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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aphorisms and Reflections from the Works of
+T. H. Huxley, by T. H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aphorisms and Reflections from the Works of T. H. Huxley
+
+Author: T. H. Huxley
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2011 [EBook #38097]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APHORISMS AND REFLECTIONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+
+APHORISMS AND REFLECTIONS
+
+FROM THE WORKS OF T. H. HUXLEY
+
+
+Selected By Henrietta A. Huxley
+
+
+1908
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+Although a man by his works and personality shall have made his mark
+upon the age he lives in, yet when he has passed away and his influence
+with him, the next generation, and still more the succeeding one, will
+know little of this work, of his ideals and of the goal he strove to
+win, although for the student his scientific work may always live.
+
+Thomas Henry Huxley may come to be remembered by the public merely as
+the man who held that we were descended from the ape, or as the apostle
+of Darwinism, or as the man who worsted Bishop Wilberforce at Oxford.
+
+To prevent such limitation, and to afford more intimate and valuable
+reasons for remembrance of this man of science and lover of his
+fellow-men, I have gathered together passages, on widely differing
+themes, from the nine volumes of his "Essays," from his "Scientific
+Memoirs" and his "Letters," to be published in a small volume, complete
+in itself and of a size that can be carried in the pocket.
+
+Some of the passages were picked out for their philosophy, some for
+their moral guidances, some for their scientific exposition of natural
+facts, or for their insight into social questions; others for their
+charms of imagination or genial humour, and many--not the least--for
+their pure beauty of lucid English writing.
+
+In so much wealth of material it was difficult to restrict the
+gathering.
+
+My great wish is that this small book, by the easy method of its
+contents, may attract the attention of those persons who are yet
+unacquainted with my husband's writings; of the men and women of
+leisure, who, although they may have heard of the "Essays," do not care
+to work their way through the nine volumes; of others who would like to
+read them, but who have either no time to do so or coin wherewith to buy
+them. More especially do I hope that these selections may attract
+the attention of the working man, whose cause my husband so ardently
+espoused, and to whom he was the first to reveal, by his free lectures,
+the loveliness of Nature, the many rainbow-coloured rays of science, and
+to show forth to his listeners how all these glorious rays unite in the
+one pure white light of holy truth.
+
+I am most grateful to our son Leonard Huxley for weeding out the
+overgrowth of my extracts, for indexing the text of the book and seeing
+it through the press for me.
+
+Hodeslea, Eastbourne, June 29th, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+APHORISMS and REFLECTIONS
+
+
+I
+
+There is no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except veracity
+of thought and of action, and the resolute facing of the world as it is
+when the garment of make-believe by which pious hands have hidden its
+uglier features is stripped off.
+
+
+II
+
+Natural knowledge, seeking to satisfy natural wants, has found the ideas
+which can alone still spiritual cravings. I say that natural knowledge,
+in desiring to ascertain the laws of comfort, has been driven to
+discover those of conduct, and to lay the foundations of a new morality.
+
+
+III
+
+The improver of natural knowledge absolutely refuses to acknowledge
+authority, as such. For him, scepticism is the highest of duties; blind
+faith the one unpardonable sin.
+
+
+IV
+
+The man of science has learned to believe in justification, not by
+faith, but by verification.
+
+
+V
+
+No delusion is greater than the notion that method and industry can make
+up for lack of mother-wit, either in science or in practical life.
+
+
+VI
+
+Nothing great in science has ever been done by men, whatever their
+powers, in whom the divine afflatus of the truth-seeker was wanting.
+
+
+VII
+
+In science, as in art, and, as I believe, in every other sphere of human
+activity, there may be wisdom in a multitude of counsellors, but it is
+only in one or two of them.
+
+
+VIII
+
+Nothing can be more incorrect than the assumption one sometimes meets
+with, that physics has one method, chemistry another, and biology a
+third.
+
+
+IX
+
+Anyone who is practically acquainted with scientific work is aware
+that those who refuse to go beyond fact, rarely get as far as fact; and
+anyone who has studied the history of science knows that almost every
+great step therein has been made by the "anticipation of Nature."
+
+
+X
+
+There are three great products of our time.... One of these is that
+doctrine concerning the constitution of matter which, for want of a
+better name, I will call "molecular"; the second is the doctrine of the
+conservation of energy; the third is the doctrine of evolution.
+
+
+XI
+
+M. Comte's philosophy, in practice, might be compendiously described as
+Catholicism _minus_ Christianity.
+
+
+XII
+
+Fact I know; and Law I know; but what is this Necessity, save an empty
+shadow of my own mind's throwing?
+
+
+XIII
+
+We live in a world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain
+duty of each and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can
+influence somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was
+before he entered it.
+
+
+XIV
+
+The man of science, who, forgetting the limits of philosophical inquiry,
+slides from these formulć and symbols into what is commonly understood
+by materialism, seems to me to place himself on a level with the
+mathematician, who should mistake the x's and y's with which he works
+his problems for real entities--and with this further disadvantage, as
+compared with the mathematician, that the blunders of the latter are of
+no practical consequence, while the errors of systematic materialism may
+paralyse the energies and destroy the beauty of a life.
+
+
+XV
+
+There are some men who are counted great because they represent the
+actuality of their own age, and mirror it as it is. Such an one
+was Voltaire, of whom it was epigrammatically said, "he expressed
+everybody's thoughts better than anybody." But there are other men who
+attain greatness because they embody the potentiality of their own day
+and magically reflect the future. They express the thoughts which
+will be everybody's two or three centuries after them. Such an one was
+Descartes.
+
+
+XVI
+
+"Learn what is true, in order to do what is right." is the summing up
+of the whole duty of man, for all who are unable to satisfy their mental
+hunger with the east wind of authority.
+
+
+XVII
+
+When I say that Descartes consecrated doubt, you must remember that it
+was that sort of doubt which Goethe has called "the active scepticism,
+whose whole aim is to conquer itself"; and not that other sort which
+is born of flippancy and ignorance, and whose aim is only to perpetuate
+itself, as an excuse for idleness and indifference.
+
+
+XVIII
+
+What, then, is certain?.... Why, the fact that the thought, the present
+consciousness, exists. Our thoughts may be delusive, but they cannot be
+fictitious. As thoughts, they are real and existent, and the cleverest
+deceiver cannot make them otherwise.
+
+
+XIX
+
+Thought is existence. More than that, so far as we are concerned,
+existence is thought, all our conceptions of existence being some kind
+or other of thought.
+
+
+XX
+
+It is enough for all the practical purposes of human existence if we
+find that our trust in the representations of consciousness is
+verified by results; and that, by their help, we are enabled "to walk
+sure-footedly in this life."
+
+
+XXI
+
+It is because the body is a machine that education is possible.
+Education is the formation of habits, a superinducing of an artificial
+organisation upon the natural organisation of the body; so that
+acts, which at first required a conscious effort, eventually became
+unconscious and mechanical.
+
+
+XXII
+
+I protest that if some great Power would agree to make me always think
+what is true and do what is right, on condition of being turned into
+a sort of clock and wound up every morning before I got out of bed, I
+should instantly close with the offer.
+
+
+XXIII
+
+The only freedom I care about is the freedom to do right; the freedom
+to do wrong I am ready to part with on the cheapest terms to anyone who
+will take it of me.
+
+
+XXIV
+
+Whatever evil voices may rage, Science, secure among the powers that are
+eternal, will do her work and be blessed.
+
+
+XXV
+
+There is assuredly no more effectual method of clearing up one's own
+mind on any subject than by talking it over, so to speak, with men of
+real power and grasp, who have considered it from a totally different
+point of view.
+
+
+XXVI
+
+The parallax of time helps us to the true position of a conception, as
+the parallax of space helps us to that of a star.
+
+
+XXVII
+
+[If animals are conscious automata with souls] the soul stands related
+to the body as the bell of a clock to the works, and consciousness
+answers to the sound which the bell gives out when it is struck.
+
+
+XXVIII
+
+Logical consequences are the scarecrows of fools and the beacons of wise
+men.
+
+
+XXIX
+
+The only question which any wise man can ask himself, and which any
+honest man will ask himself, is whether a doctrine is true or false.
+
+
+XXX
+
+Of all the senseless babble I have ever had occasion to read, the
+demonstrations of these philosophers who undertake to tell us all about
+the nature of God would be the worst, if they were not surpassed by
+the still greater absurdities of the philosophers who try to prove that
+there is no God.
+
+
+XXXI
+
+That which is to be lamented, I fancy, is not that society should do its
+utmost to help capacity to ascend from the lower strata to the higher,
+but that it has no machinery by which to facilitate the descent of
+incapacity from the higher strata to the lower.
+
+
+XXXII
+
+Time, whose tooth gnaws away everything else, is powerless against
+truth.
+
+
+XXXIII
+
+Misery is a match that never goes out.
+
+
+XXXIV
+
+Genius as an explosive power beats gunpowder hollow; and if knowledge,
+which should give that power guidance, is wanting, the chances are not
+small that the rocket will simply run amuck among friends and foes.
+
+
+XXXV
+
+Thoughtfulness for others, generosity, modesty, and self-respect, are
+the qualities which make a real gentleman, or lady, as distinguished
+from the veneered article which commonly goes by that name.
+
+
+XXXVI
+
+The higher the state of civilisation, the more completely do the actions
+of one member of the social body influence all the rest, and the less
+possible is it for any one man to do a wrong thing without interfering,
+more or less, with the freedom of all his fellow-citizens.
+
+
+XXXVII
+
+I take it that the good of mankind means the attainment, by every
+man, of all the happiness which he can enjoy without diminishing the
+happiness of his fellow men.
+
+
+XXXVIII
+
+Education promotes peace by teaching men the realities of life and the
+obligations which are involved in the very existence of society; it
+promotes intellectual development, not only by training the individual
+intellect, but by sifting out from the masses of ordinary or inferior
+capacities, those who are competent to increase the general welfare
+by occupying higher positions; and, lastly, it promotes morality and
+refinement, by teaching men to discipline themselves, and by leading
+them to see that the highest, as it is the only permanent, content is
+to be attained, not by grovelling in the rank and steaming valleys
+of sense, but by continual striving towards those high peaks, where,
+resting in eternal calm, reason discerns the undefined but bright ideal
+of the highest Good--"a cloud by day, a pillar of fire by night."
+
+
+XXXIX
+
+Missionaries, whether of philosophy or of religion, rarely make rapid
+way, unless their preachings fall in with the prepossessions of
+the multitude of shallow thinkers, or can be made to serve as a
+stalking-horse for the promotion of the practical aims of the still
+larger multitude, who do not profess to think much, but are quite
+certain they want a great deal.
+
+
+XL
+
+Proclaim human equality as loudly as you like, Witless will serve his
+brother.
+
+
+XLI
+
+There is no sea more dangerous than the ocean of practical
+politics--none in which there is more need of good pilotage and of a
+single, unfaltering purpose when the waves rise high.
+
+
+XLII
+
+The doctrine that all men are, in any sense, or have been, at any time,
+free and equal, is an utterly baseless fiction.
+
+
+XLIII
+
+For the welfare of society, as for that of individual men, it is surely
+essential that there should be a statute of limitations in respect of
+the consequences of wrong-doing.
+
+
+XLIV
+
+"Musst immer thun wie neu geboren" is the best of all maxims for the
+guidance of the life of States, no less than of individuals.
+
+
+XLV
+
+The population question is the real riddle of the sphinx, to which no
+political OEdipus has as yet found the answer. In view of the ravages of
+the terrible monster, over-multiplication, all other riddles sink into
+insignificance.
+
+
+XLVI
+
+The "Law of Nature" is not a command to do, or to refrain from doing,
+anything. It contains, in reality, nothing but a statement of that which
+a given being tends to do under the circumstances of its existence; and
+which, in the case of a living and sensitive being, it is necessitated
+to do if it is to escape certain kinds of disability, pain, and ultimate
+dissolution.
+
+
+XLVII
+
+Probably none of the political delusions which have sprung from the
+"natural rights" doctrine has been more mischievous than the assertion
+that all men have a natural right to freedom, and that those who
+willingly submit to any restriction of this freedom, beyond the point
+determined by the deductions of _a priori_ philosophers, deserve the
+title of slave. But to my mind, this delusion is incomprehensible except
+as the result of the error of confounding natural with moral rights.
+
+
+XLVIII
+
+The very existence of society depends on the fact that every member of
+it tacitly admits that he is not the exclusive possessor of himself, and
+that he admits the claim of the polity of which he forms a part, to act,
+to some extent, as his master.
+
+
+XLIX
+
+Surely there is a time to submit to guidance and a time to take one's
+own way at all hazards.
+
+
+L
+
+Individualism, pushed to anarchy, in the family is as ill-founded
+theoretically and as mischievous practically as it is in the State;
+while extreme regimentation is a certain means of either destroying
+self-reliance or of maddening to rebellion.
+
+
+LI
+
+A man in his development runs for a little while parallel with, though
+never passing through, the form of the meanest worm, then travels for a
+space beside the fish, then journeys along with the bird and the reptile
+for his fellow travellers; and only at last, after a brief companionship
+with the highest of the four-footed and four-handed world, rises into
+the dignity of pure manhood.
+
+
+LII
+
+Not only does every animal live at the expense of some other animal or
+plant, but the very plants are at war.... The individuals of a species
+are like the crew of a foundered ship, and none but good swimmers have a
+chance of reaching the land.
+
+
+LIII
+
+When we know that living things are formed of the same elements as the
+inorganic world, that they act and react upon it, bound by a thousand
+ties of natural piety, is it probable, nay is it possible, that they,
+and they alone, should have no order in their seeming disorder, no
+unity in their seeming multiplicity, should suffer no explanation by the
+discovery of some central and sublime law of mutual connection?
+
+
+LIV
+
+The student of Nature wonders the more and is astonished the less, the
+more conversant he becomes with her operations; but of all the perennial
+miracles she offers to his inspection, perhaps the most worthy of
+admiration is the development of a plant or of an animal from its
+embryo.
+
+
+LV
+
+Matter and force are the two names of the one artist who fashions the
+living as well as the lifeless.
+
+
+LVI
+
+There is not throughout Nature a law of wider application than this,
+that a body impelled by two forces takes the direction of their
+resultant.
+
+
+LVII
+
+Orthodoxy is the Bourbon of the world of thought. It learns not, neither
+can it forget.
+
+
+LVIII
+
+Who shall number the patient and earnest seekers after truth, from the
+days of Galileo until now, whose lives have been embittered and their
+good name blasted by the mistaken zeal of Bibliolaters? Who shall count
+the host of weaker men whose sense of truth has been destroyed in the
+effort to harmonise impossibilities--whose life has been wasted in the
+attempt to force the generous new wine of Science into the old bottles
+of Judaism, compelled by the outcry of the same strong party?
+
+
+LIX
+
+When Astronomy was young "the morning stars sang together for joy," and
+the planets were guided in their courses by celestial hands. Now, the
+harmony of the stars has resolved itself into gravitation according to
+the inverse squares of the distances, and the orbits of the planets are
+deducible from the laws of the forces which allow a schoolboy's stone to
+break a window.
+
+
+LX
+
+The lightning was the angel of the Lord; but it has pleased Providence,
+in these modern times, that science should make it the humble messenger
+of man, and we know that every flash that shimmers about the horizon on
+a summer's evening is determined by ascertainable conditions, and that
+its direction and brightness might, if our knowledge of these were great
+enough, have been calculated.
+
+
+LXI
+
+Why should the souls [of philosophers] be deeply vexed? The majesty of
+Fact is on their side, and the elemental forces of Nature are working
+for them. Not a star comes to the meridian at its calculated time but
+testifies to the justice of their methods--their beliefs are "one
+with the falling rain and with the growing corn." By doubt they are
+established, and open inquiry is their bosom friend.
+
+
+LXII
+
+Harmonious order governing eternally continuous progress--the web and
+woof of matter and force interweaving by slow decrees, without a broken
+thread, that veil which lies between us and the Infinite--that universe
+which alone we know or can know; such is the picture which science draws
+of the world, and in proportion as any part of that picture is in unison
+with the rest, so may we feel sure that it is rightly painted.
+
+
+LXIII
+
+Mix salt and sand, and it shall puzzle the wisest of men, with his mere
+natural appliances, to separate all the grains of sand from all the
+grains of salt; but a shower of rain will effect the same object in ten
+minutes.
+
+
+LXIV
+
+Elijah's great question, "Will you serve God or Baal? Choose ye," is
+uttered audibly enough in the ears of every one of us as we come to
+manhood. Let every man who tries to answer it seriously ask himself
+whether he can be satisfied with the Baal of authority, and with all the
+good things his worshippers are promised in this world and the next.
+If he can, let him, if he be so inclined, amuse himself with such
+scientific implements as authority tells him are safe and will not cut
+his fingers; but let him not imagine he is, or can be, both a true son
+of the Church and a loyal soldier of science.
+
+
+LXV
+
+Ecclesiasticism in science is only unfaithfulness to truth.
+
+
+LXVI
+
+If the blind acceptance of authority appears to him in its true colours,
+as mere private judgment _in excelsis_ and if he have the courage to
+stand alone, face to face with the abyss of the eternal and unknowable,
+let him be content, once for all, not only to renounce the good things
+promised by "Infallibility," but even to bear the bad things which it
+prophesies; content to follow reason and fact in singleness and honesty
+of purpose, wherever they may lead, in the sure faith that a hell of
+honest men will, to him, be more endurable than a paradise full of
+angelic shams.
+
+
+LXVII
+
+History warns us that it is the customary fate of new truths to begin as
+heresies and to end as superstitions.
+
+
+LXVIII
+
+The struggle for existence holds as much in the intellectual as in the
+physical world. A theory is a species of thinking, and its right to
+exist is coextensive with its power of resisting extinction by its
+rivals.
+
+
+LXIX
+
+The scientific spirit is of more value than its products, and
+irrationally held truths may be more harmful than reasoned errors.
+
+
+LXX
+
+Every belief is the product of two factors: the first is the state of
+the mind to which the evidence in favour of that belief is presented;
+and the second is the logical cogency of the evidence itself.
+
+
+LXXI
+
+Science commits suicide when it adopts a creed.
+
+
+LXXII
+
+The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of
+the necessary mode of working of the human mind. It is simply the mode
+in which all phenomena are reasoned about, rendered precise and exact.
+
+
+LXXIII
+
+There are men (and I think Priestley was one of them) to whom the
+satisfaction of throwing down a triumphant fallacy is as great as that
+which attends the discovery of a new truth; who feel better satisfied
+with the government of the world, when they have been helping Providence
+by knocking an imposture on the head; and who care even more for freedom
+of thought than for mere advance of knowledge. These men are the Carnots
+who organise victory for truth, and they are, at least, as important as
+the generals who visibly fight her battles in the field.
+
+
+LXXIV
+
+Material advancement has its share in moral and intellectual progress.
+Becky Sharp's acute remark that it is not difficult to be virtuous on
+ten thousand a year, has its application to nations; and it is futile
+to expect a hungry and squalid population to be anything but violent and
+gross.
+
+
+LXXV
+
+If the twentieth century is to be better than the nineteenth, it will
+be because there are among us men who walk in Priestley's footsteps. But
+whether Priestley's lot be theirs, and a future generation, in justice
+and in gratitude, set up their statues; or whether their names and fame
+are blotted out from remembrance, their work will live as long as time
+endures. To all eternity, the sum of truth and right will have been
+increased by their means; to all eternity, falsehood and injustice will
+be the weaker because they have lived.
+
+
+LXXVI
+
+Science is, I believe, nothing but _trained and organised common sense_,
+differing from the latter only as a veteran may differ from a raw
+recruit: and its methods differ from those of common sense only so
+far as the guardsman's cut and thrust differ from the manner in which a
+savage wields his club.
+
+
+LXXVII
+
+The vast results obtained by Science are won by no mystical faculties,
+by no mental processes, other than those which are practised by every
+one of us, in the humblest and meanest affairs of life. A detective
+policeman discovers a burglar from the marks made by his shoe, by a
+mental process identical with that by which Cuvier restored the extinct
+animals of Montmartre from fragments of their bones.
+
+
+LXXVIII
+
+There is no side of the human mind which physiological study leaves
+uncultivated. Connected by innumerable ties with abstract science,
+Physiology is yet in the most intimate relation with humanity; and by
+teaching us that law and order, and a definite scheme of development,
+regulate even the strangest and wildest manifestations of individual
+life, she prepares the student to look for a coal even amidst the
+erratic wanderings of mankind, and to believe that history offers
+something more than an entertaining chaos--a journal of a toilsome,
+tragi-comic march nowhither.
+
+
+LXXIX
+
+I cannot but think that he who finds a certain proportion of pain and
+evil inseparably woven up in the life of the very worms, will bear his
+own share with more courage and submission; and will, at any rate, view
+with suspicion those weakly amiable theories of the Divine government,
+which would have us believe pain to be an oversight and a mistake,--to
+be corrected by and by. On the other hand, the predominance of happiness
+among living things--their lavish beauty--the secret and wonderful
+harmony which pervades them all, from the highest to the lowest, are
+equally striking refutations of that modern Manichean doctrine, which
+exhibits the world as a slave-mill, worked with many tears, for mere
+utilitarian ends.
+
+
+LXXX
+
+To a person uninstructed in natural history, his country or sea-side
+stroll is a walk through a gallery filled with wonderful works of art,
+nine-tenths of which have their faces turned to the wall. Teach him
+something of natural history, and you place in his hands a catalogue of
+those which are worth turning round. Surely our innocent pleasures are
+not so abundant in this life that we can afford to despise this or any
+other source of them. We should fear being banished for our neglect to
+that limbo where the great Florentine tells us are those who, during
+this life, "wept when they might be joyful."
+
+
+LXXXI
+
+No slavery can be abolished without a double emancipation, and the
+master will benefit by freedom more than the freed-man.
+
+
+LXXXII
+
+Compare the average artisan and the average country squire, and it may
+be doubted if you will find a pin to choose between the two in point of
+ignorance, class feeling, or prejudice. It is true that the ignorance is
+of a different sort--that the class feeling is in favour of a different
+class--and that the prejudice has a distinct savour of wrong-headedness
+in each case--but it is questionable if the one is either a bit better,
+or a bit worse, than the other. The old protectionist theory is the
+doctrine of trades unions as applied by the squires, and the modern
+trades unionism is the doctrine of the squires applied by the artisans.
+Why should we be worse off under one _régime_ than under the other?
+
+
+LXXXIII
+
+The life, the fortune, and the happiness of every one of us, and, more
+or less, of those who are connected with us, do depend upon our
+knowing something of the rules of a game infinitely more difficult and
+complicated than chess. It is a game which has been played for untold
+ages, every man and woman of us being one of the two players in a game
+of his or her own. The chessboard is the world, the pieces are the
+phenomena of the universe, the rules of the game are what we call the
+laws of Nature. The player on the other side is hidden from us. We know
+that his play is always fair, just and patient. But also we know, to our
+cost, that he never overlooks a mistake, or makes the smallest allowance
+for ignorance. To the man who plays well, the highest stakes are paid,
+with that sort of overflowing generosity with which the strong shows
+delight in strength. And one who plays ill is checkmated--without haste,
+but without remorse.
+
+
+LXXXIV
+
+Education is the instruction of the intellect in the laws of Nature,
+under which name I include not merely things and their forces, but men
+and then-ways; and the fashioning of the affections and of the will into
+an earnest and loving desire to move in harmony with those laws.
+
+
+LXXXV
+
+To every one of us the world was once as fresh and new as to Adam. And
+then, long before we were susceptible of any other mode of instruction,
+Nature took us in hand, and every minute of waking life brought its
+educational influence, shaping our actions into rough accordance with
+Nature's laws, so that we might not be ended untimely by too gross
+disobedience. Nor should I speak of this process of education as past
+for any one, be he as old as he may. For every man the world is as fresh
+as it was at the first day, and as full of untold novelties for him who
+has the eyes to see them. And Nature is still continuing her patient
+education of us in that great university, the universe, of which we are
+all members--Nature having no Test-Acts.
+
+
+LXXXVI
+
+Those who take honours in Nature's university, who learn the laws which
+govern men and things and obey them, are the really great and successful
+men in this world. The great mass of mankind are the "Poll," who pick up
+just enough to get through without much discredit Those who won't learn
+at all are plucked; and then you can't come up again. Nature's pluck
+means extermination.
+
+
+LXXXVII
+
+Ignorance is visited as sharply as wilful disobedience--incapacity meets
+with the same punishment as crime. Nature's discipline is not even a
+word and a blow, and the blow first; but the blow without the word. It
+is left to you to find out why your ears are boxed.
+
+
+LXXXVIII
+
+All artificial education ought to be an anticipation of natural
+education.
+
+
+LXXXIX
+
+That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained
+in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with
+ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of;
+whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of
+equal strength and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine,
+to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as
+force the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge
+of the great and fundamental truths of Nature and of the laws of her
+operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire,
+but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the
+servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty,
+whether of Nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others
+as himself.
+
+
+XC
+
+The only medicine for suffering, crime, and all the other woes of
+mankind, is wisdom.
+
+
+XCI
+
+Next to being right in this world, the best of all things is to be
+clearly and definitely wrong, because you will come out somewhere. If
+you go buzzing about between right and wrong, vibrating and fluctuating,
+you come out nowhere; but if you are absolutely and thoroughly and
+persistently wrong, you must, some of these days, have the extreme good
+fortune of knocking your head against a fact, and that sets you all
+straight again.
+
+
+XCII
+
+No man ever understands Shakespeare until he is old, though the youngest
+may admire him, the reason being that he satisfies the artistic instinct
+of the youngest and harmonises with the ripest and richest experience of
+the oldest.
+
+
+XCIII
+
+It is not a question whether one order of study or another should
+predominate. It is a question of what topics of education you shall
+select which will combine all the needful elements in such due
+proportion as to give the greatest amount of food, support, and
+encouragement to those faculties which enable us to appreciate truth,
+and to profit by those sources of innocent happiness which are open to
+us, and, at the same time, to avoid that which is bad, and coarse, and
+ugly, and keep clear of the multitude of pitfalls and dangers which
+beset those who break through the natural or moral laws.
+
+
+XCIV
+
+Writing is a form of drawing; therefore if you five the same attention
+and trouble to drawing as you do to writing, depend upon it, there is
+nobody who cannot be made to draw, more or less well.... I do not say
+for one moment you would make an artistic draughtsman. Artists are not
+made; they grow..... You can teach simple drawing, and you will find it
+an implement of learning of extreme value. I do not think its value can
+be exaggerated, because it gives you the means of training the young in
+attention and accuracy, which are the two things in which all mankind
+are more deficient than in any other mental quality whatever.
+
+
+XCV
+
+If a man cannot get literary culture of the highest kind out of his
+Bible, and Chaucer, and Shakespeare, and Milton, and Hobbes, and Bishop
+Berkeley, to mention only a few of our illustrious writers--I say, if
+he cannot get it out of those writers, he cannot get it out of anything;
+and I would assuredly devote a very large portion of the time of every
+English child to the careful study of the models of English writing of
+such varied and wonderful kind as we possess, and, what is still more
+important and still more neglected, the habit of using that language
+with precision, with force, and with art.
