They recognize their error, but they have not loyalty enough to confess +it, they are aware that they are neither statesmen nor lovers of +liberty, nor patriots and their consciences sting them; they know that I +have always seen farther than they could, and more clearly, that all my +predictions have been fulfilled; that I have been alone in maintaining +energetically my principles; bearing up against all kinds of privation +and danger; and they do not forgive me for these advantages over them; +they know that my past and my present career have been free from all +stain; and they do not forgive me for that. + +"Well, if to have thus behaved, to have made entire abstraction of self +and my interests, to look after the welfare of Cuba, to have done harm +to no one, but much good; far from having taken life, to have saved the +lives of many, without distinction of nationality; to have respected +always the property of others, and never have let my hand touch the +incendiary torch, to forward pacification, when I know that the country +needs it; and that by it alone can tears, blood, and destruction be +prevented;--if to have done all this constitute treason, ah! then I am a +traitor; yes, Gentlemen, I am one and feel proud of it. + +"Your government claims to favor liberty for the country; why then does +it not consent to _freedom of one's principles_? Why does it not _admit +of neutrality_? Why does it force people to take up arms without +_distinction of persons_? Why has it always been opposed to _speaking +out in public_? Why did it oppose the _country's acceptance_, when so +close, of _General Dulce's concessions_? Why does it _persecute to +death_ whoever tries to separate himself from said government without +having any intention of waging war against it? Why? I will tell you. +Because then there would _remain in the camp of the insurrection only a +dozen men; the only ones interested in the continuance of this war_ +between brethren; this war of desolation and extermination. + +"I agree that there was reason for the Cuban people to complain and be +resentful against the government that ruled them; but all this has +changed, not only with regard to the institution but as to the manner of +being as well. I am myself an example of what I state. I presented +myself to the Captain-General who received me in such a way as to prove +by his manner alone, his good wishes; even if these were not confirmed +by the conduct which he followed in the Villas and wherever he has been +able to make the impress of his own feelings felt. In his proclamation +he offers a pardon to all who will present themselves; but as every +medal has its reverse, so whoever fails to do so must suffer the cold +and inexorable rigor of the law. + +"Fellow-countrymen, my brethren, let us throw a veil over the past. Let +us look to the future of our families and to the prosperity of our +nation. + +"You know well how many persecutions, privations and even vexations I +have suffered. I forget it all and forgive from my heart all who have +sought my death and wanted my blood. I forgive all who, directly or +indirectly have offended me, of whatever nation or condition they may +be. I sacrifice all, all, on the altar of my country, and for the +welfare of humanity. Why do you not follow my example? + +"Brethren! let there be no more tears, no more blood, no more ruins! +Return to your presides and let a fraternal embrace unite forever both +Spaniards and Cubans and let us all together make of this beautiful +Island--the Pearl of the Antilles--the Pearl also of the world. Cubans, +I await you, and the undeserved consideration shown to me by the first +authority of Cuba which fortunately is held by Senor Don Antonio +Caballero de Rodas I offer to use in your behalf. For myself I seek only +the satisfaction of having always forwarded the welfare of Cuba. + + "NAPOLEON ARANGO. + +"March 28th, 1870." + +The italics are Arango's and his alone also the extraordinary sentiments +expressed in this remarkable document. + +In this same year, the question of slavery came up for attention. While +the United States government had abandoned its attempt to mediate +between Spain and Cuba it had, of course, by its own action during the +Civil War, definitely arrayed itself against slavery wherever it +existed, and it now, through its Minister to Spain, Daniel E. Sickles, +entered into negotiations with the Spanish government, looking to the +actual freeing of the slaves in Cuba. + +Of course news of these happenings did not fail to penetrate Cuba and to +reach the ears of the Captain-General. Indeed he seemed to have a +premonition of them, even before the United States government had +definitely taken up the matter with Spain. He was nothing if not an +opportunist, and he, therefore, on his own account, on February 24, +1870, issued a decree which had the effect of freeing two thousand +colored prisoners of war, and which read as follows: + + + "Superior Political Government of the Province of Cuba: + + "Decree: + + "By virtue of the faculties with which I am invested, and in + keeping with the royal decree of the 27th of October, 1865, I think + fit to extend by decree of the 21st of September, ultimo, declaring + exemption from dependency on the government the expeditions + entitled Puerto Escondido, Cabanas 10, Cabanas 85, Cabanas San + Diego de Minez and Trinidad. + + "In consequence thereof the employers who have in their service + emancipated slaves of the referred-to expeditions, will present + them in the Secretary's office of this superior government within + the period of one month, in order that, after the usual + formalities, they may receive their letters of exemption. + + "At the same time, the governors and lieutenant-governors will + publish this direction in the periodicals of their respective + jurisdictions, so that it may come to the notice of the holders of + these emancipados and they cannot allege ignorance of it. + + "CABALLERO DE RODAS. + + "Havana, February 24, 1870." + + +Rodas was crafty, and he now thought of a device which under the guise +of mercy would hamper the Cuban army. On May 26th he promulgated a +second decree freeing all slaves who had acted or would act as guides to +the Spanish army, or render any like valuable service to the government, +an effort, of course, to induce the former servants of patriots to +betray their masters and the Cuban army into the hands of the Spaniards. +To disguise the baldness of this attempt at corruption, he also included +a provision, freeing all slaves belonging to the insurgents or who had +escaped to foreign countries. This provision was for all practical +purposes meaningless and without any value, because the Cubans +themselves who were fighting for freedom from Spain had already +emancipated their slaves. + +Meanwhile negotiations between Sickles and the Spanish government +resulted in the promulgation of a decree, which was known as the Moret +law, acquiring its name from the Spanish Minister of Colonies, whose +signature was one of many signed to the document, and who is reported to +have had a hand in its composition. It bore date, July 4, 1870, and was +promulgated by the Captain-General nearly two months later, as follows: + + + "Superior Political Government of the Province of Cuba: + + "His Excellency the Regent of the kingdom communicates to me, under + date of July 4th ultimo, the following law, which has been + promulgated or sanctioned by the Congressional Cortes: + + "Don Francisco Serrano of Dominguez, Regent of the kingdom, by the + will of the sovereign Cortes, to all to whom these presents shall + come, greeting: + + "Know ye that the Congressional Cortes of the Spanish nation does + hereby decree and sanction the following: + + "Article 1. All children of slave mothers, born after the + publication of this law, are declared free. + + "Article 2. All slaves born between the 18th of September, 1868, + and the time of the publication of this law, are acquired by the + state by the payment to the owners of the sum of twenty five + dollars. + + "Article 3. All slaves who have served under the Spanish flag or + who have in any way aided the troops during the present + insurrection in Cuba are declared free. All those are equally + recognized as free as shall have been so declared by the superior + government of Cuba, by virtue of its jurisdiction. The state shall + pay their value to their masters, if the latter have remained + faithful to the Spanish cause; if belonging to insurgents, they + shall receive no indemnity. + + "Article 4. Slaves, who, at the time of the publication of this + law, shall have attained the age of sixty years are declared free, + without any indemnification to their owners. The same benefit shall + be enjoyed by those who shall hereafter reach this age. + + "Article 5. All slaves belonging to the state, either as + emancipated, or who for any other cause are at present under the + control of the state, shall at once enter upon the full exercise of + their civil rights. + + "Article 6. Those persons freed by this law who are mentioned in + articles 1 and 2, shall remain under the control of the owners of + the mother, after the payment of the indemnity prescribed in + Article 2. + + "Article 7. The control referred to in the foregoing article + imposes upon the person exercising it the obligation to maintain + his wards, to clothe them, care for them in sickness, giving them + primary instruction, and the education necessary to carry on an art + or trade. The person exercising the aforesaid control acquired all + the rights of a guardian, and may, moreover, enjoy the benefit of + the labor of the freedman, without making any compensation, until + said freedman has reached the age of eighteen years. + + "Article 8. When the freedman has reached the age of eighteen + years, he shall receive half the wages of a freedman. Of these + wages, one half shall be paid to him at once, and the other half + shall be reserved in order to form a capital for him, in the manner + to be determined by subsequent regulations. + + "Article 9. On attaining the age of twenty-two years, the freedman + shall acquire the full control of his civil rights and his capital + shall be paid to him. + + "Article 10. The control will also be annulled: first, by the + marriage of the freedman, when the same is entered into by females + over fourteen years and males over eighteen years old; second, by a + proved bad treatment on the part of the guardian or his + noncompliance with his duty, as stipulated in Article 7; third, + should the guardian prostitute or favor the prostitution of the + freedwoman. + + "Article 11. The above mentioned control is transmissible by all + means known in law, and is also resignable when just motives exist. + Legitimate or illegitimate parents who are free shall be permitted + to assume the control of their children by the payment to the + guardian of the same of any expense he may have incurred for + account of the freedman. Subsequent regulations will settle the + basis of this indemnification. + + "Article 12. The Superior civil government shall form, in the space + of one month from the publication of this law, lists of the slaves + comprised in articles 3 and 5. + + "Article 13. The freed persons mentioned in the foregoing article + remain under the control of the state. This control is confined to + protecting them, defending them and furnishing them the means of + gaining a livelihood, without limiting their liberty in the + slightest degree. Those who prefer to return to Africa shall be + conveyed thither. + + "Article 14. The slaves referred to in article 4 may remain with + their owners, who shall thus acquire control over them. When they + shall have preferred to continue with their former masters it shall + be optional with the latter to give them compensation or not, but, + in all cases, as well as in that of the freed persons being unable + to maintain themselves by reason of physical disability, it shall + be the duty of the said former masters to feed them, clothe them, + and care for them in sickness. This duty shall be a concomitant of + the right to employ them in labors suitable to their condition. + Should the freedman object to the compliance with his obligation to + labor, or should he create disturbances at the house of his + guardian, the authorities will decide the questions arising + therefrom, after having first heard the freedman. + + "Article 15. If the freedman of his own free will shall leave the + control of his former master, the latter shall no longer be under + the obligations mentioned in the foregoing article. + + "Article 16. The Government shall provide the means necessary for + the indemnifications made necessary by the present law, by means of + a tax upon those who shall remain in slavery, ranging from eleven + to sixty years of age. + + "Article 17. Any act of cruelty, duly justified as having been + indicted by the tribunals of justice, will bring with it as a + consequence the freedom of the slave suffering such excess of + chastisement. + + "Article 18. Any concealment impeding the application of the + benefits of this law shall be punished according to title 13 of the + penal code. + + "Article 19. All those shall be considered free who do not appear + enrolled in the census drawn up in the Island of Porto Rico the + 31st of December, 1869, and in that which will have been drawn up + in the Island of Cuba on the 31st of December of the present year, + 1870. + + "Article 20. The Government shall make a special regulation for the + execution of this law. + + "Article 21. The Government will report to the Cortes when the + Cuban deputies shall have been admitted, a bill for the compensated + emancipation of those who remain in slavery after the establishment + of this law. Meantime this emancipation is carried into effect; the + penalty of the whip, authorized by chapter 13 of the regulations + for Porto Rico and Cuba, shall be abolished; neither can there be + sold separately from their mothers children younger than fourteen + years, nor slaves who are united in matrimony. + + "By a resolution of the Congressional Cortes the foregoing is + reported to the Regent of the Kingdom for its promulgation as a + law. + + "MANUEL RUIZ ZORILLA, President. + + "MANUEL DE LIANOS Y PERSI, Deputy Secretary. + + "JULIAN SANCHEZ RUANO, Deputy Secretary. + + "FRANCISCO XAVIER CARRATALA, Deputy Secretary. + + "MARIANO RUIZ, Deputy Secretary. + + "Palace of the Cortes, June 23, 1870. + + "Therefore I order all tribunals, justices, officers, governors and + other authorities of whatsoever class or position, to obey the same + and cause it to be obeyed, complied with and executed in all its + parts. + + "FRANCISCO SERRANO, Minister of Ultramar. + + "SIGISMONDO MORET Y PRENDERGAST. + + "San Ildefonso, July 4, 1870. + + "And, having opportunely omitted the publication of the same for + the want of the regulation referred to in Article 20, and having + received the sense in which said document is to be drawn up, I have + ordered the exact compliance of said law, in virtue of which it is + inserted in the Official Gazette for future guidance. + + "CABALLERO DE RODAS." + + "Havana, Sept. 28, 1870." + +If these decrees were intended to fill the insurgents with gratitude, +and to have the effect of halting the revolution, they fell far short of +their mark. In the first place, the Spanish Government had too often +tricked her Cuban subjects, and they had little cause to have faith in +either her good will or her good intentions, and much more cause to +believe that her action was intended as a sop to the Government at +Washington, an attempt to "pull the wool over the eyes" of American +sympathizers, and even a very cursory glance at the provisions of the +Moret law would convince even a layman with no knowledge of +jurisprudence that there was small chance of their ever being enforced. + +It is true that this law provided for the freedom of all slaves born +after a certain date, but it left them in the care of their mothers, and +under the control of their former masters, condemned to serve without +pay and virtually free only in name. It also proclaimed the freedom of +slaves who had reached the age of sixty years and who very likely had +endured years of such hard treatment that they were infirm and in no +condition to support themselves. If they were reluctant to start life +alone and either by timidity or by coercion remained with their masters, +the latter were at liberty to pay them or not, and when a Spanish +planter had the option of obtaining labor free rather than paying for +it, there was not much room for doubt as to what course he would pursue. +The whipping post was abolished, but the Cubans were too busy with other +matters to patrol the country in search of violations of this +regulation, and the masters were pretty safe to conduct themselves as +they chose. This law, which contained such fair words that it met with +the approval of the American minister, was almost ludicrous in its +paradoxical terms, and instead of impressing the patriots with the +softened hearts of their tyrannical masters, it must have filled the +intelligent ones with mirth. + +Besides this, since upon the declaration of the independence of Cuba the +revolutionary government had declared the freedom of all men on the +Island, Spain's action so long afterward was like opera bouffe, or +rather a grimly amusing anti-climax. As a matter of fact the Moret law +remained a dead letter, unenforced, overlooked, violated, almost +forgotten, and the subject of slavery again fell into the background, +while the war took the front of the stage. + +Spain was having constantly to reinforce her army, and she was unable to +do this in sufficient numbers to make up deficits properly. The climate +of Cuba was very hard on the new recruits who had not become accustomed +to it, and Spain lost almost as many by disease as she did in battle. +She renewed her cruelties against the unprotected Cuban planters, and +not only burned and pillaged, but subjected all captives to the most +revolting and sickening cruelties, gouging out eyes, cutting out +tongues, crucifying and hanging men by their hands. Probably the +atrocities practiced by the Spaniards in this war were never equalled, +unless we recall the barbarities which they practiced later in 1895, +until the Huns of Prussia invaded Belgium and France in the great war of +1914-18, and showed what inefficient novices in deviltry the Spanish had +been when compared with the disciples of "Kultur." + +The year 1871 opened brightly for the patriots. That seasoned warrior +General Jordan led a company to victory, at Najassa, against a force of +Spaniards under General Puello. The Spanish losses were especially +gratifying, if that term may be employed, since they included thirty-six +officers. + +Meanwhile Rodas, in spite of his methods, which must have been most +gratifying to them, fell into disfavor with the Volunteers, and they +exerted their power against him, finally effecting his resignation and +the elevation of Count Valmaseda in his place, in a temporary capacity, +until another Captain-General could be sent from Spain. + +[Illustration: NICOLAS AZCARATE] + +[Illustration: JUAN CLEMENTE ZENEA] + + NICOLAS AZCARATE + + Nicolas Azcarate was the founder of the New Lyceum of Havana which + for years was the centre of the intellectual life of that city, and + his home was the resort of the literary and artistic world. Papers + read at his receptions by eminent men were published in two volumes + under the title of "Literary Nights." He was born in 1826 and died + in 1894, leaving a literary influence which is still gratefully + perceptible. + +Spain once more made overtures to the United States Government, asking +it to use its offices in eliciting from the revolutionary government +some statement of terms which would be satisfactory to them as a basis +of peace. Since former efforts to bring the belligerents together had +been so productive of failure, Washington demurred from officially +undertaking the matter; whereupon Don Nicolas Azcarate went to +Washington from Spain with authorization to offer to the insurgents an +amnesty, and disarmament of the Volunteers, provided the Cubans laid +down their arms. They were further to be granted the immediate and +unconditional emancipation of slaves, irrespective of age and condition +of servitude. All confiscations made by either side were to be annulled, +and the property thus seized was to be restored to the original owners. +Religious freedom, free speech, and free assembly, were to be granted +the Cubans, while Cuba was to have representation in the Spanish Cortes, +and to be governed by colonial autonomy, similar to that which Great +Britain maintained in her American provinces. Last of all, and by no +means least, all officials who were offensive to the Cubans were to be +removed from office. Of course, these instructions were confidential, +because of the offense which they would have given the powerful +Volunteers. The United States, however, did not undertake to transmit +the proposed terms to the insurgents, and finally Azcarate undertook to +do so on his own initiative. He had little faith in the fate which his +proposal might meet, should it be transmitted through Spanish sources in +Cuba and its terms be divulged to the Volunteers. He doubted whether it +would ever reach President Cespedes. He therefore decided to transmit it +by special messenger, for this purpose choosing Juan Clemente Zenea, a +man in whose discretion and resourcefulness he had the greatest faith. +To make the journey safe for his envoy, he obtained from the Spanish +minister at Washington a safe conduct for Zenea, ordering the military +and naval authorities of Cuba, as well as the Volunteers, to afford safe +passage to Don Juan Clemente Zenea "into and out of any port on the +Island of Cuba." Zenea reached President Cespedes without accident and +laid the proposition before him, which was promptly refused. The +Volunteers, meanwhile, had learned of Zenea's coming, and of the nature +of his errand. Even the greatest of secrecy could not have kept the +knowledge from them, for their spies were everywhere active, not only in +the Island, but in the United States and at the Spanish court as well. +When Zenea left the Cuban lines, he was immediately seized by the +Volunteers and imprisoned at Havana, under heavy guard. The news of this +occurrence reached Spain and immediately the Duke de la Torre, then +President of King Amadeus's Council of Ministers, protested to the +authorities at Havana, and insisted that Zenea be released and be given +safe conduct from the Island. But the will of the Volunteers was more +powerful in Cuba than were the wishes of those high in authority in +Spain, or than the common tenets of decency, right and justice. Zenea +was not released and he was not given safe conduct. After many months' +imprisonment under the most revolting conditions, he was condemned to +death without trial, and on August 15 was taken out and shot in the +back. + + JUAN CLEMENTE ZENEA + + Poet, patriot and martyr, Juan Clemente Zenea was born at Bayamo in + 1831, and in boyhood settled in Havana. He was a teacher in La + Luz's school, El Salvador, and wrote some exquisite poems. But + politics and Cuban independence claimed his chief attention. From + his seventeenth year he was incessantly engaged in revolutionary + conspiracies, in Havana and in New Orleans and New York. In 1868, + he went to New York where he was an active member of the Junta. In + 1870, he was sent on a mission to President Cespedes, which he + accomplished but soon afterward was captured by the Spaniards, + imprisoned in Cabanas, and then shot. + +This action would hardly have been conducive to good feeling between the +opposing leaders, even had the Cubans had faith in Spanish promises. In +too hard a school had they learned that it was useless to expect the +Spanish authorities on the Island to keep their word to the Cubans, +either in the small matter of a safe conduct for an innocent messenger, +or the larger one of proposed concessions to an oppressed people. The +Cuban government was not to be thus easily lured from their attempts to +secure the one thing which was to them paramount, the real object for +which they had made so many sacrifices, the absolute independence of the +Island. Moreover, even were the promise made under the guarantee of the +United States Government, the Cubans could not be convinced of the good +faith of Spain, or that when once they had abandoned their struggle, +laid down their arms, and given Spain the advantage, she would act +otherwise than she had during her entire occupation of the Island. They +felt sure that if her advances were graciously met, she would, when she +again had the balance of power, simply impose upon the Island new +indignities, and cover her treachery with fair words and vague promises +whenever the United States might enter a protest. + +Spain expressed indignation at the shortsighted policy of the Cuban +leaders, and then gave demonstration of how she intended to punish Cuba. +She renewed her persecution of individual Cubans, and her cruelty toward +Cuban sympathizers who while nursing their cordial feelings for the +revolution had not yet taken up arms against Spain. It was only +necessary that such persons should be suspected, and that suspicion +might be of the slightest variety. They were immediately seized and +thrown into dungeons and tortured to extract their confessions; the +right of trial was at this time almost entirely dispensed with, and +victims of Spanish wrath were put to death without an opportunity to +defend themselves, and executed in ways which are usually associated +with the most barbarous savageness. So glaring did these outrages become +that General Cespedes undertook to write a letter to the Spanish +Government at Madrid concerning them, although why, knowing the +character of his opponents as he did, he should have entertained the +idea that this mild intervention on his part would have the slightest +effect, or should have imagined that Spain was not cognizant of the +actions of her legionaries in Cuba, and that such actions were performed +without her fullest sanction, is not revealed. Cespedes certainly +displayed a childlike faith in the ultimate spark of good in depraved +human nature, when he took up his pen for such a communication. But be +that as it may, he addressed the following epistle to the "Supreme +Government of Spain." + +"The respect inspired by the laws of nations, which, under the influence +of modern civilization has, as far as possible, deprived war of its +savage character, imposes on us the obligation of addressing the Spanish +Government an energetic remonstrance, in consequence of several +offensive acts, which could not be known without causing offense to the +civilized world. From the time when the standard of Independence was +raised in Cuba, unworthy motives have been attributed to our contest. We +shall not explain the justice of the Cuban Revolution, for such an +explanation would be unpleasant to that Government, and besides it is +not now necessary; but we may say, in general, a colony is justified in +severing the knot which binds it to the mother-country, if it possesses +sufficient elements to live independently. + +"Colonial life is restricting, it can never entirely satisfy the +aspirations of an intelligent people, and, therefore, it cannot be +justly imposed upon them when they are in a position to maintain their +political existence. + +"A vicious rule, which was dissipated in Spain by the popular rising of +September, made worse, we might say intolerable, the colonial existence +of the Cubans. + +"The Cubans have decided to conquer with the sword, as they can obtain +in no other manner the exercise of their most important rights. Weighty +motives prevent their government from being more explicit in so delicate +a matter, but it is certain that only taking into consideration the +results of the war, no other relations are now possible between Cuba and +Spain, than those of a friendly spirit based on the condition of perfect +independence. + +"In addition to what we have already stated, a political party armed +from commencement of the struggle, under the denomination of Spanish +Volunteers, and known by their intolerance and retrograding tendencies, +have converted a question of ideas into a question of petty personal +interest; wresting the authority from those delegates of that +government, and imposing their caprices like laws; giving an indecorous +character to official manifestations relating to the revolution; and in +entire forgetfulness of the rights of man, have perpetrated incredible +crimes, which cast a blot on the history of Spain in America. + +"To relate all in detail would be very painful to us, and to the +government whom we are addressing. + +"It is sufficient to say that the troops charged with preserving the +Spanish dominion occupy themselves, in preference, in persecuting the +families who reside in the territories of the Republic, by depriving +them of all they possess, burning their habitations, and have even gone +several times so far as to make use of their arms against women, +children and old people. At the very moment whilst we are writing this +remonstrance, an awful example has occurred. + +"On the 6th of January of the present year, a Spanish column, commanded +by Colonel Acosta y Alvear, while marching from Camaguey to Ciego de +Avila, assassinated in its march these citizens of Juana, Mora de Mola +and Mercedes Mora de Mola; the children, Adrina Mola, aged twelve, +Agnela Mola, aged eight, and Mercedes Mola, aged two years. The horror +which is produced by crimes of such enormity, above all in the minds of +those who are far from the theatre of the events, is such as to make +them appear hardly credible, if we did not take into consideration the +demoralization of an army accustomed to pillage and violence, which +generally has no limits. + +"Such excesses doubtless are not with the consent of the Supreme +Government of a nation, in which the spirit of modern times has made +very eloquent manifestations. + +"If Spain will not grant to us the happy establishment of their acquired +liberties, recognizing the right of the Cubans to the separation, we +hope she will at least be disposed to guarantee the observation of human +principles in the prosecution of the struggle; and as some chiefs of the +liberating forces have on several occasions demanded in vain from the +opposing chiefs a proper method of conducting the war, we now ask the +Supreme Government of the Spanish nation to enter into arrangements to +protect the lives of the prisoners, and secure the inviolability of the +individuals who, on account of their sex, age and other personal +considerations may be exempt from liabilities protesting that we shall +not be responsible, if such Spanish chiefs will not regard what we now +offer, for the terrible consequences which will certainly follow this +barbarous system of warfare. + + * * * * * + +"We give publicity to the present dispatch, that it may come to the +knowledge of foreign governments. + +"Headquarters of the Government. + + "CARLOS MANUEL DE CESPEDES. + President of the Cuban Republic. + + "January 24, 1871." + +The foregoing did have the effect of acquainting the world with Spanish +atrocities, but its influence in restraining the further perpetration of +outrages, or in producing any official action by Spain looking toward +that desirable end, was absolutely nil. + +It possibly did impress the United States Government, confirmed as it +was by constant complaints from citizens of the United States, resident +in Cuba. At any rate, the United States issued a rebuke to Spain for the +indignities inflicted on American citizens in Cuba, and backed up this +communication with an order to her navy to stand by and protect the +lives and property of Americans in Cuba, and to maintain the dignity of +the flag of the United States. + +The Cuban forces were at this time suffering from grave disorder. +Attacks by the enemy were not so menacing to the success of the struggle +as internal disruptions and dissention among the leaders of the +Republican army. They grew so serious that an actual break occurred, and +on January 19, General Cornelio Porro proved disloyal to the cause of +freedom, and in company with some other supposed patriots, entered +Puerto Principe and surrendered to the Spanish Government, while at the +end of the month, Eduardo Machado, the Secretary of the Cuban House of +Representatives, wrote to the Captain-General, Count Valmaseda, stating +that the Cuban House of Representatives had dissolved and beseeching +clemency for the former members of that body. He added that Senor Miguel +G. Gutierrez was a fugitive, wandering about with his little son. + +It naturally was a severe blow to loyal patriots to find such treachery +within their own ranks, although they may have comforted themselves with +the truism that such has always been the case in rebellions against a +powerful ruler. The weak, the fearful, and the selfish have abandoned +the cause, when its fate seemed wavering. They may also have justly +argued that, if these men were traitors, loyal supporters of the cause +of freedom were well rid of them; that the strength of an organization +is like that of the proverbial chain, and that it becomes shorter but +immeasurably stronger by the removal of the weak links. Whether they +were sustained by any such comforting philosophy or not, the defection +of Porro and Machado did not for a moment cause the loyal Cuban leaders +to falter from their purpose to secure freedom for Cuba. To strengthen +the courage of loyal Cubans, President Cespedes and Ignacio Agramonte +issued proclamations in which they expressed the greatest faith in the +Cuban cause, and its ultimate victory, and urged all loyal hearts to +maintain their support of the battle for liberty. + +IGNACIO AGRAMONTE + + One of the foremost heroes of the Ten Years' War was Ignacio + Agramonte y Loinaz, a member of one of the most distinguished + families in Cuban history. He was born in Camaguey in 1841, was + educated for the bar, and became an eminent advocate, writer and + orator, with intense devotion to the cause of Cuban independence. + Immediately upon the outbreak of the revolution at Yara in 1868 he + took the field and showed himself a born leader of men. He was made + Secretary of the Revolutionary government, signed the Emancipation + act and the Cuban Constitution, and then returned to active work in + the field. As Major General he participated in many battles, + including the capture of a part of Camaguey on July 20, 1869. + President Cespedes made him Chief of the Department of Camaguey, + and for a time he succeeded Quesada as commander in chief of the + Revolutionary Army. He fell in the battle of Jimaguayu on July 1, + 1873. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + + +While these things were occurring in the "Ever Faithful Isle," there +were doings of epochal significance in Peninsular Spain. Queen Isabella +had, as we have seen, for some time been an exile, and on June 25, 1870, +the Serrano republican government forced her to sign a final manifesto +of abdication. The government itself, however, was far from strong, and +was unable to stand against strong opposition in the Cortes. It was +shortly overthrown by a vote of that body, and a monarchical form of +government was re-established. The crown was formally offered to and +accepted by Amadeus, son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, on +December 4, 1870. When this news reached Cuba, the Spanish troops on the +island took formal oath of allegiance to the new king of Spain. + +The reestablishment of a monarchy was, of course, exceedingly pleasing +to the Volunteers, for they had no sympathy with a republic, and the +freedom which it was supposed to entail, although in the case of the +republic in Spain, few changes or concessions had been extended to its +Cuban subjects. The Volunteers promptly took oath to support the +monarchy, and denounced the republican constitution. They embraced this +as a favorable opportunity to further an end of their own. They had long +suspected the Bishop of Havana of being in sympathy with the revolution. +He was at this time absent in attendance at the Vatican Council at Rome, +and the Volunteers were able so to manipulate matters that, upon his +return on April 13, 1871, he was refused permission to land. + +Believing that the new government would give even more cordial support +to their machinations than had the previous one, the Volunteers now +began a system of persecutions against Cuban patriots. The Volunteer +corps, in 1872, numbered eighty thousand members, and in 1870 and 1871 +they could not have fallen far below that number. They were so powerful +that the Captain-General must either conform to their wishes or sooner +or later give way to a successor whom they selected. Now there was +published in Havana a paper, called _La Voz de Cuba_, which was really +the "_Voice of the Volunteers_," for its editor, Gonzalo Castanon, was a +Colonel of that organization. It busied itself, among other things, with +attacks on the patriots, and took occasion to voice some derogatory +remarks concerning Cuban women. Naturally the Cuban husbands, sons, +fathers and lovers were hot with indignation against such calumny. +Castanon paid the just penalty of his scurrilous lack of chivalry, for +he was challenged by an outraged Cuban and in the duel which followed he +received a mortal wound. He was buried in a tomb in the Espada Cemetery. +Some time afterward, a party of young students--hardly more than +boys--from the University of Havana, visited the cemetery, and it was +reported to the authorities that one of them had been heard, while +standing near the tomb of Castanon, to make remarks derogatory to the +dead Colonel. This information was given by a Spanish soldier, who +claimed to have overheard the conversation, and when it was repeated to +a Spanish judge, the accusation was added that the boy's companions had +defaced the glass which closed the Castanon tomb. The Volunteers +immediately pounced upon the happening, as a delightful opportunity to +chastise and punish the members of wealthy families in Havana who were +suspected of aiding and abetting the revolution. The power of the +Captain-General was invoked, and forty-three students were arrested and +brought to trial. They were ably defended by a Spanish officer, Senor +Capdevilla, and he made such a good case for their innocence that they +were acquitted. The Volunteers, however, were not satisfied. Injustice +had in some manner miscarried, how they could not conceive, and justice +had triumphed. Such things would not do in dealing with Cubans. They +made a vigorous appeal to the Captain-General, and obtained from him an +order for assembling a second court martial, and this time they saw to +it that their own body was well represented in that body. The boys were +again apprehended, and the trial which ensued was a tragic farce, in +which they were given not the slightest chance for justice. Eight of +them were condemned to death, and the others to imprisonment at hard +labor. Consternation reigned among the best families of Cuba. One +distracted father offered a ransom of a million dollars for the life of +his son, but without avail. On November 27, 1871, the condemned +criminals, whose worst offence, if indeed there was any offense at all, +was the utterance of an indignant remark about a ruffian who had +attacked those dearest to all loyal, chivalrous and patriotic hearts, +the women of Cuba, were led out and shot in the presence of fifteen +thousand Spanish Volunteers, all under arms. In after years when the +wrong was beyond repair, justice was done to the memory of these +martyred youths, for not only did the Spanish Cortes, with admirable +fairness, investigate the matter and pronounce in favor of the innocence +of the students, but also the son of Castanon came to Cuba from Spain +with the object of removing thither his father's remains, investigated +the condition of the tomb, and made a sworn statement before a notary +that it had never been disturbed. + +The murder of the students of course created intense feeling in Cuba; +Havana was in a turmoil, and the sentiment engendered by this and +similar outrages committed or incited by the Volunteers swelled the list +of those who were in sympathy with a speedy release for Cuba from +Spanish rule. The scene of the tragedy has since been marked by the +Cuban government with a tablet which bears this inscription: + +"On the 27th of November, 1871, there were sacrificed in front of this +place, by the Spanish Volunteers of Havana, the eight young Cuban +students of the First Year of Medicine: + + Alonzo Alvarez de la Campa, + Carlos Augusto de Latorre, + Pascual Rodriquiz Perez, + Angel Laborde, + Jose de Marcos Medina, + Eladio Gonzales Toledo, + Anacleto Bermudez, + Carlos Verdugo. + +To their eternal memory, this tablet is dedicated, the 27th of November, +1899." + +While these events were taking place, and in spite of the troubles which +had beset them within their own ranks, the Cuban leaders maintained a +force of fifty thousand men in the field, and gained an important +victory in the vicinity of Mayari. This was more than offset by an +occurrence which struck brutally at the very foundation of the Cuban +army. In July, 1871, the Spanish defeated at Guantanamo a force of two +hundred men, under General Quesada, but this was trivial compared with +the catastrophe which it involved. General Quesada was taken prisoner, +as was General Figueredo, and in August these two loyal patriots who had +so ably supported the revolution, and the former of whom had been the +brains of the army, were executed by the Spaniards. The deepest gloom +filled the hearts of the Cuban leaders, and their discouragement is the +only explanation which can be offered of what followed, when a force of +Cubans, who had been operating in the central part of the island, under +General Agramonte, deserted, and approaching the Spanish authorities, +agreed to lay down their arms, provided their lives would be spared. The +Spaniards accepted their offer, and promptly gave out a statement that +the Cuban army was disrupted and that all that remained was a few slaves +under General Agramonte. They were to learn, however, that the Cubans +still had some fighting spirit left in them. Although the defection of +so large a body of his command left only thirty-five men under +Agramonte, he speedily recruited a new company, and was able to harass +the Spanish for two years longer, until he was killed in battle. + +The death of General Quesada left the post of Commander-in-Chief of the +Cuban army vacant, and General Modeste Diaz was elected to that office. +An official report made by the Cubans at this time shows the composition +of the army to have been: + +_Army Corps of Oriente._ + +Commander-in-Chief, General Modeste Diaz + +Division of Santiago de Cuba; Major-General Commanding, Maximo Gomez + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 and 2 Col. Jesus Perez Cobre 600 + 3 Lt. Col. Prado Baracoa 450 + 4 Lt. Col. Guillermo Moncada Baracoa 550 + 5 Lt. Col. Pacheco Guantanamo 450 + 6 Brig. Calixto Garcia Jiguani 600 + ----- + Total 2,650 + +Division of Holguin--General Commanding, Jose Inclan + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 Co. Fco. Herrero West 300 + 2 Gen. Inclan East 500 + --- + Total 800 + +Division of Bayamo--General Commanding, Luis Figueredo + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 Maj. Gen. N. Garrido Manzanillo 550 + 2 Gen. Luis Figueredo Bayamo 450 + ------ + Total 1,000 + Grand Total Army Corps of Oriente 4,300 + +_Army Corps of Camaguey_ + +Commander-in-Chief, General Vicente Garcia + +Division of Las Tunas--General Commanding, Vicente Garcia + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 General Vincente Garcia Santa Rita 650 + 2 Brig. Francisco Vega Arenas 400 + ------ + Total 1,050 + +Division of Camaguey--General Commanding, Ignacio Agramonte + + _Regiments_ _Commander_ _Localities_ _No. of Men_ + 1 Lt. Col. La Rosa Guaican Amar 300 + 2 Col. Agramonte Porro Guaican Amar 400 + 3 Lt. Col. Espinosa Guaican Amar 250 + 4 Lt. Col. Manuel Suarez Guaimaro 300 + 5 Lt. Col. Antonio Rodriguez Cubitas 200 + ------ + Total 1,450 + Grand Total Army Corps of Camaguey 2,600 + +_Army Corps of Las Villas_ + +Commander-in-Chief, Major-General Matso Casanova + + _No. of Men_ + Division of Trinidad, General Commanding, Brig. Juan Villegas 700 + Division of Sancti Spiritus, General Com'ding, Brig. Jose Villamie 800 + Division of Villa Clara, General Commanding, Brig. Carlos Ruloff 600 + Division of Cienfuegos, General Commanding, Brig. Juan Villegas 700 + Division of Remedios, General Commanding, Brig. Salome Hernandez 600 + ------ + Grand Army Total of Las Villas 3,400 + Grand Total 10,300 + +In June, 1871, three regiments under General Maximo Gomez--that able +soldier and patriot who was to figure so largely in the final struggle +against Spain in 1895--were instructed to take up their position and +endeavor to hold the line between Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo, and +they accordingly entrenched themselves in the Loma de la Gallista, but +they were almost immediately attacked by the Spanish. The battle was +hotly contested for four hours and ended in a victory for the Cubans. +The Spanish losses included arms and ammunition which were eagerly +appropriated by the conquerors. A few days later, a Spanish force +renewed the attack, advancing fifteen hundred strong against the men +under Gomez, and again they went down to defeat, their total losses in +the two battles amounting to one hundred killed, and a large number +wounded. In addition to this, the Cubans took fifteen Spaniards +prisoners. What must have been still more gratifying was an encounter +which a small band of Cubans had about this time with a company of +Volunteers, in which twenty-five of the latter were made prisoners. + +On July 3, Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Guevara with a company of Cubans +was encamped at La Cabana del Estribo, when they were attacked by a +force of three hundred Spaniards. He promptly ordered the camp +abandoned, covering his retreat by a weak fire on the enemy. The Cubans +were unable to make a more vigorous resistance, because they were +inadequately supplied with ammunition, even though, with plenty of +supplies, their position at La Cabana del Estribo might have been +considered an advantageous one. But with the odds so greatly against +them, the Cubans killed five Spaniards, and wounded forty others, among +whom was Pedro Popa, one of those who had turned traitor to the cause of +the revolution. But the Spaniards took vengeance on two practically +defenseless persons. On their retreat, with their wounded, they met +Major Baldoguin and two companions, who were on their way to see +Lieutenant-Colonel Guevara, and captured Major Baldoguin. They took him +to Bayamo, and in spite of the fact that he was severely wounded, they +executed him at once upon arrival at that city. + +A few days later, the same force which had attacked Lieutenant-Colonel +Guevara at Estribo, were reported to be again advancing against him. He +sent a company of infantry to meet them, and an engagement ensued which +lasted for over an hour. The Spaniards retreated to Los Toros, leaving +behind them fifty-three killed and wounded. On this occasion Guevara's +son was wounded, and one private was killed. + +A few days previous, on the evening of July 4, a small Cuban force +attacked the Spanish camp at the village of Veguita, and harassed the +enemy during the entire night, and the next day a company from the same +division of the Cuban army had an engagement with a hundred and fifty +Spanish cavalry, and put them to flight. The Cubans pursued them, and +forced them to take a stand, when a fight took place which lasted an +hour. The Cubans did not suffer a single casualty, while several of the +Spaniards were killed, and they were obliged to retreat. + +On July 25, Major Dominguez with a small force, attacked the sugar +plantation of Las Ovas, and sacked it almost in the presence of the +Spaniards, who were encamped only about half a mile distant, on the +Esperanza estate. Having accomplished this feat, Major Dominguez's +soldiers raided a nearby estate, which was owned by Tomas Ramirez, +another of those who had turned traitor. All the buildings on this +plantation were set on fire, and razed to the ground, as were also those +on the estate of Antonio Lastes. Curiously enough, although the +Spaniards in much larger numbers, were near at hand, and must have been +cognizant of these happenings, they made no attempt to interfere. + +A few days later, Major Noguera, with a small band, attacked forty of +the enemy on a road leading to Bayamo, and put them to rout, capturing a +considerable stock of supplies. This same band of patriots a little +later encountered a company of fifty Spaniards, who were driving a herd +of cattle toward El Huinilladero. They opened fire, and dispersed the +Spaniards, wounding an officer, and taking possession of the cattle, +together with a supply of cartridges, horses with their equipment, +blankets and provisions. + +On July 30, several companies from the division of Bayamo and Manzanillo +attacked a force of a hundred Spaniards who were strongly entrenched +near La Caridad. After a fight which lasted not over half an hour, the +Spanish were dislodged from their trenches, and fled into a nearby wood. +The Cubans followed, forcing the Spaniards into the open, and, after a +brief engagement, put them to rout. One Spaniard was captured, and he +gave information that the Spanish forces had lost seventeen men killed, +and that in their flight they had thrown away their rifles, which were +afterward recovered by the Cubans, who also took possession of a large +amount of supplies of all kinds. + +The estate of La Indiana had been fortified by the Spaniards, and on +August 4, General Gomez led an attack against it. The Spanish put up a +strong resistance, but the Cubans were able to take the buildings, and +capture thirty-five Spaniards. The entire district of Guantanamo was at +this time practically controlled by the insurgents. They destroyed +fourteen coffee plantations, and did other damage to the property of +Spanish sympathizers. On August 8, the Spaniards made an attack at El +Macio, but it was unsuccessful. For the next week there was one +engagement after another, with victory first with the Spaniards and then +with the Cubans, but the results were not of moment to either of the +belligerents. The Cubans were not able to marshal a sufficiently large +or well equipped force to venture a decisive battle, and so kept up an +annoying guerrilla warfare. Late in the month they advanced to the +outskirts of Santiago, destroying all plantations which lay along the +line of march, and defeated the Volunteers in an unimportant engagement. +Perhaps the most serious defeat that they inflicted on the Spanish at +this time was the destruction of the fortified camp at Miguel, in the +district of Sagua de Tanamo. Earlier in the month they had attacked and +taken a fortified camp in the neighborhood of Santa Isabel. All the +buildings were burned to the ground, twenty-six Volunteers were killed, +and a large quantity of stores was taken. There followed other +engagements in which the odds and the victory were with the Spaniards, +and the Cuban patriots were put to rout with heavy losses. But for the +most part in guerrilla warfare the Cubans had the advantage and made the +most of it. + +Late in August, a force under Major Villanueva and Captain Rios +surprised some Spanish soldiers at breakfast near Malangas. The +Spaniards largely outnumbered the Cubans, but the attack was so sudden +that they fled, leaving their rice and salted beef behind them. In this +engagement eight Spaniards were killed. + +On the first day of September, news reached Major Noguera that the enemy +were convoying a stock of supplies in the neighborhood where he was +stationed. He divided his men and concealed them at different points +along the road over which the Spaniards must pass. Six Volunteers and +one regular soldier were killed, and the enemy abandoned to the Cubans a +number of carts, filled with food stuffs, carbines, machetes, and other +supplies. + +[Illustration: CALIXTO GARCIA + +One of the most gallant figures in the patriot ranks in the Ten Years' +War and the War of Independence was that of Calixto Garcia e Iniguez. +Born at Bayamo on August 4, 1839, he was in the prime of young manhood +when he took the field under General Marmol in 1868. Soon as a brigadier +general he was the right-hand man of Maximo Gomez, and was made by him +commander in chief in Oriente when Gomez himself marched westward. After +six years of almost incessant and victorious fighting, he was surprised +and surrounded at San Antonio de Baja, when, rather than be captured, he +placed the muzzle of a pistol in his mouth and fired. The bullet pierced +the roof of his mouth and came out at the centre of his forehead. The +Spaniards then took him to a military hospital and, respecting his +valor, nursed him back to health. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was +released, whereupon he took the lead in the Little War. He was in Spain +in 1895 and could not get into the War of Independence until March, +1896, but thereafter he was one of its chief warriors. After the close +of the war he was sent to Washington on a diplomatic mission, and died +there on December 11, 1898.] + +September 18 was to be a memorable day in the year's fighting, for on +that date General Calixto Garcia with three regiments advanced against +Jiguani, where a large force of Spaniards were garrisoned. The latter +defended the town for two hours, but in the end the Cubans were +victorious, and gained control of the major portion of the town and its +fortifications. Many houses were burned, and two hundred Spaniards lay +dead in the streets. General Garcia then retreated, carrying with him a +large quantity of captured supplies, since he did not have a large +enough force to complete the occupation of Jiguani. He was pursued by +the Spaniards who had been reinforced, but the patriots made good their +escape with only slight losses. + +Throughout the entire months of August and September the eastern part of +the island was in a constant state of uproar and confusion. Attack and +counter-attack followed in succession, and yet neither side was any +nearer a significant victory or a decision. + +On October 23, the Spaniards gained a victory over the Cubans at El +Toro, and in November the insurgents turned the tables by defeating the +Spanish forces under Captain Ferral y Mongs. So the war continued, the +whole country witnessing the destruction of plantations, the burning of +buildings, the pillaging of villages, and loss of life as well as of +property. In the end it was the land of Cuba that suffered, for from a +once prosperous country it bade fair to be transformed into waste lands. + +Meanwhile the Cuban forces were slowly degenerating. The Spaniards were +well fed, well clothed and well equipped, while the Cuban forces were +poorly armed, often hungry, and in torn and ragged garments. The +resources of Spain reinforced her army, but the patriots had to rely on +chance help that came to them from their American sympathizers. Nothing +in their existence was certain, and as the war was prolonged without +their gaining a victory which seemed to bring the end nearer, the weaker +spirits began to despair and there was dissension and an undercurrent +of revolt among the common soldiers. In vain the leaders tried to put +heart into their forces, and desertions became alarmingly common. The +reductions in numbers compelled the Cuban leaders more and more to +resort to guerrilla warfare. This involved deplorable destruction of +property, valuable holdings of both loyalists and patriots were rendered +valueless, and naturally the morale of both armies suffered from a +spirit of lawlessness. By the end of 1871, two thirds of the farms and +coffee and sugar plantations in the district of Trinidad were destroyed +or abandoned, and the entire central portion of the island had suffered +grievously. + +Valmaseda on December 27, 1871, issued a proclamation to the effect that +after the first of the year every prisoner would be shot, and every +patriot who delivered himself up would suffer life imprisonment. This +applied to both negroes and white men; while all white women captured +would be banished, and all negro women would be returned to their +owners, and condemned to wear chains for a period of four years. +However, prior to that date, only if four days distant, the leaders or +any of the soldiers would lay down their arms and announce their +allegiance to Spain, they would be received with kindness and clemency. +This might have had more effect than it did but for the fact that the +Cubans were distrustful of promises of clemency, and feared that if they +escaped the vengeance of the government, they would later suffer at the +hands of the Volunteers. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + + +At the beginning of 1872 the storm center of the insurrection moved +eastward to Puerto Principe, Santiago and Guantanamo. Engagements in the +vicinity of these places had been frequent, and now they were almost +daily consisting chiefly of little skirmishes between small forces of +men. + +It was estimated that by this time Spain had sent to the island in the +neighborhood of sixty thousand trained soldiers, but they had come few +at a time, and on no occasion in larger numbers than two or three +thousand. Evidently the Spanish Government had at no time properly +estimated the strength, if not in numbers, at least in valor and +determination of the insurgents, and had never realized that only by +investing the island with overwhelming superiority could they hope to +put down the rebellion. However, during all this time Spain had been +struggling against disturbances at home of no mean dimensions, and early +in the year 1872 she was to endure another revolution, and the +abdication of Amadeus, followed once more by a republican form of +government. Records compiled by both sides prove that the war continued +during the year 1872 with the same persistence, unchanged in character, +and apparently no nearer a decision. The Spanish government, both at +home and abroad, seems to have suffered at this time from great +apprehension that the United States government would officially +recognize the Cubans as belligerents, in which event their position +would be materially strengthened. In February Spain sent more troops to +Cuba, at the request of Captain-General Valmaseda, who accompanied his +appeal by a statement--for publication, and to impress the United +States--that the war would be over by April or May. + +March found the struggle continuing, and on March 5, General Cespedes +himself, with a large body of Cuban troops, succeeded in taking Sagua de +Tanamo by storm. In this same month aid came from the United States, for +the steamer _Edgar Stewart_ arrived with arms, ammunition and supplies +for the Cuban army. + +Small engagements took place all during April, and in May the Cuban +leaders issued a statement to the effect that if Valmaseda was expecting +that the war would soon be ended, he was not taking into consideration +the strong resistance which the Cubans were still able to offer, and +which they intended to continue until Spain granted them independence. +Truly the war might end at once, but Spain would end it not by force of +arms but by acceding to the frequently expressed desire of Cuba for +complete separation from her rule, by withdrawing the offensive +government, and by transporting her troops back to their native land. + +Early in June the Cubans defeated the Spaniards near Las Tunas, and on +the 9th of that month, after heavy fighting, took Sama. The Cuban losses +in these engagements were heavy in comparison with the number of men +involved, but they were able to comfort themselves with the knowledge +that the Spanish killed and wounded totaled a much greater number, for +while the Cubans had only fifty killed and less than a hundred wounded, +the Spanish left dying on the battle field more than four times as many +as the Cubans, and their wounded amounted to three hundred and fifty. +But the Spanish navy was able to capture an expedition bearing relief to +the Cubans, and to defeat a band of patriots at Holguin, so that it +would seem that the honors for the month were about equal. + +In July, General Garcia attacked Spanish troops under the Governor of +the Province, Colonel Huertas, and a very hot fight resulted, in which +the victory fell to the Cubans; and when Spanish reinforcements arrived, +they too were routed and put to flight. But this was offset by the fact +that General Inclan, one of the bravest and most loyal of the Cuban +commanders, as well as an expert tactician, fell into the hands of the +enemy, and was summarily executed at Puerto Principe. + +Count Valmaseda, Captain-General, now ran foul of the displeasure of the +Volunteers, and suffered a downfall in consequence. On July 15 he was +recalled, and General Ceballos served in his place until the arrival of +his successor, Don Joachim Jovellar. + +It now seemed time again for the Spaniards to assert themselves against +defenseless sympathizers with the revolution. Spies were busily at work +in Guira, Jiguani and Holguin, and presently they purported to discover +grave disloyalty among the members of some of the well known Cuban +families. This was the signal and the excuse for a wholesale slaughter +of innocent unoffending people, who, whatever their feelings, had taken +no active part in the uprising. As a means of reprisals the Cubans made +an attack on Guira, but it was not entirely successful. + +The people of the United States were now following the insurrection with +much interest, particularly in those portions of that country in which +there were large numbers of sympathizers, and they were no longer +willing to ignore well authenticated reports of Spanish cruelty. A State +Convention of the Republican party was held at Jacksonville, Florida, +where there were many who were friendly to the Cuban patriots, and +adopted a resolution, denouncing the action of the Spanish authorities +in Cuba as cruel and inhuman, and calling upon Congress to pass the +necessary legislation to make it possible for the United States +government to extend such aid to the Cubans as "becomes a great and free +republic, whose people so ardently sympathize with the struggles and +hopes of the oppressed of all nations." However, the Government at +Washington did not look with favor upon this suggestion, and ignored it, +and it had little effect in stemming the tide of Spanish oppression in +Cuba. + +The close of the year 1872 registered a splendid victory for the +patriots, when on December 20 they stormed and took Holguin, and +captured large quantities of supplies of all kinds. + +Public documents compiled by the Spanish in August, 1872, estimated the +losses of the patriots up to that time as "thirteen thousand six hundred +insurgents--and a large number taken prisoner" while "sixty-nine +thousand six hundred and forty were in submission to the government; our +thousand eight hundred and forty-nine firearms, three thousand two +hundred and forty-nine swords and bayonets, and nine thousand nine +hundred and twenty-one horses were captured." + +When, in 1873, Spain once more became a republic, the Cuban patriots had +high hopes that their independence would be recognized, but these were +soon dashed to the ground, when the Spanish government sent an appeal to +the Cubans to lay down their arms, and to entrust their fortunes to the +doubtful mercies of the new rulers of Spain, with the idea that Spain +needed the co-operation of her colonies to bring about the permanence of +the new government, which it was represented would result in a fair and +equitable Spanish rule in Cuba. These overtures were promptly rejected, +and the patriots made preparations to continue their struggle, adhering +with tenacity to their one goal, complete independence. The Spanish +government then appealed to the Volunteers, but that was such an +aristocratic organization that it had no sympathy with democracy, and no +desire to ally itself too closely with a republican form of government; +wherefore for once it refused to aid in coercing the patriots. + +New Year's day, 1873, was doubly a gala occasion, because on that date +another relief expedition arrived from the United States, which brought +much needed supplies. The Cubans continued to harass the Spaniards, and +on the occasion of one successful engagement captured a number of horses +which were turned over to General Agramonte for his cavalry regiment. +This was one of the best organized regiments in the army, and had done +good work against the enemy, but it was soon to lose its leader, for in +May, 1873, General Agramonte was killed while charging the enemy at +Jimaguaya, and his command was taken over by Major-General Maximo Gomez. + +Meantime another change was made in the head of the Spanish insular +government, and Don Candido Pieltain succeeded to the office of +Captain-General. + +But there was serious trouble among the leaders of the Republic of Cuba. +No man in as high a position as that which General Cespedes occupied +could escape exciting jealousy. The Cubans were actuated