+
+
+XCVI
+
+I fancy we are almost the only nation in the world who seem to think
+that composition comes by nature. The French attend to their own
+language, the Germans study theirs; but Englishmen do not seem to think
+it is worth their while.
+
+
+XCVII
+
+Many of the faults and mistakes of the ancient philosophers are
+traceable to the fact that they knew no language but their own, and were
+often led into confusing the symbol with the thought which it embodied.
+
+
+XCVIII
+
+If the time given to education permits, add Latin and German. Latin,
+because it is the key to nearly one-half of English and to all the
+Romance languages; and German, because it is the key to almost all the
+remainder of English, and helps you to understand a race from whom
+most of us have sprung, and who have a character and a literature of
+a fateful force in the history of the world, such as probably has been
+allotted to those of no other people, except the Jews, the Greeks, and
+ourselves.
+
+
+XCIX
+
+In an ideal University,.... the force of living example should fire the
+student with a noble ambition to emulate the learning of learned
+men, and to follow in the footsteps of the explorers of new fields of
+knowledge. And the very air he breathes should be charged with that
+enthusiasm for truth, that fanaticism of veracity, which is a greater
+possession than much learning; a nobler gift than the power of
+increasing knowledge; by go much greater and nobler than these, as the
+moral nature of man is greater than the intellectual; for veracity is
+the heart of morality. Do what you can to do what you ought, and leave
+hoping and fearing alone.
+
+
+CI
+
+On the face of the matter, it is absurd to ask whether it is more
+important to know the limits of one's powers; or the ends for which they
+ought to be exerted; or the conditions under which they must be exerted.
+One may as well inquire which of the terms of a Rule of Three sum one
+ought to know in order to get a trustworthy result. Practical life
+is such a sum, in which your duty multiplied into your capacity,
+and divided by your circumstances, gives you the fourth term in the
+proportion, which is your deserts, with great accuracy.
+
+
+CII
+
+Books are the money of Literature, but only the counters of Science.
+
+
+CIII
+
+Medicine was the foster-mother of Chemistry, because it has to do
+with the preparation of drugs and the detection of poisons; of Botany,
+because it enabled the physician to recognise medicinal herbs; of
+Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, because the man who studied Human
+Anatomy and Physiology for purely medical purposes was led to extend his
+studies to the rest of the animal world.
+
+
+CIV
+
+A thorough study of Human Physiology is, in itself, an education broader
+and more comprehensive than much that passes under that name. There is
+no side of the intellect which it does not call into play, no region
+of human knowledge into which either its roots, or its branches, do not
+extend; like the Atlantic between the Old and the New Worlds, its waves
+wash the shores of the two worlds of matter and of mind; its tributary
+streams flow from both; through its waters, as yet unfurrowed by the
+keel of any Columbus, lies the road, if such there be, from the one to
+the other; far away from that North-west Passage of mere speculation, in
+which so many brave souls have been hopelessly frozen up.
+
+
+CV
+
+You know that among the Bees, it depends on the kind of cell in which
+the egg is deposited, and the quantity and quality of food which is
+supplied to the grub, whether it shall turn out a busy little worker
+or a big idle queen. And, in the human hive, the cells of the endowed
+larvae are always tending to enlarge, and their food to improve, until
+we get queens, beautiful to behold, but which gather no honey and build
+no comb.
+
+
+CVI
+
+Examination, like fire, is a good servant, but a bad master; and there
+seems to me to be some danger of its becoming our master. I by no means
+stand alone in this opinion. Experienced friends of mine do not hesitate
+to say that students whose career they watch appear to them to become
+deteriorated by the constant effort to pass this or that examination,
+just as we hear of mens brains becoming affected by the daily necessity
+of catching a train. They work to pass, not to know; and outraged
+Science takes Her revenge. They do pass, and they don't know.
+
+
+CVII
+
+A man's worst difficulties begin when he is able to do as he likes.
+
+
+CVIII
+
+There is but one right, and the possibilities of wrong are infinite.
+
+
+CIX
+
+It is given to few to add to the store of knowledge, to strike new
+springs of thought, or to shape new forms of beauty. But so sure as
+it is that men live not by bread, but by ideas, so sure is it that the
+future of the world lies in the hands of those who are able to carry the
+interpretation of nature a step further than their predecessors.
+
+
+CX
+
+Size is not grandeur, and territory does not make a nation.
+
+
+CXI
+
+Whatever practical people may say, this world is, after all, absolutely
+governed by ideas, and very often by the wildest and most hypothetical
+ideas. It is a matter of the very greatest importance that our theories
+of things, and even of things that seem a long way apart from our daily
+lives, should be as far as possible true, and as far as possible removed
+from error.
+
+
+CXII
+
+All truth, in the long run, is only common sense clarified.
+
+
+CXIII
+
+You may read any quantity of books, and you may be almost as ignorant as
+you were at starting, if you don't have, at the back of your minds, the
+change for words in definite images which can only be acquired through
+the operation of your observing faculties on the phenomena of nature.
+
+
+CXIV
+
+The saying that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is to my mind, a
+very dangerous adage. If knowledge is real and genuine, I do not believe
+that it is other than a very valuable possession, however infinitesimal
+its quantity may be. Indeed, if a little knowledge is dangerous, where
+is the man who has so much as to be out of danger?
+
+
+CXV
+
+Patience and tenacity of purpose are worth more than twice their weight
+of cleverness.
+
+
+CXVI
+
+The body is a machine of the nature of an army..... Of this army each
+cell is a soldier, an organ a brigade, the central nervous system
+headquarters and field telegraph, the alimentary and circulatory system
+the commissariat Losses are made good by recruits born in camp, and
+the life of the individual is a campaign, conducted successfully for a
+number of years, but with certain defeat in the long run.
+
+
+CXVII
+
+So far as the laws of conduct are determined by the intellect, I
+apprehend that they belong to science, and to that part of science which
+is called morality. But the engagement of the affections in favour of
+that particular kind of conduct which we call good, seems to me to be
+something quite beyond mere science. And I cannot but think that it,
+together with the awe and reverence, which have no kinship with base
+fear, but arise whenever one tries to pierce below the surface of
+things, whether they be material or spiritual, constitutes all that has
+any unchangeable reality in religion.
+
+
+CXVIII
+
+Just as I think it would be a mistake to confound the science,
+morality, with the affection, religion; so do I conceive it to be a
+most lamentable and mischievous error, that the science, theology, is so
+confounded in the minds of many--indeed, I might say, of the majority of
+men.
+
+
+CXIX
+
+My belief is, that no human being, and no society composed of human
+beings, ever did, or ever will, come to much, unless their conduct was
+governed and guided by the love of some ethical ideal.
+
+
+CXX
+
+Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make
+yourself do the thing you have to do, when it ought to be done, whether
+you like it or not; it is the first lesson that ought to be learned;
+and, however early a man's training begins, it is probably the last
+lesson that he learns thoroughly.
+
+
+CXXI
+
+The great end of life is not knowledge, but action. What men need is,
+as much knowledge as they can assimilate and organise into a basis for
+action; give them more and it may become injurious. One knows people
+who are as heavy and stupid from undigested learning as others are from
+over-fulness of meat and drink.
+
+
+CXXII
+
+There is no mode of exercising the faculty of observation and the
+faculty of accurate reproduction of that which is observed, no
+discipline which so readily tests error in these matters, as drawing
+properly taught And by that I do not mean artistic drawing; I mean
+figuring natural objects. I do not wish to exaggerate, but I declare
+to you that, in my judgment, the child who has been taught to make an
+accurate elevation, plan and section of a pint pot has had an admirable
+training in accuracy of eye and hand.
+
+
+CXXIII
+
+Accuracy is the foundation of everything else.
+
+
+CXXIV
+
+Anybody who knows his business in science can make anything subservient
+to that purpose. You know it was said of Dean Swift that he could
+write an admirable poem upon a broomstick, and the man who has a
+real knowledge of science can make the commonest object in the world
+subservient to an introduction to the principles and greater truths of
+natural knowledge.
+
+
+CXXV
+
+My experience of the world is that things left to themselves don't get
+right.
+
+
+CXXVI
+
+I remember somewhere reading of an interview between the poet Southey
+and a good Quaker. Southey was a man of marvellous powers of work. He
+had a habit of dividing his time into little parts each of which was
+filled up, and he told the Quaker what he did in this hour and that, and
+so on through the day until far into the night The Quaker listened, and
+at the close said, "Well, but, friend Southey, when dost thee think?"
+
+
+CXXVII
+
+The knowledge which is absolutely requisite in dealing with young
+children is the knowledge you possess, as you would know your own
+business, and which you can just turn about as if you were explaining to
+a boy a matter of everyday life.
+
+
+CXXVIII
+
+You may develop the intellectual side of people as far as you like, and
+you may confer upon them all the skill that training and instruction
+can give; but, if there is not, underneath all that outside form and
+superficial polish, the firm fibre of healthy manhood and earnest desire
+to do well, your labour is absolutely in vain.
+
+
+CXXIX
+
+Our sole chance of succeeding in a competition, which must constantly
+become more and more severe, is that our people shall not only have the
+knowledge and the skill which are required, but that they shall have the
+will and the energy and the honesty, without which neither knowledge nor
+skill can be of any permanent avail.
+
+
+CXXX
+
+It is a great many years since, at the outset of my career, I had to
+think seriously what life had to offer that was worth having. I came to
+the conclusion that the chief good, for me, was freedom to learn, think,
+and say what I pleased, when I pleased. I have acted on that conviction,
+and have availed myself of the "rara temporum félicitas ubi sentire quć
+velis, et quae sentias dicere licet," which is now enjoyable, to the
+best of my ability; and though strongly, and perhaps wisely, warned
+that I should probably come to grief, I am entirely satisfied with the
+results of the line of action I have adopted.
+
+
+CXXXI
+
+The scientific imagination always restrains itself within the limits of
+probability.
+
+
+CXXXII
+
+It is a "law of nature," verifiable by everyday experience, that our
+already formed convictions, our strong desires, our intent occupation
+with particular ideas, modify our mental operations to a most marvellous
+extent, and produce enduring changes in the direction and in the
+intensity of our intellectual and moral activities.
+
+
+CXXXIII
+
+Men can intoxicate themselves with ideas as effectually as with
+alcohol or with bang, and produce, by dint of intense thinking, mental
+conditions hardly distinguishable from monomania.
+
+
+CXXXIV
+
+Demoniac possession is mythical; but the faculty of being possessed,
+more or less completely, by an idea is probably the fundamental
+condition of what is called genius, whether it show itself in the saint,
+the artist, or the man of science. One calls it faith, another calls it
+inspiration, a third calls it insight; but the "intending of the mind,"
+to borrow Newton's well-known phrase, the concentration of all the rays
+of intellectual energy on some one point, until it glows and colours the
+whole cast of thought with its peculiar light, is common to all.
+
+
+CXXXV
+
+Whatever happens, science may bide her time in patience and in
+confidence.
+
+
+CXXXVI
+
+The only people, scientific or other, who never make mistakes are those
+who do nothing.
+
+
+CXXXVII
+
+The most considerable difference I note among men is not in their
+readiness to fall into error, but in their readiness to acknowledge
+these inevitable lapses.
+
+
+CXXXVIII
+
+Quite apart from deliberate and conscious fraud (which is a rarer thing
+than is often supposed), people whose mythopćic faculty is once stirred
+are capable of saving the thing that is not, and of acting as they
+should not, to an extent which is hardly imaginable by persons who are
+not so easily affected by the contagion of blind faith. There is no
+falsify so gross that honest men and, still more, virtuous women,
+anxious to promote a good cause, will not lend themselves to it without
+any clear consciousness of the moral bearings of what they are doing.
+
+
+CXXXIX
+
+This modern reproduction of the ancient prophet, with his "Thus saith
+the Lord," "This is the work of the Lord," steeped in supernaturalism
+and glorying in blind faith, is the mental antipodes of the philosopher,
+founded in naturalism and a fanatic for evidence, to whom these
+affirmations inevitably suggest the previous question: "How do you know
+that the Lord saith it?" "How do you know that the Lord doeth it?" and
+who is compelled to demand that rational ground for belief, without
+which, to the man of science, assent is merely an immoral pretence.
+
+And it is this rational ground of belief which the writers of the
+Gospels, no less than Paul, and Eginhard, and Fox, so little dream
+of offering that they would regard the demand for it as a kind of
+blasphemy.
+
+
+CXL
+
+To quarrel with the uncertainty that besets us in intellectual affairs
+would be about as reasonable as to object to live one's life, with due
+thought for the morrow, because no man can be sure he will be alive an
+hour hence.
+
+
+CXLI
+
+I verily believe that the great good which has been effected in the
+world by Christianity has been largely counteracted by the pestilent
+doctrine on which all the Churches have insisted, that honest disbelief
+in their more or less astonishing creeds is a moral offence, indeed
+a sin of the deepest dye, deserving and involving the same future
+retribution as murder and robbery. If we could only see in one view,
+the torrents of hypocrisy and cruelty, the lies, the slaughter, the
+violations of every obligation of humanity, which have flowed from this
+source along the course of the history of Christian nations, our worst
+imaginations of Hell would pale beside the vision.
+
+
+CXLII
+
+Agnostioism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the essence of which
+lies in the rigorous application of a single principle. That principle
+is of great antiquity; it is as old as Socrates; as old as the writer
+who said, "Try all things, hold fast by that which is good"; it is the
+foundation of the Reformation, which simply illustrated the axiom that
+every man should be able to give a reason for the faith that is in him;
+it is the great principle of Descartes; it is the fundamental axiom of
+modern science. Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters
+of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without
+regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the
+intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not
+demonstrated or demonstrable. That I take to be the agnostic faith,
+which if a man keep whole and undefiled, he shall not be ashamed to look
+the universe in the face, whatever the future may have in store for him.
+
+
+CXLIII
+
+The best men of the best epochs are simply those who make the fewest
+blunders and commit the fewest sins.
+
+
+CXLIV
+
+That one should rejoice in the good man, forgive the bad man, and pity
+and help all men to the best of one's ability, is surely indisputable.
+It is the glory of Judaism and of Christianity to have proclaimed this
+truth, through all their aberrations. But the worship of a God who needs
+forgiveness and help, and deserves pity every hour of his existence,
+is no better than that of any other voluntarily selected fetish. The
+Emperor Julian's project was hopeful in comparison with the prospects of
+the Comtist Anthropolatry.
+
+
+CXLV
+
+The Cleric asserts that it is morally wrong not to believe certain
+propositions, whatever the results of a strict scientific investigation
+of the evidence of these propositions. He tells us "that religious error
+is, in itself, of an immoral nature." He declares that he has prejudged
+certain conclusions, and looks upon those who show cause for arrest of
+judgment as emissaries of Satan. It necessarily follows that, for him,
+the attainment of faith, not the ascertainment of truth, is the highest
+aim of mental life. And, on careful analysis of the nature of this
+faith, it will too often be found to be, not the mystic process of unity
+with the Divine, understood by the religious enthusiast; but that
+which the candid simplicity of a Sunday scholar once defined it to be.
+"Faith," said this unconscious plagiarist of Tertullian, "is the power
+of saying you believe things which are incredible."
+
+
+CXLVI
+
+The science, the art, the jurisprudence, the chief political and social
+theories, of the modern world have grown out of those of Greece and
+Rome--not by favour of, but in the teeth of, the fundamental teachings
+of early Christianity, to which science, art, and any serious occupation
+with the things of this world, were alike despicable.
+
+
+CXLVII
+
+All that is best in the ethics of the modern world, in so far as it
+has not Grown out of Greek thought, or Barbarian manhood, is the
+direct development of the ethics of old Israel. There is no code of
+legislation, ancient or modern, at once so just and so merciful, so
+tender to the weak and poor, as the Jewish law; and, if the Gospels are
+to be trusted, Jesus of Nazareth himself declared that he taught nothing
+but that which lay implicitly, or explicitly, in the religious and
+ethical system of his people.
+
+
+CXLVIII
+
+The first-recorded judicial murder of a scientific thinker was compassed
+and effected, not by a despot, nor by priests, but was brought about by
+eloquent demagogues, to whom, of all men, thorough search-ings of the
+intellect are most dangerous and therefore most hateful.
+
+
+CXLIX
+
+Platonic philosophy is probably the grandest example of the unscientific
+use of the imagination extant; and it would be hard to estimate the
+amount of detriment to clear thinking effected, directly and indirectly,
+by the theory of ideas, on the one hand, and by the unfortunate doctrine
+of the baseness of matter, on the other.
+
+
+CL
+
+The development of exact natural knowledge in all its vast range, from
+physics to history and criticism, is the consequence of the working out,
+in this province, of the resolution to "take nothing for truth without
+clear knowledge that it is such"; to consider all beliefs open to
+criticism; to regard the value of authority as neither greater nor less
+than as much as it can prove itself to be worth. The modern spirit is
+not the spirit "which always denies," delighting only in destruction;
+still less is it that which builds castles in the air rather than not
+construct; it is that spirit which works and will work "without haste
+and without rest," gathering harvest after harvest of truth into its
+barns and devouring error with unquenchable fire.
+
+
+CLI
+
+In truth, the laboratory is the fore-court of the temple of philosophy;
+and whoso has not offered sacrifices and undergone purification there
+has little chance of admission into the sanctuary.
+
+
+CLII
+
+The memorable service rendered to the cause of sound thinking by
+Descartes consisted in this: that he laid the foundation of modern
+philosophical criticism by his inquiry into the nature of certainty.
+
+
+CLIII
+
+There is no question in the mind of anyone acquainted with the facts
+that, so far as observation and experiment can take us, the structure
+and the functions of the nervous system are fundamentally the same in an
+ape, or in a dog, and in a man. And the suggestion that we must stop at
+the exact point at which direct proof fails us, and refuse to believe
+that the similarity which extends so far stretches yet further, is no
+better than a quibble. Robinson Crusoe did not feel bound to conclude,
+from the single human footprint which he saw in the sand, that the maker
+of the impression had only one leg.
+
+
+CLIV
+
+Descartes, as we have seen, illustrates what he means by an innate
+idea, by the analogy of hereditary diseases or hereditary mental
+peculiarities, such as generosity. On the other hand, hereditary mental
+tendencies may justly be termed instincts; and still more appropriately
+might those special proclivities, which constitute what we call genus,
+come into the same category.
+
+
+CLV
+
+The child who is impelled to draw as soon as it can hold a pencil; the
+Mozart who breaks out into music as early; the boy Bidder who worked out
+the most complicated sums without learning arithmetic; the boy Pascal
+who evolved Euclid out of his own consciousness: all these may be said
+to have been impelled by instinct, as much as are the beaver and
+the bee. And the man of genius is distinct in kind from the man of
+cleverness, by reason of the working within him of strong innate
+tendencies--which cultivation may improve, but which it can no more
+create than horticulture can make thistles bear figs. The analogy
+between a musical instrument and the mind holds good here also. Art and
+industry may get much music, of a sort, out of a penny whistle; but,
+when all is done, it has no chance against an organ. The innate musical
+potentialities of the two are infinitely different.
+
+
+CLVI
+
+It is notorious that, to the unthinking mass of mankind, nine-tenths of
+the facts of fife do not suggest the relation of cause and effect; and
+they practically deny the existence of any such relation by attributing
+them to chance. Few gamblers but would stare if they were told that
+the falling of a die on a particular face is as much the effect of a
+definite cause as the fact of its falling; it is a proverb that "the
+wind bloweth where it listeth"; and even thoughtful men usually receive
+with surprise the suggestion, that the form of the crest of every wave
+that breaks, wind-driven, on the sea-shore, and the direction of every
+particle of foam that flies before the gale, are the exact effects of
+definite causes; and, as such, must be capable of being determined,
+deductively, from the laws of motion and the properties of air and
+water. So again, there are large numbers of highly intelligent persons
+who rather pride themselves on their fixed belief that our volitions
+have no cause; or that the will causes itself, which is either the same
+thing, or a contradiction in terms.
+
+
+CLVII
+
+To say that an idea is necessary is simply to affirm that we cannot
+conceive the contrary; and the fact that we cannot conceive the contrary
+of any belief may be a presumption, but is certainly no proof, of its
+truth.
+
+
+CLVIII
+
+It is remarkable that Hume does not refer to the sentimental arguments
+for the immortality of the soul which are so much in vogue at the
+present day; and which are based upon our desire for a longer conscious
+existence than that which nature appears to have allotted to us. Perhaps
+he did not think them worth notice. For indeed it is not a little
+strange, that our strong desire that a certain occurrence should happen
+should be put forward as evidence that it will happen. If my intense
+desire to see the friend, from whom I have parted, does not bring him
+from the other side of the world, or take me thither; if the mother's
+agonised prayer that her child should live has not prevented him from
+dying; experience certainly affords no presumption that the strong
+desire to be alive after death, which we call the aspiration after
+immortality, is any more likely to be gratified. As Hume truly says,
+"All doctrines are to be suspected which are favoured by our passions";
+and the doctrine, that we are immortal because we should extremely like
+to be so, contains the quintessence of suspiciousness.
+
+
+CLIX
+
+If every man possessed everything he wanted, and no one had the power
+to interfere with such possession; or if no man desired that which
+could damage his fellow-man, justice would have no part to play in the
+universe.
+
+
+CLX
+
+To fail in justice, or in benevolence, is to be displeased with one's
+self. But happiness is impossible without inward self-approval; and,
+hence, every man who has any regard to his own happiness and welfare,
+will find his best reward in the practice of every moral duty.
+
+
+CLXI
+
+Virtue is undoubtedly beneficent; but the man is to be envied to whom
+her ways seem in anywise playful. And though she may not talk much about
+suffering and self-denial, her silence on that topic may be accounted
+for on the principle _ça va sans dire_.
+
+
+CLXII
+
+If mankind cannot be engaged in practices "full of austerity and
+rigour?" by the love of righteousness and the fear of evil, without
+seeking for other compensation than that which flows from the
+gratification of such love and the consciousness of escape from
+debasement, they are in a bad case. For they will assuredly find that
+virtue presents no very close likeness to the sportive leader of the
+Joyous hours in Hume's rosy picture; but that she is an awful Goddess,
+whose ministers are the Furies, and whose highest reward is peace.
+
+
+CLXIII
+
+Under its theological aspect, morality is obedience to the will of God;
+and the ground for such obedience is two-fold: either we ought to obey
+God because He will punish us if we disobey Him, which is an argument
+based on the utility of obedience; or our obedience ought to flow from
+our love towards God, which is an argument based on pure feeling and for
+which no reason can be given. For, if any man should say that he takes
+no pleasure in the contemplation of the ideal of perfect holiness, or,
+in other words, that he does not love God, the attempt to argue him
+into acquiring that pleasure would be as hopeless as the endeavour to
+persuade Peter Bell of the "witchery of the soft blue sky."
+
+
+CLXIV
+
+In whichever way we look at the matter, morality is based on feeling,
+not on reason; though reason alone is competent to trace out the effects
+of our actions and thereby dictate conduct. Justice is founded on the
+love of one's neighbour; and goodness is a kind of beauty. The moral
+law, like the laws of physical nature, rests in the long run upon
+instinctive intuitions, and is neither more nor less "innate" and
+"necessary" than they are. Some people cannot by any means be got to
+understand the first book of Euclid; but the truths of mathematics are
+no less necessary and binding on the great mass of mankind. Some there
+are who cannot feel the difference between the "Sonata Appassionata" and
+"Cherry Ripe"; or between a grave-stone-cutter's cherub and the Apollo
+Belvidere; but the canons of art are none the less acknowledged. While
+some there may be, who, devoid of sympathy, are incapable of a sense
+of duty; but neither does their existence affect the foundations of
+morality. Such pathological deviations from true manhood are merely the
+halt, the lame, and the blind of the world of consciousness; and the
+anatomist of the mind leaves them aside, as the anatomist of the body
+would ignore abnormal specimens.
+
+And as there are Pascals and Mozarts, Newtons and Raffaelles, in whom
+the innate faculty for science or art seems to need but a touch to
+spring into full vigour, and through whom the human race obtains new
+possibilities of knowledge and new conceptions of beauty: so there have
+been men of moral genius, to whom we owe ideals of duty and visions
+of moral perfection, which ordinary mankind could never have attained:
+though, happily for them, they can feel the beauty of a vision, which
+lay beyond the reach of their dull imaginations, and count life well
+spent in shaping some faint image of it in the actual world.
+
+
+CLXV
+
+The horror of "Materialism" which weighs upon the minds of so many
+excellent people appears to depend, in part, upon the purely accidental
+connexion of some forms of materialistic philosophy with ethical
+and religious tenets by which they are repelled; and, partly, on the
+survival of a very ancient superstition concerning the nature of matter.
+
+This superstition, for the tenacious vitality of which the idealistic
+philosophers who are, more or less, disciples of Plato and the
+theologians who have been influenced by them, are responsible,
+assumes that matter is something, not merely inert and perishable, but
+essentially base and evil-natured, if not actively antagonistic to, at
+least a negative deadweight upon, the good.
+
+
+CLXVI
+
+Judging by contemporary literature, there are numbers of highly
+cultivated and indeed superior persons to whom the material world is
+altogether contemptible; who can see nothing in a handful of garden
+soil, or a rusty nail, but types of the passive and the corruptible.
+
+To modern science, these assumptions are as much out of date as the
+equally venerable errors, that the sun goes round the earth every
+four-and-twenty hours, or that water is an elementary body. The handful
+of soil is a factory thronged with swarms of busy workers; the
+rusty nail is an aggregation of millions of particles, moving with
+inconceivable velocity in a dance of infinite complexity yet perfect
+measure; harmonic with like performances throughout the solar system.
+If there is good ground for any conclusion, there is such for the belief
+that the substance of these particles has existed and will exist, that
+the energy which stirs them has persisted and will persist, without
+assignable limit, either in the past or the future. Surely, as
+Heracleitus said of his kitchen with its pots and pans, "Here also
+are the gods." Little as we have, even yet, learned of the material
+universe, that little makes for the belief that it is a system of
+unbroken order and perfect symmetry, of which the form incessantly
+changes, while the substance and the energy are imperishable.
+
+
+CLXVII
+
+Of all the dangerous mental habits, that which schoolboys call
+"cocksureness" is probably the most perilous; and the inestimable
+value of metaphysical discipline is that it furnishes an effectual
+counterpoise to this evil proclivity. Whoso has mastered the elements
+of philosophy knows that the attribute of unquestionable certainty
+appertains only to the existence of a state of consciousness so long as
+it exists; all other beliefs are mere probabilities of a higher or lower
+order. Sound metaphysic is an amulet which renders its possessor proof
+alike against the poison of superstition and the counter-poison of
+shallow negation; by showing that the affirmations of the former and the
+denials of the latter alike deal with matters about which, for lack of
+evidence, nothing can be either affirmed or denied.
+
+
+CLXVIII
+
+If the question is asked, What then do we know about matter and motion?
+there is but one reply possible. All that we know about motion is
+that it is a name for certain changes in the relations of our visual,
+tactile, and muscular sensations; and all that we know about matter
+is that it is the hypothetical substance of physical phenomena, the
+assumption of the existence of which is as pure a piece of metaphysical
+speculation as is that of the existence of the substance of mind.
+
+Our sensations, our pleasures, our pains, and the relations of these,
+make up the sum total of the elements of positive, unquestionable
+knowledge. We call a large section of these sensations and
+then-relations matter and motion; the rest we term mind and thinking;
+and experience shows that there is a certain constant order of
+succession between some of the former and some of the latter.
+
+This is all that just metaphysical criticism leaves of the idols set
+up by the spurious metaphysics of vulgar common sense. It is consistent
+either with pure Materialism, or with pure Idealism, but it is neither.
+For the Idealist, not content with declaring the truth that our
+knowledge is limited to facts of consciousness, affirms the wholly
+unprovable proposition that nothing exists beyond these and the
+substance of mind. And, on the other hand, the Materialist, holding
+by the truth that, for anything that appears to the contrary, material
+phenomena are the causes of mental phenomena, asserts his unprovable
+dogma, that material phenomena and the substance of matter are the sole
+primary existences. Strike out the propositions about which neither
+controversialist does or can know anything, and there is nothing left
+for them to quarrel about. Make a desert of the Unknowable, and the
+divine Astraea of philosophic peace will commence her blessed reign.
+
+
+CLXIX
+
+"Magna est Veritas et prćvalebit!" Truth is great, certainly, but,
+considering her greatness, it is curious what a long time she is apt to
+take about prevailing.
+
+
+CLXX
+
+To my observation, human nature has not sensibly changed through the
+last thirty years. I doubt not that there are truths as plainly obvious
+and as generally denied, as those contained in "Man's Place in Nature,"
+now awaiting enunciation. If there is a young man of the present
+generation, who has taken as much trouble as I did to assure himself
+that they are truths, let him come out with them, without troubling
+his head about the barking of the dogs of St. Ernulphus, "Veritas
+prćvalebit"--some day; and, even if she does not prevail in his time,
+he himself will be all the better and the wiser for having tried to help
+her. And let him recollect that such great reward is full payment for
+all his labour and pains.
+
+
+CLXXI
+
+Ancient traditions, when tested by the severe processes of modern
+investigations, commonly enough fade away into mere dreams: but it is
+singular how often the dream turns out to have been a half-waking one?
+presaging a reality. Ovid foreshadowed the discoveries of the geologist:
+the Atlantis was an imagination, but Columbus found a western world: and
+though the quaint forms of Centaurs and Satyrs have an existence only
+in the realms of art, creatures approaching man more nearly than they
+in essential structure, and yet as thoroughly brutal as the goat's
+or horse's half of the mythical compound, are now not only known, but
+notorious.
+
+
+CLXXII
+
+It is a truth of very wide, if not of universal, application, that every
+living creature commences its existence under a form different from, and
+simpler than, that which it eventually attains.
+
+The oak is a more complex thing than the little rudimentary plant
+contained in the acorn; the caterpillar is more complex than the egg;
+the butterfly than the caterpillar; and each of these beings, in passing
+from its rudimentary to its perfect condition, runs through a series
+of changes, the sum of which is called its development In the higher
+animals these changes are extremely complicated; but, within the last
+half century, the labours of such men as Von Baer, Rathke, Reichert,
+Bischoff, and Remak, have almost completely unravelled them, so that
+the successive stages of development which are exhibited by a dog, for
+example, are now as well known to the embryologist as are the steps of
+the metamorphosis of the silk-worm moth to the schoolboy. It will be
+useful to consider with attention the nature and the order of the
+stages of canine development, as an example of the process in the higher
+animals generally.
+
+
+CLXXIII
+
+Exactly in those respects in which the developing Man differs from the
+Dog, he resembles the ape, which, like man, has a spheroidal yolk-sac
+and a discoidal, sometimes partially lobed, placenta. So that it is
+only quite in the later stages of development that the young human being
+presents marked differences from the young ape, while the latter departs
+as much from the dog in its development, as the man does.
+
+Startling as the last assertion may appear to be, it is demonstrably
+true, and it alone appears to me sufficient to place beyond all doubt
+the structural unity of man with the rest of the animal world, and more
+particularly and closely with the apes.
+
+Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he
+originates--identical in the early stages of his formation--identical in
+the mode of his nutrition before and after birth, with the animals which
+lie immediately below him in the scale--Man, if his adult and perfect
+structure be compared with theirs, exhibits, as might be expected, a
+marvellous likeness of organisation. He resembles them as they resemble
+one another--he differs from them as they differ from one another.
+
+
+CLXXIV
+
+If a man cannot see a church, it is preposterous to take his opinion
+about its altar-piece or painted window.
+
+
+CLXXV
+
+Perhaps no order of mammals presents us with so extraordinary a series
+of gradations as this*--leading us insensibly from the crown and summit
+of the animal creation down to creatures, from which there is but a
+step, as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least intelligent of
+the placental Mammalia. It is as if nature herself had foreseen
+the arrogance of man, and with Roman severity had provided that his
+intellect, by its very triumphs, should call into prominence the slaves,
+admonishing the conqueror that he is but dust.
+
+
+CLXXVI
+
+If Man be separated by no greater structural barrier from the brutes
+than they are from one another--then it seems to follow that if any
+process of physical causation can be discovered by which the genera
+and families of ordinary animals have been produced, that process of
+causation is amply sufficient to account for the origin of Man.
+
+     * This alludes to a foregoing enumeration of the seven
+     families of Primates headed by the Anthropini containing man
+     alone.
+
+
+CLXXVII
+
+The whole analogy of natural operations furnishes so complete and
+crushing an argument against the intervention of any but what are
+termed secondary causes, in the production of all the phenomena of the
+universe; that, in view of the intimate relations between Man and the
+rest of the living world, and between the forces exerted by the latter
+and all other forces, I can see no excuse for doubting that all are
+co-ordinated terms of Nature's great progression, from the formless
+to the formed--from tne inorganic to the organic--from blind force to
+conscious intellect and will.
+
+
+CLXXVIII
+
+Science has fulfilled her function when she has ascertained and
+enunciated truth.
+
+
+CLXXIX
+
+Thoughtful men, once escaped from the blinding influences of traditional
+prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence Man has sprung the best
+evidence of the splendour of his capacities; and will discern in his
+long progress through the Past a reasonable ground of faith in his
+attainment of a nobler Future...
+
+And after passion and prejudice have died away, the same result will
+attend the teachings of the naturalist respecting that great Alps
+and Andes of the living world--Man. Our reverence for the nobility of
+manhood will not be lessened by the knowledge that Man is, in substance
+and in structure, one with the brutes; for he alone possesses the
+marvellous endowment of intelligible and rational speech, whereby,
+in the secular period of his existence, he has slowly accumulated and
+organised the experience which is almost wholly lost with the cessation
+of every individual life in other animals; so that, now, he stands
+raised upon it as on a mountain top, far above the level of nis humble
+fellows, and transfigured from his grosser nature by reflecting, here
+and there, a ray from the infinite source of truth.
+
+
+CLXXX
+
+Ethnology, as thus defined, is a branch of Anthropology, the great
+science which unravels the complexities of human structure; traces out
+the relations of man to other animals; studies all that is especially
+human in the mode in which man's complex functions are performed; and
+searches after the conditions whicn have determined his presence IN
+the world. And Anthropology is a section of Zoology, which again is the
+animal half of Biology--the science of life and living things.
+
+Such is the position of ethnology, such are the objects of the
+ethnologist. The paths or methods, by following which he may hope to
+reach his goal, are diverse. He may work at man from the point of view
+of the pure zoologist, and investigate the anatomical and physiological
+peculiarities of Negroes, Australians, or Mongolians, just as he would
+inquire into those of pointers, terriers, and turnspits,--"persistent
+modifications" of man's almost universal companion. Or he may seek aid
+from researches into the most human manifestation of humanity-Language;
+and assuming that what is true of speech is true of the speaker--a
+hypothesis as questionable in science as it is in ordinary life--he
+may apply to mankind themselves the conclusions drawn from a searching
+analysis of their words and grammatical forms.
+
+Or, the ethnologist may turn to the study of the practical life of men;
+and relying upon the inherent conservatism and small inventiveness of
+untutored mankind, he may hope to discover in manners and customs, or
+in weapons, dwellings, and other handiwork, a clue to the origin of the
+resemblances and differences of nations. Or, he may resort to that kind
+of evidence which is yielded by History proper, and consists of the
+beliefs of men concerning past events, embodied in traditional, or in
+written, testimony. Or, when that thread breaks, Archaeology, which is
+the interpretation of the unrecorded remains of man's works, belonging
+to the epoch since the world has reached its present condition, may
+still guide him. And, when even the dim light of archaeology fades,
+there yet remains Palaeontology which, in these latter years, has
+brought to daylight once more the exuvia of ancient populations, whose
+world was not our world, who have been buried in river beds immemorially
+dry, or carried by the rush of waters into caves, inaccessible to
+inundation since the dawn of tradition.
+
+
+CLXXXI
+
+The rapid increase of natural knowledge, which is the chief
+characteristic of our age, is effected in various ways. The main army of
+science moves to the conquest of new worlds slowly and surely, nor ever
+cedes an inch of the territory gained. But the advance is covered and
+facilitated by the ceaseless activity of clouds of light troops provided
+with a weapon--always efficient, if not always an arm of precision--the
+scientific imagination. It is the business of these _enfants perdus_ of
+science to make raids into the realm of ignorance wherever they see, or
+think they see, a chance; and cheerfully to accept defeat, or it may be
+annihilation, as the reward of error. Unfortunately the public, which
+watches the progress of the campaign, too often mistakes a dashing
+incursion of the Uhlans for a forward movement of the main body; fondly
+imagining that the strategic movement to the rear, which occasionally
+follows, indicates a battle lost by science. And it must be
+confessed that the error is too often justified by the effects of the
+irrepressible tendency which men of science share with all other sorts
+of men known to me, to be impatient of that most wholesome state of
+mind--suspended judgment; to assume the objective truth of speculations
+which, from the nature of the evidence in their favour, can have no
+claim to be more than working hypotheses.
+
+The history of the "Aryan question" affords a striking illustration of
+these general remarks.
+
+
+CLXXXII
+
+Language is rooted half in the bodily and half in the mental nature of
+man. The vocal sounds which form the raw materials of language could not
+be produced without a peculiar conformation of the organs of speech; the
+enunciation of duly accented syllables would be impossible without
+the nicest coordination of the action of the muscles which move these
+organs; and such co-ordination depends on the mechanism of certain
+portions of the nervous system. It is therefore conceivable that the
+structure of this highly complex speaking apparatus should determine a
+man's linguistic potentiality; that is to say, should enable him to use
+a language of one class and not of another. It is further conceivable
+that a particular linguistic potentiality should be inherited and become
+as good a race mark as any other. As a matter of fact, it is not proven
+that the linguistic potentialities of all men are the same.
+
+
+CLXXXIII
+
+Community of language is no proof of unity of race, is not even
+presumptive evidence of racial identity. All that it does prove is that,
+at some time or other, free and prolonged intercourse has taken place
+between the speakers of the same language.
+
+
+CLXXXIV
+
+The capacity of the population of Europe for independent progress while
+in the copper and early bronze stage--the "palaeo-metallic" stage, as it
+might be called--appears to me to be demonstrated in a remarkable manner
+by the remains of their architecture. From the crannog to the
+elaborate pile-dwelling, and from the rudest enclosure to the complex
+fortification of the terramare, there is an advance which is obviously
+a native product. So with the sepulchral constructions; the stone
+cist, with or without a preservative or memorial cairn, grows into the
+chambered graves lodged in tumuli; into such megalithic edifices as the
+dromic vaults of Maes How and New Grange; to culminate in the finished
+masonry of the tombs of Mycenae, constructed on exactly the same plan.
+Can anyone look at the varied series of forms which lie between the
+primitive five or six flat stones fitted together into a mere box, and
+such a building as Maes How, and yet imagine that the latter is the
+result of foreign tuition? But the men who built Maes How, without metal
+tools, could certainly have built the so-called "treasure-house" of
+Mycenae, with them.
+
+
+CLXXXV
+
+Reckoned by centuries, the remoteness of the quaternary, or pleistocene,
+age from our own is immense, and it is difficult to form an adequate
+notion of its duration. Undoubtedly there is an abysmal difference
+between the Neanderthaloid race and the comely living specimens of
+the blond long-heads with whom we are familiar. But the abyss of time
+between the period at which North Europe was first covered with ice,
+when savages pursued mammoths and scratched their portraits with sharp
+stones in central France, and the present day, ever widens as we learn
+more about the events which bridge it. And, if the differences between
+the Neanderthaloid men and ourselves could be divided into as many parts
+as that time contains centuries, the progress from part to part would
+probably be almost imperceptible.
+
+
+CLXXXVI
+
+I have not been one of those fortunate persons who are able to regard
+a popular lecture as a mere _hors d'oeuvre_, unworthy of being ranked
+among the serious efforts of a philosopher; and who keep their fame as
+scientific hierophants unsullied by attempts--at least of the successful
+sort--to be understanded of the people.
+
+On the contrary, I found that the task of putting the truths learned in
+the field, the laboratory and the museum, into language which, without
+bating a jot of scientific accuracy shall be generally intelligible,
+taxed such scientific and literary faculty as I possessed to the
+uttermost; indeed my experience has furnished me with no better
+corrective of the tendency to scholastic pedantry which besets all those
+who are absorbed in pursuits remote from the common ways of men, and
+become habituated to think and speak in the technical dialect of their
+own little world, as if there were no other.
+
+If the popular lecture thus, as I believe, finds one moiety of its
+justification in the self-discipline of the lecturer, it surely finds
+the other half in its effect on the auditory. For though various sadly
+comical experiences of the results of my own efforts have led me to
+entertain a very moderate estimate of the purely intellectual value of
+lectures; though I venture to doubt if more than one in ten of an average
+audience carries away an accurate notion of what the speaker has been
+driving at; yet is that not equally true of the oratory of the hustings,
+of the House of Commons, and even of the pulpit?
+
+Yet the children of this world are wise in their generation; and both
+the politician and the priest are justified by results. The living
+voice has an influence over human action altogether independent of the
+intellectual worth of that which it utters. Many years ago, I was a
+guest at a great City dinner. A famous orator, endowed with a voice
+of rare flexibility and power; a born actor, ranging with ease through
+every part, from refined comedy to tragic unction, was called upon
+to reply to a toast. The orator was a very busy man, a charming
+conversationalist and by no means despised a good dinner; and, I
+imagine, rose without having given a thought to what he was going to
+say. The rhythmic roll of sound was admirable, the gestures perfect,
+the earnestness impressive; nothing was lacking save sense and,
+occasionally, grammar. When the speaker sat down the applause was
+terrific and one of my neighbours was especially enthusiastic. So when
+he had quieted down, I asked him what the orator had said. And he could
+not tell me.
+
+That sagacious person John Wesley is reported to have replied to some
+one who questioned the propriety of his adaptation of sacred words to
+extremely secular airs, that he did not see why the Devil should be left
+in possession of all the best tunes. And I do not see why science should
+not turn to account the peculiarities of human nature thus exploited
+by other agencies: all the more because science, by the nature of its
+being, cannot desire to stir the passions, or profit by the weaknesses,
+of human nature. The most zealous of popular lecturers can aim at
+nothing more than the awakening of a sympathy for abstract truth, in
+those who do not really follow his arguments; and of a desire to know
+more and better in the few who do.
+
+At the same time it must be admitted that the popularisation of
+science, whether by lecture or essay, has its drawbacks. Success in this
+department has its perils for those who succeed. The "people who fail"
+take their revenge, as we have recently had occasion to observe, by
+ignoring all the rest of a man's work and glibly labelling him a mere
+populariser. If the falsehood were not too glaring, they would say the
+same of Faraday and Helmholtz and Kelvin.
+
+
+CLXXXVII
+
+Of the affliction caused by persons who think that what they have picked
+up from popular exposition qualifies them for discussing the great
+problems of science, it may be said, as the Radical toast said of
+the power of the Crown in bygone days, that it "has increased, is
+increasing, and ought to be diminished." The oddities of "English as she
+is spoke" might be abundantly paralleled by those of "Science as she is
+misunderstood" in the sermon, the novel, and the leading article; and a
+collection of the grotesque travesties of scientific conceptions, in the
+shape of essays on such trifles as "the Nature of Life" and the "Origin
+of All Things," which reach me, from time to time, might well be bound
+up with them.
+
+
+CLXXXVIII
+
+The essay on Geological Reform unfortunately brought me, I will not say
+into collision, but into a position of critical remonstrance with regard
+to some charges of physical heterodoxy, brought by my distinguished
+friend Lord Kelvin, against British Geology. As President of the
+Geological Society of London at that time (1869), I thought I might
+venture to plead that we were not such heretics as we seemed to be;
+and that, even if we were, recantation would not affect the question of
+evolution.
+
+I am glad to see that Lord Kelvin has just reprinted his reply to my
+plea, and I refer the reader to it. I shall not presume to question
+anything, that on such ripe consideration, Lord Kelvin has to say upon
+the physical problems involved. But I may remark that no one can have
+asserted more strongly than I have done, the necessity of looking to
+physics and mathematics, for help in regard to the earliest history of
+the globe.
+
+And I take the opportunity of repeating the opinion that, whether what
+we call geological time has the lower limit assigned to it by Lord
+Kelvin, or the higher assumed by other philosophers; whether the germs
+of all living things have originated in the globe itself, or whether
+they have been imported on, or in, meteorites from without, the problem
+of the origin of those successive Faunae and Florae of the earth, the
+existence of which is fully demonstrated by palaeontology, remains
+exactly where it was.
+
+For I think it will be admitted, that the germs brought to us by
+meteorites, if any, were not ova of elephants, nor of crocodiles; not
+cocoa-nuts nor acorns; not even eggs of shell-fish and corals; but only
+those of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life. Therefore, since
+it is proved that, from a very remote epoch of geological time, the
+earth has been peopled by a continual succession of the higher forms of
+animals and plants, these either must have been created, or they have
+arisen by evolution. And in respect of certain groups of animals, the
+well-established facts of palaeontology leave no rational doubt that
+they arose by the latter method.
+
+In the second place, there are no data whatever, which justify the
+biologist in assigning any, even approximately definite, period of time,
+either long or short, to the evolution of one species from another
+by the process of variation and selection. In the essay on Geological
+Contemporaneity and Persistent Types of Life I have taken pains to
+prove that the change of animals has gone on at very different rates in
+different groups of living beings; that some types have persisted with
+little change from the palaeozoic epoch till now, while others have
+changed rapidly within the limits of an epoch. In 1862 (see Coll. Ess
+viii pp. 303,304) in 1863 (vol ii., p 461) and again in 1864 (ibid.,
+pp. 89-91) I argued, not as a matter of speculation, but from
+palaeontological facts, the bearing of which I believe, up to that
+time, had not been shown, that any adequate hypothesis of the causes
+of evolution must be consistent with progression, stationariness and
+retrogression, of the same type at different epochs; of different
+types in the same epoch; and that Darwin's hypothesis fulfilled these
+conditions.
+
+According to that hypothesis, two factors are at work, variation and
+selection. Next to nothing is known of the causes of the former process;
+nothing whatever of the time required for the production of a certain
+amount of deviation from the existing type. And, as respects selection,
+which operates by extinguishing all but a small minority of variations,
+we have not the slightest means of estimating the rapidity with which it
+does its work. All that we are justified in saying is that the rate
+at which it takes place may vary almost indefinitely. If the famous
+paint-root of Florida, which kills white pigs but not black ones, were
+abundant and certain in its action, black pigs might be substituted for
+white in the course of two or three years. If, on the other hand, it
+was rare and uncertain in action, the white pigs might linger on for
+centuries.
+
+
+CLXXXIX
+
+A great chapter of the history of the world is written in the chalk. Few
+passages in the history of man can be supported by such an overwhelming
+mass of direct and indirect evidence as that which testifies to the
+truth of the fragment of the history of the globe, which I hope to
+enable you to read, with your own eyes, to-night. Let me add, that
+few chapters of human history have a more profound significance for
+ourselves. I weigh my words well when I assert, that the man who should
+know the true history of the bit of chalk which every carpenter carries
+about in his breeches-pocket, though ignorant of all other history, is
+likely, if he will think his knowledge out to its ultimate results,
+to have a truer, and therefore a better, conception of this wonderful
+universe, and of man's relation to it, than the most learned student who
+is deep-read in the records of humanity and ignorant of those of Nature.
+
+
+CXC
+
+The examination of a transparent slice gives a good notion of the manner
+in which the components of the chalk are arranged, and of their relative
+proportions. But, by rubbing up some chalk with a brush in water and
+then pouring off the milky fluid, so as to obtain sediments of different
+degrees of fineness, the granules and the minute rounded bodies may be
+pretty well separated from one another, and submitted to microscopic
+examination, either as opaque or as transparent objects. By combining
+the views obtained in these various methods, each of the rounded bodies
+may be proved to be a beautifully-constructed calcareous fabric, made
+up of a number of chambers, communicating freely with one another. The
+chambered bodies are of various forms. One of the commonest is something
+like a badly-grown raspberry, being formed of a number of nearly
+globular chambers of different sizes congregated together. It is called
+_Globigerina_, and some specimens of chalk consist of little else
+than _Globigerinć_ and granules. Let us fix our attention upon the
+_Globigerina_. It is the spoor of the game we are tracking. If we can
+learn what it is and what are the conditions of its existence, we shall
+see our way to the origin and past history of the chalk.
+
+
+CXCI
+
+It so happens that calcareous skeletons, exactly similar to the
+_Globigerinć_ of the chalk, are being formed, at the present moment, by
+minute living creatures, which flourish in multitudes, literally more
+numerous than the sands of the sea-shore, over a large extent of that
+part of the earth's surface which is covered by the ocean.
+
+The history of the discovery of these living _Globigerinć_ and of the
+part which they play in rock building, is singular enough. It is a
+discovery which, like others of no less scientific importance, has
+arisen, incidentally, out of work devoted to very different and
+exceedingly practical interests. When men first took to the sea, they
+speedily learned to look out for shoals and rocks; and the more the
+burthen of their ships increased, the more imperatively necessary it
+became for sailors to ascertain with precision the depth of the waters
+they traversed. Out of this necessity grew the use of the lead and
+sounding line; and, ultimately, marine-surveying, which is the recording
+of the form of coasts and of the depth of the sea, as ascertained by the
+sounding-lead, upon charts.
+
+
+CXCII
+
+Lieut Brooke, of the American Navy, some years ago invented a most
+ingenious machine, by which a considerable portion of the superficial
+layer of the sea-bottom can be scooped out and brought up from any depth
+to which the lead descends. In 1853, Lieut. Brooke obtained mud from the
+bottom of the North Atlantic, between Newfoundland and the Azores, at
+a depth of more than 10,000 feet, or two miles, by the help of this
+sounding apparatus. The specimens were sent for examination to Ehrenberg
+of Berlin, and to Bailey of West Point, and those able microscopists
+found that this deep-sea mud was almost entirety composed of the
+skeletons of living organisms--the greater proportion of these being
+just like the _Globigerinć_ already known to occur in the chalk.
+
+Thus far, the work had been carried on simply in the interests
+of science, but Lieut Brooke's method of sounding acquired a high
+commercial value, when the enterprise of laying down the telegraph-cable
+between this country and the United States was undertaken. For it became
+a matter of immense importance to know, not only the depth of the sea
+over the whole line along which the cable was to be laid, but the exact
+nature of the bottom, so as to guard against chances of cutting or
+fraying the strands of that costly rope. The Admiralty consequently
+ordered Captain Dayman, an old friend and shipmate of mine, to ascertain
+the depth over the whole line of the cable, and to bring back specimens
+of the bottom. In former days, such a command as this might have sounded
+very much like one of the impossible things which the young Prince in
+the Fairy Tales is ordered to do before he can obtain the hand of the
+Princess. However, in the months of June and July, 1857, my friend
+performed the task assigned to nim with great expedition and precision,
+without, so far as I know, having met with any reward of that kind.
+The specimens of Atlantic mud which he procured were sent to me to be
+examined and reported upon.
+
+
+CXCIII
+
+The result of all these operations is, that we know the contours and the
+nature of the surface-soil covered by the North Atlantic for a distance
+of 1,700 miles from east to west, as well as we know that of any part of
+the dry land. It is a prodigious plain-one of the widest and most even
+plains in the world. If the sea were drained off, you might drive a
+waggon all the way from Valentia, on the west coast of Ireland, to
+Trinity Bay in Newfoundland. And, except upon one sharp incline about
+200 miles from Valentia, I am not quite sure that it would even be
+necessary to put the skid on, so gentle are the ascents and descents
+upon that long route. From Valentia the road would lie down-hill for
+about 200 miles to the point at which the bottom is now covered by 1,700
+fathoms of sea-water. Then would come the central plain, more than a
+thousand miles wide, the inequalities of the surface of which would be
+hardly perceptible, though the depth of water upon it now varies from
+10,000 to 15,000 feet; and there are places in which Mont Blanc might
+be sunk without showing its peak above water. Beyond this, the ascent on
+the American side commences, and gradually leads, for about 300 miles,
+to the Newfoundland shore.
+
+
+CXCIV
+
+When we consider that the remains of more than three thousand distinct
+species of aquatic animals have been discovered among the fossils of the
+chalk, that the great majority of them are of such forms as are now met
+with only in the sea, and that there is no reason to believe that any
+one of them inhabited fresh water--the collateral evidence that the
+chalk represents an ancient sea-bottom acquires as great force as the
+proof derived from the nature of the chalk itself. I think you will now
+allow that I did not overstate my case when I asserted that we have
+as strong grounds for believing that all the vast area of dry land, at
+present occupied by the chalk, was once at the bottom of the sea, as we
+have for any matter of history whatever; while there is no justification
+for any other belief.
+
+No less certain it is that the time during which the countries we now
+call south-east England, France, Germany, Poland, Russia, Egypt, Arabia,
+Syria, were more or less completely covered by a deep sea, was of
+considerable duration. We have already seen that the chalk is, in
+places, more than a thousand feet thick. I think you will agree with me
+that it must have taken some time for the skeletons of animalcules of a
+hundredth of an inch in diameter to heap up such a mass as that.
+
+
+CXCV
+
+If the decay of the soft parts of the sea-urchin; the attachment, growth
+to maturity, and decay of the _Crania_; and the subsequent attachment
+and growth of the coralline, took a year (which is a low-estimate
+enough), the accumulation of the inch of chalk must have taken more than
+a year: and the deposit of a thousand feet of chalk must, consequently,
+have taken more than twelve thousand years.
+
+
+CXCVI
+
+There is a writing upon the wall of cliffs at Cromer, and whoso runs may
+read it. It tells us, with an authority which cannot be impeached, that
+the ancient sea-bed of the chalk sea was raised up, and remained dry
+land, until it was covered with forest, stocked with the great game the
+spoils of which have rejoiced your geologists. How long it remained in
+that condition cannot be said; but "the whirligig of time brought its
+revenges" in those days as in these. That dry land, with the bones and
+teeth of generations of long-lived elephants, hidden away among the
+gnarled roots and dry leaves of its ancient trees, sank gradually to the
+bottom of the icy sea, which covered it with huge masses of drift and
+boulder clay. Sea-beasts, such as the walrus, now restricted to the
+extreme north, paddled about where birds had twittered among the topmost
+twigs of the fir-trees. How long this state of things endured we know
+not, but at length it came to an end. The upheaved glacial mud hardened
+into the soil of modern Norfolk. Forests grew once more, the wolf and
+the beaver replaced the reindeer and the elephant; and at length what we
+call the history of England dawned.