by high ideals +and motives, but they were only human. Rumors derogatory to the +administration of General Cespedes began to be circulated, and on +October 27, 1873, the House of Representatives, assembled at Vijagual, +preferred charges against him of having in the administration of his +duties exceeded the powers which the Republic had conferred upon him. He +was tried and found guilty, and removed from office. By this action, a +great injustice was done to a man whose sole thought was the good of +his country, and who had given his best endeavors in its service. His +removal was a hard blow to the cause of the Republic, because it gave +the enemy notice of dissension among the patriots, placed the republican +government in a bad light in the eyes of the rest of the world, and lost +to the Cuban cause a loyal and efficient leader. General Cespedes +accepted without complaint the will of the Assembly, and took leave of +his office, after delivering a very eloquent and convincing address, +protesting his innocence of any thought of wrong. He was now in a +delicate position, for he was not in good standing with those with whom +he had cast his lot, and a price had been set on his head by the +Spaniards. He took refuge with a friend, and remained virtually in +hiding, until on February 27, 1874, he was betrayed by a negro who had +been captured by the Spaniards and who sought their clemency by +delivering Cespedes to them. He was taken prisoner and speedily executed +by the garrote. + +[Illustration: SALVADOR CISNEROS BETANCOURT] + + SALVADOR CISNEROS BETANCOURT + + The Marquis of Santa Lucia, patriot and statesman, was born in + Camaguey on February 10, 1828, and from boyhood was an ardent + advocate of Cuban independence. In early life he joined the + Liberator Society of Camaguey, and because of his activities was + arrested and confined for a time in Morro Castle. He was one of the + leaders of the Ten Years' War from its beginning, participated in + the making of the Constitution, and succeeded Cespedes as President + of the Revolutionary government. Old as he was, he eagerly joined + in the War of Independence and took part in several battles. He was + a member of the Constitutional Assembly of 1895, and was elected + President of the Republic in Arms, which office he held until + October 10, 1898. Then he retired to private life, and died on + February 28, 1914. + +The office of President was filled temporarily by Don Salvador Cisneros, +Marquis de Santa Lucia, the Chairman of the House, in the absence of the +Vice-President of the Republic, who was temporarily out of the country. +Cespedes had been the only one of the Cuban leaders who had really made +a study of civil government, and who was thus qualified for the position +of President. While Cisneros was a man of fine education, and great +intelligence, he was neither a leader of men nor a wise administrator, +and the downfall of Cespedes marked the beginning of the end of the long +struggle, and foreshadowed the final defeat of the Cubans. + +But now came an incident which for a time bade fair to bring the United +States into the quarrel. There was a small side-wheel steamer called the +_Virginius_ which had for a long time been active in running the Spanish +blockade of the Cuban coast and in conveying reinforcements and +contraband supplies to the insurgents. She was under the command of +Captain Fry, an American citizen, and a veteran of the Civil War, in +which he had served on the side of the Confederates. The vessel was +manned by American and British seamen, and flew the American flag. In +October, 1873, at Port au Prince, Captain Fry took on board his vessel +five hundred Remington rifles, six hundred sabres, four hundred +revolvers, and other arms and ammunition intended for the Cuban army. +The steamer was well known to the Spanish navy, which had long been +seeking to capture her. + +The end came on October 31. The _Virginius_ was hastening toward Cuba +with her questionable cargo when off the south coast she was sighted by +a Spanish cruiser, the _Tornado_, which had by curious coincidence, been +built by the same builders as had the _Virginius_. Her captain +recognized the _Virginius_ and gave chase. Captain Fry, who had been +vainly trying to effect a landing with his supplies and his men, some +of whom were going to Cuba to fight with the patriots, gave up the +endeavor and endeavored to escape to British waters at Jamaica; but the +_Tornado_ soon overhauled the _Virginius_ and took her with her +passengers and crew, numbering one hundred and seventy. When capture +seemed inevitable, an attempt was made to dump the cargo overboard, but +the _Tornado_ captured the _Virginius_ before this could be +accomplished. The vessel was taken to Santiago de Cuba, where four of +the passengers were at once recognized by the authorities as officers in +the revolutionary army, and were speedily sentenced to death. The +official Spanish report of the execution was as follows: + + + "Santiago de Cuba, Nov. 4, 1873. + + "To His Excellency, the Captain-General: + + "At six o'clock this morning, we shot in this city, for being + traitors to their country, and for being insurgent chiefs, the + following persons, styling themselves 'patriot generals': Bernabe + Varona, alias Barnbeta, General of Division; Pedro Cespedes, + Commanding General of Cienfuegos; General Jesus Del Sol; and + Brigadier-General Washington Ryan. The executions took place in the + presence of the entire corps of Volunteers, the force of regular + infantry, and the sailors from the fleet. An immense concourse of + people also witnessed the act. The best of order prevailed. The + prisoners met their death with composure." + +There followed a summary court martial of the remainder of the company; +conducted according to the ruthless Spanish fashion, and under the +domination of the implacable Volunteers. The result was that Captain Fry +and forty-eight of the crew and passengers, including a number of +Americans and Englishmen, were sentenced to death. The sentence was +promptly executed, despite the earnest and urgent official protests of +the American and British consuls of Havana and their demands for at +least a decent delay of proceedings to enable them to consult their +governments and to have interviews with the condemned men. In fact, the +American consul was prevented from doing anything more than to protest +by being made a virtual prisoner in his own house, under a strong guard +of Spanish soldiers; under the pretence that in the excited state of +public feeling it would be unsafe for him to go upon the street. + +The tragedy began on the afternoon of November 7, at 4 o'clock. The +scene was the chief public square of Santiago. It was ordered that the +victims should be shot in groups of four; all the others being compelled +to witness the fate of their fellows. As on the former occasion, a great +company of the Volunteers attended the butchery, together with a +multitude of the populace. In the first group of four was Captain Fry +himself. He refused to have his eyes bandaged, or to turn his back to +his slayers, and with his latest breath spoke words of comfort and cheer +to his comrades. The other victims of that day's slaughter were James +Flood, mate; J. C. Harris, John N. Boza, B. P. Chamberlain, William +Rose, Ignacio Duenas, Antonio Deloyo, Jose Manuel Ferran, Ramon La +Wamendi, Eusebio Gariza, Edward Day, Francisco S. Trujillo, Jack +Williamson, Porfirio Corbison, Pedro Alfaro, Thomas Gregg, Frank Good, +Paul Plumer, Barney Hewals, Samuel Card, John Brown, Alfred Hosell, W. +F. Price, George Thomas, Ezekiel Durham, Thomas W. Williams, Simeon +Brown, Leopold Larose, A. Arcey, John Stewart, Henry Bond, George +Thomson, James Samuel, Henry Frank, and James Read--35 men beside the +Captain. More than two-thirds of them were obviously, judging from their +names, Americans or Englishmen. It is probable, however, that many of +these names, as also those of the passengers, were assumed, in order to +conceal the identity of their bearers in just such an emergency as this. + +The next day, November 8, the massacre was continued, the victims of +that day being Arturo Mola, Francisco Mola, Louis Sanchez (who was in +fact Herminio Quesada, an active revolutionist), Jose Bortel, Augustin +Varona, Salvador Pinedo, Enrique Castellanos, Joseph Otero, Francisco +Rivera (otherwise Augustin Santa Rosa, an active patriot), Oscar Varona, +Justus Consuegra, and William S. Valls--12 in all; making with the 35 +and the Captain of the day before, and the four of November 4, the total +of 52. But even this wholesale slaughter did not appease the blood-lust +of the Volunteers, or of General Burriel, the Spanish commander at +Santiago. Ninety-three more of the passengers of the _Virginius_ were +held in prison under sentence of death, which there was every reason to +fear would be executed. + +But a militant Providence intervened. The British government learned of +what had been done, and of what was threatened. In consequence, as +quickly as engines under forced draught could drive her thither, the +British cruiser _Niobe_ sped to Santiago harbor. She entered the inner +harbor, rounded broadside to the city, and double-shotted her guns. Then +her captain, the intrepid Sir Lambton Lorraine, went ashore and demanded +of General Burriel that there should be no more murders. That worthy +protested that it was no affair of Sir Lambton's, since there were no +British subjects among the men. This latter statement was false, though +Sir Lambton did not know it, and may have thought it true. But Sir +Lambton knew his business. He curtly replied that the nationality of the +prisoners did not enter into his consideration of the affair; he +was there to stop the butchery, and the butchery must stop. The Spanish +general retorted hotly that he was not yet under British rule, and that +until he was he would take his orders from the Captain-General of Cuba. +To that Sir Lambton replied that as for him, he took his orders from the +Queen of England, at whose command the _Niobe_ lay in the harbor with +her guns double-shotted and trained on the city, the biggest of them, +indeed, aimed at the governor's palace; and he gave warning that the +slaying of another prisoner would be the irrevocable signal for every +gun to be put into action. It was enough. There were no more shootings; +and presently all the prisoners were released. + +[Illustration: A SANTIAGO SUNSET + +Cuba is world-famed for its land-locked harbors, described as +bottle-shaped, or purse-shaped, with a narrow but deep entrance leading +to a spacious inland lagoon, secure from storms and affording room for +vast fleets to ride at anchor. One of the largest and finest of these is +at the old capital, Santiago; so large that a scene upon its waters +appears like one on the open Caribbean. It was from this harbor that +Admiral Cervera's fleet emerged to be destroyed in the great sea fight +which broke the power of Spain in Cuba.] + +Following is a list of the captured passengers on the _Virginius_, who +were bound to Cuba for the purpose of serving in the revolution. It does +not include those who were bound for the island on legitimate personal +business, but does include those already mentioned as having been put to +death: + + Bernabe Varona (alias Benebata) + Pedro Cespedes + Arturo Mola + Jose Diaz + Francisco de Porras + Juan Merrero + Jose Medeo + Raimundo Pardo + Francisco Gonzales + Jose Palaez + Leonardo Alvarez + Julio Arango + Jose Hernandez + Nicholas Ramirez + Pedro Pajain + Manuel Padron + Alexandro Cruz Estrada + Felix Fernandez + Juan Soto + Manuel Perez + Jose Otero + Jose Antonio Ramon + Radom Barrios + Ignacio Valdes + Jose Santesteban + Felix Morejon + Francisco Pacheco + Evaristo Sungunegri + Ignacio Quentin Baltran + Perfecto Bello + Benito Glodes + Louis Sanchez + Nicholas Reriz + Juan Alvarado + Jose Boitel + Ricardo Calvo + Augustin Varona + Silverio Salas + Domingo Salazar + Justus Consuegra + Jose Ignacio Lamar + Andres Acosta + Benjamin Olazara + Enrique Castellanos + Alejandro Calvo + Jesus de Sol + Leon Bernal + Rafael Cabrera + Ignacio W. Tapia + Santiago Rivera + Andres Echeverria + Jose Maren + Pedro Saez + Severo Mendive + Enrique Ayala + Domingo Rodrigue + Arturo Rivero + William S. Valls + Manuel Menenses + General Ryan + William Curtis + S. Gray + Ramon Gonzalez + Antonio Chacon + Francisco Rivero + Sireno Otero + Carlos Pachero + Antonio Padilla + Enrico Canals + Indalecio Trujillo + Domingo Diaz + Carlos Gonzalez + Oscar Varona + Alfredo Lopez + Andres Villa + Francisco Castillo + Salvador Penedo + Rafael Pacheco + Camito Guerra + Camilo Sanz + Emilio Garcia + Amador Rosello + Manuel A. Silverio + Antonio Gomez + Luiz Martinez + Pedro Sariol + Miguel Saya + Patricio Martinez + Manuel Saumel + Luis Rebollo + Carlos Manin + Ramon R. D. Armas + Joseph A. Smith + Philip Abecaler + Samuel Hall + Sidney Robertson + George Winter + Evan Pento + Ricardo Trujillo + Leopoldo Rizo + William Marshall + George Burke + Gil Montero + +These occurrences, when known, aroused tremendous excitement and wrath +in the United States, and there was much talk of war. But the +government, under the wise counsel of Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, +kept its head and resorted to diplomacy before force. The Spanish +government, too, kept its head. It realized that its officers in Cuba +had acted outrageously, and that their deeds must be disavowed. So it +agreed, on December 8, to surrender the _Virginius_ on December 16, to +release all surviving passengers and sailors and deliver them safely to +an American warship at Santiago, and to punish all Spanish officials who +had acted illegally. There remained the supposed outrage to the American +flag, which the _Virginius_ was flying when she was fired upon and +seized. The Spanish government agreed to make amends by saluting the +American flag at Santiago on Christmas Day, provided it could be proved +that the _Virginius_ had a right to carry it. But as a matter of fact +the vessel had no such right. The Attorney-General of the United States +gave, before the day set for the salute, the opinion that the vessel was +the property of General Quesada and other Cubans, and therefore had no +right to sail under the American flag. The final settlement of the +affair occurred in February, 1875, when the Spanish government paid an +indemnity of $80,000 to the United States, and a smaller sum to Great +Britain, for their citizens who had been slaughtered. The _Virginius_ +was lost at sea while being returned to the United States. + +Meanwhile the patriots had not ceased fighting, and on November 9 they +met the Spaniards in a battle in which a large force was engaged on +both sides. They were equally matched, each belligerent having about +three thousand men in the field. The Cubans were victorious, and they +lost only a hundred men killed and double that number wounded, while the +Spanish losses were four times as many killed, and six hundred wounded. + +Stories of Spanish cruelty to prisoners and to peaceful citizens +continued to be heard, and the Cubans were not content to allow these to +remain unsubstantiated. In 1873, Cuban sympathizers compiled a statement +which they called "The Book of Blood." In some manner they gained access +to Spanish records, and used not their own personal knowledge but the +official reports of the Spaniards themselves as a basis for their +accusations. The acts complained of were not confined to one year, but +covered the administrations as Captain-General of Lersundi, Dulce, +Rodas, Ceballos, Pieltain and Jovellar. There was almost no comment; +simply a plain statement of facts. The book commences with the names of +three thousand nine hundred and twenty-seven persons, exclusive of men +killed in battle, who had been brutally murdered by the Spaniards. The +dates and places of execution are given, so that there can be no mistake +as to the accuracy of the data. Following this is a list of four +thousand six hundred and seventy-two prisoners, captured by the +Spaniards, who had simply dropped out of sight, and whose fate had never +been determined. Next there is a record of one hundred and ninety-one +men who had been garrotted. There are the names of eighty-four men who +had been court-martialled in accordance with the decree of February 12, +1869, and under orders from the Captain-General; then the names of five +men condemned for life to hard labor in the chain gang of the penal +colony of Ceuta; the names of five others who had been given the same +sentence for a period of ten years, twenty sentenced for eight years, +and one for six years. After this is a list of men condemned to the +chain gang, place unknown, five for ten years, two for eight years, +seventeen for six years, three for four years, and one hundred and +fifty-eight from two to eight years. Then comes a list of two hundred +and fifty men from all walks of life, including superintendents of +plantations, attorneys at law, brokers, bankers, one architect, +clergymen, carpenters, druggists, engineers, farmers, masons, military +officers, notaries, Post Office clerks, railroad clerks, one British +Consul, three dentists, several police officers, surveyors, pilots, +students, shoemakers, silversmiths, physicians, an artist, seventeen +property holders, seven teachers, five tobacco manufacturers, a tailor, +fifteen sailors, musicians, boatmen, sugar makers, journeymen, and even +one schoolboy, who had been transported on May 21, 1869, to the island +of Fernando Po, off the coast of Africa. They were reported to have been +badly treated; so badly in fact that forty-seven died on the voyage or +immediately on landing. Besides this there is a report of forty-four men +transported to the penal colonies of Africa. + +A defense is made against the charge that the Cubans had during the war +been no more merciful than the Spaniards. It was claimed that during the +first years of the war, when a number of officers had been captured by +the patriots, they were not executed, but were placed under parole not +to attempt to escape. They broke their parole, and in return for the +merciful conduct of their former captors they became the most violent +and brutal of all the Spanish officials in their persecution of the +Cubans. On the other hand, when men of Spanish birth approached the +patriots expressing sympathy for their cause, and a desire to fight for +independence, their services were accepted and in every instance they +proved to be spies, who furnished the Spanish leaders with valuable +information and delivered their Cuban comrades into the hands of the +enemy. It was alleged that up to August, 1869, the Cuban leaders adhered +to their policy of fair and decent treatment of their captives, and when +they learned of the brutal conduct of the Spaniards, General Quesada +addressed a message to General Lesca, and endeavored to effect a mutual +agreement on the subject. The reply received declared that the Spaniards +saw no reason to depart from their custom in the matter of this and left +the Cubans no alternative but to resort to similar measures. General +Quesada therefore ordered the execution of sixty-seven persons who had +voluntarily taken up arms under the Cuban banner, and who had later been +apprehended in a conspiracy to betray the patriots. It is stated that +the report of the affairs erroneously added an extra numeral to the +figures, which caused the number to be stated as six hundred and +seventy. + +In proof of the truth of the statements contained in the "Book of +Blood," an account from the Spanish journal "Diario de la Marina," under +date of March 24, 1870, is cited: + +"All the officers, sergeants and corporals who were in the hands of the +enemy have been shot. In connection with many Cubans they had planned a +counter-revolution, and had concerted the delivery of all rebel +chieftains to General Puello. Two days before the one appointed by this +gallant general to commence his march, he sent a messenger to Captain +Troyano with the news of his advance. The bearer of the news was +arrested, however, and searched, the letter was found, and on the +following day, the messenger, our officers, and the Cubans compromised +in the counter-revolution, were shot, thus sealing with their lives +their devotion to their beloved mother country." + +This seems to be an ample corroboration of the fact that the men in +question were shot as traitors and not as prisoners of war. Another +Spanish officer, Don Domingo Graino, a Captain of the Volunteers, under +date of September 23, 1869, writes: + +"More than three hundred spies and conspirators are shot monthly in this +jurisdiction. Myself alone with my band have already disposed of nine." + +We have also this testimony from Jesus Rivacoba, an officer of the +Volunteers: + +"We captured seventeen, thirteen of whom were shot outright; on dying +they shouted, 'Hurrah for Free Cuba!' A mulatto said, 'Hurrah for +Cespedes!' On the following day we killed a Cuban officer, and another +man. Among the thirteen that we shot the first day were found three sons +and their father; the father witnessed the execution of his sons without +even changing color, and when his turn came he said he died for the +independence of his country. On coming back we brought along with us +three carts filled with women and children, the families of those we had +shot; and they asked us to shoot them, because they would rather die +than live among Spaniards." + +Still another officer of the Volunteers, Pedro Fardon, writes: + +"Not a single Cuban will remain in this island, because we shoot all +those we find in the fields, on the farms, and in every hovel. + +"We do not leave a creature alive when we pass, be it man or animal. If +we find cows we kill them; if horses, ditto; if hogs, ditto; men, women +and children, ditto; as to the houses, we burn them; so everyone +receives his due--the men in balls, the animals in bayonet-thrusts. The +island will remain a desert." + +At the end of the year, the forces under General Maximo Gomez were +victorious over those under the Spanish General Bascones, in the +district of Camaguey, while the fortified town of Manzanillo was on +November 11 taken by storm and occupied by troops under General Garcia. +The Cubans lost forty-nine killed and eighty wounded, while the +Spaniards lost two hundred killed and one hundred and thirty wounded. On +December 2, the battle of Palo Seco occurred. Seven hundred patriots +under General Gomez were arrayed against a thousand Spaniards. A lively +fight took place, and the Spaniards were put to flight in such disorder +that they abandoned their wounded, their arms and their impediments. +They lost several officers and two hundred common soldiers, while the +Cubans captured seventeen officers, one of them being a +Lieutenant-Colonel. The Cuban casualties were small in comparison, being +ninety killed and one hundred and six wounded. Among the stores left +behind by the fleeing Spaniards were twelve revolvers, sixteen thousand +five hundred cartridges, two hundred and fifty Remington rifles, eighty +horses, and thirty mules, their packs containing ammunition, clothing +and a small amount of money. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + + +At the beginning of the year 1874 a _coup d'etat_ placed Serrano again +at the head of the government in Spain, but in Cuba there was no change. +The struggle was still continued. The first battle of the year was on a +larger scale than the majority of those which had preceded it. At +Naranjo, on January 4, two thousand Cubans under General Gomez were +victorious over four thousand Spaniards, and the Cuban losses were +slight in comparison with those of the enemy. Again, at Corralillo, on +January 8, the Cubans scored a triumph, and on the next day a third +victory was achieved at Los Melones by the forces of General Garcia. + +Don Joachim Jovellar, the Captain-General, declared the island to be in +a state of siege, and in a bold but hardly successful attempt to swell +the Spanish forces proclaimed a conscription of all men from twenty to +forty years old, and exacted the payment of a thousand dollars in gold +in lieu of compliance with this decree. He antagonized the Volunteers, +who considered themselves of much finer quality than the Spanish common +soldiers, by demanding that one-tenth of their number be allotted to and +placed under the command of the regular army. The Volunteers resisted +this order, and made an attempt to secure Jovellar's removal from +office, but were unsuccessful, and he continued to take the most +extraordinary measures, stating that he would summarily put down the +rebellion; and yet the fighting steadily continued. + +General Portillo was considered one of the most able of the Spanish +officers, and it was expected that he would be able to inflict great +losses on the insurgents, hence the Spanish leaders were greatly +chagrined when he went down in defeat at the hands of General Gomez, who +then proceeded to administer a like chastisement to the forces under +General Arminan, who had taken up his position at Guasimas, and who was +forced to make his escape to Puerto Principe, abandoning his command, +all of whom were killed, wounded or taken prisoner. In all the history +of the war no such victory had ever before been won. The battle had +raged for three days and nights, and at its inception General Arminan +had been at the head of an army of three thousand men. When the +Spaniards had heard how Arminan was faring, they had sent General +Bascones to the rescue, but he never got through to aid Arminan, for he +was routed by the Cubans while on his way. + +Jovellar was a little less confident, after these occurrences, that it +would be a simple matter to put down the rebellion. He seems to have +lacked the quality of resolute perseverance, and when matters were +against him he resigned his office, and again Don Jose de la Concha +returned to take charge of Spanish affairs in Cuba. Now Concha had been +_persona non grata_ with the Volunteers and he was not received by them +with great enthusiasm. He began at once upon assuming office to take the +force out of the decrees promulgated by Jovellar, by greatly modifying +their terms, and promising freedom to all blacks who would serve in the +army for a period of five years. + +In April, 1874, Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, made public +announcement in Washington that during the five years of the war the +Spanish losses had totaled more than eighty thousand men and officers, a +large number of these casualties being due to sickness caused by +unsanitary conditions, while Spain had spent over one hundred million +dollars in her ineffective efforts to put down the revolution. He +further stated that it did not appear that she was likely to accomplish +this speedily, since the revolutionary government seemed quite as +powerful and as active as in the beginning. + +The history of the year 1875 was one of unimportant engagements, small +skirmishes and guerrilla warfare, no important battle being fought until +the year had about reached its close, when Gomez suffered a severe +defeat at Puerto Principe, which is believed to have been the turning of +the tide against the Cubans. Meanwhile the United States began to +display a strong interest in Cuban affairs. + +On November 5, 1875, a letter was sent by the State Department to Caleb +Cushing, then United States minister to Madrid, containing the following +information, intended, of course, as admonition to the Spanish +government: + +"In the absence of any prospect of a termination of the war, or of any +change in the manner in which it has been conducted on either side, the +President feels that the time is at hand when it may be the duty of +other governments to intervene, solely with a view of bringing to an end +a disastrous and destructive conflict, and of restoring peace in the +island of Cuba. No government is more deeply interested in the order and +peaceful administration of this island than is the United States, and +none has suffered as the United States from the condition which has +obtained there during the past six or seven years. He will, therefore, +feel it his duty at an early day to submit the subject in this light, +and accompanied by an expression of the views above presented, for the +consideration of Congress." + +For some strange reason, Mr. Fish seemed to have lost his usual cool +wisdom; for he went perilously near to ignoring the Monroe Doctrine, so +sacred to all the traditions of American diplomacy, when he directed +that a copy of this letter be forwarded to General Robert C. Schenck, +the United States Minister at London, directing him to ask for the +support of Great Britain in his position. + +Following this action of his Secretary of State, President Grant, in his +message to Congress in December, 1875, said: "The past year has +furnished no evidence of an approaching termination of the ruinous +conflict which has been raging for seven years in the neighboring island +of Cuba. While conscious that the insurrection has shown a strength and +endurance which made it at least doubtful whether it be in the power of +Spain to subdue it, it seems unquestionable that no such civil +organization exists which may be recognized as an independent government +capable of performing its international obligations and entitled to be +treated as one of the powers of the earth." + +The Spanish government was very wrathful when these facts became known +to it and at once sent a note to Great Britain claiming that the United +States had no reason to bewail the Cuban situation, for on account of it +her commerce had increased; that Spanish had had under the most jealous +and watchful care, as regards the safety of their person and property, +all American citizens who were engaged in business ventures on the +island, and that most of them were making huge fortunes. A complaint was +made that the United States gave refuge to Cuban outlaws, and it was +alleged that all past claims of the United States growing out of the +Cuban difficulty had been or were about to be settled. + +However, Great Britain refused to have anything to do with an attempt, +in conjunction with the United States, to end the Cuban war, stating +that it was doubtful whether Spain would accept any terms that could be +offered, and that if she refused, Great Britain did not feel willing to +bring pressure to bear. + +Spain, in a note dated February 3, 1876, intimated that the reason why a +settlement of the insurrection in Cuba had not been effected was because +the insurgents would not come out into the open and fight, but preferred +to wage a guerrilla warfare from mountain fastnesses; that could they be +lured into the open, Spain had a sufficient force in the field promptly +to defeat them. It was further intimated that the Creoles were tiring of +the insurrection and that it was now being supported mainly by negroes, +mulattoes, Chinese laborers, adventurers, and deserters from the Spanish +army. Finally the assertion was made that when Spain was finally +victorious, as it was assumed that she would be, she would at once +abolish slavery, and put into effect the most liberal of administrative +reforms. + +In strange contradictions of these pretensions, Spain presently looked +to the United States Government to mediate in the affairs of Cuba, and +early in the year 1876 asked that it attempt to bring about an +understanding with the insurgents. Hamilton Fish, who was still +Secretary of State, replied, stating plainly the points which the United +States considered essential for the establishment of peace, law and +order in distressed Cuba: + +"1--The mutual and reciprocal observance of treaty obligations, and a +full, friendly and liberal understanding and interpretation of all +doubtful treaty provisions, wherever doubt or question may exist. + +"2--Peace, order, and good government in Cuba which involves prompt and +effective measures to restore peace, and the establishment of a +government suited to the spirit and necessities of the age, liberal in +its provisions, wherein justice can be meted out to all alike, according +to defined and well-established provisions. + +"3--Gradual but effectual emancipation of slaves. + +"4--Improvement of commercial facilities and the removal of the +obstructions now existing in the way of trade and commerce." + +The Spanish government replied on April 16, making a specific answer to +each point made by the United States: + +"1--The government of his majesty is in entire conformity as regards +complying for its part with all the stipulations of the existing +treaties, and giving to them a perfect, friendly and liberal +interpretation in all that which may be the subject of doubt or +question. + +"2--The government of the king likewise proposes, because it believes it +necessary, to change