+
+
+CXCVII
+
+Direct proof may be given that some parts of the land of the northern
+hemisphere are at this moment insensibly rising and others insensibly
+sinking; and there is indirect, but perfectly satisfactory, proof, that
+an enormous area now covered by the Pacific has been deepened thousands
+of feet, since the present inhabitants of that sea came into existence.
+Thus there is not a shadow of a reason for believing that the physical
+changes of the globe, in past times, have been effected by other than
+natural causes.
+
+
+CXCVIII
+
+A small beginning has led us to a great ending. If I were to put the bit
+of chalk with which we started into the hot but obscure flame of burning
+hydrogen, it would presently shine like the sun. It seems to me that
+this physical metamorphosis is no false image of what has been
+the result of our subjecting it to a jet of fervent, though nowise
+brilliant, thought to-night. It has become luminous, and its clear rays,
+penetrating the abyss of the remote past, have brought within our ken
+some stages of the evolution of the earth. And in the shifting "without
+haste, but without rest" of the land and sea, as in the endless
+variation of the forms assumed by living beings, we have observed
+nothing but the natural product of the forces originally possessed by
+the substance of the universe.
+
+
+CXCIX
+
+In certain parts of the sea bottom in the immediate vicinity of the
+British Islands, as in the Clyde district, among the Hebrides, in the
+Moray Firth, and in the German Ocean, there are depressed areć, forming
+a kind of submarine valleys, the centres of which are from 80 to 100
+fathoms, or more, deep. These depressions are inhabited by assemblages
+of marine animals, which differ from those found over the adjacent and
+shallower region, and resemble those which are met with much farther
+north, on the Norwegian coast. Forbes called these Scandinavian
+detachments "Northern outliers."
+
+How did these isolated patches of a northern population get into these
+deep places? To explain the mystery, Forbes called to mind the fact
+that, in the epoch which immediately preceded the present, the climate
+was much colder (whence the name of "glacial epoch" applied to it); and
+that the shells which are found fossil, or sub-fossil, in deposits
+of that age are precisely such as are now to be met with only in the
+Scandinavian, or still more Arctic, regions. Undoubtedly, during the
+glacial epoch, the general population of our seas had, universally, the
+northern aspect which is now presented only by the "northern outliers";
+just as the vegetation of the land, down to the sea-level, had the
+northern character which is, at present, exhibited only by the plants
+which live on the tops of our mountains. But, as the glacial epoch
+passed away, and the present climatal conditions were developed, the
+northern plants were able to maintain themselves only on the bleak
+heights, on which southern forms could not compete with them. And,
+in like manner, Forbes suggested that, after the glacial epoch, the
+northern animals then inhabiting the sea became restricted to the deeps
+in which they could hold their own against invaders from the south,
+better fitted than they to flourish in the warmer waters of the
+shallows. Thus depth in the sea corresponded in its effect upon
+distribution to height on the land.
+
+
+CC
+
+Among the scientific instructions for the voyage* drawn up by a
+committee of the Royal Society, there is a remarkable letter from Von
+Humboldt to Lord Minto, then First Lord of the Admiralty, in which,
+among other things, he dwells upon the significance of the researches
+into the microscopic composition of rocks, and the discovery of the
+great share which microscopic organisms take in the formation of the
+crust of the earth at the present day, made by Ehrenberg in the years
+1836-39. Ehrenberg, in fact, had shown that the extensive beds of
+"rotten-stone" or "Tripoli" which occur in various parts of the world,
+and notably at Bilin in Bohemia, consisted of accumulations of the
+silicious cases and skeletons of _Diatomaceć_ sponges, and _Radiolaria_;
+he had proved that similar deposits were being formed by Diatomaceć, in
+the pools of the Thiergarten in Berlin and elsewhere, and had pointed
+out that, if it were commercially worth while, rotten-stone might be
+manufactured by a process of diatom-culture. Observations conducted at
+Cuxhaven, in 1839, had revealed the existence, at the surface of the
+waters of the Baltic, of living Diatoms and _Radiolaria_ of the same
+species as those which, in a fossil state, constitute extensive rocks
+of tertiary age at Caltanisetta, Zante, and Oran, on the shores of the
+Mediterranean.
+
+     * Of the Challenger.
+
+Moreover, in the fresh-water rotten-stone beds of Bilin, Ehrenberg
+had traced out the metamorphosis, effected apparently by the action
+of percolating water, of the primitively loose and friable deposit
+of organized particles, in which the silex exists in the hydrated
+or soluble condition. The silex, in fact undergoes solution and slow
+redeposition, until, in ultimate result, the excessively finegrained
+sand, each particle of which is a skeleton, becomes converted into
+a dense opaline stone, with only here and there an indication of an
+organism.
+
+From the consideration of these facts, Ehrenberg, as early as the year
+1839, had arrived at the conclusion that rocks, altogether similar to
+those which constitute a large part of the crust of the earth, must be
+forming, at the present day, at the bottom of the sea; and he threw out
+the suggestion that even where no trace of organic structure is to be
+found in the older rocks, it may have been lost by metamorphosis.
+
+
+CCI
+
+It is highly creditable to the ingenuity of our ancestors that the
+peculiar property of fermented liquids, in virtue of which they "make
+glad the heart of man," seems to have been known in the remotest periods
+of which we have any record. All savages take to alcoholic fluids as
+if they were to the manner born. Our Vedic forefathers intoxicated
+themselves with the juice of the "soma"; Noah, by a not unnatural
+reaction against a superfluity of water, appears to have taken the
+earliest practicable opportunity of qualifying that which he was obliged
+to drink; and the ghosts of the ancient Egyptians were solaced by
+pictures of banquets in which the wine-cup passes round, graven on
+the walls of their tombs. A knowledge of the process of fermentation,
+therefore, was in all probability possessed by the prehistoric
+populations of the globe; and it must have become a matter of great
+interest even to primaeval wine-bibbers to study the methods by which
+fermented liquids could be surely manufactured. No doubt it was soon
+discovered that the most certain, as well as the most expeditious, way
+of making a sweet juice ferment was to add to it a little of the scum,
+or lees, of another fermenting juice. And it can hardly be questioned
+that this singular excitation of fermentation in one fluid, by a sort
+of infection, or inoculation, of a little ferment taken from some other
+fluid, together with the strange swelling, foaming, and hissing of the
+fermented substance, must have always attracted attention from the more
+thoughtful. Nevertheless, the commencement of the scientific analysis of
+the Sphenomena dates from a period not earlier than the first half of the
+seventeenth century. At this time, Van Helmont made a first step, by
+pointing out that the peculiar hissing and bubbling of a fermented
+liquid is due, not to the evolution of common air (which he, as the
+inventor of the term "gas," calls "gas ventosum"), but to that of a
+peculiar kind of air such as is occasionally met with in caves, mines,
+and wells, and which he calls "gas sylvestre."
+
+But a century elapsed before the nature of this "gas sylvestre," or as
+it was afterwards called, "fixed air," was clearly determined, and it
+was found to be identical with that deadly "choke-damp" by which the
+lives of those who descend into old wells, or mines, or brewers' vats,
+are sometimes suddenly ended; and with the poisonous aeriform fluid
+which is produced by the combustion of charcoal, and now goes by the
+name of carbonic acid gas.
+
+During the same time it gradually became evident that the presence of
+sugar was essential to the production of alcohol and the evolution of
+carbonic acid gas, which are the two great and conspicuous
+products of fermentation. And finally, in 1787, the Italian chemist,
+Fabroni, made the capital discovery that the yeast ferment, the
+presence of which is necessary to fermentation, is what he termed a
+"vegeto-animal" substance; that is, a body which gives off ammoniacal
+salts when it is burned, and is, in other ways, similar to the gluten of
+plants and the albumen and casein of animals.
+
+
+CCII
+
+The living club-mosses are, for the most part, insignificant and
+creeping herbs, which, superficially, very closely resemble true mosses,
+and none of them reach more than two or three feet in height. But,
+in their essential structure, they very closely resemble the earliest
+Lepidodendroid trees of the coal: their stems and leaves are similar;
+so are their cones; and no less like are the sporangia and spores; while
+even in their size, the spores of the _Lepidodendron_ and those of the
+existing _Lycopodium_, or club-moss, very closely approach one another.
+
+Thus, the singular conclusion is forced upon us, that the greater and
+the smaller sacs of the "Better-Bed" and other coals, in which the
+primitive structure is well preserved, are simply the sporangia and
+spores of certain plants, many of whicn were closely allied to the
+existing club-mosses. And if, as I believe, it can be demonstrated
+that ordinary coal Is nothing but "saccular" coal which has undergone a
+certain amount of that alteration which, if continued, would convert it
+into anthracite; then, the conclusion is obvious, that the great mass
+of the coal we burn is the result of the accumulation of the spores
+and spore-cases of plants, other parts of which have furnished
+the carbonized stems and the mineral charcoal, or have left their
+impressions on the surfaces of the layer.
+
+
+CCIII
+
+The position of the beds which constitute the coal-measures is
+infinitely diverse. Sometimes they are tilted up vertically, sometimes
+they are horizontal, sometimes curved into great basins; sometimes they
+come to the surface, sometimes they are covered up by thousands of feet
+of rock. But, whatever then-present position, there is abundant and
+conclusive evidence that every under-clay was once a surface soil. Not
+only do carbonized root-fibres frequently abound in these under-clays;
+but the stools of trees, the trunks of which are broken off and
+confounded with the bed of coal, have been repeatedly found passing into
+radiating roots, still embedded in the under-clay. On many parts of the
+coast of England, what are commonly known as "submarine forests" are to
+be seen at low water. They consist, for the most part, of short stools
+of oak, beech, and fir-trees, still fixed by their long roots in the bed
+of blue clay in which they originally grew. If one of these submarine
+forest beds should be gradually depressed and covered up by new
+deposits, it would present just the same characters as an under-clay of
+the coal, if the _Sigillaria_ and _Lepidodendron_ of the ancient world
+were substituted for the oak, or the beech, of our own times.
+
+In a tropical forest, at the present day, the trunks of fallen trees,
+and the stools of such trees as may have been broken by the violence of
+storms, remain entire for but a short time. Contrary to what might
+be expected, the dense wood of the tree decays, and suffers from the
+ravages of insects, more swiftly than the bark. And the traveller,
+setting his foot on a prostrate trunk, finds that it is a mere shell,
+which breaks under his weight, and lands his foot amidst the insects, or
+the reptiles, which have sought food or refuge within.
+
+
+CCIV
+
+The coal accumulated upon the area covered by one of the great forests
+of the carboniferous epoch would, in course of time, have been wasted
+away by the small, but constant, wear and tear of rain and streams,
+had the land which supported it remained at the same level, or been
+gradually raised to a greater elevation. And, no doubt, as much coal as
+now exists has been destroyed, after its formation, in this way.
+
+
+CCV
+
+Once more, an invariably-recurring lesson of geological history, at
+whatever point its study is taken up: the lesson of the almost infinite
+slowness of the modification of living forms. The lines of the pedigrees
+of living things break off almost before they begin to converge.
+
+
+CCVI
+
+Yet another curious consideration. Let us suppose that one of the
+stupid, salamander-like Labyrinthodonts, which pottered, with much belly
+and little leg, like Falstaff in his old age, among the coal-forests,
+could have had thinking power enough in his small brain to reflect upon
+the showers of spores which kept on falling through years and centuries,
+while perhaps not one in ten million fulfilled its apparent purpose, and
+reproduced the organism which gave it birth: surely he might have been
+excused for moralizing upon the thoughtless and wanton extravagance
+which Nature displayed in her operations.
+
+But we have the advantage over our shovel-headed predecessor--or
+possibly ancestor--and can perceive that a certain vein of thrift runs
+through this apparent prodigality. Nature is never in a hurry, and seems
+to have had always before her eyes the adage, "Keep a thing long enough,
+and you will find a use for it." She has kept her beds of coal many
+millions of years without being able to find much use for them; she has
+sent them down beneath the sea, and the sea-beasts could make nothing
+of them; she has raised them up into dry land, and laid the black veins
+bare, and still, for ages and ages, there was no living thing on the
+face of the earth that could see any sort of value in them; and it was
+only the other day, so to speak, that she turned a new creature out of
+her workshop, who by degrees acquired sufficient wits to make a fire,
+and then to discover that the black rock would burn.
+
+I suppose that nineteen hundred years ago, when Julius Cćsar was good
+enough to deal with Britain as we have dealt with New Zealand, the
+primćval Briton, blue with cold and woad, may have known that the
+strange black stone, of which he found lumps here and there in his
+wanderings, would burn, and so help to warm his body and cook his food.
+Saxon, Dane, and Norman swarmed into the land. The English people grew
+into a powerful nation, and Nature still waited for a full return of
+the capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses. The eighteenth
+century arrived, and with it James Watt. The brain of that man was the
+spore out of which was developed the modern steam-engine, and all the
+prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which have grown out
+of this. But coal is as much an essential condition of this growth and
+development as carbonic acid is for that of a club-moss. Wanting coal,
+we could not have smelted the iron needed to make our engines, nor have
+worked our engines when we had got them. But take away the engines,
+and the great towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire vanish like a dream.
+Manufactures give place to agriculture and pasture, and not ten men can
+live where now ten thousand are amply supported.
+
+Thus, all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is Nature's
+interest upon her investment in club-mosses, and the like, so long ago.
+But what becomes of the coal which is burnt in yielding this interest?
+Heat comes out of it, light comes out of it; and if we could gather
+together all that goes up the chimney, and all that remains in the grate
+of a thoroughly-burnt coal-fire, we should find ourselves in possession
+of a quantity of carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and mineral matters,
+exactly equal in weight to the coal. But these are the very matters with
+which Nature supplied the club-mosses which made the coal. She is
+paid back principal and interest at the same time; and she straightway
+invests the carbonic acid, the water, and the ammonia in new forms of
+life, feeding with them the plants that now live. Thrifty Nature! Surely
+no prodigal, but most notable of housekeepers!
+
+
+CCVII
+
+Here, then, is a capital fact. The movements of the lobster are due to
+muscular contractility. But why does a muscle contract at one time and
+not at another? Why does one whole group of muscles contract when the
+lobster wishes to extend his tail and another group when he desires to
+bend it? What is it originates, directs, and controls the motive power?
+
+Experiment, the great instrument for the ascertainment of truth in
+physical science, answers this question for us. In the head of the
+lobster there lies a small mass of that peculiar tissue which is known
+as nervous substance. Cords of similar matter connect this brain of
+the lobster, directly or indirectly, with the muscles. Now, if these
+communicating cords are cut, the brain remaining entire, the power of
+exerting what we call voluntary motion m the parts below the section is
+destroyed; and, on the other hand, if, the cords remaining entire, the
+brain mass be destroyed, the same voluntary mobility is equally lost,
+whence the inevitable conclusion is, that the power of originating these
+motions resides in the brain and is propagated along the nervous cords.
+
+In the higher animals the phenomena which attend this transmission have
+been investigated, and the exertion of the peculiar energy which resides
+in the nerves has been found to be accompanied by a disturbance of the
+electrical state of their molecules.
+
+If we could exactly estimate the signification of this disturbance;
+if we could obtain the value of a given exertion of nerve force by
+determining the quantity of electricity, or of heat, of which it is the
+equivalent; if we could ascertain upon what arrangement, or other
+condition of the molecules of matter, the manifestation of the nervous
+and muscular energies depends (and doubtless science will some day or
+other ascertain these points), physiologists would have attained their
+ultimate goal in this direction; they would have determined the relation
+of the motive force of animals to the other forms of force found in
+nature; and if the same process had been successfully performed for all
+the operations which are carried on in, and by, the animal frame,
+physiology would be perfect, and the facts of morphology and
+distribution would be deducible from the laws which physiologists had
+established, combined with those determining the condition of the
+surrounding universe.
+
+
+CCVIII
+
+The object of lectures is, in the first place, to awaken the attention
+and excite the enthusiasm of the student; and this, I am sure, may
+be effected to a far greater extent by the oral discourse and by
+the personal influence of a respected teacher than in any other way.
+Secondly, lectures have the double use of guiding the student to the
+salient points of a subject, and at the same time forcing him to attend
+to the whole of it, and not merely to that part which takes his fancy.
+And lastly, lectures afford the student the opportunity of seeking
+explanations of those difficulties which will, and indeed ought to,
+arise in the course of his studies.
+
+
+CCIX
+
+What books shall I read? is a question constantly put by the student to
+the teacher. My reply usually is, "None: write your notes out carefully
+and fully; strive to understand them thoroughly; come to me for the
+explanation of anything you cannot understand; and I would rather you
+did not distract your mind by reading." A properly composed course
+of lectures ought to contain fully as much matter as a student can
+assimilate in the time occupied by its delivery; and the teacher should
+always recollect that his business is to feed and not to cram the
+intellect. Indeed, I believe that a student who gains from a course
+of lectures the simple habit of concentrating his attention upon a
+definitely limited series of facts, until they are thoroughly mastered,
+has made a step of immeasurable importance.
+
+
+CCX
+
+However good lectures may be, and however extensive the course of
+reading-by which they are followed up, they are but accessories to the
+great instrument of scientific teaching--demonstration. If I insist
+unweariedly, nay fanatically, upon the importance of physical science as
+an educational agent, it is because the study of any branch of science,
+if properly conducted, appears to me to fill up a void left by all other
+means of education. I have the greatest respect and love for literature;
+nothing would grieve me more than to see literary training other than
+a very prominent branch of education: indeed, I wish that real literary
+discipline were far more attended to than it is; but I cannot shut my
+eyes to the fact that there is a vast difference between men who have
+had a purely literary, and those who have had a sound scientific,
+training.
+
+
+CCXI
+
+In the world of letters, learning and knowledge are one, and books
+are the source of both; whereas in science, as in life, learning and
+knowledge are distinct, and the study of things, and not of books, is
+the source of the latter.
+
+
+CCXII
+
+All that literature has to bestow may be obtained by reading and by
+practical exercise in writing and in speaking; but I do not exaggerate
+when I say that none of the best gifts of science are to be won by these
+means. On the contrary, the great benefit which a scientific education
+bestows, whether as training or as knowledge, is dependent upon the
+extent to which the mind of the student is brought into immediate
+contact with facts--upon the degree to which he learns the habit of
+appealing directly to Nature, and of acquiring through his senses
+concrete images of those properties of things, which are, and always
+will be, but approximatively expressed in human language. Our way of
+looking at Nature, and of speaking about her, varies from year to
+year; but a fact once seen, a relation of cause and effect, once
+demonstratively apprehended, are possessions which neither change nor
+pass away, but, on the contrary, form fixed centres, about which other
+truths aggregate by natural affinity.
+
+Therefore, the great business of the scientific teacher is, to imprint
+the fundamental, irrefragable facts of his science, not only by words
+upon the mind, but by sensible impressions upon tne eye, and ear, and
+touch of the student, in so complete a manner, that every term used, or
+law enunciated, should afterwards call up vivid images of the particular
+structural, or other, facts which furnished the demonstration of the
+law, or the illustration of the term.
+
+
+CCXIII
+
+What is the purpose of primary intellectual education? I apprehend
+that its first object is to train the young in the use of those tools
+wherewith men extract knowledge from the ever-shifting; succession of
+phenomena which pass before their eyes; and that its second object is to
+inform them of the fundamental laws which have been found by experience
+to govern the course of things, so that they may not be turned out
+into the world naked, defenceless, and a prey to the events they might
+control.
+
+A boy is taught to read his own and other languages, in order that he
+may have access to infinitely wider stores of knowledge than could ever
+be opened to him by oral intercourse with his fellow men; he learns to
+write, that his means of communication with the rest of mankind may be
+indefinitely enlarged, and that he may record and store up the knowledge
+he acquires. He is taught elementary mathematics, that he may understand
+all those relations of number and form, upon which the transactions of
+men, associated in complicated societies, are built, and that he may
+have some practice in deductive reasoning.
+
+All these operations of reading, writing, and ciphering are intellectual
+tools, whose use should, before all things, be learned, and learned
+thoroughly; so that the youth may be enabled to make his life that which
+it ought to be, a continual progress in learning and in wisdom.
+
+
+CCXIV
+
+In addition, primary education endeavours to fit a boy out with a
+certain equipment of positive knowledge. He is taught the great laws
+of morality; the religion of his sect; so much history and geography as
+will tell him where the great countries of the world are, what they are,
+and now they have become what they are.
+
+But if I regard it closely, a curious reflection arises. I suppose that,
+fifteen hundred years ago, the child of any well-to-do Roman citizen
+was taught just these same things; reading and writing in his own,
+and, perhaps, the Greek tongue; the elements of mathematics; and
+the religion, morality, history, and geography current in his time.
+Furthermore, I do not think I err in affirming that, if such a Christian
+Roman boy, who had finished his education, could be transplanted into
+one of our public schools, and pass through its course of instruction,
+he would not meet with a single unfamiliar line of thought; amidst all
+the new facts he would have to learn, not one would suggest a different
+mode of regarding the universe from that current in his own time.
+
+And yet surely there is some great difference between the civilisation
+of the fourth century and that of the nineteenth, and still more between
+the intellectual habits and tone of thought of that day and this?
+
+And what has made this difference? I answer fearlessly--The prodigious
+development of physical science within the last two centuries.
+
+
+CCXV
+
+Modern civilisation rests upon physical science; take away her gifts to
+our own country, and our position among the leading nations of the
+world is gone to-morrow; for it is physical science only that makes
+intelligence and moral energy stronger than brute force.
+
+
+CCXVI
+
+The whole of modern thought is steeped in science; it has made its way
+into the works of our best poets, and even the mere man of letters, who
+affects to ignore and despise science, is unconsciously impregnated with
+her spirit, and indebted for his best products to her methods. I believe
+that the greatest intellectual revolution mankind has yet seen is now
+slowly taking place by her agency. She is teaching the world that
+the ultimate court of appeal is observation and experiment, and not
+authority; she is teaching it to estimate the value of evidence; she is
+creating a firm and living faith in the existence of immutable moral and
+physical laws, perfect obedience to which is the highest possible aim of
+an intelligent being.
+
+But of all this your old stereotyped system of education takes no note.
+Physical science, its methods, its problems, and its difficulties, will
+meet the poorest boy at every turn, and yet we educate him in such a
+manner that he shall enter the world as ignorant of the existence of the
+methods and facts of science as the day he was born. The modern world
+is full of artillery; and we turn out our children to do battle in it,
+equipped with the shield and sword of an ancient gladiator.
+
+
+CCXVII
+
+Posterity will cry shame on us if we do not remedy this deplorable state
+of things. Nay, if we live twenty years longer, our own consciences will
+cry shame on us.
+
+It is my firm conviction that the only way to remedy it is to make the
+elements of physical science an integral part of primary education. I
+have endeavoured to show you how that may be done for that branch of
+science which it is my business to pursue; and I can but add, that I
+should look upon the day when every schoolmaster throughout this land
+was a centre of genuine, however rudimentary, scientific knowledge as an
+epoch in the history of the country.
+
+But let me entreat you to remember my last words. Addressing myself to
+you, as teachers, I would say, mere book learning in physical science is
+a sham and a delusion--what you teach, unless you wish to be impostors,
+that you must first know; and real knowledge in science means personal
+acquaintance with the facts, be they few or many.
+
+
+CCXVIII
+
+The first distinct enunciation of the hypothesis that all living matter
+has sprung from pre-existing living matter came from a contemporary,
+though a junior, of Harvey, a native of that country, fertile in men
+great in all departments of human activity, which was to intellectual
+Europe, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, what Germany is in
+the nineteenth. It was in Italy, and from Italian teachers, that Harvey
+received the most important part of his scientific education. And it
+was a student trained in the same schools, Francesco Redi--a man of the
+widest knowledge and most versatile abilities, distinguished alike as
+scholar, poet, physician and, naturalist--who, just two hundred and
+two years ago,* published his "Esperienze intorno alia Generazione
+degl'Insetti," and gave to the world the idea, the growth of which it
+is my purpose to trace. Redi's book went through five editions in twenty
+years; and the extreme simplicity of his experiments, and the clearness
+of his arguments, gained for his views and for their consequences,
+almost universal acceptance.
+
+Redi did not trouble himself much with speculative considerations,
+but attacked particular cases of what was supposed to be "spontaneous
+generation" experimentally. Here are dead animals, or pieces of meat,
+says he; I expose them to the air in hot weather, and in a few days they
+swarm with maggots. You tell me that these are generated in the dead
+flesh; but if I put similar bodies, while quite fresh, into a jar, and
+tie some fine gauze over the top of the jar, not a maggot makes its
+appearance, while the dead substances, nevertheless, putrefy just in the
+same way as before. It is obvious, therefore, that the maggots are not
+generated by the corruption of the meat; and that the cause of their
+formation must be a something which is kept away by gauze. But gauze
+will not keep away aeriform bodies, or fluids. This something must
+therefore, exist in the form of solid particles too big to get through
+the gauze. Nor is one long left in doubt what these solid particles are;
+for the blow-flies, attracted by the odour of the meat, swarm round the
+vessel, and, urged by a powerful but in this case misleading instinct,
+lay eggs out of which maggots are immediately hatched, upon the gauze.
+The conclusion, therefore, is unavoidable; the maggots are not generated
+by the meat, but the eggs which give rise to them are brought through
+the air by the flies.
+
+     * These words were written in 1870.
+
+These experiments seem almost childishly simple, and one wonders how
+it was that no one ever thought of them before. Simple as they are,
+however, they are worthy of the most careful study, for every piece of
+experimental work since done, in regard to this subject, has been shaped
+upon the model furnished by the Italian philosopher. As the results
+of his experiments were the same, however varied the nature of the
+materials he used, it is not wonderful that there arose in Redi's mind
+a presumption that, in all such cases of the seeming production of life
+from dead matter, the real explanation was the introduction of living
+germs from without into that dead matter. And thus the hypothesis that
+living matter always arises by the agency of pre-existing living matter,
+took definite shape; and had, henceforward, a right to be considered and
+a claim to be refuted, in each particular case, before the production of
+living matter in any other way could be admitted by careful reasoners.
+It will be necessary for me to refer to this hypothesis so frequently,
+that, to save circumlocution, I shall call it the hypothesis of
+_Biogenesis_; and I shall term the contrary doctrine--that living matter
+may be produced by not living matter--the hypothesis of _Abiogenesis_.
+
+In the seventeenth century, as I have said, the latter was the dominant
+view, sanctioned alike by antiquity and by authority; and it is
+interesting to observe that Redi did not escape the customary tax upon
+a discoverer of having to defend himself against the charge of impugning
+the authority of the Scriptures; for his adversaries declared that the
+generation of bees from the carcase of a dead lion is affirmed, in the
+Book of Judges, to have been the origin of the famous riddle with which
+Samson perplexed the Philistines:--
+
+     "Out of the cater came forth meat,
+     And out of the strong came forth sweetness"
+
+
+CCXIX
+
+The great tragedy of Science--the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by
+an ugly fact.