in a liberal sense the regime hitherto followed in +the island of Cuba, not only in its administration but also in its +political part. + +"3--Not merely gradual and genuine, but rapid emancipation of the +slaves, because the government of his majesty recognizes and +unreservedly proclaims that slavery neither can nor ought to be +maintained in any of its dominions, by reason of its being an +anti-Christian institution and opposed to present civilization. + +"4--The government of the king finds itself in complete accord not only +as to increasing but as to extending to the furthest possible limit all +commercial facilities, and causing the disappearance of all the +obstacles which today exist, and which hinder the rapid and free course +of commercial negotiations." + +The United States made no further attempts at intervention, and for the +time being the matter was dropped. + +During the year which followed, 1877, more and more the Cuban methods of +warfare merited the description which Spain had given of them. It became +a war of extermination, rather than battle for independence. Cespedes, +Quesada, Agramonte, and many other of the original leaders had died in +battle, or had been captured and murdered by the enemy. Foreigners, who +knew nothing of early ideals, and indeed little of early struggles, had +largely replaced the great Cuban patriots, and their idea was not so +much separation from Spain and conquest of the enemy as plunder. +Property was no longer respected, the once prosperous island was fast +becoming desolate, and on every hand deserted and ruined plantations +were covered with weeds, where once had been wide cultivated fields. The +insurgents were a motley array of men, of many races, and of varied +color, yellow Chinese, and all shades of mulattoes, with only a small +proportion of Creoles. The bands were now composed principally of +marauders, who destroyed everything that they could not steal. Their +victory no longer meant a triumph for democracy, and the establishment +of a liberal government where there was now an oppressive one, but +rather it would be a menace to civilization, hostile to all ideals of +law and order. + +The constitution of Spain's army at this period is reported to have been +two hundred and seventy-three superior officers; three thousand and +fifty-four subalterns; sixty-eight thousand one hundred and fifteen +privates, with an equipment of eight thousand four hundred and +seventy-eight horses; four hundred and sixty-two mules; forty-two field +guns, and plenty of small arms and ammunition. The men were properly +clothed, and well fed. Notwithstanding the confusion of the Carlist +uprising, Spain had been able to send over, during the first year of +King Alfonso's reign, twenty-four thousand, four hundred and forty-five +soldiers, while her naval force included forty-five vessels, equipped +with one hundred and thirty-two guns, and manned by two thousand four +hundred and twenty-six men. Besides this, over ten thousand men were on +the high seas to reinforce the Spanish army. The disorganized, ragged, +weary, badly fed Cuban forces, with the lawless element which now +unhappily predominated among them had small chance of victory against +such overwhelming odds. Nothing but the natural topography of the +country, so favorable to guerrilla warfare, and the knowledge which the +natives had of its mountain strongholds, had enabled the Cuban army to +prolong thus far the war. The only thing which had saved the island from +entire economic destruction was the fact that the belligerents had not +invaded the western provinces, and their inhabitants had been free to +plant and reap and conduct their lives in an orderly fashion. + +The expenses of the war had made heavy inroads on the Spanish treasury, +and in August of this year, the Spanish capitalists had contributed +nearly twenty-five thousand pesetas toward the expenses of the army in +Cuba. As the season advanced, troop ships arrived at regular intervals. +In October, General Martinez Campos--one of the ablest soldiers and +statesmen in Spain--was appointed Captain-General of Cuba and commander +of the army, and he sailed from Spain to take over his command, +accompanied by fourteen thousand men. Determined that the revolution +should once for all be terminated, and not content with the sum which +Spain's bankers had placed at her disposal, the Spanish Cortes passed a +bill providing for a foreign loan, which would be devoted to the +suppression of the insurrection. + +The beginning of the year 1877 thus saw the cause of liberty in a +precarious condition. The Cuban army had been so greatly weakened that +in the encounters which took place the Spaniards were constantly +victorious, and they were soon able to regain the major portion of the +territory which had previously been occupied by the revolutionists. The +time seemed favorable for a settlement of the difficulties in a manner +which, while offering a few concessions to the Cubans, might still be +greatly to the advantage of Spain. To the Captain-General this seemed +the proper occasion for some nice diplomacy, for coaxing with fair words +instead of coercing with violence. He therefore on May 5 issued a +proclamation which he felt would be effective in inducing the +revolutionists to abandon the struggle and to return to the doubtful +protection of allegiance to Spanish rule. His proclamation read as +follows: + +"Article I--From the date of this decree, all orders of banishment +decreed gubernatively by this Government for political motives are +hereby rescinded, and all proceedings now under way regarding the same +are hereby overruled. + +"Article II--The embargoes imposed gubernatively on insurgents who have +presented or may present themselves for pardon before the termination of +the war shall also be raised. There will, however, be excepted from the +favor of disembargo the property of backsliding insurgents and that of +the leaders of the insurrection, in respect to which this General +Government will adopt the measure it deems most convenient, according to +the special circumstances of each case. + +"Article III--The property, embargoed gubernatively, of the disloyal +('infidentes') who have since died, shall also be released from embargo, +and delivered unto their lawful heirs, if these remain faithful to the +Spanish nation. + +"Article IV--The property referred to in the two preceding articles once +returned, its owners or holders shall not sell, assign, transfer or +burden it in any manner until two years after the official publication +of the complete pacification of the island. + +"Article V--The proceeds of property before its return shall be +considered as applied toward the expenses of the war, unless otherwise +provided for, and its owners without any right to make reclamation of +any nature whatsoever. + +"Article VI--None of those whose property has been released from embargo +shall either have the right to make reclamation for any loss or injury +that may have been suffered by the property or object returned them. + +"Article VII--To assist as far as possible in the return of said +property, this Government will authorize the Governors and +Lieutenant-Governors of the island to effect the same in each case, to +those comprised in this decree, whose property is situated within their +respective jurisdictions, with the due precautions which shall be +communicated to them from the office of the Secretary of the General +Government. + +"Article VIII--The judicial proceedings actually under way against +_infidentes_ shall be forwarded until overruled, or judged, as may +result in law. + +"Article IX--Concerning the property adjudged to the State, by sentence +of competent tribunals, his Majesty's Government will decide in due time +whatever it may deem most convenient. + +"Article X--The requisite orders shall be issued through the office of +the Secretary of this General Government, that the foregoing articles +shall be duly complied with by whom it may concern." + +Seven months later, on November 3, he promulgated a second decree +providing "that all estates ruined during the war, and in the way of +reconstruction, shall be free from contributions for five years, from +the date of the decree. Every new state and all new property acquired in +cities or villages of the central and oriental departments will have the +same privilege. All industries and commerce in said departments newly +established will be exempt for three years from contributions. All +female cattle, either Spanish or foreign, imported into Cuba with the +exclusive object of raising stock, will be duty free for two years." + +The first decree had the desired effect. A number of the Cuban leaders +surrendered in October, 1877. It is true that when some of these men +attempted to return to the Cuban lines and persuade the other officers +to join them in submission to Spanish authority, they were tried by +court-martial and sentenced. But the tide had turned, and was now +steadily flowing favorably for the Spaniards. The war was over. Cuban +independence had once more been postponed. + +Negotiations were entered into at Zanjon, in which General Maximo Gomez +represented the Cubans, and Captain-General Campos the Spanish +government. On February 15, 1878, the so-called Treaty of Zanjon was +signed; its terms being in brief as follows: + +"Article I--The political, organic and administrative laws enjoyed by +Porto Rico shall be established in Cuba. + +"Art. II--Free pardon for all political offenses committed from 1868 to +date, and freedom for those who are under indictment or are serving +sentences within or without the island. Amnesty to all deserters from +the Spanish army, regardless of nationality, this clause being extended +to include all those who have taken part directly or indirectly in the +revolutionary movement. + +"Art. III--Freedom for the Asiatic coolies and for the slaves who may be +in the insurgent ranks. + +"Art. IV--No individual who by virtue of this capitulation shall submit +to and remain under the authority of the Spanish government shall be +compelled to render any military service before peace be established +over the whole territory. + +"Art. V--Every individual who by virtue of this capitulation may wish to +depart from the island shall be permitted to do so, and the Spanish +government shall provide him with the means therefor, without passing +through any town or settlement, if he so desire. + +"Art. VI--The capitulation of each force shall take place in uninhabited +spots, where beforehand the arms and ammunition of war shall be +deposited. + +"Art. VII--In order to further the acceptance, by the insurgents of the +other departments of these articles of capitulation, the +commander-in-chief of the Spanish army shall furnish them free +transportation, by land and sea, over all the lines within his control +of the Central Department. + +"Art. VIII--This pact with the Committee of the Central Department shall +be deemed to have been made with all the departments of the island which +may accept the conditions." + +In addition to this, there were reported to have been secret agreements, +which provided for "a civil governor with duties distinct from those of +a military governor; a provincial parliament in each of the three +departments; popular elections for municipal officers; the inclusion of +the war debt in the public estimates of the island; the dissolution of +the Volunteer Corps of Havana, and the organization of a new militia to +be composed alike of Cubans and Spaniards; a representation of the +island in the Cortes; a recognition of the military rank of the +insurgent chiefs and officers, and those accredited with foreign +commissions, their rank 'to be effective only in the list of the Spanish +army in Cuba,' and the complete abolition of slavery in five years, with +indemnity." + +Both parties disregarded the terms of the treaty. Doubtless the Cubans +would have played with entire fairness, had it not been for the fact +that the Spaniards at once demonstrated that they did not intend to keep +their promises. General Garcia retained the title of "President of the +Republic," and the House of Representatives continued, until 1869, to +meet somewhere in the wilderness. General Campos made a bid for popular +favor, and went on record as advocating a peace which would be lasting. +The Spaniards had good cause not to desire resumption of warfare, and +the Cubans were too worn out to start any serious trouble. Campos wrote +a report to the Spanish government, couched in florid language and +breathing benevolence: + +"I do not wish to make a momentary peace. I desire that this peace be +the beginning of a bond of common interests between Spain and her Cuban +provinces, and that this bond be drawn continually closer by the +identity of aspirations and the good faith of both. + +"Let not the Cubans be considered as pariahs or minors, but put on an +equality with other Spaniards in everything not inconsistent with their +present condition. + +"It was on the other hand impossible, according to my judgment and +conscience, not to grant the first condition; not to do it was to +postpone indefinitely the fulfilment of a promise made in our present +constitution. It was not possible that this island, richer, more +populous, and more advanced morally and materially than her sister, +Porto Rico, should remain without the advantages and liberties long ago +planted in the latter with good results; and the spirit of the age, and +the decision of the country gradually to assimilate the colonies to the +Peninsula, made it necessary to grant the promised reforms, which would +have been already established, and surely more amply, if the abnormal +state of things had not concentrated all the attention of government on +the extirpation of the evil which was devouring this rich province. + +"I did not make the last constitution; I had no part in the discussion +of it. It is now the law, and as such I respect it, and as such endeavor +to apply it. But there was in it something conditional, which I think a +danger, a motive of distrust, and I have wished that it might disappear. +Nothing assures me that the present ministry will continue in power, and +I do not know whether that which replaces it would believe the fit +moment to have arrived for fulfilling the precept of the constitution. + +"I desire the peace of Spain, and this will not be firm while there is +war or disturbance in the richest jewel of her crown. Perhaps the +insurgents would have accepted promises less liberal and more vague than +those set forth in this condition; but even had this been done it would +have been but a brief postponement, because those liberties are destined +to come for the reasons already given, with the difference that Spain +now shows herself generous and magnanimous, satisfying just aspirations +which she might deny, and a little later, probably very soon, would have +been obliged to grant them, compelled by the force of ideas and of the +age. + +"Moreover, she has promised over and over again to enter on the path of +assimilation, and if the promises were more vague, even though the +fulfillment of this promise were begun, these people would have the +right to doubt our good faith and to show a distrust unfortunately +warranted by the failings of human nature itself. + +"The not adding another one hundred thousand to the one hundred thousand +families that mourn their sons slain in this pitiless war, and the cry +of peace that will resound in the hearts of the eighty thousand mothers +who have sons in Cuba who are liable to conscription, would be a full +equivalent for the payment of a debt of justice." + +February 21, 1878, saw the Cuban insurrection officially at an end. The +Cubans laid down their arms and surrendered to the Spanish forces. On +March 1, telegrams announcing this fact were received by the Cortes in +Spain with the greatest rejoicing. On the next day a royal decree was +published at Havana announcing that Cuba was to be accorded the same +treatment which had been granted to Porto Rico; and many concessions +were nominally made to the former insurgents. Cuba was to be allowed to +have her own municipal government and city councils, and was to be +granted representation in the Cortes, while a second decree was +promulgated at Puerto Principe declaring the freedom of all slaves who +had been born since the enactment of the measure of February 10, 1869, +on the condition that within a month they presented themselves to the +authorities for the proper legal procedure. Spain had so frequently gone +on record, particularly in her efforts to enlist the sympathy of the +United States Government, that she would, immediately on a determination +of the war in her favor, declare the abolition of slavery, that she +could not now very well give the lie to her assurances. The +proclamation at Puerto Principe, however, contained the extremely +unjust provision that all patriots who had taken part in the revolution +would not receive compensation for the financial loss suffered in the +freeing of their slaves, but that the loyal Spaniards would be +indemnified. It is not difficult to picture how this provision must have +impressed those patriots who had sacrificed everything in an effort to +free themselves from that very rule which was now imposing such an +unfair enactment upon them. + +Official Spanish reports give the following table of their losses yearly +during the Ten Years' War: + + _Year_ _Force in Field_ _Deaths_ + 1869 35,570 5,504 + 1870 47,242 9,395 + 1871 55,357 6,574 + 1872 58,708 7,780 + 1873 52,500 5,902 + 1874 62,578 5,923 + 1875 63,212 6,361 + 1876 78,099 8,482 + 1877 90,245 17,677 + 1878 81,700 7,500 + ------ + Total 81,098 + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + + +The Spanish government had granted concessions to the Cubans, or what on +their face seemed to be concessions, but in actual administration, the +government remained practically the same. The power remained vested in a +military government, at the head of which was the Captain-General, whose +name was subsequently changed to Governor-General, but whose nature and +functions remained in the last analysis very little different from what +they had been before the revolution. The struggle had, however, given +the Cubans less fear of their tyrant. They had demonstrated that they +were able for ten years to keep up an armed resistance against their +oppressors, and one which had occasioned Spain a great loss of life, and +of property, and had caused her rulers to have many unpleasant hours, +struggling with vexing problems. Those who had accomplished this would +never again be quite the same. They could never again be ground beneath +the heels of Spanish tyrants in the same unresisting if not +uncomplaining fashion, which had been the regular order of things before +the revolution. Had a Lopez come to Cuba, he would have found a far +different people from those who failed to rally to aid him when in 1851 +he made his fruitless efforts to free the island. + +During 1878 two political parties were organized in Cuba, and another +was essayed, the proposed constitution of the latter forming the basis +for the platform of the Autonomistas, then the most radical of all Cuban +political organizations. + +The Liberal Party belied its name, for its platform was a most +conservative one. It followed closely the lines of the agreement with +Spain, as laid down in the Treaty of Zanjon, and the negotiations in +connection therewith, and it sought mainly to obtain the enforcement of +the promises which Spain made at that time, and in which, from long +experience, most Cubans had little faith--nor was this lack of faith +unwarranted. The party was really an organized movement to enforce the +provisions of the treaty. Its platform provided for the right to +assemble and to discuss political questions, the right of freedom in +religious worship, the removal of the restrictions which had been placed +on the press, and the right of petition. It also provided for the +protection of the homes and property of loyal Cubans, and for the right +of correspondence without censorship or interference from the Spanish +authorities. It stood for improvements in the criminal law, which would +make it impossible for the crimes which had been so prevalent to be +committed further against the persons and property of those who were in +sympathy with the liberation of Cuba. It also sought to obtain the +admission of Creoles to office on the island on the same basis as +Spanish born citizens, and above all a complete separation of the +military and civil functions of the government. It will be recalled that +one of the promises said to have been made by Spain was that there +should be a civil governor. By these means it hoped to abolish the +discrimination against the Creoles in the government of their own +country. Changes in taxation also had their part in the platform, with +an idea of obtaining a decrease of the high export duties. + +An analysis of the platform of the Union Constitutionalists shows +surprisingly little difference from that of the Liberals. It also +provided for the right of petition, asked for an improvement in the +methods of administration of the laws--that is the abatement of the +perversion of those laws by unscrupulous Spanish officials, so that they +might be used as a club for protesting Creoles. The platform of the +Union Constitutionalists further stood for the enactment of special laws +for Cuba, which would be peculiarly suited to her needs, including +protection for the various industries and activities, the planters and +the tobacco raisers, and the removal of excessive export duties. It also +sought a commercial treaty with the United States, and the abolition of +slavery in accordance with the Moret law, with modifications which +seemed proper in the light of conditions in Cuba. + +A third platform was formulated, but it was never completely adopted, +and the party which drafted it died at birth, without a name. It took +the bull by the horns, and flaunted its conviction in the face of Spain. +It is a matter of conjecture whether if the leaders of this movement had +prolonged the life of the potential party, it would have long survived +active Spanish opposition. This platform provided for free trade, free +banks, free shipping, free labor, none but municipal taxes, the prompt +and complete abolition of slavery, the formation of a provincial militia +and universal suffrage. Its terms must have been a severe shock to the +Spaniards. + +No fewer than thirty representatives in the Spanish Cortes were allotted +to Cuba; but such representation was a farce, for pains were taken by +those who held the balance of power to see that so small a number of +Creoles were sent as representatives, and that the Spaniards so greatly +outnumbered them, that the Cuban vote counted for nothing, and Spain +still held complete power. This was the more regrettable and +exasperating, since the Cubans so far as they were permitted to do so +sent men of the highest type to the Cortes. Among them, preeminently, +was Dr. Rafael Montoro, one of the ablest scholars and statesmen in +Cuban history, who was destined subsequently to play a great part in the +administration of the free and independent Republic of Cuba. + +It is self-evident that such conditions and the failure of Spain to live +up to her promises would be provocative of much dissatisfaction, and it +followed as a matter of course that those who had learned to rebel now +took that means of expressing their dissatisfaction. In fact the war had +never ceased, for soon after the signing of the treaty, as soon as Spain +had shown her hand, Calixto Garcia assembled a small band of rebels, and +continued to harass the Spanish in guerrilla warfare, taking up his +position in mountain fastnesses which were inaccessible except to those +who held the key to their labyrinthine paths, and biding his time in the +most annoying fashion possible until he felt matters were ripe for +another widespread armed rebellion. + +In August, 1879, in the districts of Holguin and Santiago there was a +serious renewal of hostilities. The rebels, so termed by the Spanish, +consisted mainly of freed blacks, and were under the leadership of three +mulattoes, Maceo, Brombet and Guilleamon. This movement thoroughly +frightened the authorities, and two thousand Spanish troops were +promptly sent to repress it. The insurgents were reinforced by large +numbers of runaway slaves--those who had demanded their liberty and had +had their request denied. The insurgents took advantage of the disturbed +condition of the country and sought to turn the general situation to +their advantage. They hid in the mountains, in dense woods, and in wild +places, and descended wherever and whenever they could pillage and +burn without intervention from Spanish troops. So thoroughly did the +Spanish authorities dread a renewal of hostilities that the +Captain-General declared the province of Santiago to be in a state of +siege. Meanwhile the insurgents drew up a constitution for themselves, +and continued their activities for over six months, terrorizing the +people, destroying property and taking prisoners for ransom. + +[Illustration: JOSE SILVERIO JORRIN + +Jose Silverio Jorrin y Bramosio, a distinguished advocate, man of +letters and publicist, was born in Havana on June 20, 1816, and was one +of the pupils of Jose de la Luz at his famous school. After travelling +in the United States and Europe he became one of the leaders of the +Cuban bar and filled several judicial and other public offices. He was +at one time a Senator in the Spanish Cortes, from Camaguey. His chief +interest was in the advancement of the educational and economic welfare +of the island, and on subjects relating thereto he wrote a number of +important works. He wrote a Biography of Christopher Columbus and other +historical works, and had much repute as an orator. For some years he +was a leader of the Autonomist party, but later identified himself +actively with the cause of independence. He lived to see independence +assured if not actually yet achieved, dying in New York in 1897.] + +Meantime General Garcia conducted a campaign in the neighborhood of +Santiago, which further complicated matters for the government. He had +planned a general uprising for December 15, with the expectation that +his small band would be largely reinforced by the arrival of +filibustering expeditions from the United States, with men and arms and +ammunitions. But he was disappointed, and the government retaliated by +making wholesale arrests of all persons, particularly blacks, who were +under the slightest suspicion of sympathy with the rebellion. Three +hundred and fifty blacks were arrested in Santiago alone. The rebels in +spite of their small numbers had been able to do so much damage to +property in this vicinity, that the government voted a hundred thousand +dollars for the relief of Santiago, and half that amount for the same +purpose in Puerto Principe. + +The general feeling of unrest, uncertainty and suspicion among the +Creoles was enhanced by the action of the government at Madrid in +publishing a manifesto, on April 6, 1880, demanding that the Cuban +government be assimilated with that of Spain, and promising in return +enactments which would greatly increase the material prosperity of the +colony. If Spain did not keep her promises with Cuba in a position to +protest, it was a foregone conclusion that the action contemplated by +the manifesto would not be productive of leniency in the government of +the island, and it is not difficult to imagine with what wrath and +consternation the knowledge that such a plan could ever be formulated +filled the hearts of those who had struggled so long and so valiantly +and at so great personal sacrifice for the freedom of Cuba. The result +was a renewal of sporadic rebellions, and a seething turmoil of anger +and resentment on the part of the Creoles. + +In April, 1881, an attempt was made by the Spanish government by +concessions to allay the storm which it had raised, and on April 7, the +constitution of 1876 was again proclaimed. This granted to the Cubans +full rights of citizenship, and the rights of free speech, free press +and assembly, and representation. This was promptly modified on the very +day of its enactment by the promulgation of the order of January 7, +1879, which had the effect of muzzling the press which had only a few +hours before been freed. The other rights granted were of course +existent only in name, and thus Spain continued her old program of +stupid treachery. + +In 1882 an event occurred which for a time seemed likely to draw England +into the controversy. Three Cuban patriots, Maceo, Rodriguez, and a +third whose name is not of record, escaped from custody while they were +being transferred from one penal colony in Spain to another. They +hastened to gain English territory, and fled to Gibraltar. One of the +rights sacred to the English government was the right of asylum. This +the Spanish government proceeded to ignore. The Spanish consul notified +the English authorities that the fugitives must be returned to Spain, +and suggested as a method which would be productive of the least trouble +that at a time and place agreed upon they be sent across the border, +whereupon the Spanish authorities could apprehend them without +difficulty and the controversy would be happily ended. Through some +misapprehension on the part of the British officials, this was done. But +the end was not yet. The British government, when it learned of the +occurrence, promptly demanded the return of the men to British soil, +under the right of asylum. The Spanish government exhausted all its +arguments in vain. Great Britain stood firm, but when Spain had +surrendered two of the fugitives, the matter was finally dropped and the +fate of the third one was left to the mercies of Spain. + +The history of Cuba was from this time on, until rebellion finally +flamed into the war in which, with the aid of the United States, she +gained her independence, one of petty persecutions, and retaliation by +continuous uprisings, small in character but indicative of the +smouldering fire. These were frequently aided by filibustering +expeditions sent by the Cuban Junta in New York. + +In 1885 a revolt took place in the provinces of Santa Clara and +Santiago, always the hotbed of rebellion. The rebellion was quickly +suppressed, but its leaders, and a large number of other Cubans, who +were merely under suspicion of complicity, were executed without trial. +One of the leaders, General Vidal, was banished from Cuba, but, when he +was about to leave for Jamaica, under an arrangement made with the +Spanish authorities, he was brutally murdered by hired assassins. + +Meanwhile the administration of justice in Cuba would have been almost +ludicrous if it had not been tragic. The Spaniards openly practiced the +most egregious frauds at the polls, and by all the chicanery known to +corrupt politics kept the Creoles from the participation in the +government which Spain had so glibly promised them. One of the +interesting methods to prevent the voting of the poor in Cuba was the +prohibition under a law passed on December 12, 1892, of bona fide +citizens from exercising the right of suffrage unless they paid the sum +of five dollars in taxes. This law applied to black and white alike, and +was prohibitive so far as the greater number of the former were +concerned. + +Meanwhile those Cubans who desired better things for their children than +the nightmare in which they themselves lived were eager for education +for their families, but for the most part education was a privilege +which belonged only to the wealthy. It was not until 1883 that there +existed schools of learning similar to high schools. It was not Spain's +game to educate the masses, for if an autocracy is to survive, too much +learning is a dangerous thing to be allowed to spread among the common +people. + +In 1887 the Spanish authorities decided, justly, that the treasury of +Spain was being deprived of revenues by the evasion of taxes, and that +this was being done by the connivance of the custom house officials. The +Governor-General therefore ordered the seizure of the custom house by +Spanish troops, and the wharfs and warehouses were placed under heavy +guard. After an investigation had been started a number of merchants +whose business was importing confessed that they had been doing business +in a way which deprived the government of certain revenues and asked +permission to change their entries. They were granted three days to do +this. The result was an enormous increase in revenue from the custom +house. The Governor-General proceeded from that time forth to keep a +strict watch on custom house matters, with the result that evasions of +the law were the exception. + +By 1887 the country was in such condition that it was unsafe for any man +to proceed unguarded for a mile or two into the country. Neither the +person of any well-to-do planter, nor his property was safe. Outlaw +bands overran the highways, and took cover in woods and hills, from +whence they pounced on travelers, robbed and beat them, and took them +captive for ransom. The brigands were so daring and their depredations +assumed such proportions that martial law was declared in over a hundred +towns and villages. Incendiarism was rife, not only were planters robbed +and murdered, but their possessions were pillaged, their fields were +laid waste and their buildings were burned. Sanitary conditions on the +island were so bad that in the months of December, 1887, and of January +and February, 1880, two thousand cases of smallpox were reported. This, +of course, covered only a small portion of the cases actually existent, +and those who did not fall victim to smallpox were in danger of yellow +fever. Even Nature seemed to have entered into a conspiracy against the +unhappy island, for in 1887 there was an earthquake, and the following +year a violent cyclone, which went the whole length of the island, but +did its principal damage in the province of Santa Clara. Not less than a +thousand lives were lost. + +For a time, indeed, there was a measure of relief. That was when under +the McKinley tariff of 1890, Cuban products, particularly sugar, gained +freer access to American markets. While this system lasted, there was an +accession of material prosperity in Cuba. But upon its repeal, due to a +change of politics in the United States government, prosperity in Cuba +waned, while discontent, dissatisfaction and disaffection waxed apace, +and undismayed and resolute patriots began preparing for another general +insurrection. + +During the period between the Ten Years' War and the final War of +Independence there was a succession of Governors-General, varying +chiefly in the degree of their unacceptability to the Cuban people and +of the ineptitude with which they maladministered the affairs of the +island and thus contributed to the ultimate and inevitable catastrophe. +Martinez Campos served, with the best of intentions, until the late +summer of 1883. Then on September 28 he was succeeded by Ignacio Maria +del Castillo. His administration endured for three years, and was +replaced in 1886 by that of General Emilio Calleja y Isasi, who gave +place the next year to Saba Marin. Another change occurred on March 13, +1889, when Manuel de Salamanca y Negrete took office. He served for less +than a year, being succeeded on February 7, 1890, by General J. +Chinchilla. To the latter must be accorded the distinction of having the +shortest term of all, for on June 10 following his place was taken by +General Polavieja. He served for two years and was succeeded on May 31, +1892, by General A. R. Arias, who in turn, on August 10, 1894, was +replaced by General Emilio Calleja, who thus entered upon his second +term, in which he was to suffer the penalty of the misdeeds of a long +line of predecessors, and was to begin reaping the whirlwind harvest of +the evil wind which for four centuries Spain had been sowing with a +perverse and ruthless hand. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + + +"New occasions," sang a great American poet of freedom and of progress, +"new occasions teach new duties"; and splendidly was the truth +exemplified in Cuba in the era of which we have been writing in this +volume. There befell the island at the beginning of the Nineteenth +Century a new occasion, the greatest thus far in all its history since +the landfall of Columbus. It was perhaps only partially realized at +first, and it took many years for the complete realization to dawn upon +the universal popular mind. But even before the realization came, the +Cuban people, not yet cognizant of the tremendous force which was +working within them, began to rise to meet the new occasion, the new +opportunity which was opening before them, with a triumphant spiritual +puissance which has not often been rivalled in the annals of the +nations. + +[Illustration: FELIPE POEY] + + FELIPE POEY + + One of Cuba's greatest natural scientists, Felipe Poey, was born in + Havana on May 26, 1799, and was educated at the San Carlos Seminary + and in France. He became a lawyer in Madrid, but in 1822 left that + city because of political conditions and returned to Cuba to devote + himself to ichthyology and entomology. He published a monumental + work on "Cuban Ichthyology," and others on "Cuban Lepidopteres," + "Cuban Mineralogy," the "Geography of Cuba," and the "Natural + History of Cuba." He was for many years professor of zoology at the + University of Havana and Dean of the Faculty of Sciences. He died + in 1891. + +Writing of that very period, in his essay on Jean Paul Richter, and +referring to the British domination of the sea which Nelson had +achieved, to the mastery of the lands of Europe which Napoleon had won, +and to the intellectual primacy which Germany--though beaten to the dust +in war--was then enjoying, Carlyle observed that "Providence has given +to the French the empire of the land, to the English that of the sea, to +the Germans that of--the air!" It was a fine conception, as true then as +it would be untrue to-day. In a significant sense the same shrewd +observation is apt to the situation of Cuba a hundred years ago. Spain +held control of the material interests of the island, on sea and on +land, but she could not restrain the Cubans from self-control, which +meant immeasurable progress, in the air--that is, in the intellectual +life. It was thus intellectually, in the only way as yet within their +power, that the people of the island met the new and transcendent +occasion. + +It was, as we have seen, a period of revolution and of +counter-revolution, a time of flux, throughout the greater part of the +world. The mighty liberal impulse of the French Revolution, following in +the wake of the American revolution, was by no means annihilated by the +infatuated imperialism of Napoleon or by the reactionary movement which +prevailed for a time after his fall. It was felt, and it prevailed, in +North and Central and South America, from the Golden Gate to the Strait +of Magellan; and in the islands of the Caribbean and the Gulf. In Cuba, +as we have seen, there seemed to be at first no response, for reasons +which also we have hitherto considered. But all unconsciously the Cuban +people received and felt the impulse, and answered it. + +Periods of revolution are usually periods of intellectual activity, and +such was the case in Cuba. While there was in the first quarter of the +century little thought of a revolt against Spain, or of independence, +the revolutionary spirit which was in the air inspired the minds of +Cubans, not only with activity but also, largely, with thoughts and +aspirations of freedom. There was indeed in particular a striking +likeness between Cuba and the Thirteen Colonies in North America just +before the Revolution in that country. It will be recalled that down to +a few months, perhaps even weeks, before the Declaration of Independence +in 1776, very few American leaders contemplated independence. The war +which they had begun at Lexington and Concord and Bunker Hill was not a +war of secession, but a civil war intended merely to secure for British +subjects in the colonies the same rights and privileges that British +subjects in the British Isles enjoyed. But a little later it was seen +that this would not suffice, and that complete separation and +independence must be achieved. Precisely so did some of the foremost +Cuban minds at the time of which we are writing, and indeed in much +later years, incline toward reforms and autonomous freedom under the +Spanish crown. + +[Illustration: ANTONIO BACHILLER] + + ANTONIO BACHILLER + + Patriot, economist and man of letters, Antonio Bachiller y Morales + was born in Havana on June 7, 1812, and was educated for the bar. + He wrote several volumes of poems and plays, but gave his best + attention to valuable treatises on Cuban history, industry, + agriculture, economics, administration, and law. He was one of the + foremost authorities and writers on Cuban and Antillean + archaeology. He was professor of philosophy in the University of + Havana, held various public offices, and was a patriotic orator of + great power. He died on January 10, 1889. + +These men saw with exultation the enkindling of a spirit of liberty in +the Iberian Peninsula. They saw the revolt of Spain against Joseph +Bonaparte. They saw the Spanish people dictate to their Bourbon king +that Constitution of 1812 which had it been triumphantly enforced would +have marked an epoch in the history of the rights of man. They +sympathized with and exulted in these things, and hoped for their +extension in Cuba. It was only when they sadly realized that these +things, even if gained for Spain, were not for Cuba, and that Liberal +Spain was as illiberal toward Cuba as ever despotic Spain had been, that +they turned from autonomy to independence. Then the intellectual +activities which had been directed to the achievements of the Peninsula, +were turned to the interests of the island. + +[Illustration: JOSE MARIA HEREDIA + +The bearer of one of the greatest names in the literature of Cuba and of +Spain, Jose Maria Heredia, was born at Santiago de Cuba on December 31, +1803, and died at Toluca, Mexico, on May 7, 1839. Because of his early +identification with the cause of Cuban freedom in the "Soles y Rayos de +Bolivar" he was compelled to flee to the United States, whence he +presently went to Mexico and there spent the remainder of his life, +holding places of high rank and importance. He was at once advocate, +soldier, traveller, linguist, diplomat, journalist, magistrate, +historian, poet. His "Ode to Niagara" has made him illustrious in +American literature. His general writings have given him conspicuous +rank among the world's great lyric poets of the Nineteenth Century.] + +The most striking exemplar of the pro-Spanish attitude of which we have +been speaking, as well as perhaps the greatest of all Cuban poets, was +Jose Maria Heredia; of whom the world too often thinks as a Spanish +rather than as a Cuban genius. He was born in Cuba in 1803, the son of +parents who had fled from Santo Domingo to escape the fury of the +revolution of Toussaint l'Ouverture. His father had formerly been a +Chief Justice of the Venezuelan court at Caracas, under the Spanish +government, and was loyal to Spain, though he detested and protested +against her tyrannies and corruption and imbued his son with a +passionate love of liberty. The younger Heredia established himself in +the city of Matanzas, as a successful lawyer. But already he had written +many poems, chiefly of freedom. They were in praise of Spain, and of the +Spanish aspirations for liberty which were manifested in the +Constitution of 1812. Indeed, never did Heredia commit himself against +Spain, harshly as he was treated by her. But the poems which he had +written in glorification of the Peninsular struggles for liberty +against Napoleon and against the Bourbons were recognized by his +countrymen to be equally applicable to the Cuban struggle against Spain, +which was already impending, and they were consequently taken up +throughout the island in that sense and for that purpose. This +circumstance, though unintended by him, subjected him to grave +suspicion; and he was presently charged with complicity in an +insurrectionary movement in 1823, and was banished from Cuba for life. +After a brief visit to the United States he went to Mexico, became a +government official, married, and spent the rest of his life there, with +the exception of a few weeks in 1836, when the Spanish authorities +permitted him to revisit Cuba, though their espionage made his visit +anything but pleasant. He died in 1839. + +Heredia, who has been called the Byron of Spanish literature, and who is +claimed by Spain as one of the glories of her letters, is known in Cuba +largely by his patriotic poems, and his poems on nature. In the United +States, where because of his exile from Cuba his poems were first +printed, he is chiefly known by three great compositions, two of which +were translated into English by William Cullen Bryant. These are his +"Ode to Niagara," Which ranks among the greatest poems ever written by +any poet on that theme; his "Ode to the Hurricane"; and a sonnet +addressed to his wife. It is with his political and patriotic poems, +however, that we are now most concerned, and of them it may be said that +seldom have the aspirations of a people for freedom been expressed with +more passionate eloquence. His first important poem, "The Star of Cuba," +written while he was yet in his teens, expressed a readiness to die, if +need be, for Cuba, leaving his head upon the scaffold as a token of the +brutality of Spain. Years afterward, in exile, he apostrophized Cuba as +the "land of light and beauty," and then thus prophesied: + + My Cuba! Thou shalt one day rise + From 'neath the despot's hand, + Free as the air beneath thy skies + Or waves which kiss thy strand. + In vain the traitor's noxious plots, + The tyrant's wrath is vain; + Since roll the surges of the sea + Between thy shores and Spain! + +[Illustration: FELIX VARELA] + + FELIX VARELA + + One of Cuba's greatest philosophers and churchmen, Felix Varela, + was born in Havana on November 20, 1788, was educated at San + Carlos, and became a priest and teacher. After several years of + service at San Carlos as Professor of Philosophy, in 1823 he was + compelled to flee to New York as a political exile. In that city he + spent the rest of his life, editing several periodicals, + translating many works, and writing much on religious and + philosophical subjects. He became rector of the Church of the + Transfiguration, and in 1845 was chosen Vicar-General of New York. + A few years later he went to Florida on account of his health, and + died at St. Augustine in 1853. + +Though Heredia took little active part in the physical revolt of Cuba +against Spain, his poems exerted during his lifetime a potent influence +in aid of revolution, and that influence steadily increased until, +nearly three score years after his death, his prophecy of Cuban freedom +was splendidly fulfilled. He was the first great voice of Cuban freedom, +the first great pioneer in that extraordinary intellectual development +which made Cuban history memorable in the Nineteenth Century. Truly did +the Spanish critic Menendez say of him that if his political activity +did not equal that of other conspirators against Spain, and though he +took no part in armed struggles, his intellectual influence was constant +and supremely effective, since he surpassed in talents all his +countrymen. + +[Illustration: JOSE AGUSTIN CABALLERO] + +But men might fall a little short--if indeed they did so--of Heredia's +singular genius, and yet be noteworthy figures in the intellectual +world. Well comparable with Heredia in influence, though exerted far +differently, was the brilliant Professor of Latin, philosophy and +science in the University of Havana, Felix Varela y Morales. It used to +be said, and not without reason, that it was he who first taught the +Cuban people to think as Cubans. He was sent to Spain as a Cuban Deputy +to that historic Cortes which met at Cadiz in 1823 and was dispersed by +Ferdinand VII because of its Liberalism. Varela was among its most +conspicuous members, and was among those whose arrest was ordered by the +reactionary Bourbons. He fortunately found asylum under the British flag +at Gibraltar, whence he made his way to the United States. There, at +Philadelphia, he published during the remainder of his life, a weekly +journal, _El Habanero_, which had a large though chiefly surreptitious +circulation in Cuba, and which exerted an inestimable influence for the +encouragement of patriotic endeavors. He died in Florida in 1853, and +his remains rested there for nearly half a century, when, after the +achievement of Cuban independence, they were transferred to his native +land. + + JOSE AGUSTIN CABALLERO + + One of the greatest ecclesiastics of Cuba, Father Jose Agustin + Caballero, uncle and preceptor of Jose de la Luz, was born in + Havana in February, 1771, and for many years was Director of the + San Carlos Seminary. He was a leading member of the Patriotic + Society, wrote much for the press, was the author of a number of + educational and historical works, and preached a memorable sermon + over the remains of Columbus when they were placed in the Cathedral + at Havana. He died in 1835. + +A name which we are not inclined to rank below any other in intellectual +significance and influence in Nineteenth Century Cuba is that of the +illustrious Jose de la Luz y Caballero, who was born in 1800 and died in +1862, too soon to see the beginning of that Ten Years' War to which his +teachings had powerfully contributed. "The Father of the Cuban +Revolution" the Spaniards called him, and more perhaps than any other +man did he deserve that honorable distinction. It was as an educator of +youth that this great man's great work was done. In the world-shaking +revolution year of 1848, after O'Donnell has drowned the Cuban slave +revolts in blood, and when Narciso Lopez was just preparing for his +descents upon the island, Luz y Caballero opened in Cuba a high school +for boys. It was not a political school; certainly not seditious, unless +truth and virtue were seditious. Hundreds of Cuban patriots, including +many of the leaders in the Ten Years' War and the War of Independence, +have testified that it was his teaching that made them the aggressive, +resolute, militant patriots that they were. Yet they have all been +equally insistent that "Don Pepe" as they called him was never a +political propagandist. He never incited them to revolt, never +prejudiced them against Spain. Yet, said his Spanish critics and +enemies, he prepared his pupils to conspire and to be garrotted! + +Both accounts of his teaching were true, and together they formed the +severest possible indictment of the Spanish regime. The burden of his +teaching was manhood. He and his assistants gave much attention to the +ordinary academic studies, in science and the humanities. But constantly +he impressed upon them the duty of being manly. That meant that they +were to be true, pure, resolute against injustice, respecting themselves +and respecting others as themselves, and ready if need should be to +sacrifice themselves for the sake of duty. It was the highest and best +form of practical ethical teaching. He might, it is true, have added at +the end of each of his weekly discourses to his boys the words of +Patrick Henry, "If this be treason, make the most of it." The Spaniards +did regard it as treason, and it did certainly incite and foment +insurrection against Spain. But so much the worse for Spain, if such +teaching was incompatible with her rule in Cuba. + +[Illustration: DOMINGO DEL MONTE] + + DOMINGO DEL MONTE + + One of the greatest patrons of Cuban letters, Domingo del Monte, + was born in Venezuela on August 4, 1804, was brought to Cuba in + 1810, and was educated at the University of Havana. He travelled + much in America and Europe, and then settled in Havana, where he + was secretary of the Royal Economic Society. He edited a dictionary + of Cuban provincialisms, and published a volume of "American + Rhymes." He made his house the rendezvous of Cuban men of letters + and gave to many of them invaluable encouragement and aid; and was + also active in promoting public education throughout the island. He + died at Madrid, Spain, in 1853. + +An important literary influence was exerted in Cuba, beginning in the +latter part of the Eighteenth century, and reaching its height in the +first third of the Nineteenth, by the society called "Friends of Peace," +of which Domingo del Monte was the leading spirit. It was this +organization which gave Varela his professorship in the University of +Havana. It was it that gave a prize for the best poem on the birth of +the princess who was to become Isabella II of Spain; a prize which was +won by a lad of sixteen. This was Jose Antonio Echeverria, who afterward +edited a literary journal called _El Plantel_, and still later became +one of the leaders of the strife for independence. Another protege of +Del Monte's--for he was a wealthy patron of letters, at Havana--was +Ramon Velez y Herrera, who was born in 1808 and died in 1886. He devoted +his attention chiefly to depicting in poetry the life, manners and +customs of the common people of Cuba, and particularly of the peasantry. +Still another was Jose Jacinto Milanes, who was born in 1814 and died in +1863. He was preeminently the poet of "local color" in nature. No other +has quite so richly and so perfectly embodied Cuban landscapes in verse. +But both these poets also wrote in behalf of Cuban freedom. + +[Illustration: JOSE JACINTO MILANES] + +Domingo del Monte himself wrote some poetry, but much more in prose, and +he had the distinction of being practically the founder of political +tract and pamphlet writing, an art which was largely practised with +powerful results. He wrote in 1836 a notable criticism of the despotic +administration of Tacon, and an analysis of the condition in which Cuba +found herself under such government. This opened the way for a veritable +flood of political tracts. + + JOSE JACINTO MILANES + + Born in Matanzas on August 16, 1814, and because of poverty chiefly + self-educated, Jose Jacinto Milanes became a noted linguist and + graceful poet. Most of his writings were translated into German, + and some into English and French, and he gained international + repute as a man of letters. Mental derangement and failing physical + health afflicted him in 1843, and he died in 1863. + +Conspicuous among them were the writings of Jose Antonio Saco, who was +born in 1797 and died in 1879. He was both a rival and a friend of +Varela, and was the latter's successor in his professorship when Varela +went to Cadiz and then fled to America. After Varela's arrival in the +United States, Saco formed a literary and patriotic partnership with +him, and together they edited the _Cuban Review_, a literary and +critical journal of high rank, which commanded international attention. +The American historian and literary critic, George Ticknor, said of it +that perusal of it greatly impressed him with the amount of literary +talent that existed in Cuba. The _Review_, he declared, far surpassed +anything of the kind in any other of the Spanish or former Spanish +colonies, and indeed "a review of such spirit, variety and power has +never been attempted even in Madrid." Of course, Saco was exiled by +Tacon, the immediate cause of offense being a pamphlet exposing and +denouncing some of the more flagrant evils of the slave trade. The +result was, however, that in exile Saco wrote one of the most elaborate +and exhaustive histories of slavery in existence in any language, beside +continuing his occasional political tracts. Nor did his influence end +with his death and the laying down of his pen, for portions of his +writings figured conspicuously and effectively in the literary +propaganda which formed the prelude to the War of Independence. + +Gabriel de la Conception Valdes was another of the proteges of Del +Monte. He was born in 1809 and died in 1844. His father was a mulatto +barber and his mother was a Spanish dancer, and he himself was permitted +to remain illiterate in boyhood. While working as a maker of tortoise +shell combs he was taught to read, and soon developed a passion for +books. From reading he proceeded to the writing of poetry, adopting the +pen name of "Placido" from the name of Placido Puentes, a druggist of +Havana who encouraged his literary efforts to the extent of giving him +pen and ink and paper, and a desk in his shop at which to sit and write +whenever he felt inclined. Valdes was a voluminous writer, above most of +his contemporaries, and while much that he wrote was mediocre, many of +his poems were of high merit, and some of them deserve to rank among the +best in Cuban literature; indeed, they would be noteworthy in the +literature of any land. Especially meritorious are his poems about the +slave trade and his apostrophes to Liberty. Because of these he was +accused of complicity in an attempted negro uprising. He was hurried +through a farcical trial, in which no real proof of his guilt was +presented. Indeed, there is good reason for believing that he was +entirely innocent. But he was found guilty, and was put to death; +repeating aloud, as he walked to the place of execution, one of his +poems on liberty. + +[Illustration: JOSE MANUEL MESTRE] + + JOSE MANUEL MESTRE + + Advocate, philosopher, journalist and revolutionist, Jose Manuel + Mestre was born in Havana in 1832. He was a professor of both law + and philosophy in the University until he resigned because of + governmental injustice to a colleague. For a time he taught on La + Luz's school of El Salvador, and as a lawyer he defended Abad + Torres who was charged with trying to murder the Archbishop of + Santiago. During the Ten Years' War he was in New York, a member of + the Cuban Junta, a diplomatic agent at Washington, and one of the + editors of "El Nuevo Mundo." After the Treaty of Zanjon he returned + to Cuba, and died in Havana in 1886. + +Three more writers of note and of real merit must be mentioned as +members of the company gathered about him by Domingo del Monte. These +were Anselmo Suarez y Romero, who lived from 1818 to 1878, and who as a +delineator of Cuban life and customs in fiction and essays ranks among +the best Cuban writers of prose; Cirillo Villaverde, who lived from 1812 +to 1894, and who also depicted in romances the life and manners of his +countrymen, dealing much, moreover, with African slavery; and Ramon de +Palma y Romay, who dates from 1812 to 1860, who assisted Echeverria in +the editing of "El Plantel," and who was an accomplished writer of verse +and of dramas, and who is said to have been the first native Cuban +dramatist to have a play of his produced upon the stage. The work of his +thus honored was "La Prueba o la Vuelta del Cruzado," in 1837. Palma +also wrote some strongly patriotic poems, which excited the suspicion +and enmity of the Spanish authorities, and in consequence in 1852 he was +arrested and imprisoned for a time on charge of complicity in the +revolutionary movements of that time. We may reckon him to have been the +last of the earlier school of Cuban writers, who had been more or less +unconsciously inspired by the revolutionary era of the beginning of the +century. Next came a new school, of the writers of the final and +triumphant revolution. + +We may indeed regard Jose Antonio Saco, to whom we have already +referred, as one of the writers and intellectual leaders of the final +revolution. In his earlier years he was an advocate of reforms in the +Spanish administration of the island which would make continued union +acceptable. In 1848 he had written a strong pamphlet against +incorporation of Cuba in the United States, largely on the ground that +thus Cuban nationality and the individuality of the Cuban people would +be extinguished. Three years later he wrote again on "The Cuban +Situation and Its Remedy," in which he pointed out the necessity of +Spain's granting fully the just demands of the Cuban people, the +alternative being separation and independence; and he indicated pretty +clearly that he regarded the latter course as all but inevitable. + +Thereafter for some years there was comparatively little political +literature put forth in Cuba, but other departments of letters greatly +flourished. A noteworthy volume of poems by four authors was published +in 1853 under the title of "Cuatro Laudes." One of the authors was Dr. +Ramon Zambrana, a physician and scientist of high attainments, whose +poems were chiefly metaphysical, speculative and imaginative. He was +married to Dona Luisa Perez, perhaps the foremost of the women poets of +Cuba; to whom he was attracted by the reading of her poems. Many critics +rate her verses more highly than his, and they were certainly more +popular. + +[Illustration: LUISA PEREZ DE ZAMBRANA] + + LUISA PEREZ DE ZAMBRANA + + One of Cuba's greatest poets, Luisa Perez, was born near El Cobre + in 1837, and was married in 1858 to Dr. Ramon Zambrana, an eminent + man of letters of Havana. She wrote much in youth, and published a + volume of poems in 1856. In addition to her poems she wrote + "Angelica and Estrella" and other novels, and translated much from + the French and Italian. When Gertrudis Avellanda returned to Cuba, + Luisa Perez was chosen to place upon her brow a golden laurel + wreath. + +The second of the four authors was Jose Gonzalo Roldan, whose best work +was in poems of tender sentiment. The third, Rafael Maria de Mendive, +devoted himself almost exclusively to poems of melancholy or at least +pensive sentiment. He was a passionate admirer and to some extent a +disciple if not an imitator of Byron and Moore, many of whose poems he +translated into Spanish with much success. Beside his poetical work +however, he cooperated with Quintiliano Garcia in founding and +conducting _The Havana Review_, a meritorious fortnightly literary +journal. His career in Cuba was cut short early in the Ten Years' War by +banishment for treason. He was at that time the head of a boys' school, +in Havana, and was suspected by the authorities of inculcating in his +pupils forbidden ideas of freedom and democracy. One night in January, +1869, when there was much popular indignation against the Spanish +government on account of a very drastic proclamation which had been +issued against the insurgent patriots, a number of Cuban women marched +to a theatre in Havana, wearing dresses of red, blue and white adorned +with stars, obviously representing the colors of the revolutionary Cuban +flag. Some of Mendive's boys were present, and they applauded and +cheered the women so vigorously that a riot arose, in which the +notorious Volunteers caused some bloodshed. For this Mendive was held +responsible, and he was arrested and exiled to Spain for a term of four +years. The influence of the American poet Longfellow and other literary +men, however, procured his release, on condition that he would not +reenter Cuba. He accordingly went to New York and there lived until the +general amnesty after the Ten Years' War permitted his return to Cuba. +While in New York he wrote much in behalf of the insurrection, and he +cheerfully sent his son as a member of the ill-fated _Virginius_ +expedition; writing a touching poem on that occasion: + + "'Tis well that thou hast done, + Most noble and most right, + To answer honor's call, my son, + For Fatherland to fight." + +The fourth of the four poets of "Cuatro Laudes" was Felipe Lopez de +Brinas, who drew his best themes from nature, and who addressed his best +poems to his wife. + +One of the most popular poets in the period just preceding and during +the Ten Years' War was Jose Fornaris, who in his "Cantos de Siboney" +related many legends of the Cuban aborigines, some of them actual +traditions but most of them invented by himself. A contemporary who +essayed similar themes with almost equal success was Juan Cristobal +Napoles Fajardo. Another, Miguel Teurbe de Tolon, devoted himself to +legends and ballads not of the aborigines but of the Cuban people of +European ancestry. Tolon was an intense patriot, and for that cause +suffered exile. For some years he lived in New York, where he was +efficiently active as the secretary of the Cuban Revolutionary Junta in +that city. + +[Illustration: JOAQUIN LORENZO LUACES] + +But perhaps above all others the poet--we might say, the Tyrtaeus--of +the revolution was Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces, though he did not live to see +the beginning of the war which he did so much to provoke. Luaces, who +was born in 1826 and died in 1867, was a devoted Greek scholar, and took +Greek poetry for his model. For that reason many have thought that his +writings were somewhat academic and artificial. There is however in his +poems an exquisite finish surpassed by no other Cuban writer, while many +of them reach a height of inspiration which few others have equalled. +There was in them, moreover, an irresistible call to Cuban patriotism, +which had vast effect in rousing the nation for the Ten Years' War. One +of his most stirring lyrics was on the Greek War of Independence, +entitled "The Fall of Missolonghi": + + To arms, ye Greeks! Missolonghi falls! + And Ibrahim conquers her soldiers brave. + But the Moslem finds within those walls + Corpses of Greeks, but never one slave! + + JOAQUIN LORENZO LUACES + + Lyric, dramatic and patriotic poet, Joaquin Lorenzo Luaces was born + in Havana in 1826, and was educated at the University of that city. + His themes as a poet were largely those of the great events of the + day, or of history, such as the Fall of Missolonghi, the Death of + Lincoln, and the Laying of the Atlantic Cable. Many of his poems + were patriotic appeals disguised in classic forms. He died in 1867. + +This passionate call to patriots to do battle to the death against +tyrants was addressed to the Greeks, thousands of miles away, and the +tyrants against whom it raged were Moslem Turks, hated by all true +Spaniards; wherefore the Spanish censor permitted it to be published +freely in Cuba. But every Cuban patriot read in it "Cubans" for "Greeks" +and "Spaniards" for "Moslems." Luaces was the author of a number of +meritorious dramas. + +We have spoken of Dona Louisa Perez as probably the foremost of Cuba's +women poets. Her chief rival for that distinction was Dona Gertrudis +Gomez de Avellanda, a woman of real genius. But she, although born in +Camaguey, was for practically all her life so identified with Spain that +she is commonly regarded as a Spaniard rather than a Cuban. Born in +1814, she went to Spain with her mother in 1836, and there remained +until 1860. By that time she had gained world-wide reputation as a poet +and dramatist, and also as a writer of prose fiction, and on her return +to Cuba she was publicly greeted as though she were a queen or an +empress. A few months later she hastened back to Spain and there spent +the remainder of her life. Only a few of her writings were on Cuban +themes, but they indicated that she retained in her voluntary exile a +deep love for and sympathy with her native land. + +The successor of Domingo Del Monte as a patron of Cuban letters was +Nicolas Azcarate, a very wealthy lawyer of Havana, himself a writer and +orator of great power, and an ardent patriot, though generally inclined +toward reforms and autonomy rather than independence. He was the leader +of that "Committee of Information" which went to Spain in 1865 to lay +before the Spanish Minister for the Colonies, Canovas del Castillo, the +grievances and the demands of Cuba; a mission which was quite fruitless, +for it was quickly followed by the outbreak of the Ten Years' War. +Azcarate also founded and conducted at his own cost a newspaper at +Havana, _La Voz del Siglo_, to advocate reforms and autonomy. But he +lost popularity with the Cubans, who were by this time almost unanimous +for independence, while he could not command the favor of the Spaniards; +and in consequence he lost his influence, his fortune and his place in +society, and ended his life in obscurity and poverty. + +[Illustration: GERTRUDIS GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA + +Although most of her life was spent abroad, the name of Gertrudis Gomez +de Avellaneda y Arteaga must always be enrolled among the glories of +Cuban literature and Cuban womanhood. She was born in Camaguey on March +23, 1814, and almost literally "lisped in numbers," since she wrote an +elegy on the death of her father at the age of six, and two years later +wrote a fairy tale, "The Hundred-Headed Giant." In 1836 she bade +farewell to Cuba in a memorable sonnet, and went to France, and thence +to Spain. There she wrote poems and dramas which placed her in the +foremost rank of the world's literary artists; her poetical drama of +"Baltasar" in 1853 being one of the greatest triumphs of that +generation. In 1860 she revisited Cuba and was publicly crowned in the +Tacon Theatre before a great assemblage of the foremost men and women of +the nation. She returned to Spain a few years later and died at Seville +on February 2, 1873.] + +Prominent among the poets of the Revolution was Juan Clemente Zenea, who +was a martyr as well as a poet. He was born at Bayamo in 1832, his +mother being the sister of the poet Fornaris already mentioned. He was +one of the pupils of Jose de la Luz y Caballero, and before leaving +school began to write patriotic poems and other articles. At the age of +twenty he had to flee from Cuba to escape arrest and prosecution for his +complicity in some revolutionary publications; whereupon he went to New +York and there continued his revolutionary writings. So extreme +were some of these that in December, 1853, a court martial at Havana +condemned him to death. Under the amnesty of 1855 he returned to Cuba +and became a teacher of modern languages and a writer for the press, and +a few years later published a volume of charming poems. After ten years +he left Cuba for New York and then for Mexico, and upon the outbreak of +the Ten Years' War he joined the Cuban Junta in New York and became +editor of its organ, _La Revolucion_. In 1870 the Spanish Minister at +Washington, wishing to negotiate secretly with Cespedes, the leader of +the Cuban revolutionists, gave Zenea a safe conduct to pass through the +Spanish lines and convey a message to Cespedes. This errand was +undertaken against the advice of his friends. It was accomplished in +safety, however, until when, on his return trip, he was just about to +pass beyond the limits of Spanish jurisdiction. Then he was seized by +order of the Volunteers and imprisoned. The Spanish government at Madrid +telegraphed orders to the Captain-General to honor the safe conduct and +to release him at once. But that officer, the notorious Count Valmaseda, +ignored these orders, kept Zenea in prison until there was a change of +Ministry at Madrid, and then, on August 25, 1871, put him to death. The +Spanish government disavowed this monstrous crime, and paid Zenea's +widow an indemnity of $25,000, though it failed to punish Valmaseda +according to his deserts. + +Another pupil of Luz y Caballero, and a close friend of Zenea, was +Enrique Pineyro, a journalist, historian, essayist and lecturer, who, +born in 1839, had the good fortune to survive until 1911 and thus to see +the work of Cuban independence triumphantly completed. Jose Morales +Lemus, born in 1808, established in Havana in 1863 the paper _El +Siglo_, a powerful advocate of reforms and autonomy. He went with Saco +and Azcarate on the Committee of Information to Madrid, and on his +return from that bootless errand he went to Washington as the first +Cuban Minister. He was the envoy of the Provisional Government of the +Cubans in the Ten Years' War, and as such, though the Cuban Republic did +not receive official recognition, he participated in formulating the +plan of Cuban settlement which General Daniel E. Sickles, as a special +American envoy, carried to Madrid to propose to the Spanish government. +This plan provided that Spain should grant Cuban independence in return +for a large indemnity to be paid by Cuba under the guarantee of the +United States. It was not certain that the Cuban people would have +approved that plan. Indeed, it is probable that they would not have done +so. The Spanish government would not listen to it, however, and it was +abandoned. A little later, in June, 1870, Lemus died. + +[Illustration: ENRIQUE PINEYRO] + + ENRIQUE PINEYRO + + The son of a University professor of literature and history, + Enrique Pineyro was born in Havana in 1839 and was educated at La + Luz's school of El Salvador. He became a successful journalist, + writer and teacher, and when the Ten Years' War began he went to + New York and there edited "La Revolucion" and "El Nuevo Mundo," and + wrote several notable histories and biographies. After the war he + returned to Cuba for a short time, then went to Paris and remained + there until his death in 1910. + +[Illustration: JOSE MORALES LEMUS + +A veteran of the Lopez insurrection and of the Ten Years' War was Jose +Morales Lemus, who was born at Gibara on May 2, 1808, and became a +successful advocate. Convinced of the wrong of slavery, he liberated his +own slaves, who however insisted upon voluntarily remaining in his +service. He participated in the Lopez invasion in 1851 and in the Pinto +conspiracy in 1855, on which account he was exiled to the United States. +In 1866 he returned to Cuba and became President of the Junta of +Information. At the outbreak of the Ten Years' War he went to New York +to become head of the Cuban Junta there, in consequence of which all his +property in Cuba was confiscated. At Washington he strove earnestly +though in vain to secure the recognition of Cuban belligerence. His +efficient patriotic labors were continued in New York to the day of his +death, which occurred on June 23, 1870.] + +One more Cuban writer demands attention, prior to the War of +Independence; though there were indeed many others of merit whose names +might well be recalled if a bibliography of the island were to be +compiled. Rafael Merchan was born in 1844, and was thus a mere +youth when the Ten Years' War began to be planned; yet we must reckon +him to have been perhaps the foremost patriotic journalist of that +struggle. It was he who suggested the name "Laborers" which was at first +commonly applied to the Cuban revolutionists. It will be recalled that +in Cuba affairs were directed by a "Labor Committee," that in the United +States societies of "Cuban Laborers" were formed in many cities, and +that periodicals called _El Laborante_ were published. Proscribed and +sentenced to death by the Spanish authorities, he found asylum in New +York, and there edited the Cuban revolutionary journal, _La Revolucion_. +Thence a few years later he went to Bogota, Colombia, to engage in +business and also to continue his literary career. It was his good +fortune to be able to resume his patriotic writings in 1890, when the +War of Independence began to loom upon the horizon, and to write in 1895 +and later several pamphlets in support of that struggle, some of which +had much influence in both America and Great Britain. He lived to see +the Cuban Republic securely established, and to go abroad as its +Minister to France and Spain in 1902. His service was brief, however, +because of ill health, which soon brought him home to die. + +It would be pleasant, and not lacking in profit, to dwell at greater +length upon these and other intellectual leaders of the Cuban people. +What we have said is, however, sufficient to show how greatly and how +masterfully the intellectual side of Cuban life was developed during the +century of political stress and fitful military strife which served as +the stormy prelude to Cuba's achievement of her independent rank among +the nations of the world. It was a development admirably comparable +with any ever recorded of any other people, and one which splendidly +vindicated the claim of the Cuban people to worth as a sovereign nation. +Moreover, it was an unmistakable earnest of approaching independence. +While for a century Cuba was purely a Spanish colony, her intellectual +life was embryotic and inert. During the two centuries while she was +more or less an object of international contention, she showed little +activity. But in her fourth century, the era of revolution and of +aspirations for independence, she showed the stuff that was in her sons +and daughters. Her soldiers were valiant in battle. Her statesmen were +wise in council. Her scholars and literati commanded distinguished +attention in the most brilliant intellectual era of human history, and +demonstrated that the Cuba that was about to be would be in the culture +of the higher life a worthy member of the community of nations. + + +THE END OF VOLUME THREE + + * * * * * + + +INDEX to Volumes 1 thru 4 + + + Abarzuza, Sr. proposes reforms for Cuba, IV, 6. + + Abreu. Marta and Rosalie, patriotism of, IV, 25. + + Academy of Sciences, Havana, picture of, IV, 364. + + Adams, John Quincy, enunciates American policy toward Cuba, II, 258; + portrait, 259; + on Cuban annexation, 327. + + Aglona, Prince de. Governor, II, 363. + + Agramonte, Aristide, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172. + + Agramonte, Enrique, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12. + + Agramonte, Eugenio Sanchez, sketch and portrait, IV, 362. + + Agramonte, Francisco, IV, 41. + + Agramonte, Ignacio, portrait, facing. III, 258. + + Agriculture, early attention to, I, 173, 224; + progress, 234; + II, 213; + absentee landlords, 214; + statistics, 223; + discussed in periodicals, 250; + rehabilitation of after War of Independence, IV, 147. + + Aguayo, Geronimo de, I, 161. + + Aguero, Joaquin de, organizes revolution, III, 72; + final defeat, 87. + + Aguiar, Luis de, II, 60. + + Aguiera, Jose, I, 295. + + Aguila, Negra, II, 346. + + Aguilera, Francisco V., sketch and portrait, III, 173. + + Aguirre, Jose Maria, filibuster, IV, 55; + death, 85. + + Albemarle, Earl of, expedition against Havana, II, 46; + occupies Havana, 78; + controversy with Bishop Morell, 83. + + Alcala, Marcos, I, 310. + + Aldama, Miguel de, sketch and portrait, III, 204. + + Aleman, Manuel, French emissary, II, 305. + + Algonquins, I, 7. + + Allen, Robert, on "Importance of Havana," II, 81. + + Almendares River, tapped for water supply, I, 266; + view on, IV, 167. + + Almendariz, Alfonso Enrique, Bishop, I, 277. + + Alquiza, Sancho de, Governor, I, 277. + + Altamarino, Governor, I, 105; + post mortem trial of Velasquez, 107; + attacked by the Guzmans, 109; + removed, 110. + + Altamirano, Juan C., Bishop, I, 273; + seized by brigands, 274. + + Alvarado, Luis de, I, 147. + + Alvarado, Pedro de, in Mexico, I, 86. + + Amadeus, King of Spain, III, 260. + + America, relation of Cuba to, I, 1; + II, 254. See UNITED STATES. + + American Revolution, effect of upon Spain and her colonies, II, 138. + + American Treaty, between Great Britain and Spain, I, 303. + + Andrea, Juan de, II, 9. + + Angulo, Francisco de, exiled, I, 193. + + Angulo, Gonzales Perez de, Governor, I, 161; + emancipation proclamation, 163; + quarrel with Havana Council, 181; + flight from Sores, 186; + end of administration, 192. + + Anners, Jean de Laet de, quoted, I, 353. + + Annexation of Cuba to United States, first suggested, II, 257, 326; + campaign for, 380; + sought by United States, III, 132, 135; + Marcy's policy, 141; + Ostend Manifesto, 142; + Buchanan's efforts, 143; + not considered in War of Independence, IV, 19. + + Antonelli, Juan Bautista, engineering works in Cuba, I, 261; + creates water supply for Havana, 266. + + Apezteguia. Marquis de, Autonomist leader, IV, 94. + + Apodaca, Juan Ruiz, Governor, II, 311. + + Arana, Martin de, warns Prado of British approach, II, 53. + + Arana, Melchior Sarto de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 237. + + Arana, Pedro de, royal accountant, I, 238. + + Aranda, Esquival, I, 279. + + Arango, Augustin, murder of, III, 188. + + Arango, Napoleon, treason of, III, 226. + + Arango y Pareno, Francisco, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. II; + organizes Society of Progress, II, 178; + leadership in Cuba, 191; + attitude toward slavery, 208; + his illustrious career, 305 et seq. + + Aranguren, Nestor, revolutionist, IV, 85; + death, 92. + + Araoz, Juan, II, 181. + + Arias, A. R., Governor, III, 314. + + Arias, Gomez, I, 145. + + Arignon, Villiet, quoted, II, 26, 94. + + Armona, Jose de, II, 108. + + Army, Cuban, organization of, III, 178; + reorganized, 263; + under Jose Miguel Gomez, IV, 301. + + Army, Spanish, in Cuba, III, 181, 295. + + Aroztegui, Martin de, II, 20. + + Arrate, Jose Martin Felix, historian, II, 17, 179. + + Arredondo, Nicolas, Governor at Santiago, II, 165. + + Asbert, Gen. Ernesto, amnesty case, IV, 326. + + "Assiento" compact on slavery, II, 2. + + Assumption, Our Lady of the, I, 61. + + Astor, John Jacob, aids War of Independence, IV, 14. + + Asylums for Insane, II, 317. + + Atares fortress, picture, II, 103. + + Atkins, John, book on West Indies, II, 36. + + Atrocities, committed by Spanish, III, 250; + Cespedes's protest against, 254; + "Book of Blood," 284; + Spanish confession of, 286; + war of destruction, + 295; + Weyler's "concentration" policy, IV, 85. + + Attwood's Cay. See GUANAHANI. + + Autonomist party, III, 305; + IV, 34; + attitude toward Campos in War of Independence, 59; + Cabinet under Blanco, 94; + earnest efforts for peace, 101; + record of its government, 102. + + Avellanda, Gertrudis Gomez de, III, 331; + portrait, facing, 332. + + Avila, Alfonso de, I, 154. + + Avila, Juan de, Governor, I, 151; + marries rich widow, 154; + charges against him, 157; + convicted and imprisoned, 158. + + Avila. See DAVILA. + + Aviles, Pedro Menendez de, See MENENDEZ. + + Ayala, Francisco P. de, I, 291. + + Ayilon, Lucas V. de, strives to make peace between Velasquez + and Cortez, I, 98. + + Azcarata, Jose Luis, Secretary of Justice, sketch and portrait, + IV, 341. + + Azcarate, Nicolas, sketch and portrait, III, 251, 332. + + Azcarraga, Gen., Spanish Premier, IV, 88. + + + "Barbeque" sought by Columbus, I, 18. + + Bachiller, Antonio, sketch and portrait, III, 317. + + Bacon, Robert, Assistant Secretary of State of U. S., intervenes + in revolution, IV, 272. + + Bahia Honda, selected as U. S. naval station, IV, 256. + + Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, I, 55, 91. + + Bancroft, George, quoted, I, 269; + II, 1, 24, 41, 117, 120, 159. + + Banderas, Quintin, revolutionist, IV, 34; + raid, 57; + death, 84. + + Baracoa, Columbus at, I, 18; + Velasquez at, 60; + picture, 60; + first capital of Cuba, 61, 168. + + Barreda, Baltazar, I, 201. + + Barreiro, Juan Bautista, Secretary of Education, IV, 160. + + Barrieres, Manuel Garcia, II, 165. + + Barrionuevo, Juan Maldonado, Governor, I, 263. + + Barsicourt, Juan Procopio. See SANTA CLARA, Conde. + + Bayamo, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168; + Cuban Republic organized there, III, 157. + + Bayoa, Pedro de, I, 300. + + Bay of Cortez, reached by Columbus, I, 25. + + Bees, introduced by Bishop Morell, II, 104; + increase of industry, 132. + + "Beggars of the Sea," raid Cuban coasts, I, 208. + + Bells, church, controversy over, II, 82. + + Bembrilla, Alonzo, I, 111. + + Benavides, Juan de, I, 280. + + Berrea, Esteban S. de, II, 6. + + Betancourt, Pedro, Civil Governor of Matanzas, IV, 179; + loyal to Palma, 271. + + Betancourt. See CISNEROS. + + "Bimini," Island of, I, 139. + + Bishops of Roman Catholic Church in Cuba, I, 122. + + "Black Eagle," II, 346. + + _Black Warrior_ affair, III, 138. + + Blanchet, Emilio, historian, quoted, II, 9, 15, 24; + on siege of Havana, 57, 87. + + Blanco, Ramon, Governor, IV, 88; + undertakes reforms, 89; + plans Cuban autonomy, 93; + on destruction of _Maine_, 99; + resigns, 121. + + Blue, Victor, observations at Santiago, IV, 110. + + Bobadilla, F. de, I, 54. + + Boca de la Yana, I, 18. + + "Bohio" sought by Columbus, I, 18. + + Bolivar, Simon, II, 333; + portrait, 334; + "Liberator," 334 et seq.; + influence on Cuba, 341; + "Soles de Bolivar," 341. + + Bonel, Juan Bautista, II, 133. + + "Book of Blood," III, 284. + + Bourne, Edward Gaylord, quoted, on slavery, II, 209; + on Spanish in America, 226. + + Brinas, Felipe, III, 330. + + British policy toward Spain and Cuba, I, 270; + aggressions in West Indies, 293; + slave trade, II, 2; + war of 1639, 22; + designs upon Cuba, 41; + expedition against Havana, 1762, 46; + conquest of Cuba, 78; + relinquishment to Spain, 92. See GREAT BRITAIN. + + Broa Bay, I, 22. + + Brooke, Gen. John R., receives Spanish surrender of Cuba, IV, 122; + proclamation to Cuban people, 145; + retired, 157. + + Brooks, Henry, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Buccaneers, origin of, I, 269. + + Buccarelli, Antonio Maria, Governor, II, 110; + retires, 115. + + Buchanan, James, on U. S. relations to Cuba, II, 263; + III, 135; + Minister to Great Britain, 142; + as President seeks annexation of Cuba to U. S., 143. + + Bull-fighting, II, 233. + + Burgos, Juan de, Bishop, I, 225. + + Burtnett, Spanish spy against Lopez, III, 65. + + Bustamente, Antonio Sanchez de, jurist, sketch and portrait, IV, 165. + + + Caballero, Jose Agustin, sketch and portrait, III, 321. + + Caballo, Domingo, II, 173. + + Cabanas, defences constructed, II, 58; + Laurel Ditch, view, facing, 58. + + Caballero, Diego de, I, 111. + + Cabezas, Bishop, I, 277. + + Cabrera, Diego de, I, 206. + + Cabrera, Luis, I, 198. + + Cabrera, Lorenzo de, Governor, I, 279; + removed, 282. + + Cabrera, Rafael, filibuster, IV, 70. + + Cabrera, Raimundo, conspirator in New York, IV, 334; + warned, 339. + + Cadreyta, Marquis de, I, 279. + + Cagigal, Juan Manuel de, Governor, II, 154; + defence of Havana, 155; + removed and imprisoned, 157. + + Cagigal, Juan Manuel, Governor, II, 313; + successful administration, 315. + + Cagigal de la Vega, Francisco, defends Santiago, II, 29; + Governor, 32; + Viceroy of Mexico, 34. + + Caguax, Cuban chief, I, 63. + + Calderon, Gabriel, Bishop, I, 315. + + Calderon, Garcia, quoted, II, 164, 172. + + Calderon de la Barca, Spanish Minister, + on _La Verdad_, III, 19; + on colonial status, 21; + negotiations with Soule, 140. + + Calhoun, John C., on Cuba, III, 132. + + Calleja y Isisi, Emilio, Governor, III, 313; + proclaims martial law, IV, 30; + resigns, 35. + + Camaguey. See PUERTO PRINCIPE, I, 168. + + Campbell, John, description of Havana, II, 14. + + Campillo, Jose de, II, 19. + + Campos, Martinez de, Governor, III, 296; + proclamations to Cuba, 297, 299; + makes Treaty of Zanjon and ends Ten Years War, 299; + in Spanish crisis, IV, 36; + Governor again, 37; + establishes Trocha, 44; + defeated by Maceo, 46; + conferences with party leaders, 59, 63; + removed, 63. + + Cancio, Leopoldo, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 161, 320. + + Canizares, Santiago J., Minister of Interior, IV, 48. + + Canning, George, policy toward Cuba, II, 257; + portrait, 258. + + Canoe, of Cuban origin, I, 10. + + Canon, Rodrigo, I, 111. + + Canovas del Castillo, Spanish Premier, IV, 36; + assassinated, 88. + + Cape Cruz, Columbus at, I, 20. + + Cape Maysi, I, 4. + + Cape of Palms, I, 17. + + Capote, Domingo Menendez. Vice-President, IV, 90; + Secretary of State, 146; + President of Constitutional Convention. 189. + + Carajaval, Lucas, defies Dutch, I, 290. + + Cardenas, Lopez lands at, III, 49. + + Caribs, I, 8. + + Carillo, Francisco, filibuster, IV, 55. + + Carleton, Sir Guy, at Havana, II, 47. + + Carranza, Domingo Gonzales, book on West Indies, II, 37. + + Carrascesa, Alfonso, II, 6. + + Carreno, Francisco, Governor, I, 219; + conditions at his accession, 228; + dies in office, 229; + work in rebuilding Havana, 231. + + Carroll, James, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172. + + Casa de Beneficienca, founded, I, 335; + II, 177. + + Casa de Resorgiamento, founded, II, 31. + + Casares, Alfonso, codifies municipal ordinances, I, 207. + + Castellanos, Jovellar, last Spanish Governor of Cuba, IV, 121; + surrenders Spanish sovereignty, 123. + + Castillo, Demetrio, Civil Governor of Oriente, IV, 180. + + Castillo, Ignacio Maria del, Governor, III, 314. + + Castillo, Loinaz, revolutionist. IV, 269. + + Castillo, Pedro del, Bishop, I, 226. + + Castro, Hernando de, royal treasurer, I, 115. + + Cathcart Lord, expedition to West Indies, II, 28. + + Cathedral of Havana, picture, facing I, 36; + begun, I, 310. + + Cat Island. See GUANAHANI. + + Cayo, San Juan de los Remedios del, removal of, I, 319. + + Cazones, Gulf of, I, 21. + + Cemi, Cuban worship of, I, 55. + + Census, of Cuba, first taken, by Torre, II, 131; + by Las Casas, 176; + of slaves, 205; + of 1775, 276; + of 1791, 277; + Humboldt on, 277; + of 1811, 280; + of 1817, 281; + of 1827, 283; + of 1846, 283; + of 1899, IV, 154; + of 1907, 287. + + Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, III, 157; + portrait, facing 158; + in Spain, 158; + leads Cuban revolution, 158; + President of Republic, 158; + proclamation, 168; + negotiations with Spain, 187; + removed from office, 275. + + Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, filibuster, IV, 55. + + Cespedes, Enrique, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Cervera, Admiral, brings Spanish fleet to Cuba, IV, 110; + portrait, 110; + surrenders, 114. + + Chacon, Jose Bayoma, II, 13. + + Chacon, Luis, I, 331, 333. + + Chalons, Sr., Secretary of Public Works, IV, 297. + + Chamber of Commerce founded, II, 307. + + Charles I, King, I, 74; + denounces oppression of Indians, 128. + + Chaves, Antonio, Governor, I, 157; + prosecutes Avila, 157; + ruthless policy toward natives, 159; + controversy with King, 160; + dismissed from office, 161. + + Chaves, Juan Baton de, I, 331. + + Chilton, John, describes Havana, I, 349. + + Chinchilla, Jose, Governor, III, 314. + + Chinese, colonies in America, I, 7; + laborers imported into Cuba, II, 295. + + Chorrera, expected to be Drake's landing place, I, 248. + + Chorrera River, dam built by Antonelli, I, 262. + + Christianity, introduced into Cuba by Ojeda, I, 55; + urged by King Ferdinand, 73. + + Church, Roman Catholic, organized and influential in Cuba, I, 122; + cathedral removed from Baracoa to Santiago, 123; + conflict with civil power, 227; + controversy with British during British occupation, II, 84; + division of island into two dioceses, 173; + attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 26; + controversy over property, 294. + + Cienfuegos, Jose, Governor, II, 311. + + Cimmarones, "wild Indians," I, 126; + revolt against De Soto, 148. + + Cipango, Cuba identified with, by Columbus, I, 5. + + Cisneros, Gaspar Betancourt, sketch and portrait, II, 379. + + Cisneros, Pascal Jiminez de, II, 110, 127. + + Cisneros, Salvador, III, 167; + sketch and portrait, 276; + President of Cuban Republic, 277; + President of Council of Ministers, IV, 48; + in Constitutional Convention, 190. + + Civil Service, law, IV, 325; + respected by President Menocal, 325. + + Clay, Henry, policy toward Cuba, II, 261. + + Clayton, John M., U. S. Secretary of State, issues proclamation + against filibustering, III, 42. + + Cleaveland, Samuel, controversy over church bells, II, 83. + + Cleveland, Grover. President of United States, issues warning against + breaches of neutrality, IV, 70; + reference to Cuba + in message of 1896, 79; + its significance, 80. + + Coat of Arms of Cuba, picture, IV, 251; + significance, 251. + + Cobre, copper mines, I, 173, 259. + + "Cockfighting and Idleness" campaign, IV, 291. + + Coffee, cultivation begun, II, 33, 113. + + Coinage, reformed, II, 142; + statistics of, 158. + + Collazo, Enrique, filibuster, IV, 55. + + Coloma, Antonio Lopez, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Colombia, designs upon Cuba, II, 262; + III, 134; + attitude toward Cuban revolution, 223. + + Columbus, Bartholomew, recalled to Spain, I, 57. + + Columbus, Christopher, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. I; + discoverer of America, I; + i; + first landing in America, 2; + monument on Watling's Island, picture, 3; + arrival in Cuba, 11; + question as to first landing place, 12; + first impressions of Cuba and intercourse with natives, 14; + exploration of north coast, 16; + end of first visit, 18; + second visit, 19; + exploration of south coast, 21; + at Bay of Cortez, 25; + turns back from circumnavigation, 26; + at Isle of Pines, 26; + final departure from Cuba, 27; + diary and narrative, 28 et seq.; + death and burial, 33; + tomb in Havana cathedral, 34; + removal to Seville, 36; + removal from Santo Domingo to Havana, II, 181; + epitaph, 182. + + Columbus, Diego, plans exploration and colonization of Cuba, I, 57; + attempts mediation between Velasquez and Cortez, 97; + replaces Velasquez with Zuazo, 100; + rebuked by King, 100. + + Comendador, Cacique, I, 55. + + Commerce, begun by Velasquez, I, 68; + rise of corporations, II, 19; + after British occupation, 98; + under Torre, 132; + reduction of duties, 141; + extension of trade, 163; + Tribunal of Commerce founded, 177; + Real Compania de Havana, 199; + restrictive measures, 200; + Chamber of Commerce founded, 307; + commerce with United States, III, 2; + during American occupation, IV, 184; + present, 358. + + Compostela, Diego E. de, Bishop, I, 318; + death, 332. + + Concepcion, Columbus's landing place, I, 3. + + Concessions, forbidden under American occupation, IV, 153. + + Concha, Jose Gutierrez de la, Governor, III, 62, 290. + + Conchillos, royal secretary, I, 59. + + Congress, Cuban, welcomed by Gen. Wood, IV, 246; + turns against Palma, 269; + friendly to Gomez, 303; + hostile to Menocal, 323; + protects the lottery, 324. + + Constitution: Cuban Republic of 1868, III, 157; + of 1895, IV, 47; + call for Constitutional Convention, 185; + meeting of Convention, 187; + draft completed, 192; + salient provisions, 193; + Elihu Root's comments, 194; + Convention discusses relations with United States, 197; + Platt + Amendment, 199; + amendment adopted, 203; + text of Constitution, 304 et seq.; + The Nation, 205; + Cubans, 205; + Foreigners, 207; + Individual Rights, 208; + Suffrage, 211; + Suspension of Guarantees, 212; + Sovereignty, 213; + Legislative Bodies, 214; + Senate, 214; + House of Representatives, 216; + Congress, 218; + Legislation, 221; + Executive, 222; + President, 222; + Vice-President, 225; + Secretaries of State, 226; + Judiciary, 227; + Supreme Court, 227; + Administration of Justice, 228; + Provincial Governments, 229; + Provincial Councils, 230; + Provincial Governors, 231; + Municipal Government, 233; + Municipal Councils, 233; + Mayors, 235; + National Treasury, 235; + Amendments, 236; + Transient Provisions, 237; + Appendix (Platt Amendment), 238. + + "Constitutional Army," IV, 268. + + Contreras, Andres Manso de, I, 288. + + Contreras, Damien, I, 278. + + Convents, founded, I, 276; + Nuns of Santa Clara, 286. + + Conyedo, Juan de, Bishop, II, 35. + + Copper, discovered near Santiago, I, 173; + wealth of mines, 259; + reopened, II, 13; + exports, III, 3. + + Corbalon, Francisco R., I, 286. + + Cordova de Vega, Diego de, Governor, I, 239. + + Cordova, Francisco H., expedition to Yucatan, I, 84. + + Cordova Ponce de Leon, Jose Fernandez, Governor, I, 316. + + Coreal, Francois, account of West Indies, quoted, I, 355. + + Coronado, Manuel, gift for air planes, IV, 352. + + Cortes, Spanish, Cuban representation in, II, 308; + excluded, 351; + lack of representation, III, 3; + after Ten Years' War, 307. + + Cortez, Hernando, Alcalde of Santiago de Cuba, I, 72; + sent to Mexico by King, 74; + agent of Velasquez, 86; + early career, 90; + portrait, 90; + quarrel with Velasquez, 91; + marriage, 92; + commissioned by Velasquez to explore Mexico, 92; + sails for Mexico, 94; + final breach with Velasquez, 96; + denounced as rebel, 97; + escapes murder, 99. + + Cosa, Juan de la, geographer, I, 6, 53. + + Councillors, appointed for life, I, 111; + conflict with Procurators, 113. + + Creoles, origin of name, II, 204. + + Crittenden, J. J., protests against European intervention in Cuba, + III, 129. + + Crittenden, William S., with Lopez, III, 96; + captured, 101; + death, 105. + + Crombet, Flor, revolutionist, IV, 41, 42. + + Crooked Island. See ISABELLA. + + Crowder, Gen. Enoch H., head of Consulting Board, IV, 284. + + Cuba: Relation to America, I, 1; + Columbus's first landing, 3; + identified with Mangi or Cathay, 4; + with Cipango, 5; + earliest maps, 6; + physical history, 7, 37 et seq.; + Columbus's discovery, 11 et seq.; + named Juana, 13; + other names, 14; + Columbus's account of, 28; + geological history, 37-42; + topography, 42-51; + climate, 51-52; + first circumnavigation, 54; + colonization, 54; + Velasquez at Baracoa, 60; + commerce begun, 68; + government organized, 69; + named Ferdinandina, 73; + policy of Spain toward, 175; + slow economic progress, 215; + land legislation, 232; + Spanish discrimination against, 266; + divided into two districts, 275; + British description in 1665, 306; + various accounts, 346; + turning point in history, 363; + close of first era, 366; + British conquest, II, 78; + relinquished to Spain, 92; + great changes effected, 94; + economic condition, 98; + reoccupied by Spain, 102; + untouched by early revolutions, 165; + effect of revolution in Santo Domingo, 190; + first suggestion of annexation to United States, 257; + "Ever Faithful Isle," 268; + rise of independence, 268; + censuses, 276 et seq.; + representation in Cortes, 308; + "Soles de Bolivar," 341; + representatives rejected from Cortes, 351; + transformation of popular spirit, 383; + independence proclaimed, III, 145; + Republic organized, 157; + War of Independence, IV, 15; + Spanish elections held during war, 67; + Blanco's plan of autonomy, 93; + sovereignty surrendered by Spain, 123; + list of Spanish Governors, 123. See REPUBLIC OF CUBA. + + Cuban Aborigines; + I, 8; + manners, customs and religion, 8 et seq.; + Columbus's first intercourse, 15, 24; + priest's address to Columbus, 26; + Columbus's observations of them, 29; + hostilities begun by Velasquez, 61; + subjected to Repartimiento system, 70; + practical slavery, 71; + Key Indians, 125; + Cimmarones, 126; + new laws in their favor, 129; + Rojas's endeavor to save them, 130; + final doom, 