+
+
+CCXX
+
+It remains yet in the order of logic, though not of history, to show
+that among these solid destructible particles there really do exist
+germs capable of giving rise to the development of living forms in
+suitable menstrua. This piece of work was done by M. Pasteur in those
+beautiful researches which will ever render his name famous; and which,
+in spite of all attacks upon them, appear to me now, as they did
+seven years ago, to be models of accurate experimentation and logical
+reasoning. He strained air through cotton-wool, and found, as Schroeder
+and Dusch had done, that it contained nothing competent to give rise to
+the development of life in fluids highly fitted for that purpose. But
+the important further links in the chain of evidence added by Pasteur
+are three. In the first place he subjected to microscopic examination
+the cottonwool which had served as strainer, and found that sundry
+bodies clearly recognisable as germs were among the solid particles
+strained off. Secondly, he proved that these germs were competent to
+give rise to living forms by simply sowing them in a solution fitted for
+their development. And, thirdly, he showed that the incapacity of air
+strained through cotton-wool to give rise to life was not due to any
+occult change effected in the constituents of the air by the wool, by
+proving that the cotton-wool might be dispensed with altogether, and
+perfectly free access left between the exterior air and that in the
+experimental flask. If the neck of the flask is drawn out into a tube
+and bent downwards; and if, after the contained fluid has been carefully
+boiled, the tube is heated sufficiently to destroy any germs which may
+be present in the air which enters as the fluid cools, the apparatus may
+be left to itself for any time and no life will appear in the fluid.
+The reason is plain. Although there is free communication between the
+atmosphere laden with germs and the germless air in the flask, contact
+between the two takes place only in the tube; and as the germs cannot
+fall upwards, and there are no currents, they never reach the interior
+of the flask. But if the tube be broken short off where it proceeds from
+the flask, and free access be thus given to germs falling vertically out
+of the air, the fluid, which has remained clear and desert for months,
+becomes, in a few days, turbid and full of life.
+
+
+CCXXI
+
+In autumn it is not uncommon to see flies motionless upon a window-pane,
+with a sort of magic circle, in white, drawn round them. On microscopic
+examination, the magic circle is found to consist of innumerable spores,
+which have been thrown off in all directions by a minute fungus called
+_Empusa museć_ the spore-forming filaments of which stand out like a
+pile of velvet from the body of the fly. These spore-forming filaments
+are connected with others which fill the interior of the fly's body
+like so much fine wool, having eaten away and destroyed the creature's
+viscera. This is the full-grown condition of the _Empusa_. If traced
+back to its earliest stages, in flies which are still active, and to
+all appearance healthy, it is found to exist in the form of minute
+corpuscles which float in the blood of the fly. These multiply and
+lengthen into filaments, at the expense of the fly's substance; and when
+they have at last killed the patient, they grow out of its body and give
+off spores. Healthy flies shut up with diseased ones catch this mortal
+disease, and perish like the others. A most competent observer, M. Cohn,
+who studied the development of the _Empusa_ very carefully, was utterly
+unable to discover in what manner the smallest germs of the _Empusa_ got
+into the fly. The spores could not be made to give rise to such germs by
+cultivation; nor were such germs discoverable in the air, or in the food
+of the fly. It looked exceedingly like a case of Abiogenesis, or, at any
+rate, of Xenogenesis; and it is only quite recently that the real course
+of events has been made out. It has been ascertained that when one of
+the spores falls upon the body of a fly, it begins to germinate, and
+sends out a process which bores its way through the fly's skin; this,
+having reached the interior cavities of its body, gives off the minute
+floating corpuscles which are the earliest stage of the _Empusa_. The
+disease is "contagious", because a healthy fly coming in contact with a
+diseased one, from which the spore-bearing filaments protrude, is pretty
+sure to carry off a spore or two. It is "infectious" because the spores
+become scattered about all sorts of matter m the neighbourhood of the
+slain flies. Silkworms are liable to many diseases; and, even before
+1853, a peculiar epizootic, frequently accompanied by the appearance
+of dark spots upon the skin (whence the name of "Pébrine" which it has
+received), had been noted for its mortality. But in the years following
+1853 this malady broke out with such extreme violence, that, in 1858,
+the silk-crop was reduced to a third of the amount which it had reached
+in 1853; and, up till within the last year or two, it has never attained
+half the yield of 1853. This means not only that the great number of
+people engaged in silk growing are some thirty millions sterling poorer
+than they might have been; it means not only that high prices have had
+to be paid for imported silkworm eggs, and that, after investing his
+money in them, in paying for mulberry-leaves and for attendance, the
+cultivator has constantly seen his silkworms perish and himself plunged
+in ruin; but it means that the looms of Lyons have lacked employment,
+and that, for years, enforced idleness and misery have been the
+portion of a vast population which, in former days, was industrious and
+well-to-do.
+
+In reading the Report made by M. de Quatrefages in 1859, it is
+exceedingly interesting to observe that his elaborate study of the
+Pébrine forced the conviction upon his mind that, in its mode of
+occurrence and propagation, the disease of the silkworm is, in every
+respect, comparable to the cholera among mankind. But it differs
+from the cholera, and so far is a more formidable malady, in being
+hereditary, and in being, under some circumstances, contagious as well
+as infectious.
+
+The Italian naturalist, Filippi, discovered in the blood of the
+silkworms affected by this strange disorder a multitude of cylindrical
+corpuscles, each about 1/6000th of an inch long. These have been
+carefully studied by Lebert, and named by him _Panhistophyton_; for the
+reason that in subjects in which the disease is strongly developed, the
+corpuscles swarm in every tissue and organ of the body, and even pass
+into the undeveloped eggs of the female moth. But are these corpuscles
+causes, or mere concomitants, of the disease? Some naturalists took
+one view and some another; and it was not until the French Government,
+alarmed by the continued ravages of the malady, and the inefficiency of
+the remedies which had been suggested, despatched M. Pasteur to
+study it, that the question received its final settlement; at a great
+sacrifice, not only of the time and peace of mind of that eminent
+philosopher, but, I regret to have to add, of his health.
+
+But the sacrifice has not been in vain. It is now certain that this
+devastating, cholera-like Pébrine is the effect of the growth and
+multiplication of the _Panhistophyton_ in the silkworm. It is contagious
+and infectious, because the corpuscles of the _Panhistophyton_ pass away
+from the bodies of the diseased caterpillars, directly or indirectly, to
+the alimentary canal of healthy silkworms in their neighbourhood; it
+is hereditary because the corpuscles enter into the eggs while they are
+being formed, and consequently are carried within them when they
+are laid; and for this reason, also? it presents the very singular
+peculiarity of being inherited only on the mother's side. There is not a
+single one of all the apparently capricious and unaccountable phenomena
+presented by the Pébrine, but has received its explanation from the
+fact that the disease is the result of the presence of the microscopic
+organism, _Panhistophyton_.
+
+
+CCXXII
+
+I commenced this Address by asking you to follow me in an attempt to
+trace the path which has been followed by a scientific idea, in its long
+and slow progress from the position of a probable hypothesis to that
+of an established law of nature. Our survey has not taken us into very
+attractive regions; it has lain, chiefly, in a land flowing with the
+abominable, and peopled with mere grubs and mouldiness. And it may
+be imagined with what smiles and shrugs, practical and serious
+contemporaries of Redi and of Spallanzani may have commented on the
+waste of their high abilities in toiling at the solution of problems
+which, though curious enough in themselves, could be of no conceivable
+utility to mankind.
+
+Nevertheless, you will have observed that before we had travelled very
+far upon our road, there appeared, on the right hand and on the left,
+fields laden with a harvest of golden grain, immediately convertible
+into those things which the most solidly practical men will admit to
+have value--viz., money and life.
+
+The direct loss to France caused by the Pébrine in seventeen years
+cannot be estimated at less than fifty millions sterling; and if we
+add to this what Redi's idea, in Pasteur's hands, has done for the
+wine-grower and for the vinegar-maker; and try to capitalise its value,
+we shall find that it will go a long way towards repairing; the money
+losses caused by the frightful and calamitous war of this autumn
+(1870). And as to the equivalent of Redi's thought in life, how can we
+overestimate the value of that knowledge of the nature of epidemic
+and epizootic diseases, and consequently of the means of checking, or
+eradicating them, the dawn of which has assuredly commenced?
+
+Looking back no further than ten years, it is possible to select
+three (1863, 1864, and 1869) in which the total number of deaths from
+scarlet-fever alone amounted to ninety thousand. That is the return of
+killed, the maimed and disabled being left out of sight Why, it is to be
+hoped that the list of killed in the present bloodiest of all wars will
+not amount to more than this! But the facts which I have placed before
+you must leave the least sanguine without a doubt that the nature and
+the causes of this scourge will, one day, be as well understood as
+those of the Pébrine are now; and that the long-suffered massacre of our
+innocents will come to an end.
+
+And thus mankind will have one more admonition that "the people perish
+for lack of knowledge"; and that the alleviation of the miseries, and
+the promotion of the welfare, of men must be sought, by those who will
+not lose their pains, in that diligent, patient, loving study of all the
+multitudinous aspects of Nature, the results of which constitute exact
+knowledge, or Science.
+
+
+CCXXIII
+
+I find three, more or less contradictory, systems of geological thought,
+each of which might fairly enough claim these appellations, standing
+side by side in Britain. I shall call one of them Catastrophisim another
+Uniformitarianism, the third Evolutionism; and I shall try briefly
+to sketch the characters of each, that you may say whether the
+classification is, or is not, exhaustive.
+
+By Catastrophism I mean any form of geological speculation which, in
+order to account for the phenomena of geology supposes the operation of
+forces different in their nature, or immeasurably different in power,
+from those which we at present see in action in the universe.
+
+The Mosaic cosmogony is, in this sense, catastrophic, because it assumes
+the operation of extra-natural power. The doctrine of violent upheavals,
+_débâcles_ and cataclysms in general, is catastrophic, so far as it
+assumes that these were brought about by causes which have now no
+parallel. There was a time when catastrophism might, pre-eminently, have
+claimed the title of "British popular geology"; and assuredly it has
+yet many adherents, and reckons among its supporters some of the most
+honoured members of this Society.
+
+By Uniformitarianism I mean especially the teaching of Hutton and of
+Lyell.
+
+That great though incomplete work, "The Theory of the Earth", seems to
+me to be one of the most remarkable contributions to geology which is
+recorded in the annals of the science. So far as the not-living world
+is concerned, uniformitarianism lies there, not only in germ, but in
+blossom and fruit.
+
+If one asks how it is that Hutton was led to entertain views so far
+in advance of those prevalent in his time, in some respects; while, in
+others, they seem almost curiously limited, the answer appears to me to
+be plain.
+
+Hutton was in advance of the geological speculation of his time,
+because, in the first place, he had amassed a vast store of knowledge
+of the facts of geology, gathered by personal observation in travels of
+considerable extent; and because, in the second place, he was thoroughly
+trained in the physical and chemical science of his day, and thus
+possessed, as much as any one in his time could possess it, the
+knowledge which is requisite for the just interpretation of geological
+phenomena, and the habit of thought which fits a man for scientific
+inquiry.
+
+It is to this thorough scientific training that I ascribe Hutton's
+steady and persistent refusal to look to other causes than those now in
+operation for the explanation of geological phenomena.
+
+The internal heat of the earth, the elevation and depression of
+its crust, its belchings forth of vapours, ashes, and lava, are its
+activities, in as strict a sense as are warmth and the movements and
+products of respiration the activities of an animal. The phenomena of
+the seasons, of the trade winds, of the Gulf-stream, are as much the
+results of the reaction between these inner activities and outward
+forces as are the budding of the leaves in spring and their falling
+in autumn the effects of the interaction between the organisation of a
+plant and the solar light and heat. And, as the study of the activities
+of the living being is called its physiology, so are these phenomena
+the subject-matter of an analogous telluric physiology, to which we
+sometimes give the name of meteorology, sometimes that of physical
+geography, sometimes that of geology. Again, the earth has a place in
+space and in time, and relations to other bodies in both these respects,
+which constitute its distribution. This subject is usually left to the
+astronomer; but a knowledge of its broad outlines seems to me to be an
+essential constituent of the stock of geological ideas.
+
+
+CCXXIV
+
+All that can be ascertained concerning the structure succession of
+conditions, actions, and position m space of the earth, is the matter
+of fact of its natural history. But? as in biology, there remains the
+matter of reasoning from these facts to their causes, which is just
+as much science as the other, and indeed more; and this constitutes
+geological aetiology.
+
+
+CCXXV
+
+I suppose that it would be very easy to pick holes in the details of
+Kant's speculations, whether cosmo-logical, or specially telluric, in
+their application. But for all that, he seems to me to have been the
+first person to frame a complete system of geological speculation by
+founding the doctrine of evolution.
+
+I have said that the three schools of geological speculation which I
+have termed Catastrophism, Uniformitarianism, and Evolutionism, are
+commonly supposed to be antagonistic to one another; and I presume it
+will have become obvious that in my belief, the last is destined to
+swallow up the other two. But it is proper to remark that each of the
+latter has kept alive the tradition of precious truths.
+
+To my mind there appears to be no sort of necessary theoretical
+antagonism between Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism. On the contrary,
+it is very conceivable that catastrophes may be part and parcel of
+uniformity. Let me illustrate my case by analogy. The working of a clock
+is a model of uniform action; good time-keeping means uniformity of
+action. But the striking of the clock is essentially a catastrophe;
+the hammer might be made to blow up a barrel of gunpowder, or turn on
+a deluge of water; and, by proper arrangement, the clock, instead of
+marking the hours, might strike at all sorts of irregular periods,
+never twice alike, in the intervals, force, or number of its blows.
+Nevertheless, all these irregular, and apparently lawless, catastrophes
+would be the result of an absolutely uniformitarian action; and we might
+have two schools of clock-theorists, one studying the hammer and the
+other the pendulum.
+
+
+CCXXVI
+
+Mathematics may be compared to a mill of exquisite workmanship, which
+grinds your stuff of any degree of fineness; but, nevertheless, what you
+get out depends upon what you put in; and as the grandest mill in tne
+world will not extract wheat-flour from peascods, so pages of formulć
+will not get a definite result out of loose data.
+
+
+CCXXVII
+
+The motive of the drama of human life is the necessity, laid upon
+every man who comes into the world, of discovering the mean between
+self-assertion and self-restraint suited to his character and his
+circumstances. And the eternally tragic aspect of the drama lies in
+this: that the problem set before us is one the elements of which can
+be but imperfectly known, and of which even an approximately right
+solution rarely presents itself, until that stern critic, aged
+experience, has been furnished with ample justification for venting his
+sarcastic humour upon the irreparable blunders we have already made.
+
+
+CCXXVIII
+
+That which endures is not one or another association of living forms,
+but the process of which the cosmos is the product, and of which these
+are among the transitory expressions. And in the living world, one of
+the most characteristic features of this cosmic process is the struggle
+for existence, the competition of each with all, the result of which is
+the selection, that is to say, the survival of those forms which, on the
+whole, are best adapted to the conditions which at any period obtain;
+and which are therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the
+fittest. The acme reached by the cosmic process in the vegetation of
+the downs is seen in the turf, with its weed and gorse. Under the
+conditions, they have come out of the struggle victorious; and, by
+surviving, have proved that they are the fittest to survive.
+
+
+CCXXIX
+
+As a natural process, of the same character as the development of a tree
+from its seed; or of a fowl from its egg, evolution excludes creation
+and all other kinds of supernatural intervention. As the expression of
+a fixed order, every stage of which is the effect of causes operating
+according to definite rules, the conception of evolution no less
+excludes that of chance. It is very desirable to remember that evolution
+is not an explanation of the cosmic process, but merely a generalized
+statement of the method and results of that process. And, further, that,
+if there is proof that the cosmic process was set going by any agent,
+then that agent will be the creator of it and of all its products,
+although, supernatural intervention may remain strictly excluded from
+its further course.
+
+
+CCXXX
+
+All plants and animals exhibit the tendency to vary, the causes of which
+have yet to be ascertained; it is the tendency of the conditions of
+life, at any given time, while favouring the existence of the variations
+best adapted to them, to oppose that of the rest and thus to exercise
+selection; and all living things tend to multiply without limit, while
+the means of support are limited; the obvious cause of which is the
+production of offspring more numerous than their progenitors, but with
+actual expectation of life in the actuarial sense. Without tne first
+tendency there could be no evolution. Without the second, there would be
+no good reason why one variation should disappear and another take its
+place; that is to say, there would be no selection. Without the third,
+the struggle for existence, the agent of the selective process in the
+state of nature, would vanish.
+
+
+CCXXXI
+
+The faith which is born of knowledge finds its object in an eternal
+order, bringing forth ceaseless chance, through endless time, in endless
+space; the manifestations of the cosmic energy alternating between
+phases of potentiality and phases of explication.
+
+
+CCXXXII
+
+With all their enormous differences in natural endowment, men agree in
+one thing, and that is their innate desire to enjoy the pleasures and
+escape the pains of life; and, in short, to do nothing but that which
+it pleases them to do, without the least reference to the welfare of the
+society into which they are born. That is their inheritance (the reality
+at the bottom of the doctrine of original sin) from the long series of
+ancestors, human and semi-human and brutal, in whom the strength of this
+innate tendency to self-assertion was the condition of victory in the
+struggle for existence. That is the reason of the _aviditas vitć_--the
+insatiable hunger for enjoyment--of all mankind, which is one of the
+essential conditions of success in the war with the state of nature
+outside; and yet the sure agent of the destruction of society if allowed
+free play within.
+
+
+CCXXXIII
+
+The check upon this free play of self-assertion, or natural liberty,
+which is the necessary condition for the origin of human society, is the
+product of organic necessities of a different land from those upon
+which the constitution of the hive depends. One of these is the mutual
+affection of parent and offspring, intensified by the long infancy of
+the human species. But the most important is the tendency, so strongly
+developed in man, to reproduce in himself actions and feelings similar
+to, or correlated with, those of other men. Man is the most consummate
+of all mimics in the animal world; none but himself can draw or model;
+none comes near him in the scope, variety, and exactness of vocal
+imitation; none is such a master of gesture; while he seems to be
+impelled thus to imitate for the pure pleasure of it. And there is no
+such another emotional chameleon. By a purely reflex operation of the
+mind, we take the hue of passion of those who are about us, or, it may
+be, the complementary colour. It is not by any conscious "putting one's
+self in the place" of a joyful or a suffering person that the state of
+mind we call sympathy usually arises; indeed, it is often contrary to
+one's sense of right, and in spite of one's will, that "fellow-feeling
+makes us wondrous kind," or the reverse. However complete may be the
+indifference to public opinion, in a cool, intellectual view, of the
+traditional sage, it has not yet been my fortune to meet with any actual
+sage who took its hostile manifestations with entire equanimity. Indeed,
+I doubt if the philosopher lives, or ever has lived, who could know
+himself to be heartily despised by a street boy without some irritation.
+And, though one cannot justify Haman for wishing to hang Mordecai on
+such a very high gibbet, yet, really, the consciousness of the Vizier of
+Ahasuerus, as he went in and out of the gate, that this obscure Jew had
+no respect for him, must have been very annoying.
+
+It is needful only to look around us, to see that the greatest restrainer
+of the anti-social tendencies of men is fear, not of the law, but of the
+opinion of their fellows. The conventions of honour bad men who
+break legal, moral, and religious bonds; and, while people endure the
+extremity of physical pain rather than part with life, shame drives the
+weakest to suicide.
+
+Every forward step of social progress brings men into closer relations
+with their fellows, and increases the importance of the pleasures and
+pains derived from sympathy. We judge the acts of others by our own
+sympathies, and we judge our own acts by the sympathies of others, every
+day and all day long, from childhood upwards, until associations, as
+indissoluble as those of language, are formed between certain acts and
+the feelings of approbation or disapprobation. It becomes impossible to
+imagine some acts without disapprobation, or others without approbation
+of the actor, whether he be one's self or anyone else. We come to think
+in the acquired dialect of morals. An artificial personality, the "man
+within," as Adam Smith calls conscience, is built up beside the natural
+personality. He is the watchman of society, charged to restrain the
+antisocial tendencies of the natural man within the limits required by
+social welfare.
+
+
+CCXXXIV
+
+I have termed this evolution of the feelings out of which the primitive
+bonds of human society are so largely forged, into the organized and
+personified sympathy we call conscience, the ethical process. So far as
+it tends to make any human society more efficient in the struggle for
+existence with the state of nature, or with other societies, it works
+in harmonious contrast with the cosmic process. But it is none the less
+true that, since law and morals are restraints upon the struggle for
+existence between men in society, the ethical process is in opposition
+to the principle of the cosmic process, and tends to the suppression of
+the qualities best fitted for success in that struggle.
+
+
+CCXXXV
+
+Moralists of all ages and of all faiths, attending only to the relations
+of men towards one another in an ideal society, have agreed upon
+the "golden rule," "Do as you would be done by." In other words, let
+sympathy be your guide; put yourself in the place of the man towards
+whom your action is directed; and do to him what you would like to have
+done to yourself under the circumstances. However much one may admire
+the generosity of such a rule of conduct; however confident one may be
+that average men may be thoroughly depended upon not to carry it out to
+its full logical consequences; it is nevertheless desirable to recognise
+the fact that these consequences are incompatible with the existence
+of a civil state, under any circumstances of this world which have
+obtained, or, so far as one can see, are likely to come to pass.
+
+For I imagine there can be no doubt that the great desire of every
+wrongdoer is to escape from the painful consequences of his actions. If
+I put myself in the place of the man who has robbed me, I find that I
+am possessed by an exceeding desire not to be fined or imprisoned; if
+in that of the man who has smitten me on one cheek, I contemplate with
+satisfaction the absence of any worse result than the turning of the
+other cheek for like treatment. Strictly observed, the "golden rule"
+involves the negation of law by the refusal to put it in motion against
+law-breakers; and, as regards the external relations of a polity, it is
+the refusal to continue the struggle for existence. It can be obeyed,
+even partially, only under the protection of a society which repudiates
+it without such shelter the followers of the "golden rule" may indulge
+in hopes of heaven, but they must reckon with the certainty that other
+people will be masters of the earth.
+
+What would become of the garden if the gardener treated all the weeds
+and slugs and birds and trespassers as he would like to be treated if he
+were in their place?
+
+
+CCXXXVI
+
+In a large proportion of cases, crime and pauperism have nothing to do
+with heredity; but are the consequence, partly, of circumstances
+and, partly, of the possession of qualities, which, under different
+conditions of life, might have excited esteem and even admiration.
+It was a shrewd man of the world who, in discussing sewage problems,
+remarked that dirt is riches in the wrong; place; and that sound
+aphorism has moral applications. The benevolence and open-handed
+generosity which adorn a rich man may make a pauper of a poor one; the
+energy and courage to which the successful soldier owes his rise, the
+cool and daring subtlety to which the great financier owes his fortune,
+may very easily, under unfavourable conditions, lead their possessors to
+the gallows, or to the hulks. Moreover, it is fairly probable that the
+children of a "failure" will receive from their other parent just that
+little modification of character which makes all the difference. I
+sometimes wonder whether people, who talk so freely about extirpating
+the unfit, ever dispassionately consider their own history. Surely, one
+must be very "fit" indeed not to know of an occasion, or perhaps two, in
+one's life, when it would have been only too easy to qualify for a place
+among the "unfit."
+
+
+CCXXXVII
+
+In the struggle for the means of enjoyment, the qualities which ensure
+success are energy, industry, intellectual capacity, tenacity of
+purpose, and, at least as much sympathy as is necessary to make a
+man understand the feelings of his fellows. Were there none of those
+artificial arrangements by which fools and knaves are kept at the top
+of society instead of sinking to their natural place at the bottom, the
+struggle for the means of enjoyment would ensure a constant circulation
+of the human units of the social compound, from the bottom to the top
+and from the top to the bottom. The survivors of the contest, those
+who continued to form the great bulk of the polity, would not be those
+"fittest" who got to the very top, but the great body of the moderately
+"fit," whose numbers and superior propagative power enable them always
+to swamp the exceptionally endowed minority.
+
+I think it must be obvious to every one that, whether we consider the
+internal or the external interests of society, it is desirable they
+should be in the hands of those who are endowed with the largest
+share of energy, of industry, of intellectual capacity, of tenacity of
+purpose, while they are not devoid of sympathetic humanity; and, in so
+far as the struggle for the means of enjoyment tends to place such men
+in possession of wealth and influence, it is a process which tends
+to the good of society. But the process, as we have seen, has no real
+resemblance to that which adapts living beings to current conditions
+in the state of nature; nor any to the artificial selection of the
+horticulturist.
+
+
+CCXXXVIII
+
+Even should the whole human race be absorbed in one vast polity, within
+which "absolute political justice" reigns, the struggle for existence
+with the state of nature outside it, and the tendency to the return of
+the struggle within, in consequence of over-multiplication, will remain;
+and, unless men's inheritance from the ancestors who fought a good fight
+in the state of nature, their dose of original sin, is rooted out
+by some method at present unrevealed, at any rate to disbelievers in
+supernaturalism, every child born into the world will still bring with
+him the instinct of unlimited self-assertion. He will have to learn
+the lesson of self-restraint and renunciation. But the practice of
+self-restraint and renunciation is not happiness, though it may be
+something much better.
+
+That man, as a "political animal," is susceptible of a vast amount of
+improvement, by education, by instruction, and by the application of his
+intelligence to the adaptation of tne conditions of life to his higher
+needs, I entertain not the slightest doubt. But, so long as he remains
+liable to error, intellectual or moral; so long as he is compelled to be
+perpetually on guard against the cosmic forces, whose ends are not
+his ends, without and within himself; so long as he is haunted
+by inexpugnable memories and hopeless aspirations; so long as the
+recognition of his intellectual limitations forces him to acknowledge
+his incapacity to penetrate the mystery of existence; the prospect of
+attaining untroubled happiness, or of a state which can, even remotely,
+deserve the title of perfection, appears to me to be as misleading an
+illusion as ever was dangled before the eyes of poor humanity. And there
+have been many of them.
+
+That which lies before the human race is a constant struggle to maintain
+and improve, in opposition to the State of Nature, the State of Art of
+an organized polity; in which, and by which, man may develop a worthy
+civilization, capable of maintaining and constantly improving itself,
+until the evolution of our globe shall have entered so far upon its
+downward course that the cosmic process resumes its sway; and, once
+more, the State of Nature prevails over the surface of our planet.
+
+
+CCXXXIX
+
+From very low forms up to the highest--in the animal no less than in the
+vegetable kingdom--the process of life presents the same appearance of
+cyclical evolution. Nay, we have but to cast our eyes over the rest of
+the world and cyclical change presents itself on all sides. It meets us
+in the water that flows to the sea and returns to the springs; in the
+heavenly bodies that wax and wane, go and return to their places; in the
+inexorable sequence of the ages of man's life; in that successive rise,
+apogee, and fall of dynasties and of states which is the most prominent
+topic of civil history.