133; + efforts at reform, 153; + oppression by Chaves, 159; + Angulo's emancipation proclamation, 163. + + "Cuba-nacan," I, 5. + + "Cuba and the Cubans," quoted, II, 313. + + "Cuba y Su Gobierno," quoted, II, 354. + + Cuellar, Cristobal de, royal accountant, I, 59. + + Cushing, Caleb, Minister to Spain, III, 291. + + Custom House, first at Havana, I, 231. + + + Dady, Michael J., & Co., contract dispute, IV, 169. + + Davila, Pedrarias, I, 140. + + Davis, Jefferson, declines to join Lopez, III, 38. + + Del Casal, Julian, sketch and portrait, IV, 6. + + Del Cueta, Jose A., President of Supreme Court, portrait, IV, 359. + + Delgado, Moru, Liberal leader, IV, 267. + + Del Monte, Domingo, sketch, portrait, and work, II, 323. + + Del Monte, Ricardo, sketch and portrait, IV, 2. + + Demobilization of Cuban army, IV, 135. + + Desvernine, Pablo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 146. + + Diaz, Bernal, at Sancti Spiritus, I, 72; + in Mexico, 86. + + Diaz, Manuel, I, 239. + + Diaz, Manuel Luciano, Secretary of Public Works, IV, 254. + + Diaz, Modeste, III, 263. + + Divino, Sr., Secretary of Justice, IV, 297. + + Dockyard at Havana, established, II, 8. + + Dolz, Eduardo, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 96. + + Dominguez, Fermin V., Assistant Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 50. + + Dorst, J. H., mission to Pinar del Rio, IV, 107. + + "Dragado" deal, IV, 310. + + Drake, Sir Francis, menaces Havana, I, 243; + in Hispaniola, 246; + leaves Havana unassailed, 252; + departs for Virginia, 255. + + Duany, Joaquin Castillo, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12; + Assistant Secretary of Treasury, 50; + filibuster, 70. + + Dubois, Carlos, Assistant Secretary of Interior, IV, 50. + + Duero, Andres de, I, 93, 115. + + Dulce y Garay, Domingo, Governor, III, 190, 194; + decree of confiscation, 209; + recalled, 213. + + Dupuy de Lome, Sr., Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 40; + writes offensive letter, 98; + recalled, 98. + + Duque, Sr., Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, IV, 297. + + Durango, Bishop, I, 225. + + Dutch hostilities, I, 208, 279; + activities in West Indies, 283 et seq. + + + Earthquakes, in 1765, I, 315; + II, 114. + + Echeverria, Esteban B., Superintendent of Schools, IV, 162. + + Echeverria, Jose, Bishop, II, 113. + + Echeverria, Jose Antonio, III, 324. + + Echeverria, Juan Maria, Governor, II, 312. + + Education, backward state of, II, 244; + progress under American occupation, IV, 156; + A. E. Frye, Superintendent, 156; + reorganization of system, 162; + Harvard University's entertainment of teachers, 163; + achievements under President Menocal, 357. + + Elections: for municipal officers under American occupation, IV, 180; + law for regulation of, 180; + result, 181; + for Constitutional Convention, 186; + for general officers, 240; + result, 244; + Presidential, 1906, 265; + new law, 287; + local elections under Second Intervention, 289; + Presidential, 290; + for Congress in 1908, 303; + Presidential, 1912, 309; + Presidential, 1916, disputed, 330, result confirmed, 341. + + Enciso, Martin F. de, first Spanish writer about America, I, 54. + + Epidemics: putrid fever, 1649, I, 290; + vaccination introduced, II, 192; + small pox and yellow fever, III, 313; + at Santiago, IV, 142; + Gen. Wood applies Dr. Finlay's theory of yellow fever, 171; + success, 176; + malaria, 177. + + Escudero, Antonio, de, II, 10. + + Espada, Juan Jose Diaz, portrait, facing II, 272. + + Espagnola. See HISPANIOLA. + + Espeleta, Joaquin de, Governor, II, 362. + + Espinosa, Alonzo de Campos, Governor, I, 316. + + Espoleto, Jose de, Governor, II, 169. + + Estenoz, Negro insurgent, IV, 307. + + Estevez, Luis, Secretary of Justice, IV, 160; + Vice-President, 245. + + Evangelista. See ISLE OF PINES. + + Everett, Edward, policy toward Cuba, III, 130. + + "Ever Faithful Isle," II, 268, 304. + + Exquemeling, Alexander, author and pirate, I, 302. + + + "Family Pact," of Bourbons, effect upon Cuba, II, 42. + + Felin, Antonio, Bishop, II, 172. + + Fels, Cornelius, defeated by Spanish, I, 288. + + Ferdinand, King, policy toward Cuba, I, 56; + esteem for Velasquez, 73. + + Ferdinandina, Columbus's landing place, I, 3; + name for Cuba, 73. + + Ferrara, Orestes, Liberal leader, IV, 260; + revolutionist, 269; + deprecates factional strife, 306; + revolutionary conspirator in New York, 334; + warned by U. S. Government, I, 239. + + Ferrer, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 239. + + Figueroa, Vasco Porcallo de, I, 72; + De Soto's lieutenant, 142; + returns from Florida in disgust, 145. + + Figuerosa, Rojas de, captures Tortuga, I, 292. + + Filarmonia, riot at ball, III, 119. + + Filibustering, proclamation of United States against, III, 42; + after Ten Years' War, 311, in War of Independence, IV, 20; + expeditions intercepted, 52; + many successful expeditions, 69; + warnings, 70. + + Fine Arts, II, 240. + + Finlay, Carlos G., theory of yellow fever successfully applied + under General Wood, IV, 171; + portrait, facing, 172. + + Fish, Hamilton, U. S. Secretary of State, prevents premature + recognition of Cuban Republic, III, 203; + protests against Rodas's decree, 216; + on losses in Ten Years' War, 290; + seeks British support, 292; + states terms of proposed mediation, 293. + + Fish market at Havana, founder for pirate, II, 357. + + Fiske, John, historian, quoted, I, 270. + + Flag, Cuban, first raised, III, 31; + replaces American, IV, 249; + picture, 250; + history and significance, 250. + + Flores y Aldama, Rodrigo de, Governor, I, 301. + + Florida, attempted colonization by Ponce de Leon, I, 139; + De Soto's expedition, 145. See MENENDEZ. + + Fonseca, Juan Rodriguez de, Bishop of Seville, I, 59. + + Fonts-Sterling, Ernesto, Secretary of Finance, IV, 90; + urges resistance to revolution, 270. + + Fornaris, Jose, III, 230. + + Forestry, attention paid by Montalvo, I, 223; + efforts to check waste, II, 166. + + Foyo, Sr., Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, IV, 297. + + France, first foe of Spanish in Cuba, I, 177; + "Family Pact," II, 42; + interest in Cuban revolution, III, 126. + + Franquinay, pirate, at Santiago, I, 310. + + French refugees, in Cuba, II, 189; + expelled, 302. + + French Revolution, effects of, II, 184. + + Freyre y Andrade, Fernando, filibuster, + IV, 70; + negotiations with Pino Guerra, 267. + + Frye, Alexis, Superintendent of Schools, IV, 156; + controversy with General Wood, 162. + + Fuerza, La: picture, facing I, 146; + building begun by De Soto, I, 147; + scene of Lady Isabel's tragic vigil, 147, 179; + planned and built by Sanchez, 194; + work by Menendez, and Ribera, 209; + slave labor sought, 211; + bad construction, 222; + Montalvo's recommendations, 223; + Luzan-Arana quarrel, 237; + practical completion, 240; + decorated by Cagigal, II, 33. + + + Galvano, Antony, historian, quoted, I, 4. + + Galvez, Bernardo, seeks Cuban aid for Pensacola, II, 146; + Governor, 168; + death, 170. + + Galvez, Jose Maria, head of Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95. + + Garaondo, Jose, I, 317. + + Garay, Francisco de, Governor of Jamaica, I, 102. + + Garcia, Calixto, portrait, facing III, 268; + President of Cuban Republic, III, 301; + joins War of Independence, IV, 69; + his notable career, 76 et seq.; + joins with Shafter at Santiago, 111; + death, 241. + + Garcia, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 269. + + Garcia, Esequiel, Secretary of Education, IV, 320. + + Garcia, Marcos, IV, 44. + + Garcia, Quintiliano, III, 329. + + Garvey, Jose N. P., II, 222. + + Gastaneta, Antonio, II, 9. + + Gelder, Francisco, Governor, I, 292. + + Gener y Rincon, Miguel, Secretary of Justice, IV, 161. + + Geraldini, Felipe, I, 310. + + Germany, malicious course of in 1898, IV, 104; + Cuba declares war against, 348; + property in Cuba seized, 349; + aid to Gomez, 350. + + Gibson. Hugh S., U. S. Charge d'Affaires, assaulted, IV, 308. + + Giron. Garcia, Governor, I, 279. + + Godoy, Captain, arrested at Santiago, and put to death, I, 203. + + Godoy, Manuel, II, 172. + + Goicouria, Domingo, sketch and portrait, III, 234. + + Gold, Columbus's quest for, I, 19; + Velasquez's search, 61; + the "Spaniards' God," 62; + early mining, 81; + value of mines, 173. + + Gomez, Jose Antonio, II, 18. + + Gomez, Jose Miguel, Civil Governor of Santa Clara, IV, 179; + aspires to Presidency, 260, 264; + turns from Conservative to Liberal party, 265; + compact with Zayas, 265; + starts revolution, 269; + elected President, 290; + becomes President, 297; + Cabinet, 297; + sketch and portrait, 298; + acts of his administration, 301; + charged with corruption, 304; + conflict with Veterans' Association, 304; + quarrel with Zayas, 306; + suppresses Negro revolt, 307; + amnesty bill, 309; + National Lottery, 310; + "Dragado" deal, 310; + railroad deal, 310; + estimate of his administration, 311; + double treason in 1916, 332; + defeated and captured, 337; + his orders for devastation, 337; + aided by Germany, 350. + + Gomez, Juan Gualberto, revolutionist, IV, 30; + captured and imprisoned, 52; + insurgent, 269. + + Gomez, Maximo, III, 264; + succeeds Gen. Agramonte, 275; + makes Treaty of Zanjon with Campos, 299; + in War of Independence, IV, 15; + commander in chief, 16, 43; + portrait, facing 44; + plans great campaign of war, 53; + controversy with Lacret, 84; + opposed to American invasion, 109; + appeals to Cubans to accept American occupation, 136; + impeachment by National Assembly ignored, 137; + influence during Government of Intervention, 149; + considered by Constitutional Convention, 191; + proposed for Presidency, 240; + declines, 241. + + Gonzalez, Aurelia Castillo de, author, sketch and portrait, IV, 192. + + Gonzales, William E., U. S. Minister to Cuba, IV, 335; + watches Gomez's insurrection, 336. + + Gorgas, William C., work for sanitation, IV, 175. + + Government of Cuba: organized by Velasquez, I, 69; + developed at Santiago, 81; + radical changes made, 111; + revolution in political status of island, 138; + codification of ordinances, 207; + Ordinances of 1542, 317; + land tenure, II, 12; + reforms by Governor Guemez, 17; + reorganization after British occupation, 104; + great reforms by Torre, 132; + budget and tax reforms, 197; + authority of Captain-General, III, 11; + administrative and judicial functions, 13 et seq.; + military and naval command, 16; + attempted reforms, 63; + concessions after Ten Years' War, 310. + + Governors of Cuba, Spanish, list of, IV, 123. + + Govin, Antonio, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95; + sketch and portrait, 95. + + Grammont, buccaneer, I, 311. + + Gran Caico, I, 4. + + Grand Turk Island. See GUANAHANI. + + Grant, U. S., President of United States, III, 200; + inclined to recognize Cuban Republic, 202; + prevented by his Secretary of State, 203; + comments in messages, 205, 292. + + Great Britain, interest in Cuban revolution, III, 125; + protection sought by Spain, 129; + declines cooperation with United States, 294; + requires return of fugitives, 310. + + Great Exuma. See FERDINANDINA. + + Great Inagua, I, 4. + + Great War, Cuba enters, IV, 348; + offers 10,000 troops, 348; + German intrigues and propaganda, 349; + attitude of Roman Catholic clergy, 349; + ships seized, 350; + cooperation with Food Commission, 351; + military activities, 352; + liberal subscriptions to loans, 352; + Red Cross work, 352; + Senora Menocal's inspiring leadership, 353. + + Grijalva, Juan de, I, 65; + expedition to Mexico, 66; + names Mexico New Spain, 97; + unjustly recalled and discredited, 88. + + Guajaba Island, I, 18. + + Guama, Cimmarron chief, I, 127. + + Guanabacoa founded, II, 21. + + Guanahani, Columbus's landing place, I, 2. + + Guanajes Islands, source of slave trade, I, 83. + + Guantanamo, Columbus at, I, 19; + U. S. Naval Station, IV, 256. + + Guardia, Cristobal de la, Secretary of Justice, IV, 320. + + Guazo, Gregorio, de la Vega, Governor, I, 340; + stops tobacco war, 341; + warnings to Great Britain and France, 342; + military activity and efficiency, II, 5. + + Guemez y Horcasitas, Juan F., Governor, II, 17; + reforms, 17; + close of administration, 26. + + Guerra, Amador, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Guerra, Benjamin, treasurer of Junta, IV, 3. + + Guerro, Pino, starts insurrection, IV, 267, 269; + commander of Cuban army, 301; + attempt to assassinate him, 303. + + Guevara, Francisco, III, 265. + + Guiteras, Juan, physician and scientist, sketch and portrait, IV, 321. + + Guiteras, Pedro J., quoted, I, 269; + II, 6; + 42; + 207. + + Guzman, Gonzalez de, mission from Velasquez to King Charles I, I, 85; + vindicates Velasquez, 108; + Governor of Cuba, 110; + marries rich sister-in-law, 116; + litigation over estate, 117; + tremendous indictment by Vadillo, 120; + appeals to King and Council for Indies, 120; + seeks to oppress natives, 128; + second time Governor, 137; + makes more trouble, 148; + trouble with French privateers, 178. + + Guzman, Nunez de, royal treasurer, I, 109; + death and fortune, 115. + + Guzman, Santos, spokesman of Constitutionalists, IV, 59. + + + Hammock, of Cuban origin, I, 10. + + Hanebanilla, falls of, view, facing III, 110. + + Harponville, Viscount Gustave, quoted, II, 189. + + Harvard University, entertains Cuban teachers, IV, 163. + + Hatuey, Cuban chief, leader against Spaniards, I, 62; + death, 63. + + Havana: founded by Narvaez, I, 69; + De Soto's home and capital, 144; + rise in importance, 166; + Governor's permanent residence, 180; + inadequate defences, 183; + captured by Sores, 186; + protected by Mazariegos, 194; + sea wall proposed by Osorio, 202; + fortified by Menendez, 209; + "Key of the New World," 210; + commercial metropolis of West Indies, 216; + first hospital founded, 226; + San Francisco church, picture, facing 226; + building in Carreno's time, 231; + custom house, 231; + threatened by Drake, 243; + preparations for defence, 250; + officially called "city," 262; + coat of arms, 202; + primitive conditions, 264; + first theatrical performance, 264; + capital of western district, 275; + great fire, 277; + attacked by Pit Hein, 280; + described by John Chilton, 349; + first dockyard established, II, 8; + attacked by British under Admiral + Hosier, 9; + University founded, 11; + described by John Campbell, 14; + British expedition against in 1762, 46; + journal of siege, 54; + American troops engaged, 66; + surrender, 69; + terms, 71; + British occupation, 78; + great changes, 94; + description, 94; + view from Cabanas, facing, 96; + reoccupied by Spanish, 102; + hurricane, 115; + improvements in streets and buildings, 129; + view in Old Havana, facing 130; + street cleaning, and market, 169; + slaughter house removed, 194; + shopping, 242; + cafes, 243; + Tacon's public works, 365; + view of old Presidential Palace, facing III, 14; + view of the Prado, facing IV, 16; + besieged in War of Independence, 62; + view of bay and harbor, facing, 98; + old City Wall, picture, 122; + view of old and new buildings, facing 134; + General Ludlow's administration, 146; + Police reorganized, 150; + view of University, facing 164; + view of the new capitol, facing 204; + view of the President's home, facing 268; + view of the Academy of Arts and Crafts, facing 288; + new railroad terminal, 311. + + Hay, John, epigram on revolutions, IV, 343 + + Hayti. See HISPANIOLA. + + Hein, Pit, Dutch raider, I, 279. + + Henderson, John, on Lopez's expedition, III, 64. + + _Herald_, New York, on Cuban revolution, III, 89. + + Heredia, Jose Maria. II, 274; + exiled, 344; + life and works, III, 318; + portrait, facing 318. + + Hernani, Domingo, II, 170. + + Herrera, historian, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12; + on Hatuey, 62; + description of West Indies, 345. + + Herrera, Geronimo Bustamente de, I, 194. + + Hevea, Aurelio, Secretary of Interior, IV, 320. + + Hispaniola, Columbus at, I, 19; + revolution in, II, 173; + 186; + effect upon Cuba, 189. + + Hobson, Richmond P., exploit at Santiago, IV, 110. + + Holleben, Dr. von, German Ambassador at Washington, intrigues of, + IV, 104. + + Home Rule, proposed by Spain, IV, 6; + adopted, 8. + + Horses introduced into Cuba, I, 63. + + Hosier, Admiral, attacks Havana, I, 312; + II, 9. + + Hospital, first in Havana, I, 226; + Belen founded, 318; + San Paula and San Francisco, 195. + + "House of Fear," Governor's home, I, 156. + + Humboldt, Alexander von, on slavery, II, 206; + on census, 277; + 282; + on slave trade, 288. + + Hurricanes, II, 115, 176, 310. + + Hurtado, Lopez, royal treasurer, I, 116; + has Chaves removed, 162. + + + Ibarra, Carlos, defeats Dutch raiders, I, 288. + + Incas, I, 7. + + Independence, first conceived, II, 268; + 326; + first revolts for, 343; + sentiment fostered by slave trade, 377; + proclaimed by Aguero, III, 72; + proclaimed by Cespedes at Yara, 155; + proposed by United States to Spain, 217; + War of Independence, IV, 1; + recognized by Spain, 119. See WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. + + Intellectual life of Cuba, I, 360; + lack of productiveness in Sixteenth Century, 362; + Cuban backwardness, II, 235; + first important progress, 273; + great arising and splendid achievements, III, 317. + + Insurrections. See REVOLUTIONS, and SLAVERY. + + Intervention, Government of: First, established, IV, 132; + organized, 145; + Cuban Cabinet, 145; + saves island from famine, 146; + works of rehabilitation and reform, 148; + marriage law, 152; + concessions forbidden, 153; + census, 154; + civil governments of provinces, 179; + municipal elections ordered, 180; + electoral law 180; + final transactions, 246; + Second Government of Intervention, 281; + C. E. Magoon, Governor, 281; + Consulting Board, 284; + elections held, 289, 290; + commission for revising laws, 294; + controversy over church property, 294. + + Intervention sought by Great Britain and France, III, 128; + by United States, IV, 106. + + Iroquois, I, 7. + + Irving, Washington, on Columbus's landing place, I, 12. + + Isabella, Columbus's landing place, I, 3. + + Isabella, Queen, portrait, I, 13. + + Isidore of Seville, quoted, I, 4. + + Islas de Arena, I, 11. + + Isle of Pines, I, 26; + recognized as part of Cuba, 224; + status under Platt Amendment, IV, 255. + + Italian settlers in Cuba, I, 169. + + Ivonnet, Negro insurgent, IV, 307. + + + Jamaica, Columbus at, I, 20. + + Japan. See CIPANGO. + + Jaruco, founded, II, 131. + + Jefferson, Thomas, on Cuban annexation, II, 260; + III, 132. + + Jeronimite Order, made guardian of Indians, I, 78; + becomes their oppressor, 127. + + Jesuits, controversy over, II, 86; + expulsion of, 111. + + Jordan, Thomas, joins Cuban revolution, III, 211. + + Jorrin, Jose Silverio, portrait, facing III, 308. + + Jovellar, Joachim, Governor, III, 273; + proclaims state of siege, 289; + resigns, 290. + + Juana, Columbus's first name for Cuba, I, 13. + + Juan Luis Keys, I, 21. + + Judiciary, reforms in, II, 110; + under Navarro, 142; + under Unzaga, 165; + under Leonard Wood, IV, 177. + + Junta, Cuban, in United States, III, 91; + New York, IV, 2; + branches elsewhere, 3; + policy in enlisting men, 19. + + Junta de Fomento, II, 178. + + Juntas of the Laborers, III, 174. + + + Keppel, Gen. See ALBEMARLE. + + Key Indians, I, 125; + expedition against, 126. + + "Key of the New World and Bulwark of the Indies," I, 210. + + Kindelan, Sebastian de, II, 197, 315. + + + Lacoste, Perfecto, Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, + IV, 160. + + Land tenure, II, 12; + absentee landlords, 214. + + Lanuza, Gonzalez, Secretary of Justice, IV, 146; + portrait, 146. + + Lares, Amador de, I, 93. + + La Salle, in Cuba, I, 73. + + Las Casas, Bartholomew, Apostle to the Indies, arrival in Cuba, I, 63; + portrait, 64; + denounces Narvaez, 66; + begins campaign against slavery, 75; + mission to Spain, 77; + before Ximenes, 77. + + Las Casas, Luis de, Governor, II, 175; + portrait, 175; + death, 182. + + Lasso de la Vega, Juan, Bishop, II, 17. + + Lawton, Gen. Henry W., leads advance against Spanish, IV, 112; + Military Governor of Oriente, 139. + + Lazear, Camp, established, IV, 172. + + Lazear, Jesse W., hero and martyr in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172. + + Ledesma, Francisco Rodriguez, Governor, I, 310. + + Lee, Fitzhugh, Consul General at Havana, IV, 72; + reports on "concentration" policy of Weyler, 86; + asks for warship to protect Americans at Havana, 97; + _Maine_ sent, 98; + commands troops at Havana, 121. + + Lee, Robert Edward, declines to join Lopez, III, 39. + + Legrand, Pedro, invades Cuba, I, 302. + + Leiva, Lopez, Secretary of Government, IV, 297. + + Lemus, Jose Morales, III, 333. + + Lendian, Evelio Rodriguez, educator, sketch and portrait, IV, 162. + + Liberal Party, III, 306; + triumphant through revolution, IV, 285; + dissensions, 303; + conspiracy against election, 329. + + Liberty Loans, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 352. + + Lighthouse service, under Mario G. Menocal, IV, 168. + + Linares, Tomas de, first Rector of University of Havana, II, 11. + + Lindsay, Forbes, quoted, II, 217. + + Linschoten, Jan H. van, historian, quoted, I, 351. + + Liquor, intoxicating, prohibited in 1780, II, 150. + + Literary periodicals: _El Habanero_, III, 321; + _El Plantel_, 324; + _Cuban Review_, 325; + _Havana Review_, 329. + + Literature, II, 245; + early works, 252; + poets, 274; + great development of activity, III, 315 et seq. + + Little Inagua, I, 4. + + Llorente, Pedro, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188, 190. + + Lobera, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 182; + desperate defence against Sores, 185. + + Lolonois, pirate, I, 296. + + Long Island. See FERDINANDINA. + + Lopez, Narciso, sketch and portrait, III, 23; + in Venezuela, 24; + joins the Spanish + army, 26; + marries and settles in Cuba, 30; + against the Carlists in Spain, 31; + friend of Valdez, 31; + offices and honors, 33; + plans Cuban revolution, 36; + betrayed and fugitive, 37; + consults Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee, 38; + first American expedition, 39; + members of the party, 40; + activity in Southern States, 43; + expedition starts, 45; + proclamation to his men, 46; + lands at Cardenas, 49; + lack of Cuban support, 54; + reembarks, 56; + lands at Key West, 58; + arrested and tried, 60; + second expedition organized, 65; + betrayed, 67; + third expedition, 70; + final expedition organized, 91; + lands in Cuba, 98; + defeated and captured, 112; + death, 114; + results of his works, 116. + + Lorenzo, Gen., Governor at Santiago, II, 347. + + Lorraine, Sir Lambton, III, 280. + + Los Rios, J. B. A. de, I, 310. + + Lottery, National, established by Jose Miguel Gomez, IV, 310. + + Louisiana, Franco-Spanish contest over, II, 117; + Ulloa sent from Cuba to take possession, 118; + O'Reilly sent, 123; + Uznaga sent, 126. + + Louverture, Toussaint, II, 186. + + Luaces, Joaquin Lorenzo, sketch and portrait, III, 330. + + Ludlow, Gen. William, command and work at Havana, IV, 144. + + Lugo, Pedro Benitez de, Governor, I, 331. + + Luna y Sarmiento, Alvaro de, Governor, I, 290. + + Luz y Caballero, Jose de la, "Father of the Cuban Revolution," + III, 322; + great work for patriotic education, 323; + Portrait, frontispiece, Vol III. + + Luzan, Gabriel de, Governor, I, 236; + controversy over La Fuerza, 237; + feud with Quinones, 241; + unites with Quinones to resist Drake, 243; + energetic action, 246; + tenure of office prolonged, 250; + end of term, 260. + + + Macaca, province of, I, 20. + + Maceo, Jose Antonio, proclaims Provisional Government, IV, 15; + leader in War of Independence, 41; + commands Division of Oriente, 43; + defeats Campos, 46; + plans great campaign, 53; + invades Pinar del Rio, 61; + successful campaign, 73; + death, 74; + portrait, facing 74. + + Maceo, Jose, IV, 41; + marches through Cuba, 76. + + Machado, Eduard, treason of, III, 258. + + Machete, used in battle, IV, 57. + + Madison, James, on status of Cuba, III, 132. + + Madriaga, Juan Ignacio, II, 59. + + Magoon, Charles E., Provisional Governor, IV, 281; + his administration, 283; + promotes public works, 286; + takes census, 287; + election law, 287; + retires, 295. + + Mahy, Nicolas, Governor, II, 315. + + Mail service established, II, 107; + under American occupation, IV, 168. + + Maine sent to Havana, IV, 98; + destruction of, 98; + investigation, 100. + + Maldonado, Diego, I, 146. + + Mandeville, Sir John, I, 20. + + Mangon, identified with Mangi, I, 20. + + Manners and Customs, II, 229 et seq.; + balls, 239; + shopping, 242; + relations of black and white races, 242; + cafes, 243; + early society, 248. + + Monosca, Juan Saenz, Bishop, I, 301. + + Manrique, Diego, Governor, II, 109. + + Manzaneda y Salines, Severino de, Governor, I, 320. + + Manzanillo, Declaration of Independence issued, III, 155. + + Maraveo Ponce de Leon, Gomez de, I, 339. + + Marco Polo, I, 4, 20. + + Marcy, William L., policy toward Cuba, III, 136. + + Mar de la Nuestra Senora, I, 18. + + Mariguana. See GUANAHANI. + + Marin, Sabas, succeeds Campos in command, IV, 63. + + Markham, Sir Clements, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12. + + Marmol, Donato, III, 173, 184. + + Marquez, Pedro Menendez, I, 206. + + Marriage law, reformed under American occupation, IV, 152; + controversy over, 153. + + Marti, Jose, portrait, frontispiece, Vol IV; + leader of War of Independence, IV, 2; + his career, 9; + in New York, 11; + organizes Junta, 11; + goes to Cuba, 15; + death, 16; + his war manifesto, 17; + fulfilment of his ideals, 355. + + Marti, Jose, secretary of War, portrait, IV, 360. + + Marti, the pirate, II, 357. + + Martinez Campos. See Campos. + + Martinez, Dionisio de la Vega, Governor, II, 8; + inscription on La Punta, 14. + + Martinez, Juan, I, 192. + + Martyr, Peter, I, 53. + + Maso, Bartolome, revolutionist, IV, 34; + rebukes Spotorno, 35; + President of Cuban Republic, 43; + Vice President of Council, 48; + President of Republic, 90; + candidate for Vice President, 242; + seeks Presidency, 243. + + Mason, James M., U. S. Minister to France, III, 141. + + Masse, E. M., describes slave trade, II, 202; + rural life, 216; + on Spanish policy toward Cuba, 227; + social morals, 230. + + Matanzas, founded, I, 321; + meaning of name, 321. + + Maura, Sr., proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 5. + + McCullagh, John B., reorganizes Havana Police, IV, 150. + + McKinley, William, President of United States, message of 1897 + on Cuba, IV, 87; + declines European mediation, 103; + message for war, 104. + + Maza, Enrique, assaults Hugh S. Gibson, IV, 308. + + Mazariegos, Diego de, Governor, I, 191; + a scandalous moralist, 193; + defences against privateering, 193; + takes charge of La Fuerza, 195; + controversy with Governor of Florida, 196; + replaced by Sandoval, 197. + + Medina, Fernando de, I, 111. + + Mendez-Capote, Fernando, Secretary of Sanitation, portrait, IV, 360. + + Mendieta, Carlos, candidate for Vice President, IV, 328; + rebels, 338. + + Mendive, Rafael Maria de, III, 328. + + Mendoza, Martin de, I, 204. + + Menendez, Pedro de Aviles, I, 199; + commander of Spanish fleet, 200; + clash with Osorio, 201; + Governor of Cuba, 205; + dealing with increasing enemies, 208; + fortifies Havana, 209; + recalled to Spain, 213; + conflict with Bishop Castillo, 226. + + Menocal, Aniceto G., portrait, IV, 50. + + Menocal, Mario G., Assistant Secretary of War, IV, 49; + Chief of Police at Havana, 144, 150; + in charge of Lighthouse Service, 168; + candidate for President, 290; + slandered by Liberals, 291; + elected President, 312; + biography, 312; + portrait, facing 312; + view of birthplace, 313; + Cabinet, 320; + opinion of Cuba's needs, 321; + first message, 322; + conflict with Congress, 323; + important reforms, 324; + suppresses rebellion, 327; + candidate for reelection, 328; + vigorous action against Gomez's rebellion, 335; + declines American aid, 337; + escapes assassination, 339; + reelection confirmed, 341; + clemency to traitors, 342; + message on entering Great War, 346; + fulfilment of Marti's ideals, 355; + estimate of his administration, 356; + achievements for education, 357; + health, 357; + industry and commerce, 358; + finance, 359; + "from Velasquez to Menocal," 365. + + Menocal, Senora, leadership of Cuban womanhood in Red Cross and + other work, IV, 354; + portrait, facing 352. + + Mercedes, Maria de las, quoted, II, 174; + on slave insurrection, 368. + + Merchan, Rafael, III, 174; + patriotic works, 335. + + Merlin, Countess de. See MERCEDES. + + _Merrimac_, sunk at Santiago, IV, 111. + + Mesa, Hernando de, first Bishop, I, 122. + + Mestre, Jose Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 326. + + Meza, Sr., Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, IV, 297. + + Mexico, discovered and explored from Cuba, I, 87; + designs upon Cuba, II, 262; + Cuban expedition against, 346; + warned off by United States, III, 134; + fall of Maximilian, 150. + + Milanes, Jose Jacinto, sketch, portrait and works, III, 324. + + Miles, Gen. Nelson A., prepares for invasion of Cuba, IV, 111. + + Miranda, Francisco, II, 156; + with Bolivar, 335. + + Miscegenation, II, 204. + + Molina, Francisco, I, 290. + + Monastic orders, I, 276. + + Monroe Doctrine, foreshadowed, II, 256; + promulgated, 328. + + Monroe, James, interest in Cuba, II, 257; + promulgates Doctrine, 328; + portrait, 329. + + Monserrate Gate, Havana, picture, II, 241. + + Montalvo, Gabriel, Governor, I, 215; + feud with Rojas family, 218; + investigated and retired, 219; + pleads for naval protection for Cuba, 220. + + Montalvo, Lorenzo, II, 89. + + Montalvo, Rafael, Secretary of Public Works, urges resistance + to revolutionists, IV, 270. + + Montanes, Pedro Garcia, I, 292. + + Montano See VELASQUEZ, J. M. + + Montes, Garcia, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 254. + + Montesino, Antonio, I, 78. + + Montiel, Vasquez de, naval commander, I, 278. + + Montoro, Rafael, Representative in Cortes, III, 308; + spokesman of Autonomists, IV, 59; + in Autonomist Cabinet, 95; + candidate for Vice President, 290; + attacked by Liberals, 291; + biography, 317; + portrait, facing 320. + + Morales case, IV, 92. + + Morales. Pedro de, commands at Santiago, I, 299. + + Morals, strangely mixed with piety and vice, II, 229. + + Morell, Pedro Augustino, Bishop, II, 53; + controversy with Albemarle, 83; + exiled, 87; + death, 113. + + Moreno, Andres, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 90. + + Moret law, abolishing slavery, III, 243. + + Morgan, Henry, plans raid on Havana, I, 297; + later career, 303. + + Morro Castle, Havana, picture, facing I, 180; + site of battery, 180; + tower built by Mazariegos, 196; + fortified against Drake, 249; + planned by Antonelli, 261; + besieged by British, II, 55. + + Morro Castle, Santiago, built, I, 289; + picture, facing 298. + + Mucaras, I, 11. + + Muenster, geographer, I, 6. + + Mugeres Islands, I, 84. + + Munive, Andres de, I, 317. + + Murgina y Mena, A. M., I, 317. + + Music, early concerts at Havana, II, 239. + + + Nabia, Juan Alfonso de, I, 207. + + Nancy Globe, I. 6. + + Napoleon's designs upon Cuba, II, 203. + + Naranjo, probable landing place of Columbus, I, 12. + + Narvaez, Panfilo de, portrait, I, 63; + arrival in Cuba, 63; + campaign against natives, 65; + explores the island, 67; + errand to Spain, 77; + sent to Mexico to oppose Cortez, 98; + secures appointment of Councillors for life, 111. + + Naval stations, U. S., in Cuba, IV, 255. + + Navarrete, quoted, I, 3, 12. + + Navarro, Diego Jose, Governor, II, 141, 150. + + Navy, Spanish, in Cuban waters, III, 182, 225. + + Negroes, imported as slaves, I, 170; + treatment of, 171; + slaves and free, increasing numbers of, 229. See SLAVERY. + + New Orleans, anti-Spanish outbreak, III, 126. + + New Spain. See MEXICO. + + Newspapers: _Gazeta_, 1780, II, 157; + _Papel Periodico_, 179; + 246; + publications in Paris, Madrid and New York, 354; + El Faro Industrial, III, 18; + Diario de la Marina, 18; + La Verdad, 18; + La Vos de Cuba, 260; + La Vos del Siglo, 232; + La Revolucion, 333; + El Siglo, 334; + El Laborante, 335. + + Norsemen, American colonists, I, 7. + + Nougaret, Jean Baptiste, quoted, II, 26. + + Nunez, Emilio, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12; + in war, 57; + Civil Governor of Havana, 179; + head of Veterans' Association, 305; + Secretary of Agriculture, 320; + candidate for Vice President, 328; + election confirmed, 341. + + Nunez, Enrique, Secretary of Health and Charities, IV, 320. + + + Ocampo, Sebastian de, circumnavigates Cuba, I, 54. + + O'Donnell, George Leopold, Governor, II, 365; + his wife's sordid intrigues, 365. + + Oglethorpe, Governor of Georgia, hostile to Spain, II, 24, 30. + + O'Hara, Theodore, with Lopez, III, 46. + + Ojeda, Alonzo de, I, 54; + introduces Christianity to Cuba, 55. + + Olid, Christopher de, sent to Mexico, I, 88. + + Olney, Richard. U. S. Secretary of State, attitude toward War + of