+
+
+CCXL
+
+As no man fording a swift stream can dip his foot twice into the same
+water, so no man can, with exactness, affirm of anything in the sensible
+world that it is. As he utters the words, nay, as he thinks them, the
+predicate ceases to be applicable; the present has become the past; the
+"is" should be "was." And the more we learn of the nature of things, the
+more evident is it that what we call rest is only unperceived activity;
+that seeming peace is silent but strenuous battle. In every part, at
+every moment, the state of the cosmos is the expression of a transitory
+adjustment of contending forces; a scene of strife, in which all the
+combatants fall in turn. What is true of each part is true of the whole.
+Natural knowledge tends more and more to the conclusion that "all the
+choir of heaven and furniture of the earth" are the transitory forms of
+parcels of cosmic substance wending along the road of evolution, from
+nebulous potentiality, through endless growths of sun and planet and
+satellite; through all varieties of matter; through infinite diversities
+of life and thought; possibly, through modes of being of which we
+neither have a conception, nor are competent to form any, back to
+the indefinable latency from which they arose. Thus the most obvious
+attribute of the cosmos is its impermanence. It assumes the aspect not
+so much of a permanent entity as of a changeful process, in which naught
+endures save the flow of energy and the rational order which pervades
+it.
+
+
+CCLXI
+
+Man, the animal, in fact, has worked his way to the headship of the
+sentient world, and has become the superb animal which he is in virtue
+of his success in the struggle for existence. The conditions having
+been of a certain order, man's organization has adjusted itself to them
+better than mat of his competitors in the cosmic strife. In the case of
+mankind, the self-assertion, the unscrupulous seizing upon all that
+can be grasped, the tenacious holding of all that can be kept, which
+constitute the essence of the struggle for existence, have answered.
+For his successful progress, throughout the savage state, man has been
+largely indebted to those qualities which he shares with the ape and
+the tiger; his exceptional physical organization; his cunning, his
+sociability, his curiosity, and his imitativeness; his ruthless and
+ferocious destructiveness when his anger is roused by opposition.
+
+But, in proportion as men have passed from anarchy to social
+organization, and in proportion as civilization has grown in worth,
+these deeply ingrained serviceable qualities have become defects. After
+the manner of successful persons, civilized man would gladly kick down
+the ladder by which he has climbed. He would be only too pleased to see
+"the ape and tiger die." But they decline to suit his convenience; and
+the unwelcome intrusion of these boon companions of his hot youth into
+the ranged existence of civil life adds pains and griefs, innumerable
+and immeasurably great, to those which the cosmic process necessarily
+brings on the mere animal. In fact, civilized man brands all these ape
+and tiger promptings with the name of sins; he punishes many of the acts
+which flow from them as crimes; and, in extreme cases, he does his best
+to put an end to the survival of the fittest of former days by axe and
+rope.
+
+
+CCXLII
+
+In Hindustan, as in Ionia, a period of relatively high and tolerably
+stable civilization had succeeded long ages of semi-barbarism and
+struggle. Out of wealth and security had come leisure and refinement,
+and, close at their heels, had followed the malady of thought. To
+the struggle for bare existence, which never ends, though it may be
+alleviated and partially disguised for a fortunate few, succeeded the
+struggle to make existence intelligible and to bring the order of things
+into harmony with the moral sense of man, which also never ends, but,
+for the thinking few, becomes keener with every increase of knowledge
+and with every step towards the realization of a worthy ideal of life.
+
+Two thousand five hundred years ago the value of civilization was as
+apparent as it is now; then, as now, it was obvious that only in the
+garden of an orderly polity can the finest fruits humanity is capable of
+bearing be produced. But it had also become evident that the blessings
+of culture were not unmixed. The garden was apt to turn into a hothouse.
+The stimulation of the senses, the pampering of the emotions, endlessly
+multiplied the sources of pleasure. The constant widening of the
+intellectual field indefinitely extended the range of that especially
+human faculty of looking before and after, which adds to the fleeting
+present those old and new worlds of the past and the future, wherein men
+dwell the more the higher their culture. But that very sharpening of the
+sense and that subtle refinement of emotion, which brought such a wealth
+of pleasures, were fatally attended by a proportional enlargement of the
+capacity for suffering; and the divine faculty of imagination, while it
+created new heavens and new earths, provided them with the corresponding
+hells of futile regret for the past and morbid anxiety for the future.
+
+
+CCXLIII
+
+One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the
+conception of justice. Society is impossible unless those who are
+associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct towards one
+another; its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide
+by that agreement; and, so far as they waver, that mutual trust which is
+the bond of society is weakened or destroyed. Wolves could not hunt in
+packs except for the real, though unexpressed, understanding that they
+should not attack one another during the chase. The most rudimentary
+polity is a pack of men living under the like tacit, or expressed,
+understanding; and having made the very important advance upon wolf
+society, that they agree to use the force of the whole body against
+individuals who violate it and in favour of those who observe it. This
+observance of a common understanding, with the consequent distribution
+of punishments and rewards according to accepted rules, received the
+name of justice, while the contrary was called injustice. Early ethics
+did not take much note of the animus of the violator of the rules.
+But civilization could not advance far without the establishment of a
+capital distinction between the case of involuntary and that of wilful
+misdeed; between a merely wrong action and a guilty one.
+
+And, with increasing refinement of moral appreciation, the problem of
+desert, which arises out of this distinction, acquired more and more
+theoretical and practical importance. If life must be given for life,
+yet it was recognized that the unintentional slayer did not altogether
+deserve death; and, by a sort of compromise between the public and the
+private conception of justice, a sanctuary was provided in which he
+might take refuge from the avenger of blood.
+
+The idea of justice thus underwent a gradual sublimation from punishment
+and reward according to acts, to punishment and reward according to
+desert; or, in other words, according to motive. Righteousness, that is,
+action from right motive, not only became synonymous with justice, but
+the positive constituent of innocence and the very heart of goodness.
+
+
+CCXLIV
+
+Everyday experience familiarizes us with the facts which are grouped
+under the name of heredity. Every one of us bears upon him obvious marks
+of his parentage, perhaps of remoter relationships. More particularly,
+the sum of tendencies to act in a certain, way, which we call
+"character," is often to be traced through a long series of progenitors
+and collaterals. So we may justly say that this "character"--this moral
+and intellectual essence of a man--does veritably pass over from
+one fleshy tabernacle to another, ana does really transmigrate from
+generation to generation. In the new-born infant the character of
+the stock lies latent, and the Ego is little more than a bundle
+of potentialities. But, very early, these become actualities; from
+childhood to age they manifest themselves in dulness or brightness,
+weakness or strength, viciousness or uprightness; and with each feature
+modified by confluence with another character, if by nothing else, the
+character passes on to its incarnation in new bodies.
+
+
+CCXLV
+
+Only one rule of conduct could be based upon the remarkable theory of
+which I have endeavoured to give a reasoned outline. It was folly
+to continue to exist when an overplus of pain was certain; and the
+probabilities in favour of the increase of misery with the prolongation
+of existence, were so overwhelming. Slaying the body only made matters
+worse; there was nothing for it but to slay the soul by the voluntary
+arrest of all its activities. Property, social ties, family affections,
+common companionship, must be abandoned; the most natural appetites,
+even that for food, must be suppressed, or at least minimized; until all
+that remained of a man was the impassive, extenuated, mendicant monk,
+self-hypnotised into cataleptic trances, which the deluded mystic took
+for foretastes of the final union with Brahma.
+
+
+CCXLVI
+
+If the cosmos is the effect of an immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely
+beneficent cause, the existence in it of real evil, still less of
+necessarily inherent evil, is plainly inadmissible. Yet the universal
+experience of mankind testified then, as now, that, whether we look
+within us or without us, evil stares us in the face on all sides; that
+if anything is real, pain and sorrow and wrong are realities.
+
+It would be a new thing in history if _a priori_ philosophers were
+daunted by the factious opposition of experience; and the Stoics were
+the last men to allow themselves to be beaten by mere facts. "Give me a
+doctrine and I will find the reasons for it," said Chrysippus. So they
+perfected, if they did not invent, that ingenious and plausible form of
+pleading, the Theodicy; for the purpose of showing firstly, that
+there is no such thing as evil; secondly, that if there is, it is the
+necessary correlate of good; and, moreover, that it is either due to our
+own fault, or inflicted for our benefit.
+
+
+CCXLVII
+
+Unfortunately, it is much easier to shut one's eyes to good than to
+evil. Pain and sorrow knock at our doors more loudly than pleasure
+and happiness; and the prints of their heavy footsteps are less easily
+effaced.
+
+
+CCXLVIII
+
+In the language of the Stoa, "Nature" was a word of many meanings. There
+was the "Nature" of the cosmos, and the "Nature" of man. In the latter,
+the animal "nature," which man shares with a moiety of the living part
+of the cosmos, was distinguished from a higher "nature." Even in
+this higher nature there were grades of rank. The logical faculty is an
+instrument which may be turned to account for any purpose. The passions
+and the emotions are so closely tied to tne lower nature that they may
+be considered to be pathological, rather than normal, phenomena. The one
+supreme, hegemonic, faculty, which constitutes the essential "nature"
+of man, is most nearly represented by that which, in the language of a
+later philosophy, has been called the pure reason. It is this "nature"
+which holds up the ideal of the supreme good and demands absolute
+submission of the will to its behests. It is this which commands all men
+to love one another, to return good for evil, to regard one another as
+fellow-citizens of one great state. Indeed, seeing that the progress
+towards perfection of a civilised state, or polity, depends on the
+obedience of its members to these commands, the Stoics sometimes termed
+the pure reason the "political" nature. Unfortunately, the sense of the
+adjective has undergone so much modification that the application of it
+to that which commands the sacrifice of self to the common good would
+now sound almost grotesque.
+
+
+CCXLIX
+
+The majority of us, I apprehend, profess neither pessimism nor optimism.
+We hold that the world is neither so good, nor so bad, as it conceivably
+might be; and, as most of us have reason, now and again, to discover
+that it can be. Those who have failed to experience the joys that make
+life worth living are, probably, in as small a minority as those who
+have never known the griefs that rob existence of its savour and turn
+its richest fruits into mere dust and ashes.
+
+
+CCL
+
+There is another fallacy which appears to me to pervade the so-called
+"ethics of evolution." It is the notion that because, on the whole,
+animals and plants have advanced in perfection of organization by
+means of the struggle for existence and the consequent "survival of the
+fittest"; therefore men in society, men as ethical beings, must look to
+the same process to help them towards perfection. I suspect that this
+fallacy has arisen out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the phrase
+"survival of the fittest." "Fittest" has a connotation of "best"; and
+about "best" there hangs a moral flavour. In cosmic nature, however,
+what is "fittest" depends upon the conditions. Long since, I ventured to
+point out that if our hemisphere were to cool again, the survival of
+the fittest might bring about, in the vegetable kingdom, a population
+of more and more stunted and humbler and humbler organisms, until the
+"fittest" that survived might be nothing but lichens, diatoms, and such
+microscopic organisms as those which give red snow its colour; while, if
+it became hotter, the pleasant valleys of the Thames and Isis might
+be uninhabitable by any animated beings save those that flourish in a
+tropical jungle. They, as the fittest, the best adapted to the changed
+conditions, would survive.
+
+
+CCLI
+
+The practice of that which is ethically best--what we call goodness or
+virtue--involves a course of conduct which, in all respects, is opposed
+to that which leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence. In
+place of ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of
+thrusting aside, or treading down, all competitors, it requires that
+the individual shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows; its
+influence is directed, not so much to the survival of the fittest, as
+to the fitting of as many as possible to survive. It repudiates the
+gladiatorial theory of existence. It demands that each man who enters
+into the enjoyment of the advantages of a polity shall be mindful of his
+debt to those who have laboriously constructed it: and shall take heed
+that no act of his weakens the fabric in which he has been permitted
+to live. Laws and moral precepts are directed to the end of curbing
+the cosmic process and reminding the individual of his duty to the
+community, to the protection and influence of which he owes, if not
+existence itself, at least the life of something better than a brutal
+savage.
+
+
+CCLII
+
+The theory of evolution encourages no millennial anticipations. If, for
+millions of years, our globe has taken the upward road, yet, some time,
+the summit will be reached and the downward route will be commenced. The
+most daring imagination will hardly venture upon the suggestion that the
+power and the intelligence of man can ever arrest the procession of the
+great year.
+
+Moreover, the cosmic nature born with us and, to a large extent,
+necessary for our maintenance, is the outcome of millions of years of
+severe training, and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries
+will suffice to subdue its masterfulness to purely ethical ends. Ethical
+nature may count upon having to reckon with a tenacious and powerful
+enemy as long as the world lasts. But, on the other hand, I see no limit
+to the extent to which intelligence and will, guided by sound principles
+of investigation, and organized in common effort, may modify the
+conditions of existence, for a period longer than that now covered by
+history. And much may be done to change the nature of man himself.
+The intelligence which has converted the brother of the wolf into the
+faithful guardian of the flock ought to be able to do something towards
+curbing the instincts of savagery in civilized men.
+
+But if we may permit ourselves a larger hope of abatement of the
+essential evil of the world than was possible to those who, in the
+infancy of exact knowledge, faced the problem of existence more than
+a score of centuries ago, I deem it an essential condition of the
+realization of that hope that we should cast aside the notion that the
+escape from pain and sorrow is the proper object of life.
+
+
+CCLIII
+
+We have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our race, when
+good and evil could be met with the same "frolic welcome"; the attempts
+to escape from evil, whether Indian or Greek, have ended in flight
+from the battle-field; it remains to us to throw aside the youthful
+over-confidence and the no less youthful discouragement of nonage. We
+are grown men, and must play the man
+
+                           strong in will
+     To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield,
+
+cherishing the good that falls in our way, and bearing the evil, in and
+around us, with stout hearts set on diminishing it. So far, we all may
+strive in one faith towards one hope:
+
+     It may be that the gulfs will wash us down,
+     It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles,
+
+ .... but something ere the end,
+     Some work of noble note may yet be done.
+
+
+CCLIV
+
+I do not suppose that I am exceptionally endowed because I have all my
+life enjoyed a keen perception of the beauty offered us by nature and
+by art Now physical science may and probably will, some day, enable our
+posterity to set forth the exact physical concomitants and conditions of
+the strange rapture of beauty. But if ever that day arrives, the rapture
+will remain, just as it is now, outside and beyond the physical world;
+and, even in the mental world, something superadded to mere sensation.
+I do not wish to crow unduly over my humble cousin the orang, but in
+the aesthetic province, as in that of tine intellect, I am afraid he
+is nowhere. I doubt not he would detect a fruit amidst a wilderness of
+leaves where I could see nothing; but I am tolerably confident that he
+has never been awestruck, as I have been, by the dim religious gloom, as
+of a temple devoted to the earthgods, of the tropical forests which
+he inhabits. Yet I doubt not that our poor long-armed and short-legged
+friend, as he sits meditatively munching his durian fruit, has something
+behind that sad Socratic face of his which is utterly "beyond the bounds
+of physical science." Physical science may know all about his clutching
+the fruit and munching it and digesting it, and how the physical
+titillation of his palate is transmitted to some microscopic cells
+of the gray matter of his brain. But the feelings of sweetness and of
+satisfaction which, for a moment, hang out their signal lights in his
+melancholy eyes, are as utterly outside the bounds of physics as is the
+"fine frenzy" of a human rhapsodist.
+
+
+CCIV
+
+When I was a mere boy, with a perverse tendency to think when I ought
+to have been playing, my mind was greatly exercised by this formidable
+problem, What would become of things if they lost their qualities?
+As the qualities had no objective existence, and the thing without
+qualities was nothing, the solid world seemed whittled away--to my
+great horror. As I grew older, and learned to use the terms "matter"
+and "force," the boyish problem was revived, _mutato nomine_. On the
+one hand, the notion of matter without force seemed to resolve the world
+into a set of geometrical ghosts, too dead even to jabber. On the other
+hand, Boscovich's hypothesis, by which matter was resolved into centres
+of force, was very attractive. But when one tried to think it out,
+what in the world became of force considered as an objective entity?
+Force, even the most materialistic of philosophers will agree with the
+most idealistic, is nothing but a name for the cause of motion. And if,
+with Boscovich, I resolved things into centres of force, then matter
+vanished altogether and left immaterial entities in its place. One might
+as well frankly accept Idealism and have done with it.
+
+
+CCLVI
+
+Tolerably early in life I discovered that one of the unpardonable
+sins, in the eyes of most people, is for a man to presume to go about
+unlabeled. The world regards such a person as the police do an unmuzzled
+dog, not under proper control. I could find no label that would suit
+me, so, in my desire to range myself and be respectable, I invented one;
+and, as the chief thing I was sure of was that I did not know a great
+many things that the -ists and the -ites about me professed to be
+familiar with, I called myself an Agnostic. Surely no denomination could
+be more modest or more appropriate; and I cannot imagine why I should be
+every now and then haled out of my refuge and declared sometimes to be
+a Materialist, sometimes an Atheist, sometimes a Positivist, and
+sometimes, alas and alack, a cowardly or reactionary Obscurantist.
+
+
+CCLVII
+
+Lastly, with respect to the old riddle of the freedom of the will. In
+the only sense in which the word freedom is intelligible to me--that is
+to say, the absence of any restraint upon doing what one likes within
+certain limits--physical science certainly gives no more ground for
+doubting it than the common sense of mankind does. And if physical
+science, in strengthening our belief in the universality of causation
+and abolishing chance as an absurdity, leads to the conclusion of
+determinism, it does no more than follow the track of consistent and
+logical thinkers in philosophy and in theology, before it existed or was
+thought of. Whoever accepts the universality of the law of causation as
+a dogma of philosophy, denies the existence of uncaused phenomena. And
+the essence of that which is improperly called the freewill doctrine is
+that occasionally, at any rate, human volition is self-caused, that is
+to say, not caused at all; for to cause oneself one must have anteceded
+oneself--which is, to say the least of it, difficult to imagine.
+
+
+CCLVIII
+
+If the diseases of society consist in the weakness of its faith in
+the existence of the God of the theologians, in a future state, and in
+uncaused volitions, the indication, as the doctors say, is to suppress
+Theology and Philosophy, whose bickerings about things of which they
+know nothing have been the prime cause and continual sustenance of that
+evil scepticism which is the Nemesis of meddling with the unknowable.
+
+Cinderella is modestly conscious of her ignorance of these high matters.
+She lights the fire, sweeps the house, and provides the dinner; and is
+rewarded by being told that she is a base creature, devoted to low and
+material interests. But in her garret she has fairy visions out of the
+ken of the pair of shrews who are quarrelling downstairs. She sees the
+order which pervades the seeming disorder of the world; the great drama
+of evolution, with its full share of pity and terror, but also with
+abundant goodness and beauty, unrolls itself before her eyes; and she
+learns, in her heart of hearts, the lesson, that the foundation of
+morality is to have done, once and for all, with lying; to give up
+pretending to believe that for which there is no evidence, and repeating
+unintelligible propositions about things beyond the possibilities of
+knowledge.
+
+She knows that the safety of morality lies neither in the adoption of
+this or that philosophical speculation, or this or that theological
+creed, but in a real and living belief in that fixed order of nature
+which sends social disorganisation upon the track of immorality, as
+surely as it sends physical disease after physical trespasses. And of
+that firm and lively faith it is her high mission to be the priestess.
+
+
+CCLIX
+
+The first act of a new-born child is to draw a deep breath. In fact, it
+will never draw a deeper, inasmuch as the passages and chambers of the
+lungs, once distended with air, do not empty themselves again; it is
+only a fraction of their contents which passes in and out with the flow
+and the ebb of the respiratory tide. Mechanically, this act of drawing
+breath, or inspiration, is of the same nature as that by which the
+handles of a bellows are separated, in order to fill the bellows with
+air; and, in like manner, it involves that expenditure of energy which
+we call exertion, or work, or labour. It is, therefore, no mere metaphor
+to say that man is destined to a life of toil: the work of respiration
+which began with his first breath ends only with his last; nor does one
+born in the purple get off with a lighter task than the child who first
+sees light under a hedge.
+
+How is it that the new-born infant is enabled to perform this first
+instalment of the sentence of lifelong labour which no man may escape?
+Whatever else a child may be, in respect of this particular question, it
+is a complicated piece of mechanism, built up out of materials supplied
+by its mother; and in the course of such building-up, provided with a
+set of motors--the muscles. Each of these muscles contains a stock of
+substance capable of yielding energy under certain conditions, one of
+which is a change of state in the nerve-fibres connected with it The
+powder in a loaded gun is such another stock of substance capable of
+yielding energy in consequence of a change of state in the mechanism of
+the lock, which intervenes between the finger of the man who pulls
+the trigger and the cartridge. If that change is brought about, the
+potential energy of the powder passes suddenly into actual energy, and
+does the work of propelling the bullet The powder, therefore, may be
+appropriately called work-stuff not only because it is stuff which is
+easily made to yield work in the physical sense, but because a good
+deal of work in the economical sense has contributed to its production.
+Labour was necessary to collect, transport, and purify the raw sulphur
+and saltpetre; to cut wood and convert it into powdered charcoal; to
+mix these ingredients in the right proportions; to give the mixture the
+proper grain, and so on. The powder once formed part of the stock, or
+capital, of a powder-maker: and it is not only certain natural bodies
+which are collected and stored in the gunpowder, but the labour bestowed
+on the operations mentioned may be figuratively said to be incorporated
+in it.
+
+
+CCLX
+
+In principle, the work-stuff stored in the muscles of the new-born child
+is comparable to that stored in the gun-barrel. The infant is launched
+into altogether new surroundings; and these operate through the
+mechanism of the nervous machinery, with the result that the potential
+energy of some of the work-stuff in the muscles which bring about
+inspiration is suddenly converted into actual energy; and this,
+operating through the mechanism of the respiratory apparatus, gives rise
+to an act of inspiration. As the bullet is propelled by the "going off"
+of the powder, as it might be said that the ribs are raised and the
+midriff depressed by the "going off" of certain portions of muscular
+work-stuff. This work-stuff is part of a stock or capital of that
+commodity stored up in the child s organism before birth, at the expense
+of the mother; and the mother has made good her expenditure by drawing
+upon the capital of food-stuffs which furnished her daily maintenance.
+
+Under these circumstances, it does not appear to me to be open to doubt
+that the primary act of outward labour in the series which necessarily
+accompany the life of man is dependent upon the pre-existence of a stock
+of material which is not only of use to him, but which is disposed in
+such a manner as to be utilisable with facility. And I further imagine
+that the propriety of the application of the term "capital" to this
+stock of useful substance cannot be justly called in question; inasmuch
+as it is easy to prove that the essential constituents of the work-stuff
+accumulated in the child's muscles have merely been transferred from the
+store of food-stuffs, which everybody admits to be capital, by means
+of the maternal organism to that of the child, in which they are again
+deposited to await use. Every subsequent act of labour, in like
+manner, involves an equivalent consumption of the child's store of
+work-stuff--its vital capital; and one of the main objects of the
+process of breathing is to get rid of some of the effects of that
+consumption. It follows, then, that, even if no other than the
+respiratory work were going on in the organism, the capital of
+work-stuff, which the child brought with it into the world, must sooner
+or later be used up, and the movements of breathing must come to an end;
+just as the see-saw of the piston of a steam-engine stops when the coal
+in the fireplace has burnt away. Milk, however, is a stock of materials
+which essentially consists of savings from the food-stuffs supplied
+to the mother. And these savings are in such a physical and chemical
+condition that the organism of the child can easily convert them into
+work-stuff. That is to say, by borrowing directly from the vital
+capital of the mother, indirectly from the store in the natural bodies
+accessible to her; it can make good the loss of its own. The operation
+of borrowing, however, involves further work; that is, the labour of
+sucking, which is a mechanical operation of much the same nature as
+breathing. The child thus pays for the capital it borrows m labour; but
+as the value in work-stuff of the milk obtained is very far greater than
+the value of that labour, estimated by the consumption of work-stuff
+it involves, the operation yields a large profit to the infant. The
+overplus of food-stuff suffices to increase the child's capital of
+work-stuff; and to supply not only the materials for the enlargement of
+the "buildings and machinery" which is expressed by the child's growth,
+but also the energy required to put all these materials together, and
+to carry them to their proper places. Thus, throughout the years of
+infancy, and so long thereafter as the youth or man is not thrown upon
+his own resources, he lives by consuming the vital capital provided by
+others.
+
+
+CCLXI
+
+Let us now suppose the child come to man's estate in the condition of
+a wandering savage, dependent for his food upon what he can pick up or
+catch, after the fashion of the Australian aborigines. It is plain that
+the place of mother, as the supplier of vital capital, is now taken
+by the fruits, seeds, and roots of plants and by various kinds of
+animals....
+
+The savage, like the child, borrows the capital he needs, and, at any
+rate, intentionally, does nothing towards repayment; it would plainly be
+an improper use of the word "produce" to say that his labour in hunting
+for the roots, or the fruits, or the eggs, or the grubs and snakes,
+which he finds and eats, "produces" or contributes to "produce" them.
+The same thing is true of more advanced tribes, who are still merely
+hunters, such as the Esquimaux. They may expend more labour and skill;
+but it is spent in destruction.
+
+
+CCLXII
+
+When we find set forth as an "absolute" truth the statement that
+the essential factors in economic production are land, capital and
+labour--when this is offered as an axiom whence all sorts of other
+important truths may be deduced--it is needful to remember that the
+assertion is true only with a qualification. Undoubtedly "vital capital"
+is essential; for, as we have seen, no human work can be done unless it
+exists, not even that internal work of the body which is necessary to
+passive life. But, with respect to labour (that is, human labour) I hope
+to have left no doubt on the reader's mind that, m regard to production,
+the importance of human labour may be so small as to be almost a
+vanishing quantity.
+
+
+CCLXIII
+
+The one thing needful for economic production is the green plant, as the
+sole producer of vital capital from natural inorganic bodies. Men might
+exist without labour (in the ordinary sense) and without land; without
+plants they must inevitably perish.
+
+
+CCLXIV
+
+Since no amount of labour can produce an ounce of food-stuff beyond
+the maximum producible by a limited number of plants, under the most
+favourable circumstances in regard to those conditions which are not
+affected by labour, it follows that, if the number of men to be fed
+increases indefinitely, a time must come when some will have to starve.
+That is the essence of the so-called Malthusian doctrine; and it is a
+truth which, to my mind, is as plain as the general proposition that a
+quantity which constantly increases will, some time or other, exceed any
+greater quantity the amount of which is fixed.
+
+
+CCLXV
+
+"Virtually" is apt to cover more intellectual sins than "charity" does
+moral delicts.
+
+
+CCLXVI
+
+The notion that the value of a thing bears any necessary relation to the
+amount of labour (average or otherwise) bestowed upon it, is a fallacy
+which needs no further refutation than it has already received. The
+average amount of labour bestowed upon warming-pans confers no value
+upon them in the eyes of a Gold-Coast negro; nor would an Esquimaux give
+a slice of blubber for the most elaborate of ice-machines.