Independence, IV, 71. + + Oquendo, Antonio de, I, 281. + + Orejon y Gaston, Francisco Davila de, Governor, I, 301, 310. + + O'Reilly, Alexandre, sent to occupy Louisiana, II, 123; + ruthless rule, 125. + + Orellano, Diego de, I, 86. + + Ornofay, province of, I, 20. + + Ortiz, Bartholomew, alcalde mayor, I, 146; + retires, 151. + + Osorio, Garcia de Sandoval, Governor, I, 197; + conflict with Menendez, 199, 201; + retired, 205; + tried, 206. + + Osorio, Sancho Pardo, I, 207. + + Ostend Manifesto, III, 142. + + Ovando, Alfonso de Caceres, I, 214; + revises law system, 233. + + Ovando, Nicolas de, I, 54. + + + Palma, Tomas Estrada, head of Cuban Junta in New York, IV, 3; + Provisional President of Cuban Republic, 15; + Delegate at Large, 43; + rejects anything short of independence, 71; + candidate for Presidency, 241; + his career, 241; + elected President, 245; + arrival in Cuba, 247; + portrait, facing 248; + receives transfer of government from General Wood, 248; + Cabinet, 254; + first message, 254; + prosperous administration, 259; + non-partisan at first, 264; + forced toward Conservative party, 264; + reelected, 266; + refuses to believe insurrection impending, 266; + refuses to submit to blackmail, 268; + betrayed by Congress, 269; + acts too late, 270; + seeks American aid, 271; + interview with W. H. Taft, 276; + resigns Presidency, 280; + estimate of character and work, 282; + death, 284. + + Palma y Romay, Ramon, III, 327. + + Parra, Antonio, scientist, II, 252. + + Parra, Maso, revolutionist, IV, 30. + + Parties, political, in Cuba, IV, 59; + origin and characteristics of Conservative and Liberal, 181, 261. + + Pasalodos, Damaso, Secretary to President, IV, 297 + + Pasamonte, Miguel, intrigues against Columbus, I, 58. + + Paz, Dona de, marries Juan de Avila, I, 154. + + Paz, Pedro de, I, 109. + + Penalosa, Diego de, Governor, II, 31. + + Penalver. See PENALOSA. + + Penalver, Luis, Bishop of New Orleans, II, 179. + + "Peninsulars," III, 152. + + Pensacola, settlement of, I, 328; + seized by French, 342; + recovered by Spanish, II, 7; + defended by Galvez, 146. + + Pereda, Gaspar Luis, Governor, I, 276. + + Perez, Diego, repels privateers, I, 179. + + Perez, Perico, revolutionist, IV, 15, 30, 78. + + Perez de Zambrana, Luisa, sketch and portrait, III, 328. + + Personal liberty restricted, III, 8. + + Peru, good wishes for Cuban revolution, III, 223. + + Philip II, King, appreciation of Cuba, I, 260. + + Pieltain, Candido, Governor, III, 275. + + Pierce, Franklin, President of United States, policy toward + Cuba, III, 136. + + Pina, Severo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 48. + + Pinar del Rio, city founded, II, 131; + Maceo invades province, IV, 61; + war in, 73. + + Pineyro, Enrique, III, 333; + sketch and portrait, 334. + + Pinto, Ramon, sketch and portrait, III, 62. + + "Pirates of America," I, 296. + + Pizarro, Francisco de, I, 54, 91. + + Platt, Orville H., Senator, on relations of United States + and Cuba, IV, 198; + Amendment to Cuban Constitution, 199; + Amendment adopted, 203; + text of Amendment, 238. + + Pococke, Sir George, expedition against Havana, II, 46. + + Poey, Felipe, sketch and portrait, III, 315. + + Point Lucrecia, I, 18. + + Polavieja, Gen., Governor, III, 314. + + Police, reorganized, II, 312; + under American occupation, IV, 150; + police courts established, 171. + + Polk, James K., President of the United States, policy toward + Cuba, III, 135. + + Polo y Bernabe, Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 98. + + Ponce de Leon, in Cuba, I, 73; + death, 139. + + Ponce de Leon, of New York, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13. + + Pope, efforts to maintain peace, between United States and + Spain, IV, 104. + + Porro, Cornelio, treason of, III, 257. + + Port Banes, I, 18. + + Port Nipe, I, 18. + + Port Nuevitas, I, 3. + + Portuguese settlers, I, 168. + + Portuondo, Rafael, Secretary for Foreign Affairs, IV, 48; + filibuster, 70. + + Prado y Portocasso, Juan, Governor, II, 49; + neglect of duty, 52; + sentenced to degradation, 108. + + Praga, Francisco de, I, 282. + + Presidency, first candidates for, IV, 240; + Tomas Estrada Palma elected, 245; + Jose Miguel Gomez aspires to, 260; + candidates in 1906, 265; + Palma's resignation, 280; + Jose Miguel Gomez elected, 290; + fourth campaign, 312; + Mario G. Menocal elected, 312; + fifth campaign, 328; + General Menocal reelected, 341. + + Prim, Gen., Spanish revolutionist, III, 145. + + Printing, first press in Cuba, II, 245. + + Privateers, French ravage Cuba, I, 177; + Havana and Santiago attacked, 178; + Havana looted, 179; + Jacques Sores, 183; + Havana captured, 186; + Santiago looted, 193; + French raids, 220, et seq. + + Proctor, Redfield, Senator, investigates and reports on condition + of Cuba in War of Independence, IV, 87. + + Procurators, appointment of, I, 112. + + Protectorate, tripartite, refused by United States, II, 261; + III, 130, 133. + + Provincial governments organized, IV, 179, confusion in, 292. + + Public Works, promoted by General Wood, IV, 166; + by Magoon, 286. + + Puerto Grande. See GUANTANAMO. + + Puerto Principe, I, 18, 167. + + Punta, La, first fortification, I, 203; + strengthened against Drake, 249; + fortress planned by Antonelli, 261; + picture, IV, 33. + + Punta Lucrecia, I, 3. + + Punta Serafina, I, 22. + + + Queen's Gardens, I, 20. + + Quero, Geronimo, I, 277. + + Quesada, Gonzalo de, Secretary of Cuban Junta, IV, 3; + Minister to United States, 275. + + Quesada, Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 167; + proclamation, 169; + death, 262. + + Quezo, Juan de, I, 113. + + Quilez, J. M., Civil Governor of Pinar del Rio, IV, 179. + + Quinones, Diego Hernandez de, commander of fortifications at + Havana, I, 240; + feud with Luzan, 241; + unites with Luzan to resist Drake, 243. + + Quinones, Dona Leonora de, I, 117. + + + Rabi, Jesus, revolutionist, IV, 34, 42. + + Railroads, first in Cuba, II, 343. + + Raja, Vicente, Governor, I, 337. + + Ramirez, Alejandro, sketch and portrait, II, 311. + + Ramirez, Miguel, Bishop, partisan of Guzman, I, 120; + political activities and greed, 124. + + Ramos, Gregorio, I, 274. + + Ranzel, Diego, I, 295. + + Recio, R. Lopez, Civil Governor of Camaguey, IV, 180. + + Recio, Serafin, III, 86. + + Reciprocity, secured by Roosevelt for Cuba, IV, 256. + + "Reconcentrados," mortality among, IV, 86. + + Red Cross, Cuban activities, IV, 353. + + Redroban, Pedro de, I, 201. + + Reed, Walter, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172. + + Reformists, Spanish, support Blanco's Autonomist policy, IV, 97. + + Reggio, Andreas, II, 32. + + Reno, George, in War of Independence, IV, 12; + running blockade, 21; + portrait, 21; + services in Great War, 351. + + Renteria, Pedro de, partner of Las Casas, I, 75; + opposes slavery, 76. + + Repartimiento, I, 70. + + Republic of Cuba: proclaimed and organized, III, 157; + first representative Assembly, 161; + Constitution of 1868, 164; + first House of Representatives, 176; + Judiciary, 177; + legislation, 177; + army, 178; + fails to secure recognition, 203; + Government reorganized, 275; + after Treaty of Zanjon, 301; + reorganized in War of Independence, IV, 15; + Maso chosen President, 43; + Conventions of Yara and Najasa, 47; + Constitution adopted, 47; + Government reorganized, Cisneros President, 48; + capital at Las Tunas, 56; + removes to Cubitas, 72; + exercises functions of government, 72; + reorganized in 1897, 90; + after Spanish evacuation of island, 134; + disbanded, 135; + Constitutional Convention called, 185; + Constitution completed, 192; + relations with United States, 195; + Platt Amendment, 203; + enters Great War, 346. + + Revolutions: Rise of spirit, II, 268; + in South America, 333; + "Soles de Bolivar," 341; + attempts to revolt, 344; + "Black Eagle," 346; + plans of Lopez, III, 36; + Lopez's first invasion, 49; + Aguero's insurrection, 72; + comments of New York _Herald_, 89; + Lopez's last expedition, 91; + results of his work, 116; + European interest, 125; + beginning of Ten Years' War. 155; + end of Ten Years' War, 299; + insurrection renewed, 308, 318; + War of Independence, IV, 1; + Sartorius Brothers, 4; + end of War of Independence, 116; + revolt against President Palma, 266; + ultimatum, 278; + government overthrown, 280; + Negro insurrection, 307; + conspiracy against President Menocal, 327; + great treason of Jose Miguel Gomez, 332; + Gomez captured, 337; + warnings from United States Government, 338; + revolutions denounced by United States, 343. + + Revolutionary party, Cuban, IV, 1, 11. + + Rey, Juan F. G., III, 40. + + Riano y Gamboa, Francisco, Governor, I, 287. + + Ribera, Diego de, I, 206; + work on La Fuerza, 209. + + Ricafort, Mariano, Governor, II, 347. + + Ricla, Conde de, Governor, II, 102; + retires, 109. + + Rio de la Luna, I, 16. + + Rio de Mares, I, 16. + + Riva-Martiz, I, 279. + + Rivera, Juan Ruiz, filibuster, IV, 70; + succeeds Maceo, 79. + + Rivera, Ruiz, Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, IV, 160. + + Roa, feud with Villalobos, I, 323. + + Rodas, Caballero de, Governor, III, 213; + emancipation decree, 242. + + Rodney, Sir George, expedition to West Indies, II, 153. + + Rodriguez, Alejandro, suppresses revolt, IV, 266. + + Rodriguez, Laureano, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95. + + Rojas, Alfonso de, I, 181. + + Rojas, Gomez de, banished, I, 193; + Governor of La Fuerza, 217; + rebuilds Santiago, 258. + + Rojas, Hernando de, expedition to Florida, I, 196. + + Rojas, Juan Bautista de, royal treasurer, I, 218. + + Rojas, Juan de, aid to Lady Isabel de Soto, I, 145; + commander at Havana, 183. + + Rojas, Manuel de, Governor, I, 105; + adopts policy of "Cuba for the Cubans," 106; + second Governorship, 121; + dealings with Indians, 126; + noble endeavors frustrated, 130; + resigns, 135; + the King's unique tribute to him, 135. + + Roldan, Francisco Dominguez, Secretary of Public Instruction, + sketch and portrait, IV, 357. + + Roldan, Jose Gonzalo, III, 328. + + Roloff, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 45; + Secretary of War, 48; + filibuster, 70. + + Romano Key, I, 18. + + Romay, Tomas, introduces vaccination, II, 192; + portrait, facing 192. + + Roncali, Federico, Governor, II, 366; + on Spanish interests in Cuba, 381. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113; + portrait, 113; + President of United States, on relations with Cuba, 245; + estimate of General Wood's work in Cuba, 251; + fight with Congress for Cuban reciprocity, 256; + seeks to aid President Palma against revolutionists, 275; + letter to Quesada, 275. + + Root, Elihu, Secretary of War, on Cuban Constitution, IV, 194; + on Cuban relations with United States, 197; + explains Platt Amendment, 201. + + Rowan, A. S., messenger to Oriente, IV. 107. + + Rubalcava, Manuel Justo, II, 274. + + Rubens, Horatio, Counsel of Cuban Junta, IV, 3. + + Rubios, Palacios, I, 78. + + Ruiz, Joaquin, spy, IV, 91; + death, 92. See ARANGUREN. + + Ruiz, Juan Fernandez, filibuster, IV, 70. + + Rum Cay. See CONCEPTION. + + Rural Guards, organized by General Wood, IV, 144; + efficiency of, 301. + + Ruysch, geographer, I, 6. + + + Saavedra, Juan Esquiro, I, 278. + + Sabinal Key, I, 18. + + Saco, Jose Antonio, pioneer of Independence, II, 378; + portrait, facing 378; + literary and patriotic work, III, 325, 327. + + Sagasta, Praxedes, Spanish Premier, proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 6; + resigns, 36. + + Saint Augustine, expedition against, I, 332. + + Saint Mery, M. de, search for tomb of Columbus, I, 34. + + Salamanca, Juan de, Governor, I, 295; + promotes industries, 300. + + Salamanca y Negrete, Manuel, Governor, III, 314. + + Salaries, some early, I, 263. + + Salas, Indalacio, IV, 21. + + Salazar. See SOMERUELOS. + + Salcedo, Bishop, controversy with Governor Tejada, I, 262. + + Sama Point, I, 4. + + Samana. See GUANAHANI. + + Sampson, William T., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110; + at Santiago, 114; + portrait, 115. + + Sanchez, Bartolome, makes plans for La + Fuerza, I, 194; + begins building, 195; + feud with Mazariegos, 197. + + Sanchez, Bernabe, II, 345. + + Sancti Spiritus, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168. + + Sandoval, Garcia Osorio, Governor, I, 197. See OSARIO. + + Sanitation, undertaken by Guemez, II, 18; + vaccination introduced by Dr. Romay. 192; + bad conditions, III, 313; + General Wood at Santiago, IV, 142; + achievements under President Menocal, 357. + + Sanguilly, Julio, falls in leading revolution, IV, 29, 55. + + Sanguilly, Manuel, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 190. + + San Lazaro watchtower, picture, I, 155; + fortified against Drake, 248. + + San Salvador. See GUANAHANI. + + Santa Clara, Conde de, Governor, II, 194, 300. + + Santa Crux del Sur, I, 20. + + Santa Cruz, Francisco, I, 111. + + Santiago de Cuba, Columbus at, I, 19; + founded by Velasquez, 68; + second capital of island, 69; + seat of gold refining, 80; + site of cathedral, 123; + condition in Angulo's time, 166; + looted by privateers, 193; + fortified by Menendez, 203; + raided and destroyed by French, 256; + rebuilt by Gomez de Rojas, 258; + capital of Eastern District, 275; + Morro Castle built, 289; + captured by British, 299; + attacked by Franquinay, 310; + attacked by Admiral Vernon, II, 29; + literary activities, 169; + great improvements made, 180; + battles near in War of Independence, IV, 112; + naval battle, 114; + General Wood's administration, 135; + great work for sanitation, 142. + + Santiago, battle of, IV, 114. + + Santiago, sunset scene, facing III, 280. + + Santillan, Diego, Governor, I, 205. + + Santo Domingo See HISPANIOLA. + + Sanudo, Luis, Governor, I, 336. + + Sarmiento. Diego de, Bishop, makes trouble, I, 149, 152. + + Saunders, Romulus M., sounds Spain on purchase of Cuba, III, 135. + + Sartorius, Manuel and Ricardo, revolutionists, IV, 4. + + Savine, Albert, on British designs on Cuba, II, 40. + + Schley, Winfield S., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110; + portrait, 110; + at Santiago, 114. + + Schoener's globe, I, 5. + + Schools, backward condition of, II, 174, 244, 312. See EDUCATION. + + Shafter, W. R., General, leads American army into Cuba, IV, 111. + + Shipbuilding at Havana, II, 8, 33, 113, 300. + + Sickles, Daniel E., Minister to Spain, offers mediation, III, 217. + + Silva, Manuel, Secretary of Interior, IV, 90. + + Slave Insurrection, II, 13; + III, 367, et seq. + + Slavery, begun in Repartimiento system, I, 70; + not sanctioned by King, 82; + slave trading begun, 83; + growth and regulation, 170; + oppressive policy of Spain, 266; + the "Assiento," II, 2; + great growth + of trade, 22; + gross abuses, 202; + described by Masse, 202; + census of slaves, 204; + rise of emancipation movement, 206; + rights of slaves defined by King, 210; + African trade forbidden, 285; + Negro census, 286; + early records of trade, 288; + Humboldt on, 288; + statistics of trade, 289 et seq.; + domestic relations of slaves, 292; + dangers of system denounced, 320; + official complicity in illegal trade, 366; + slave insurrection, 367; + inhuman suppression by government, 374 et seq.; + emancipation by revolution of 1868, 159; + United States urges Spain to abolish slavery, 242; + Rodas's decrees, 242; + Moret law, 243. + + Smith, Caleb. publishes book on West Indies, II, 37. + + Smuggling, II, 133. + + "Sociedad de Amigos," II, 169. + + "Sociedad Patriotica," II, 166. + + "Sociedad Patriotica y Economica," II, 178. + + Society of Progress, II, 78. + + Solano, Jose de, naval commander, II, 147. + + "Soles de Bolivar," II, 341; + attempts to suppress, 343. + + Solorzano, Juan del Hoya, I, 337; + II, 10. + + Someruelos, Marquis of, Governor, II, 196, 301. + + Sores, Jacques, French raider, II, 183; + attacks Havana, 184; + captures city, 186. + + Soto, Antonio de, I, 292. + + Soto, Diego de, I, 109, 217. + + Soto, Hernando de, Governor and Adelantado, I, 140; + portrait, 140; + arrival in Cuba, 141; + tour of island, 142; + makes Havana his home, 144; + chiefly interested in Florida, 144; + sails for Florida, 145; + his fate in Mississippi, 147; + trouble with Indians, 148. + + Soto, Lady Isabel de, I, 141; + her vigil at La Fuerza, 147; + death, 149. + + Soto, Luis de, I, 141. + + Soule, Pierre, Minister to Spain, III, 137; + Indiscretions, 138; + Ostend Manifesto, 142. + + South Sea Company, II, 21, 201. + + Spain: Fiscal policy toward Cuba, I, 175; + wars with France, 177; + discriminations against Cuba, 266, 267; + protests against South Sea Company, II, 22; + course in American Revolution, 143; + war with Great Britain, 151; + attitude toward America, 159; + peace with Great Britain, 162; + restrictive laws, 224; + policy under Godoy, 265; + decline of power, 273; + seeks to pawn Cuba to Great Britain for loan, 330; + protests to United States against Lopez's expedition, III, 59; + seeks British protection, 129; + refuses to sell Cuba, 135; + revolution against Bourbon dynasty, 145 et seq.; + rejects suggestion of American mediation in Cuba, 219; + seeks American mediation, 293; + strives to placate Cuba, IV, 5; + crisis over Cuban affairs, 35; + attitude toward War of Independence, 40; + considers Autonomy, 71; + Cabinet crisis of 1897, 88; + proposes joint investigation of Maine disaster, 100; + at war with United States, 106; + makes Treaty of Paris, relinquishing Cuba, 118. + + Spanish-American War: causes of, IV, 105; + declared, 106; + blockade of Cuban coast, 110; + landing of American army in Cuba, 111; + fighting near Santiago, 112; + fort at El Caney, picture, 112; + San Juan Hill, battle, 113; + San Juan Hill, picture of monument, 114; + naval battle of Santiago, 115; + peace negotiations, 116; + "Peace Tree," picture, 116; + treaty of peace, 118. + + Spanish literature in XVI century, I, 360. + + Spotorno, Juan Bautista, seeks peace, rebuked by Maso, IV, 35. + + Steinhart, Frank, American consul, advises President Palma to + ask for American aid, IV, 271; + correspondence with State Department, 272. + + Stock raising, early attention to, I, 173, 224; + development of, 220. + + Stokes, W. E. D., aids War of Independence, IV, 14. + + Students, murder of by Volunteers, III, 260. + + Suarez y Romero, Anselmo, III, 326. + + Sugar, Industry begun under Velasquez, I, 175, 224; + growth of industry, 265; + primitive methods, II, 222; + growth, III, 3; + great development under President Menocal, IV, 358. + + "Suma de Geografia," of Enciso, I, 54. + + Sumana, Diego de, I, 111. + + + Tacon, Miguel, Governor, II, 347; + despotic fury, 348; + conflict with Lorenzo, 349; + public works, 355; + fish market, 357; + melodramatic administration of justice, 359. + + Taft, William H., Secretary of War of United States, intervenes + in revolution, IV, 272; + arrives at Havana, 275; + negotiates with President Palma and the revolutionists, 276; + portrait, 276; + conveys ultimatum of revolutionists to President Palma, 279; + accepts President Palma's resignation, 280; + pardons revolutionists, 280; + unfortunate policy, 283. + + Tainan, Antillan stock, I, 8. + + Tamayo, Diego, Secretary of State, IV, 159; + Secretary of Government, 254. + + Tamayo, Rodrigo de, I, 126. + + Tariff, after British occupation, II, 106; + reduction, 141; + oppressive duties. III, 5; + under American occupation, IV, 183. + + Taxation, revolt against, II, 197; + "reforms," 342; + oppressive burdens, III, 6; + increase in Ten Years' War, 207; + evasion of, 312; + under American intervention, IV, 151. + + Taylor, Hannis, American Minister at Madrid, IV, 33. + + Tejada, Juan de, Governor, I, 261; + great works for Cuba, 262; + resigns, 263. + + Teneza, Dr. Francisco, Protomedico, I, 336. + + Ten Years' War, III, 155 et seq.; + first battles, 184; + aid from United States, 211; + offers of American mediation, 217; + rejected, 219; + campaigns of destruction, 222; + losses reported, 290; + end in Treaty of Zanjon, 299; + losses, 304. + + Terry, Emilio, Secretary of Agriculture, IV, 254. + + Theatres, first performance in Cuba, I, 264; + first theatre built, II, 130, 236. + + Thrasher, J. S., on census, II, 283. + + Tines y Fuertes, Juan Antonio, Governor, II, 31. + + Tobacco, early use, I, 9; + culture promoted, 300; + monopoly, 334; + "Tobacco War," 338; + effects of monopoly, II, 221. + + Tobar, Nunez, I, 141, 143. + + Tolon, Miguel de, III, 330. + + Toltecs, I, 7. + + Tomayo, Esteban, revolutionist, IV, 34. + + Torquemada, Garcia de, I, 239; + investigates Luzan, 241. + + Torre, Marquis de la, Governor, II, 127; + work for Havana, 129; + death, 133. + + Torres Ayala, Laureano de, Governor, I, 334; + reappointed, 337. + + Torres, Gaspar de, Governor, I, 234; + conflict with Rojas family, 235; + absconds, 235. + + Torres, Rodrigo de, naval commander, II, 34. + + Torriente, Cosimo de la, Secretary of Government, IV, 320. + + Toscanelli, I, 4. + + Treaty of Paris, IV, 118. + + Tres Palacios, Felipe Jose de, Bishop, II, 174. + + Tribune, New York, describes revolutionary leaders, III, 173. + + Trinidad, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168; + great fire, II, 177. + + Trocha, begun by Campos, IV, 44; + Weyler's, 73. + + Troncoso, Bernardo, Governor, II, 168. + + Turnbull, David, British consul, II, 364; + complicity in slave insurrection, 372. + + + Ubite, Juan de, Bishop, I, 123. + + Ulloa, Antonio de, sent to take possession of Louisiana, II, 118; + arbitrary conduct, 120. + + Union Constitutionalists, III, 306. + + United States, early relations with Cuba, II, 254; + first suggestion of annexation, 257; + John Quincy Adams's policy, 258; + Jefferson's policy, 260; + Clay's policy, 261; + representations to Colombia and Mexico, 262; + Buchanan's policy, 263; + Monroe Doctrine, 328; + consuls not admitted to Cuba, 330; + Van Buren's policy, 331; + growth of commerce with Cuba, III, 22; + President Taylor's proclamation against filibustering, 41; + course toward Lopez, 60; + attitude toward Cuban revolutionists, 123; + division of sentiment between North and South, 124; + policy of Edward Everett, 130; + overtures for purchase of Cuba, 135; + end of Civil War, 151; + new policy toward Cuba, 151; + recognition denied to revolution, 172; + aid and sympathy given secretly, 195; + Cuban appeals for recognition, 200; + recognition denied, 203; + protests against Rodas's decrees, 216; + offers of mediation, 217; + rejected by Spain, 219; + increasing interest and sympathy with revolutionists, 273; + warning to Spanish Government, 291; + effect of reciprocity upon Cuba, 313; + attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 27, 70; + Congress favors recognition, 70; + tender of good + offices, 71; + President Cleveland's message of 1896, 79; + appropriation for relief of victims of "concentration" policy, 86; + President McKinley's message of 1897, 87; + sensation at destruction of _Maine_, 99; + declaration of war against Spain, 106; + Treaty of Paris, 118; + establishment of first Government of Intervention, 132; + relations with Republic of Cuba, 195; + protectorate to be retained, 196; + Platt Amendment, 199; + mischief-making intrigues, 200; + naval stations in Cuba, 255; + reciprocity, 256; + second Intervention, 281; + warning to Jose Miguel Gomez, 305; + asks settlement of claims, 308; + Charge d'Affaires assaulted, 308; + supervision of Cuban legislation, 326; + warning to revolutionists, 339; + attitude toward Gomez revolution, 343. + + University of Havana, founded, II, 11. + + Unzaga, Luis de, Governor, II, 157. + + Urrutia, historian, quoted, I, 300. + + Urrutia, Sancho de, I, 111. + + Utrecht, Treaty of, I, 326; + begins new era, II, 1. + + Uznaga, Luis de, sent to rule Louisiana, II, 126; + reforms, 165. + + + Vaca, Cabeza de, I, 140. + + Vadillo, Juan, declines to investigate Guzman, I, 118; + temporary Governor, 119; + tremendous indictment of Guzman, 120; + retires after good work, 121; + clash with Bishop Ramirez, 124. + + Valdes, historian, quoted, II, 175. + + Valdes, Gabriel de la Conception, III, 325. + + Valdes, Jeronimo, Bishop, I, 335. + + Valdes, Pedro de, Governor, I, 202, 272; + retires, 276. + + Valdes, Geronimo, Governor, II, 364. + + Valdueza, Marquis de, I, 281. + + Valiente, Jose Pablo, II, 170, 180. + + Valiente, Juan Bautista, Governor of Santiago, II, 180. + + Vallizo, Diego, I, 277. + + Valmaseda, Count, Governor, proclamation against revolution, III, + 171, 270; + recalled for barbarities, 273. + + Van Buren, Martin, on United States and Cuba, II, 331. + + Vandeval, Nicolas C., I, 331, 333. + + Varela, Felix, sketch and portrait, III, 320; + works, 321. + + Varnhagen, F. A. de, quoted, I, 2. + + Varona, Bernabe de, sketch and portrait, III, 178. + + Varona, Jose Enrique, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 159; + Vice President, 312; + biography, 316; + portrait, facing 316. + + Varona, Pepe Jerez, chief of secret service, IV, 268. + + Vasquez, Juan, I, 330. + + Vedado, view in, IV, 176. + + Vega, Pedro Guerra de la, I, 243; + asks fugitives to aid in defence against Drake, 248. + + Velasco, Francisco de Aguero, II, 345. + + Velasco, Luis Vicente, defender of Morro against British, II, 58; + signal valor, 61; + death, 67. + + Velasquez, Antonio, errand to Spain, I, 77 + + Velasquez, Bernardino, I, 115. + + Velasquez, Diego, first Governor of Cuba, I, 59; + portrait, 59; + colonizes Cuba, 60; + hostilities with natives, 61, explores the island, 67; + marriage and bereavement, 68; + founds various towns, 68; + begins Cuban commerce, 68; + organizes government, 69; + favored by King Ferdinand, 73; + appointed Adelantado, 74; + seeks to rule Yucatan and Mexico, 85; + recalls Grijalva, 88; + quarrels with Cortez, 91; + sends Cortez to explore Mexico, 92, 94; + seeks to intercept and recall Cortez, 97; + sends Narvaez to Mexico, 98; + removed from office by Diego Columbus, 100; + restored by King, 102; + death and epitaph, 103; + posthumous arraignment by Altamarino, 107; + convicted and condemned, 108. + + Velasquez, Juan Montano, Governor, I, 293. + + Velez Garcia, Secretary of State, IV, 297. + + Velez y Herrera, Ramon, III, 324. + + Venegas, Francisco, Governor, I, 278. + + Vernon, Edward, Admiral, expedition to Darien, II 27; + Invasion of Cuba, 29. + + Viamonte, Bitrian, Governor, I, 286. + + Viana y Hinojosa, Diego de, Governor, I, 317. + + Victory loan, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 353. + + Villa Clara, founded, I, 321. + + Villafana, attempts to assassinate Cortez, I, 99. + + Villafana, Angelo de, Governor of Florida, controversy with + Mazariegos, I, 196. + + Villalba y Toledo, Diego de, Governor, I, 290. + + Villalobos, Governor, feud with Roa, I, 323. + + Villalon, Jose Ramon, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13; + Secretary of Public Works, 160, 330. + + Villalon Park, scene in, IV, 247. + + Villanueva, Count de, II, 342. + + Villapando, Bernardino de, Bishop, I, 225. + + Villarin, Pedro Alvarez de, Governor, I, 333. + + Villaverde, Cirillo, III, 327. + + Villaverde, Juan de, Governor of Santiago, I, 276. + + Villegas, Diaz de, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 297; + resigns, 302. + + Villuendas, Enrique, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188; + secretary, 189. + + Virginius, capture of, III, 277; + butchery of officers and crew, 278 et seq.; + British intervention, 280; + list of passengers, 281; + diplomatic negotiations over, 283. + + Vives, Francisco, Governor, II, 317; + despotism, 317; + expedition against Mexico, 346. + + Viyuri, Luis, II, 197. + + Volunteers, organized, III, 152; + murder Arango, 188; + have Dulce recalled, 213; + cause murder of Zenea, 252; + increased activities, 260; + murder of students, 261. + + + War of Independence, IV, i, 8; + circumstances of beginning, 9; + finances, 14; + Republic of Cuba proclaimed, 15; + attitude of Cuban people, 22; + actual outbreak, 29; + martial law proclaimed, 30; + Spanish forces in Cuba, 31; + arrival and policy of Martinez Campos, 38; + Gomez and Maceo begin great campaign, 53; + Spanish defeated, and reenforced, 55; + campaign of devastation, 60; + entire island involved, 61; + fall of Campos, 63; + Weyler in command, 66; + destruction by both sides, 68; + losses, 90; + entry of United States, 107; + attitude of Cubans toward American intervention, 108; + end of war, 116. + + Watling's Island. See GUANAHANI. + + Wax, development of Industry, II, 132. + + Webster, Daniel, negotiations with Spain, III, 126. + + Weyler y Nicolau, Valeriano, Governor, IV, 65; + portrait, 66; + harsh decree, 66; + conquers Pinar del Rio. 83; + "concentration" policy, 85; + recalled, 88. + + Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, at Santiago, IV, 113, 115. + + White, Col. G. W., with Lopez, III, 40. + + Whitney, Henry, messenger to Gomez, IV, 107. + + Williams, Ramon O., United States consul at Havana, IV, 32; + acts in behalf of Americans in Cuba, 72; + opposes sending _Maine_ to Havana, 100. + + Wittemeyer, Major, reports on Gomez revolution to Washington + government, IV, 336; + offers President Menocal aid of United States, 337. + + Wood, General Leonard, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113; + Military Governor of Santiago, 135; + his previous career, 140; + unique responsibility and power, 141; + dealing with pestilence, 142; + organizes Rural Guards, 144; + portrait, facing 158; + Military Governor of Cuba, 158; + well received by Cubans, 158; + estimate of _La Lucha_, 158; + his Cabinet, 159; + comments on his appointments, 160; + reorganization of school system, 161; + promotes public works, 166; + Dady contract dispute, 171; + applies Finlay's yellow fever theory with great success, 171; + reform of jurisprudence, 177; + organizes Provincial governments, 179; + holds municipal elections, 180; + promulgates election law, 181; + calls Constitutional Convention, 185; + calls for general election, 240; + his comments on election, 245; + announces end of American occupation, 246; + surrenders government of Cuba to + Cubans, 249; + President Roosevelt's estimate of his work, 251; + view of one of his mountain roads, facing 358. + + Woodford, Stewart L., United States Minister to Spain, IV, 103; + presents ultimatum and departs, 106. + + + Xagua, Gulf of, I, 21. + + Ximenes, Cardinal and Regent, gives Las Casas hearing on Cuba, I, 77. + + + Yanez, Adolfo Saenz, Secretary of Agriculture and Public Works, + IV, 146. + + Yellow Fever, first invasion, II, 51; + Dr. Finlay's theory applied by General Wood, IV, 171; + disease eliminated from island, 176. + + Yero, Eduardo, Secretary of Public Instruction, IV, 254. + + Ynestrosa, Juan de, I, 207. + + Yniguez, Bernardino, I, 111. + + Yucatan, islands source of slave trade, I, 83; + explored by Cordova, 84. + + Yznaga, Jose Sanchez, III, 37. + + + Zaldo, Carlos, Secretary of State, IV, 254. + + Zambrana, Ramon, III, 328. + + Zanjon, Treaty of, III, 299. + + Zapata, Peninsula of, visited by Columbus, I, 22. + + Zarraga, Julian, filibuster, IV, 70. + + Zayas, Alfredo, secretary of Constitutional Convention, IV, 189; + compact with Jose Miguel Gomez, 265; + spokesman of revolutionists against President Palma, 277; + elected Vice President, 290; + becomes Vice President, 297; + sketch and portrait, 300; + quarrel with Gomez, 306; + candidate for President, 328; + hints at revolution, 330. + + Zayas, Francisco, Lieutenant Governor, I, 205; + resigns, 206. + + Zayas, Francisco, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95. + + Zayas, Juan B., killed in battle, IV, 78. + + Zayas, Lincoln de, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12; + Superintendent of Schools, 162. + + Zenea, Juan Clemente, sketch and portrait, III, 252; + murdered, 253; + his works, 332. + + Zequiera y Arango, Manuel, II, 274. + + Zipangu. See CIPANOO. + + Zuazo, Alfonso de, appointed second Governor of Cuba, I, 100; + dismissed by King, 102. + + + * * * * * + +The following typographical errors were corrected by the etext +transcriber: + +whereupon Castanada=>whereupon Castenada + +General Caballere de Rodas=>General Caballero de Rodas + +He had taken an active part in the revolution upon its inception=>He had +taken an active part in the resolution upon its inception + +wtih which to support their movement=>with which to support their +movement + +deserted and, approaching the Spanish=>deserted, and approaching the +Spanish + +their govermnents and to have interviews=>their governments and to have +interviews + +Talon was an intense patriot=>Tolon was an intense patriot + +quantiy of provisions=>quantity of provisions + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Cuba, vol. 3, by +Willis Fletcher Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 3 *** + +***** This file should be named 38139.txt or 38139.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/1/3/38139/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif, Broward County Library and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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