+
+
+CCLXVII
+
+Who has ever imagined that wealth which, in the hands of an employer,
+is capital, ceases to be capital if it is in the hands of a labourer?
+Suppose a workman to be paid thirty shillings on Saturday evening for
+six days' labour, that thirty shillings comes out of the employer's
+capital, and receives the name of "wages" simply because it is exchanged
+for labour. In the workman's pocket, as he goes home, it is a part of
+his capital, in exactly the same sense as, half an hour before, it was
+part of the employer's capital; he is a capitalist just as much as if he
+were a Rothschild.
+
+
+CCLXVIII
+
+I think it may be not too much to say that, of all the political
+delusions which are current in this queer world, the very stupidest are
+those which assume that labour and capital are necessarily antagonistic;
+that all capital is produced by labour and therefore, by natural right,
+is the property of the labourer; that the possessor of capital is a
+robber who preys on the workman and appropriates to himself that which
+he has had no share in producing.
+
+On the contrary, capital and labour are necessarily, close allies;
+capital is never a product of human labour alone; it exists apart from
+human labour; it is the necessary antecedent of labour; and it furnishes
+the materials on which labour is employed. The only indispensable form
+of capital--vital capital--cannot be produced by human labour. All that
+man can do is to favour its formation by the real producers. There is no
+intrinsic relation between the amount of labour bestowed on an article
+and its value in exchange. The claim of labour to the total result of
+operations which are rendered possible only by capital is simply an _a
+priori_ iniquity.
+
+
+CCLXIX
+
+The vast and varied procession of events, which we call Nature, affords
+a sublime spectacle and an inexhaustible wealth of attractive problems
+to the speculative observer. If we confine our attention to that aspect
+which engages the attention of the intellect, nature appears a beautiful
+and harmonious whole, the incarnation of a faultless logical process,
+from certain premisses in the past to an inevitable conclusion in the
+future. But if it be regarded from a less elevated, though more human,
+point of view; if our moral sympathies are allowed to influence our
+judgment, and we permit ourselves to criticize our great mother as we
+criticize one another; then our verdict, at least so far as sentient
+nature is concerned, can hardly be so favourable.
+
+In sober truth, to those who have made a study of the phenomena of
+life as they are exhibited by the higher forms of the animal world, the
+optimistic dogma, that this is the best of all possible worlds, will
+seem little better than a libel upon possibility. It is really only
+another instance to be added to the many extant, of the audacity of _a
+priori_ speculators who, having created God in their own image, find no
+difficulty in assuming that the Almighty must have been actuated by
+the same motives as themselves. They are quite sure that, had any other
+course been practicable, He would no more have made infinite suffering
+a necessary ingredient of His handiwork than a respectable philosopher
+would have done the like.
+
+But even the modified optimism of the time-honoured thesis of
+physico-theology, that the sentient world is, on the whole, regulated
+by principles of benevolence, does but ill stand the test of impartial
+confrontation with the facts of the case. No doubt it is quite true
+that sentient nature affords hosts of examples of subtle contrivances
+directed towards the production of pleasure or the avoidance of pain;
+and it may be proper to say that these are evidences of benevolence.
+But if so, why is it not equally proper to say of the equally numerous
+arrangements, the no less necessary result of which is the production of
+pain, that they are evidences of malevolence?
+
+If a vast amount of that which, in a piece of human workmanship, we
+should call skill, is visible in those parts of the organization of a
+deer to which it owes its ability to escape from beasts of prey, there
+is at least equal skill displayed in that bodily mechanism of the wolf
+which enables him to track, and sooner or later to bring down, the
+deer. Viewed under the dry light of science, deer and wolf are alike
+admirable; and, if both were non-sentient automata, there would be
+nothing to qualify our admiration of the action of the one on the other.
+But the fact that the deer suffers, while the wolf inflicts suffering,
+engages our moral sympathies. We should call men like the deer innocent
+and good, men such as the wolf malignant and bad; we should call those
+who defended the deer and aided him to escape brave and compassionate,
+and those who helped the wolf in his bloody work base and cruel. Surely,
+if we transfer these judgments to nature outside the world of man at
+all, we must do so impartially. In that case, the goodness of the right
+hand which helps the deer, and wickedness of the left hand which eggs
+on the wolf, will neutralize one another: and the course of nature will
+appear to be neither moral nor immoral, but non-moral.
+
+This conclusion is thrust upon us by analogous facts in every part of
+the sentient world; yet, mas-much as it not only jars upon prevalent
+prejudices, but arouses the natural dislike to that which is painful,
+much ingenuity has been exercised in devising an escape from it.
+
+
+CCLXX
+
+From the point of view of the moralist the animal world is on about the
+same level as a gladiator's show. The creatures are fairly well
+treated, and set to fight--whereby the strongest, the swiftest, and the
+cunningest live to fight another day. The spectator has no need to turn
+his thumbs down, as no quarter is given. He must admit that the skill
+and training displayed are wonderful. But he must shut his eyes if he
+would not see that more or less enduring suffering is the meed of both
+vanquished and victor. And since the great game is going on in every
+corner of the world, thousands of times a minute; since, were our ears
+sharp enough, we need not descend to the gates of hell to hear--
+
+       ....sospiri, pianti, ed alti guai.
+     Voci alte e fioche, e suon di man con elle
+
+--it seems to follow that, if this world is governed by benevolence, it
+must be a different sort of benevolence from that of John Howard.
+
+
+CCLXXI
+
+This may not be the best of all possible worlds, but to say that it
+is the worst is mere petulant nonsense. A worn-out voluptuary may find
+nothing good under the sun, or a vain and inexperienced youth, who
+cannot get the moon he cries for, may vent his irritation in pessimistic
+moanings; but there can be no doubt in the mind of any reasonable
+person that mankind could, would, and in fact do, get on fairly well
+with vastly less happiness and far more misery than find their way into
+the lives of nine people out of ten. If each and all of us had been
+visited by an attack of neuralgia, or of extreme mental depression,
+for one hour in every twenty-four--a supposition which many tolerably
+vigorous people know, to their cost, is not extravagant--the burden
+of life would have been immensely increased without much practical
+hindrance to its general course. Men with any manhood in them find life
+quite worth living under worse conditions than these.
+
+
+CCLXXII
+
+There is another sufficiently obvious fact, which renders the hypothesis
+that the course of sentient nature is dictated by malevolence quite
+untenable. A vast multitude of pleasures, and these among the purest and
+the best, are superfluities, bits of good which are to all appearance
+unnecessary as inducements to live, and are, so to speak, thrown into
+the bargain of life. To those who experience them, few delights can be
+more entrancing than such as are afforded by natural beauty, or by the
+arts, and especially by music; but they are products of, rather than
+factors in, evolution, and it is probable that they are known, in any
+considerable degree, to but a very small proportion of mankind.
+
+
+CCLXXIII
+
+The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be that, if Ormuzd has not
+had his way in this world, neither has Ahriman. Pessimism is as little
+consonant with the facts of sentient existence as optimism. If we desire
+to represent the course of nature in terms of human thought, and assume
+that it was intended to be that which it is, we must say that its
+governing principle is intellectual and not moral; that it is a
+materialized logical process, accompanied by pleasures and pains, the
+incidence of which, in the majority of cases, has not the slightest
+reference to moral desert That the rain falls alike upon the just and
+the unjust, and that those upon whom the Tower of Siloam fell were no
+worse than their neighbours, seem to be Oriental modes of expressing the
+same conclusion.
+
+
+CCLXXIV
+
+In the strict sense of the word "nature," it denotes the sum of the
+phenomenal world, of that which has been, and is, and will be; and
+society, like art, is therefore a part of nature. But it is convenient
+to distinguish those parts of nature in which man plays the part of
+immediate cause, as something apart; and therefore, society, like art,
+is usefully to be considered as distinct from nature. It is the more
+desirable, and even necessary, to make this distinction, since society
+differs from nature in having a definite moral object; whence it comes
+about that the course shaped by the ethical man--the member of society
+or citizen--necessarily runs counter to that which tne non-ethical
+man--the primitive savage, or man as a mere member of the animal
+kingdom--tends to adopt. The latter fights out the struggle for
+existence to the bitter end, like any other animal; the former devotes
+his best energies to the object of setting limits to the struggle.
+
+
+CCLXXV
+
+The first men who substituted the state of mutual peace for that of
+mutual war, whatever the motive which impelled them to take that step,
+created society. But, in establishing peace, they obviously put a limit
+upon the struggle for existence. Between the members of that society,
+at any rate, it was not to be pursued _ŕ outrance_. And of all the
+successive shapes which society has taken, that most nearly approaches
+perfection in which the war of individual against individual is most
+strictly limited. The primitive savage, tutored by Istar, appropriated
+whatever took his fancy, and killed whosoever opposed him, if he could.
+On the contrary, the ideal of the ethical man is to limit his freedom
+of action to a sphere in which he does not interfere with the freedom of
+others; he seeks the common weal as much as his own; and, indeed, as an
+essential part of his own welfare. Peace is both end and means with him;
+and he founds his life on a more or less complete self-restraint, which
+is the negation of the unlimited struggle for existence. He tries
+to escape from his place in the animal kingdom, founded on the free
+development of the principle of non-moral evolution, and to establish
+a kingdom of Man, governed upon the principle of moral evolution. For
+society not only has a moral end, but in its perfection, social life, is
+embodied morality.
+
+
+CCLXXVI
+
+I was once talking with a very eminent physician* about the vis
+medicatrix naturć. "Stuff!" said he; "nine times out of ten nature does
+not want to cure the man: she wants to put him in his coffin."
+
+     * The late Sir W. Gull.
+
+
+CCLXXVII
+
+Let us look at home. For seventy years peace and industry have had their
+way among us with less interruption and under more favourable conditions
+than in any other country on the face of the earth. The wealth
+of Croesus was nothing to that which we have accumulated, and our
+prosperity has filled the world with envy. But Nemesis did not forget
+Croesus: has she forgotten us?
+
+
+CCLXXVIII
+
+Judged by an ethical standard, nothing can be less satisfactory than
+the position in which we find ourselves. In a real, though incomplete,
+degree we have attained the condition of peace which is the main object
+of social organization; and, for argument's sake, it may be assumed
+that we desire nothing but that which is in itself innocent and
+praiseworthy--namely, the enjoyment of the fruits of honest industry.
+And lo! in spite of ourselves, we are in reality engaged in an
+internecine struggle for existence with our presumably no less peaceful
+and well-meaning neighbours. We seek peace and we do not ensue it. The
+moral nature in us asks for no more than is compatible with the general
+good; the non-moral nature proclaims and acts upon that fine old
+Scottish family motto, "Thou shalt starve ere I want." Let us be under
+no illusions, then. So long as unlimited multiplication goes on, no
+social organization which has ever been devised, or is likely to be
+devised, no fiddle-faddling with the distribution of wealth, will
+deliver society from the tendency to be destroyed by the reproduction
+within itself, in its intensest form, of that struggle for existence the
+limitation of which is the object of society. And however shocking
+to the moral sense this eternal competition of man against man and of
+nation against nation may be; however revolting may be the accumulation
+of misery at the negative pole of society, in contrast with that of
+monstrous wealth at the positive pole; this state of things must abide,
+and grow continually worse, so long as Istar holds her way unchecked. It
+is the true riddle of the Sphinx; and every nation which does not solve
+it will sooner or later be devoured by the monster itself has generated.
+
+
+CCLXXIX
+
+It would be folly to entertain any ill-feeling towards those neighbours
+and rivals who, like ourselves, are slaves of Istar; but if somebody
+is to be starved, the modern world has no Oracle of Delphi to which the
+nations can appeal for an indication of the victim. It is open to us
+to try our fortune; and, if we avoid impending fate, there will be a
+certain ground for believing: that we are the right people to escape.
+_Securus judical orbis_.
+
+To this end, it is well to look into the necessary conditions of our
+salvation by works. They are two, one plain to all the world and hardly
+needing insistence; the other seemingly not so plain, since too often
+it has been theoretically and practically left out of sight The obvious
+condition is that our produce snail be better than that of others. There
+is only one reason why our goods should be referred to those of our
+rivals--our customers must find them better at the price. That means
+that we must use more knowledge, skill, and industry in producing them,
+without a proportionate increase in the cost of production; and, as the
+price of labour constitutes a large element in that cost, the rate of
+wages must be restricted within certain limits. It is perfectly true
+that cheap production and cheap labour are by no means synonymous; but
+it is also true that wages cannot increase beyond a certain proportion
+without destroying cheapness. Cheapness, then, with, as part and parcel
+of cheapness, a moderate price of labour, is essential to our success as
+competitors in the markets of the world.
+
+The second condition is really quite as plainly indispensable as the
+first, if one thinks seriously about the matter. It is social stability.
+Society-is stable when the wants of its members obtain as much
+satisfaction as, life being what it is, common sense and experience show
+may be reasonably expected. Mankind, in general, care very little for
+forms of government or ideal considerations of any sort; and nothing
+really stirs the great multitude to break with custom and incur the
+manifest perils of revolt except the belief that misery in this world,
+or damnation in the next, or both, are threatened by the continuance of
+the state of things in which they have been brought up. But when they
+do attain that conviction, society becomes as unstable as a package of
+dynamite, and a very small matter will produce the explosion which sends
+it back to the chaos of savagery.
+
+
+CCLXXX
+
+Intelligence, knowledge, and skill are undoubtedly conditions of
+success; but of what avail are they likely to be unless they are
+backed up by honesty, energy, goodwill, and all the physical and
+moral faculties that go to the making of manhood, and unless they are
+stimulated by hope of such reward as men may fairly look to? And what
+dweller in the slough of want, dwarfed in body and soul, demoralized,
+hopeless, can reasonably be expected to possess these qualities?
+
+
+CCLXXXI
+
+I am as strongly convinced as the most pronounced individualist can be,
+that it is desirable that every man should be free to act in every way
+which does not limit the corresponding freedom of his fellow-man. But
+I fail to connect that great induction of political science with
+the practical corollary which is frequently drawn from it: that the
+State--that is, the people in their corporate capacity--has no business
+to meddle with anything but the administration of justice and external
+defence. It appears to me that the amount of freedom which incorporate
+society may fitly leave to its members is not a fixed quantity, to be
+determined _a priori_ by deduction from the fiction called
+"natural rights"; but that it must be determined by, and vary with,
+circumstances. I conceive it to be demonstrable that the higher and the
+more complex the organization of the social body, the more closely is
+the life of each member bound up with that of the whole; and the larger
+becomes the category of acts which cease to be merely self-regarding, and
+which interfere with the freedom of others more or less seriously.
+
+If a squatter, living ten miles away from any neighbour, chooses to burn
+his house down to get rid of vermin, there may be no necessity (in the
+absence of insurance offices) that the law should interfere with his
+freedom of action; his act can hurt nobody but himself. But if the
+dweller in a street chooses to do the same thing, the State very
+properly makes such a proceeding a crime, and punishes it as such. He
+does meddle with his neighbour's freedom, and that seriously. So it
+might, perhaps, be a tenable doctrine, that it would be needless, and
+even tyrannous, to make education compulsory in a sparse agricultural
+population, living in abundance on the produce of its own soil; but, in
+a densely populated manufacturing country, struggling for existence with
+competitors, every ignorant person tends to become a burden upon, and,
+so far, an infringer of the liberty of, his fellows, and an obstacle to
+their success. Under such circumstances an education rate is, in fact, a
+war tax, levied for purposes of defence.
+
+
+CCLXXXII
+
+That State action always has been more or less misdirected, and always
+will be so, is, I believe, perfectly true. But I am not aware that it is
+more true of the action of men in their corporate capacity than it is
+of the doings of individuals. The wisest and most dispassionate man
+in existence, merely wishing to go from one stile in a field to the
+opposite, will not walk quite straight--he is always going a little
+wrong, and always correcting himself; and I can only congratulate the
+individualist who is able to say that his general course of life has
+been of a less undulatory character. To abolish State action, because
+its direction is never more than approximately correct, appears to me
+to be much the same thing as abolishing the man at the wheel altogether,
+because, do what he will, the ship yaws more or less. "Why should I be
+robbed of my property to pay for teaching another man's children?" is an
+individualist question, which is not unfrequently put as if it settles
+the whole business. Perhaps it does, but I find difficulties in seeing
+why it should. The parish in which I live makes me pay my share for the
+paving and lighting of a great many streets that I never pass through;
+and I might plead that I am robbed to smooth the way and lighten the
+darkness of other people. But I am afraid the parochial authorities
+would not let me off on this plea; and I must confess I do not see why
+they should.
+
+
+CCLXXXIII
+
+I cannot speak of my own knowledge, but I have every reason to believe
+that I came into this world a small reddish person, certainly without
+a gold spoon in my mouth, and in fact with no discernible abstract or
+concrete "rights" or property of any description. If a foot was not
+set upon me at once, as a squalling nuisance, it was either the natural
+affection of those about me, which I certainly had done nothing to
+deserve, or the fear of the law which, ages before my birth, was
+painfully built up by the society into which I intruded, that prevented
+that catastrophe. If I was nourished, cared for, taught, saved from the
+vagabondage of a wastrel, I certainly am not aware that I did anything
+to deserve those advantages. And, if I possess anything now, it strikes
+me that, though I may have fairly earned my day's wages for my
+day's work, and may justly call them my property--yet, without that
+organization of society, created out of the toil and blood of long
+generations before my time, I should probably have had nothing but a
+flint axe and an indifferent hut to call my own; and even those would be
+mine only so long as no stranger savage came my way.
+
+So that if society, having, quite gratuitously, done all these things
+for me, asks me in turn to do something towards its preservation--even
+if that something is to contribute to the teaching of other men's
+children--I really, in spite of all my individualist learnings, feel
+rather ashamed to say no. And, if I were not ashamed, I cannot say that
+I think that society would be dealing unjustly with me in converting
+the moral obligation into a legal one. There is a manifest unfairness in
+letting all the burden be borne by the willing horse.
+
+
+CCLXXXIV
+
+It is impossible to insist too strongly upon the fact that efficient
+teachers of science and of technology are not to be made by the
+processes in vogue at ordinary training colleges. The memory loaded with
+mere bookwork is not the thing wanted--is, in fact, rather worse
+than useless--in the teacher of scientific subjects. It is absolutely
+essential that his mind should be full of knowledge and not of mere
+learning, and that what he knows should have been learned in the
+laboratory rather than in the library.
+
+
+CCLXXXV
+
+The attempt to form a just conception of the value of work done in any
+department of human knowledge, and of its significance as an indication
+of the intellectual and moral qualities of which it was the product,
+is an undertaking which must always be beset with difficulties, and may
+easily end in making the limitations of the appraiser more obvious
+than the true worth of that which he appraises. For the judgment of a
+contemporary is liable to be obscured by intellectual incompatibilities
+and warped by personal antagonisms; while the critic of a later
+generation, though he may escape the influence of these sources of
+error, is often ignorant, or forgetful, of the conditions under which
+the labours of his predecessors have been carried on. He is prone to
+lose sight of the fact that without their clearing of the ground and
+rough-hewing of the foundation-stones, the stately edifice of later
+builders could not have been erected.
+
+
+CCLXXXVI
+
+The vulgar antithesis of fact and theory is founded on a misconception
+of the nature of scientific theory, which is, or ought to be, no more
+than the expression of fact in a general form. Whatever goes beyond such
+expression is hypothesis; and hypotheses are not ends, but means. They
+should be regarded as instruments by which new lines of inquiry
+are indicated; or by the aid of which a provisional coherency and
+intelligibility may be given to seemingly disconnected groups of
+phenomena. The most useful of servants to the man of science, they
+are the worst of masters. And when the establishment of the hypothesis
+becomes the end, and fact is alluded to only so far as it suits the
+"Idee," science has no longer anything to do with the business.
+
+
+CCLXXXVII
+
+Scientific observation tell us that living birds form a group or class
+of animals, through which a certain form of skeleton runs; and that this
+kind of skeleton differs in certain well-defined characters from that of
+mammals. On the other hand, if anyone utterly ignorant of osteology, but
+endowed with the artistic sense of form, were set before a bird skeleton
+and a mammalian skeleton, he would at once see that the two were
+similar and yet different. Very likely he would be unable to give
+clear expression to his just sense of the differences and resemblances;
+perhaps he would make great mistakes in detail if he tried.
+Nevertheless, he would be able to draw from memory a couple of sketches,
+in which all the salient points of likeness and unlikeness would be
+reproduced with sufficient accuracy. The mere osteologist, however
+accurately he might put the resemblances and differences into words,
+if he lacked the artistic visualising faculty, might be hopelessly
+incompetent to perform any such feat; lost in details, it might not even
+occur to him that it was possible; or, still more probably, the habit of
+looking for differences might impair the perception of resemblances.
+
+Under these circumstances, the artist might be led to higher and broader
+views, and thus be more useful to the progress of science than the
+osteological expert. Not that the former attains the higher truth by a
+different method; for the way of reaching truth is one and indivisible.
+Whether he knows it or not, the artist has made a generalization
+from two sets of facts, which is perfectly scientific in form;
+and trustworthy so far as it rests upon the direct perception of
+similarities and dissimilarities. The only peculiarity of the artistic
+application of scientific method lies in the artist's power of
+visualizing the result of his mental processes, of embodying the facts
+of resemblance in a visible "type," and of showing the manner in which
+the differences may be represented as modifications of that type;
+he does, in fact, instinctively, what an architect, who desires to
+demonstrate the community of plan in certain ancient temples, does by
+the methodical construction of plans, sections, and elevations; the
+comparison of which will furnish him with the "type" of such temples.
+
+Thus, what I may term the artistic fashion of dealing with anatomy is
+not only perfectly legitimate, but has been of great utility. The harm
+of it does not begin until tine attempt is made to get more out of this
+visual projection of thought than it contains; until the origin of the
+notion of "type" is forgotten and the speculative philosopher deludes
+himself with the supposition that the generalization suggested by fact
+is an "Idea" of the Pure Reason, with which fact must, somehow or other,
+be made to agree.
+
+
+CCLXXXVIII
+
+Flowers are the primers of the morphologist; those who run may read in
+them uniformity of type amidst endless diversity, singleness of plan
+with complex multiplicity of detail. As a musician might say, every
+natural group of flowering plants is a sort of visible fugue, wandering
+about a central theme which is never forsaken, however it may,
+momentarily, cease to be apparent.
+
+
+CCLXXXIX
+
+Like all the really great men of literature, Goethe added some of the
+qualities of the man of science to those of the artist, especially the
+habit of careful and patient observation of Nature. The great poet
+was no mere book-learned speculator. His acquaintance with mineralogy,
+geology, botany and osteology, the fruit of long and wide studies, would
+have sufficed to satisfy the requirements of a professoriate in those
+days, if only he could have pleaded ignorance of everything else.
+Unfortunately for Goethe's credit with his scientific contemporaries,
+and, consequently, for the attention attracted by his work, he did not
+come forward as a man of science until the public had ranged him among
+the men of literature. And when the little men have thus classified a
+big man, they consider that the last word has been said about him; it
+appears to the thought hardly decent on his part if he venture to stray
+beyond the speciality they have assigned to him. It does not seem to
+occur to them that a clear intellect is an engine capable of supplying
+power to all sorts of mental factories; nor to admit that, as Goethe
+somewhere pathetically remarks, a man may have a right to live for
+himself as well as for the public; to follow the line of work that
+happens to interest him, rather than that which interests them.
+
+On the face of the matter it is not obvious that the brilliant poet had
+less chance of doing good service in natural science than the dullest of
+dissectors and nomenclators. Indeed, as I have endeavoured to indicate,
+there was considerable reason, a hundred years ago, for thinking that an
+infusion of the artistic way of looking at things might tend to revivify
+the somewhat mummified body of technical zoology and botany. Great ideas
+were floating about; the artistic apprehension was needed to give
+these airy nothings a local habitation and a name; to convert vague
+suppositions into definite hypotheses. And I apprehend that it was
+just this service which Goethe rendered by writing his essays on the
+intermaxillary bone, on osteology generally, and on the metamorphoses of
+plants.
+
+
+CCXC
+
+All this is mere justice to Goethe; but, as it is the unpleasant duty of
+the historian to do justice upon, as well as to, great men, it behoves
+me to add that the germs of the worst faults of later ioeculative
+morphologists are no less visible in his writings than their great
+merits. In the artist-philosopher there was, at best, a good deal more
+artist than philosopher; and when Goethe ventured into the regions which
+belong to pure science, this excess of a virtue had all the consequences
+of a vice. "Trennen und zahlen lag nicht in meiner Natur," says he; but
+the mental operations of which "analysis and numeration" are partial
+expressions are indispensable for every step of progress beyond happy
+glimpses, even in morphology; while, in physiology and in physics,
+failure in the most exact performance of these operations involves
+sheer disaster, as indeed Goethe was afforded abundant opportunity of
+learning. Yet he never understood the sharp lessons he received, and
+put down to malice, or prejudice, the ill-reception of his unfortunate
+attempts to deal with purely physical problems.
+
+
+CCXCI
+
+There was never any lack of the scientific imagination about the great
+anatomist; and the charge of indifference to general ideas, sometimes
+brought against him, is stupidly unjust. But Cuvier was one of those
+happily endowed persons in whom genius never parts company with
+common-sense; and whose perception of the importance of sound method is
+so great that they look at even a truth, hit upon by those who pursue
+an essentially vicious method, with the sort of feeling with which an
+honest trader regards the winnings of a gambler. They hold it better
+to remain poor than obtain riches by the road that, as a rule, leads to
+ruin.
+
+
+CCXCII
+
+The irony of history is nowhere more apparent than in science. Here we
+see the men, over whose minds the coming events of the world of biology
+cast their shadows, doing their best to spoil their case in stating it;
+while the man who represented sound scientific method is doing his best
+to stay the inevitable progress of thought and bolster up antiquated
+traditions. The progress of knowledge during the last seventy years
+enables us to see that neither Geoffroy, nor Cuvier, was altogether
+right nor altogether wrong; and that they were meant to hunt m couples
+instead of pulling against one another. Science has need of servants of
+very different qualifications; of artistic constructors no less than of
+men of business; of people to design her palaces and of others to see
+that the materials are sound and well-fitted together; of some to spur
+investigators, and of others to keep their heads cool. The only would-be
+servants, who are entirely unprofitable, are those who do not take the
+trouble to interrogate Nature, but imagine vain things about her; and
+spin, from their inner consciousness, webs, as exquisitely symmetrical
+as those of the most geometrical of spiders, but alas! as easily torn to
+pieces by some inconsidered bluebottle of a fact.
+
+
+CCXCIII
+
+There is always a Cape Horn in one's life that one either weathers or
+wrecks one's self on.
+
+
+CCXCIV
+
+A Local Museum should be exactly what its name implies, viz.,
+"Local"--illustrating local Geology, local Botany, local Zoology, and
+local Archaeology.
+
+Such a museum, if residents who are interested in these sciences take
+proper pains, may be brought to a great degree of perfection and be
+unique of its kind. It will tell both natives and strangers exactly what
+they want to know, and possess great scientific interest and importance.
+Whereas the ordinary lumber-room of clubs from New Zealand, Hindoo
+idols, sharks' teeth, mangy monkeys, scorpions, and conch shells--who
+shall describe the weary inutility of it? It is really worse than
+nothing, because it leads the unwary to look for the objects of science
+elsewhere than under their noses. What they want to know is that their
+"America is here," as Wilhelm Meister has it.
+
+
+CCXCV
+
+A man who speaks out honestly and fearlessly that which he knows,
+and that which he believes, will always enlist the good-will and the
+respect, however much he may fail in winning the assent, of his fellow
+men.
+
+
+CCXCVI
+
+Science and literature are not two things, but two sides of one thing.
+
+
+CCXCVII
+
+I neither deny nor affirm the immortality of man. I see no reason for
+believing in it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disproving
+it.
+
+I have no _a priori_ objections to the doctrine. No man who has to
+deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about _a priori_
+difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing
+anything else, and I will believe that Why should I not? It is not half
+so wonderful as the conservation of force, or the indestructibility of
+matter. <
+
+Whoso clearly appreciates all that is implied in the falling of a stone
+can have no difficulty about any doctrine simply on account of its
+marvellousness. But the longer I live, the more obvious it is to me that
+the most sacred act of a man's life is to say and to feel, "I believe
+such and such to be true." All the greatest rewards and all the heaviest
+penalties of existence cling about that act The universe is one and the
+same throughout; and if the condition of my success in unravelling some
+little difficulty of anatomy or physiology is that I shall rigorously
+refuse to put faith in that which does not rest on sufficient evidence,
+I cannot believe that the great mysteries of existence will be laid open
+to me on other terms.
+
+
+CCXCVIII
+
+I cannot conceive of my personality as a thing apart from the phenomena
+of my life. When I try to form such a conception I discover that, as
+Coleridge would have said, I only hypostatize a word, and it alters
+nothing if, with Fichte, I suppose the universe to be nothing but a
+manifestation of my personality. I am neither more nor less eternal than
+I was before.
+
+
+CCXCIX
+
+I do not know whether the animals persist after they disappear or not. I
+do not even know whether the infinite difference between us and them
+may not be compensated by _their_ persistence and _my_ cessation after
+apparent death, just as the humble bulb of an annual fives, whilst the
+glorious flowers it has put forth die away.
+
+
+CCC
+
+My business is to teach my aspirations to confirm themselves to fact,
+not to try and make facts harmonize with my aspirations.
+
+
+CCCI
+
+Science seems to me to teach in the highest and strongest manner the
+great truth which is embodied in the Christian conception of entire
+surrender to the will of God. Sit down before fact as a little child,
+be prepared to give up every preconceived notion, follow numbly wherever
+and to whatever abysses nature leads, or you shall learn nothing. I have
+only begun to learn content and peace of mind since I have resolved at
+all risks to do this.
+
+
+CCCII
+
+There are, however, other arguments commonly brought forward in favour
+of the immortality of man, which are to my mind not only delusive but
+mischievous. The one is the notion that the moral government of the
+world is imperfect without a system of future rewards and punishments.
+The other is: that such a system is indispensable to practical morality.
+I believe that both these dogmas are very mischievous lies.
+
+With respect to the first, I am no optimist, but I have the firmest
+belief that the Divine Government (if we may use such a phrase to
+express the sum of the "customs of matter") is wholly just The more I
+know intimately of the lives of other men (to say nothing of my own),
+the more obvious it is to me that the wicked does _not_ flourish nor is
+the righteous punished. But for this to be clear we must bear in mind
+what almost all forget, that the rewards of life are contingent upon
+obedience to the _whole_ Law--physical as well as moral--and that moral
+obedience will not atone for physical sin, or _vice versa_.
+
+
+CCCIII
+
+The ledger of the Almighty is strictly kept, and every one of us has the
+balance of his operations paid over to him at the end of every minute of
+his existence.
+
+Life cannot exist without a certain conformity to the surrounding
+universe--that conformity involves a certain amount of happiness in
+excess of pain. In short, as we live we are paid for living.
+
+
+CCCIV
+
+It is to be recollected in view of the apparent discrepancy between
+men's acts and their rewards that Nature is juster than we. She takes
+into account what a man brings with him into the world, which human
+justice cannot do. If I, born a bloodthirsty and savage brute,
+inheriting these qualities from others, kill you, my fellow-men will
+very justly hang me, but I shall not be visited with the horrible
+remorse which would be my real punishment if, my nature being higher, I
+had done the same thing.
+
+
+CCCV
+
+The absolute justice of the system of things is as clear to me as any
+scientific fact The gravitation of sin to sorrow is as certain as that
+of the earth to the sun, and more so--for experimental proof of the fact
+is within reach of us all--nay, is before us all in our own lives, if we
+had but the eyes to see it.
+
+
+CCCVI
+
+Not only do I disbelieve in the need for compensation, but I believe
+that the seeking for rewards and punishments out of this life leads men
+to a ruinous ignorance of the fact that their inevitable rewards and
+punishments are here.
+
+
+CCCVII
+
+If the expectation of hell hereafter can keep me from evil-doing, surely
+_a fortiori_ the certainty of hell now will do so? If a man could be
+firmly impressed with the belief that stealing damaged him as much as
+swallowing arsenic would do (and it does), would not the dissuasive
+force of that belief be greater than that of any based on mere future
+expectations?
+
+
+CCCVIII
+
+As I stood behind the coffin of my little son the other day, with my
+mind bent on anything but disputation, the officiating minister read, as
+a part of his duty, the words, "If the dead rise not again, let us eat
+and drink, for to-morrow we die." I cannot tell you how inexpressibly
+they shocked me. Paul had neither wife nor child, or he must have known
+that his alternative involved a blasphemy against all that was best and
+noblest in human nature. I could have laughed with scorn. What! because
+I am face to face with irreparable loss, because I have given back to
+the source from whence it came, the cause of a great happiness, still
+retaining through all my life the blessings which have sprung and will
+spring from that cause, I am to renounce my manhood, and, howling,
+grovel in bestiality? Why, the very apes know better, and if you
+shoot their young the poor brutes grieve their grief out and do not
+immediately seek distraction in a gorge.
+
+
+CCCIX
+
+He had intellect to comprehend his highest duty distinctly, and force
+of character to do it; which of us dare ask for a higher summary of his
+life than that? For such a man there can be no fear in facing the
+great unknown, his life has been one long experience of the substantial
+justice of the laws by which this world is governed, and he will calmly
+trust to them still as he lays his head down for his long sleep.
+
+
+CCCX
+
+Whether astronomy and geology can or cannot be made to agree with the
+statements as to the matters of fact laid down in Genesis--whether the
+Gospels are historically true or not--are matters of comparatively small
+moment in the face of the impassable gulf between the anthropomorphism
+(however refined) of theology and the passionless impersonality of the
+unknown and unknowable which science shows everywhere underlying the
+thin veil of phenomena.
+
+
+CCCXI
+
+I am too much a believer in Butler and in the great principle of the
+"Analogy" that "there is no absurdity in theology so great that you
+cannot parallel it by a greater absurdity of Nature" (it is not commonly
+stated in this way), to have any difficulties about miracles. I have
+never had the least sympathy with the _a priori_ reasons against
+orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible
+antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school.
+
+
+CCCXII
+
+This universe is, I conceive, like to a great game being played out, and
+we poor mortals are allowed to take a hand. By great good fortune the
+wiser among us have made out some few of the rules of the game, as at
+present played. We call them "Laws of Nature," and honour them because
+we find that if we obey them we win something for our pains. The
+cards are our theories and hypotheses, the tricks our experimental
+verifications. But what sane man would endeavour to solve this problem:
+given the rules of a game and the winnings, to find whether the
+cards are made of pasteboard or gold-leaf? Yet the problem of the
+metaphysicians is to my mind no saner.
+
+
+CCCXIII
+
+I have not the smallest sentimental sympathy with the negro; don't
+believe in him at all, in short. But it is clear to me that slavery
+means, for the white man, bad political economy; bad social morality;
+bad internal political organisation, and a bad influence upon free
+labour and freedom all over the world.
+
+
+CCCXIV
+
+At the present time the important question for England is not the
+duration of her coal, but the due comprehension of the truths of
+science, and the labours of her scientific men.
+
+
+CCCXV
+
+It is better for a man to go wrong in freedom than to go right in
+chains.
+
+
+CCCXVI
+
+A good book is comparable to a piece of meat, and fools are as flies
+who swarm to it, each for the purpose of depositing and hatching his own
+particular maggot of an idea.
+
+
+CCCXVII
+
+Children work a greater metamorphosis in men than any other condition
+of life. They ripen one wonderfully and make life ten times better worth
+having than it was.
+
+
+CCCXVIII
+
+Teach a child what is wise, that is _morality_, Teach him what is wise
+and beautiful, that is _religion!_
+
+
+CCCXIX
+
+People may talk about intellectual teaching, but what we principally
+want is the moral teaching.
+
+
+CCCXX
+
+We are in the midst of a gigantic movement greater than that which
+preceded and produced the Reformation, and really only the continuation
+of that movement But there is nothing new in the ideas which lie at the
+bottom of the movement, nor is any reconcilement possible between free
+thought and traditional authority. One or other will have to succumb
+after a struggle of unknown duration, which will have as side issues
+vast political and social troubles. I have no more doubt that free
+thought will win in the long run than I have that I sit here writing
+to you, or that this free thought will organize itself into a coherent
+system, embracing human life and the world as one harmonious whole. But
+this organization will be the work of generations of men, and those who
+further it most will be those who teach men to rest in no lie, and to
+rest in no verbal delusions.
+
+
+CCCXXI
+
+Make up your mind to act decidedly and take the consequences. No good is
+ever done in this world by hesitation.
+
+
+CCCXXII
+
+The world is neither wise nor just, but it makes up for all its folly
+and injustice by being damnably sentimental.
+
+
+CCCXXIII
+
+Without seeing any reason to believe that women are, on the average, so
+strong physically, intellectually, or morally, as men, I cannot shut my
+eyes to the fact that many women are much better endowed in all these
+respects than many men, and I am at a loss to understand on what grounds
+of justice or public policy a career which is open to the weakest and
+most foolish of the male sex should be forcibly closed to women of
+vigour and capacity.
+
+
+CCCXXIV
+
+We have heard a great deal lately about the physical disabilities of
+women. Some of these alleged impediments, no doubt, are realty inherent
+in their organization, but nine-tenths of them are artificial--the
+products of their modes of life. I believe that nothing would tend so
+effectually to get rid of these creations of idleness, weariness, and
+that "over stimulation of the emotions" which, in plainer-spoken
+days, used to be called wantonness, than a fair share of healthy work,
+directed towards a definite object, combined with an equally fair share
+of healthy play, during the years of adolescence; and those who are best
+acquainted with the acquirements of an average medical practitioner will
+find it hardest to believe that the attempt to reach that standard is
+like to prove exhausting to an ordinarily intelligent and well-educated
+young woman.
+
+
+CCCXXV
+
+The only good that I can see in the demonstration of the truth of
+"Spiritualism" is to furnish an additional argument against suicide.
+Better live a crossing-sweeper than die and be made to talk twaddle by a
+"medium" hired at a guinea a séance.
+
+
+CCCXXVI
+
+I ask myself--suppose you knew that by inflicting prolonged pain on
+100 rabbits you could discover a way to the extirpation of leprosy, or
+consumption, or locomotor ataxy, or of suicidal melancholia among human
+beings, dare you refuse to inflict that pain? Now I am quite unable
+to say that I dare. That sort of daring would seem to me to be extreme
+moral cowardice, to involve gross inconsistency.
+
+For the advantage and protection of society, we all agree to inflict
+pain upon man--pain of the most prolonged and acute character--in our
+prisons, and on our battlefields. If England were invaded, we should
+have no hesitation about inflicting the maximum of suffering upon our
+invaders for no other object than our own good.
+
+But if the good of society and of a nation is a sufficient plea for
+inflicting pain on men, I think it may suffice us for experimenting on
+rabbits or dogs.
+
+At the same time, I think that a heavy moral responsibility rests on
+those who perform experiments of the second kind.
+
+The wanton infliction of pain on man or beast is a crime; pity is that
+so many of those who (as I think rightly) hold this view, seem to
+forget that the criminality lies in the wantonness and not in the act of
+inflicting pain _per se_.
+
+
+CCCXXVII
+
+The one condition of success, your sole safeguard, is the moral worth
+and intellectual clearness of the individual citizen. Education cannot
+give these, but it can cherish them and bring them to the front in
+whatever station of society they are to be found, and the universities
+ought to be and may be, the fortresses of the higher life of the nation.
+
+
+CCCXXVIII
+
+As a matter of fact, men sin, and the consequences of their sins affect
+endless generations of their progeny. Men are tempted, men are punished
+for the sins of others without merit or demerit of their own; and they
+are tormented for their evil deeds as long as their consciousness lasts.
+
+
+CCCXXIX
+
+I find that as a matter of experience, erroneous beliefs are punished,
+and right beliefs are rewarded--though very often the erroneous belief
+is based on a more conscientious study of the facts than right belief.
+
+
+CCCXXX
+
+If we are to assume that anybody has designedly set this wonderful
+universe going, it is perfectly clear to me that he is no more entirely
+benevolent and just in any intelligible sense of the words, than that
+he is malevolent and unjust. Infinite benevolence need not have invented
+pain and sorrow at all--infinite malevolence would very easily have
+deprived us of the large measure of content and happiness that falls
+to our lot After all, Butler's "Analogy" is unassailable, and there is
+nothing in theological dogmas more contradictory to our moral sense,
+than is to be found in the facts of nature. From which, however, the
+Bishop's conclusion that the dogmas are true doesn't follow.
+
+
+CCCXXXI
+
+It appears to me that if every person who is engaged in an industry
+had access to instruction in the scientific principles on which that
+industry is based; in the mode of applying these principles to practice;
+in the actual use of the means and appliances employed; in the language
+of the people who know as much about the matter as we do ourselves; and
+lastly, in the art of keeping accounts, Technical Education would have
+done all that can be required of it.
+
+
+CCCXXXII
+
+Though under-instruction is a bad thing, it is not impossible that
+over-instruction may be worse.
+
+
+CCCXXXIII
+
+There are two things I really care about--one is the progress of
+scientific thought, and the other is the bettering of the condition
+of the masses of the people by bettering them in the way of lifting
+themselves out of the misery which has hitherto been the lot of the
+majority of them. Posthumous fame is not particularly attractive to me,
+but, if I am to be remembered at all, I would rather it should be as "a
+man who did his best to help the people" than by other title.
+
+
+CCCXXXIV
+
+I am of opinion that our Indian Empire is a curse to us. But so long
+as we make up our minds to hold it, we must also make up our minds to
+do those things which are needful to hold it effectually, and in
+the long-run it will be found that so doing is real justice both for
+ourselves, our subject population, and the Afghans themselves.
+
+
+CCCXXXV
+
+The great thing in the world is not so much to seek happiness as to earn
+peace and self-respect.
+
+
+CCCXXXVI
+
+The more rapidly truth is spread among mankind the better it will be for
+them. Only let us be sure that it is truth.
+
+
+CCCXXXVII
+
+Your astonishment at the tenacity of life of fallacies, permit me to
+say, is shockingly unphysiological. They, like other low organisms,
+are independent of brains, and only wriggle the more, the more they are
+smitten on the place where the brains ought to be.
+
+
+CCCXXXVIII
+
+I don't know what you think about anniversaries. I like them, being
+always minded to drink my cup of life to the bottom, and take my chance
+of the sweets and bitters.
+
+
+CCCXXXIX
+
+Of the few innocent pleasures left to men past middle life--the jamming
+common-sense down the throats of fools is perhaps the keenest.
+
+
+CCCXL
+
+Life is like walking along a crowded street--there always seem to be
+fewer obstacles to getting along on the opposite pavement--and yet, if
+one crosses over, matters are rarely mended.
+
+
+CCCXLI
+
+The great thing one has to wish for as time goes on is vigour as long as
+one lives, and death as soon as vigour flags.
+
+
+CCCXLII
+
+Whether motion disintegrates or integrates is, I apprehend, a question
+of conditions. A whirlpool in a stream may remain in the same spot for
+any imaginable time. Yet it is the effect of the motion of the particles
+of the water in that spot which continually integrate themselves into
+the whirlpool and disintegrate themselves from it The whirlpool is
+permanent while the conditions last, though its constituents incessantly
+change. Living bodies are just such whirlpools. Matter sets into them
+in the shape of food,--sets out of them in the shape of waste products.
+Their individuality lies in the constant maintenance of a characteristic
+form, not in the preservation of material identity.
+
+
+CCCXLIII
+
+Most of us are idolators, and ascribe divine powers to the abstractions
+"Force," "Gravity," "Vitality," which our own brains have created. I do
+not know anything about "inert" things in nature. If we reduce the world
+to matter and motion, the matter is not "inert," inasmuch as the same
+amount of motion affects different kinds of matter in different ways.
+To go back to my own illustration. The fabric of the watch is not inert,
+every particle of it is in violent and rapid motion, and the winding-up
+simply perturbs the whole infinitely complicated system in a particular
+fashion. Equilibrium means death, because life is a succession of
+changes, while a changing equilibrium is a contradiction m terms. I am
+not at all clear that a living being is comparable to a machine running
+down. On this side of the question the whirlpool affords a better
+parallel than the watch. If you dam the stream above or below; the
+whirlpool dies; just as the living being does if you cut off its food,
+or choke it with its own waste products. And if you alter the sides or
+bottom of the stream you may kill the whirlpool, just as you kill the
+animal by interfering with its structure. Heat and oxidation as a source
+of heat appear to supply energy to the living machine, the molecular
+structure of the germ furnishing the "sides and bottom of the stream,"
+that is, determining the results which the energy supplied shall
+produce.
+
+
+CCCXLIV
+
+I believe that history might be, and ought to be, taught in a
+new fashion so as to make the meaning of it as a process of
+evolution--intelligible to the young.
+
+
+CCCXLV
+
+Government by average opinion is merely a circuitous method of going to
+the devil; those who profess to lead but in fact slavishly follow this
+average opinion are simply the fastest runners and the loudest squeakers
+of the herd which is rushing blindly down to its destruction.
+
+
+CCCXLVI
+
+It's very sad to lose your child just when he was beginning to bind
+himself to you, and I don't know that it is much consolation to reflect
+that the longer he had wound himself up in your heart-strings the worse
+the tear would have been, which seems to have been inevitable sooner or
+later. One does not weigh and measure these things while grief is fresh,
+and in my experience a deep plunge into the waters of sorrow is the
+hopefullest way of getting through them on to one's daily road of life
+again. No one can help another very much in these crises of life; but
+love and sympathy count for something.
+
+
+CCCXLVII
+
+There is amazingly little evidence of "reverential care for unoffending
+creation" in the arrangements of nature, that I can discover. If our
+ears were sharp enough to hear all the cries of pain that are uttered
+in the earth by men and beasts, we should be deafened by one continuous
+scream!
+
+And yet the wealth of superfluous loveliness in the world condemns
+pessimism. It is a hopeless riddle.
+
+
+CCCXLVIII
+
+A man who has only half as much food as he needs is indubitably starved,
+even though his short rations consist of ortolans and are served upon
+gold plate.
+
+
+CCCXLIX
+
+Economy does not lie in sparing money, but in spending it wisely.
+
+
+CCCL
+
+We men of science, at any rate, hold ourselves morally bound to "try
+all things and hold fast to that which is good"; and among public
+benefactors, we reckon him who explodes old error, as next in rank to
+him who discovers new truth.
+
+
+CCCLI
+
+Whatever Linnćus may say, man is not a rational animal--especially in
+his parental capacity.
+
+
+CCCLII
+
+The inquiry into the truth or falsehood of a matter of history is just
+as much a question of pure science as the inquiry into the truth or
+falsehood of a matter of geology, and the value of evidence in the
+two cases must be tested in the same way. If anyone tells me that the
+evidence of the existence of man in the miocene epoch is as good as that
+upon which I frequently act every day of my life, I reply that this
+is quite true, but that it is no sort of reason for believing in the
+existence of miocene man.
+
+Surely no one but a born fool can fail to be aware that we constantly,
+and in very grave conjunctions, are obliged to act upon extremely
+bad evidence, and that very often we suffer all sorts of penalties in
+consequence. And surely one must be something worse than a born fool
+to pretend that such decision under the pressure of the enigmas of life
+ought to have the smallest influence in those judgments which are made
+with due and sufficient deliberation.
+
+
+CCCLIII
+
+1. The Church founded by Jesus has _not_ made its way; has _not_
+permeated the world--but _did_ become extinct in the country of its
+birth--as Nazarenism and Ebionism.
+
+2. The Church that did make its way and coalesced with the State in
+the 4th century had no more to do with the Church founded by Jesus
+than Ultra-montanism has with Quakerism. It is Alexandrian Judaism and
+Neoplatonistic mystagogy, and as much of the old idolatry and demonology
+as could be got in under new or old names.
+
+3. Paul has said that the Law was schoolmaster to Christ with more truth
+than he knew. Throughout the Empire the synagogues had their cloud of
+Gentile hangers-on--those who "feared God"--and who were fully prepared
+to accept a Christianity, which was merely an expurgated Judaism and the
+belief in Jesus as the Messiah.
+
+4. The Christian "Sodalitia" were not merely religious bodies, but
+friendly societies, burial societies, and guilds. They hung together for
+all purposes--the mob hated them as it now hates the Jews in Eastern
+Europe, because they were more frugal, more industrious, and lived
+better lives than their neighbours, while they stuck together like
+Scotchmen.
+
+If these things are so--and I appeal to your knowledge of history that
+they are so--what has the success of Christianity to do with the truth
+or falsehood of the story of Jesus?
+
+
+CCCLIV
+
+It is Baur's great merit to have seen that the key to the problem of
+Christianity lies in the Epistle to the Galatians. No doubt he and his
+followers rather overdid the thing, but that is always the way with
+those who take up a new idea.
+
+
+CCCLV
+
+If a man cannot do brain work without stimulants of any kind, he had
+better turn to hand work--it is an indication on Nature's part that she
+did not mean him to be a head worker.
+
+
+CCCLVI
+
+It is not to be forgotten that what we call rational grounds for
+our beliefs are often extremely irrational attempts to justify our
+instincts.
+
+
+CCCLVII
+
+Even the best of modern civilisations appears to me to exhibit a
+condition of mankind which neither embodies any worthy ideal nor even
+possesses the merit of stability. I do not hesitate to express my
+opinion that, if there is no hope of a large improvement of the
+condition of the greater part of the human family; if it is true that
+the increase of knowledge, the winning of a greater dominion over
+Nature which is its consequence, and the wealth which follows upon that
+dominion, are to make no difference in the extent and the intensity of
+Want, with its concomitant physical and moral degradation, among the
+masses of the people, I should hail the advent of some kindly comet,
+which would sweep the whole affair away, as a desirable consummation.
+
+What profits it to the human Prometheus that he has stolen the fire of
+heaven to be his servant, and that the spirits of the earth and of the
+air obey him, if the vulture of pauperism is eternally to tear his very
+vitals and keep him on the brink of destruction?
+
+
+CCCLVIII
+
+No induction, however broad its basis, can confer certainty--in the
+strict sense of the word. The experience of the whole human race through
+innumerable years has shown that stones unsupported fall to the ground,
+but that does not make it certain that any day next week unsupported
+stones will not move the other way. All that it does justify is the very
+strong expectation, which hitherto has been invariably verified, that
+they will do just the contrary.
+
+Only one absolute certainty is possible to man--namely, that at any
+given moment the feeling which he has exists.
+
+All other so-called certainties are beliefs of greater or less
+intensity.
+
+
+CCCLIX
+
+Of moral purpose I see no trace in Nature. That is an article of
+exclusively human manufacture--and very much to our credit.
+
+
+CCCLX
+
+There is nothing of permanent value (putting aside a few human
+affections), nothing that satisfies quiet reflection--except the sense
+of having worked according to one's capacity and light, to make things
+clear and get rid of cant and shams of all sorts. That was the lesson
+I learned from Carlyle's books when I was a boy, and it has stuck by me
+all my life.
+
+You may make more of failing to get money, and of succeeding in getting
+abuse--until such time in your life (if you are teachable) you have
+ceased to care much about either.
+
+
+CCCLXI
+
+The doctrine of the conservation of energy tells neither one way nor the
+other [on the doctrine of immortality]. Energy is the cause of movement
+of body, i.e. things having mass. States of consciousness have no mass,
+even if they can be conceded to be movable. Therefore even if they are
+caused by molecular movements, they would not in any way affect the
+store of energy.
+
+Physical causation need not be the only kind of causation, and when
+Cabanis said that thought was a function of the brain, in the same
+way as bile secretion is a _function_ of the liver, he blundered
+philosophically. Bile is a product of the transformation of material
+energy. But in the mathematical sense of the word "function" thought
+may be a function of the brain. That is to say, it may arise only when
+certain physical particles take on a certain order.
+
+By way of a coarse analogy, consider a parallel-sided piece of glass
+through which light passes. It forms no picture. Shape it so as to be a
+bi-convex, and a picture appears in its focus.
+
+Is not the formation of the picture a "function" of the piece of glass
+thus shaped?
+
+So, from your own point of view, suppose a mind-stuff--[--Greek--]--a
+noumenal cosmic light such as is shadowed in the fourth gospel. The
+brain of a dog will convert it into one set of phenomenal pictures, and
+the brain of a man into another. But in both cases the result is the
+consequence of the way in which the respective brains perform their
+"function."
+
+
+CCCLXII
+
+The actions we call sinful are as much the consequence of the order
+of nature as those we call virtuous. They are part and parcel of the
+struggle for existence through which all living things have passed, and
+they have become sins because man alone seeks a higher life in voluntary
+association.
+
+Therefore the instrument has never been marred; on the contrary, we are
+trying to get music out of harps, sacbuts, and psalteries, which never
+were in tune and seemingly never will be.
+
+
+CCCLXIII
+
+I have always been, am, and propose to remain a mere scholar. All that
+I have ever proposed to myself is to say, this and this I have learned;
+thus and thus have I learned it: go thou and learn better; but do not
+thrust on my shoulders the responsibility for your own laziness if you
+elect to take, on my authority, conclusions, the value of which you
+ought to have tested for yourself.
+
+
+CCCLXIV
+
+There is endless backwoodsman's work yet to be done. If "those also
+serve who only stand and wait," still more do those who sweep and
+cleanse; and if any man elect to give his strength to the weeder's and
+scavenger's occupation, I remain of the opinion that his service should
+be counted acceptable, and that no one has a right to ask more of him
+than faithful performance of the duties he has undertaken. I venture to
+count it an improbable suggestion that any such person--a man, let us
+say, who has well-nigh reached his threescore years and ten, and has
+graduated in all the faculties of human relationships; who has taken his
+share in all the deep joys and deeper anxieties which cling about them;
+who has felt the burden of young; lives entrusted to his care, and has
+stood alone with his dead before the abyss of the eternal--has never had
+a thought beyond negative criticism. It seems to me incredible that such
+an one can have done his day's work, always with a light heart, with
+no sense of responsibility, no terror of that which may appear when the
+factitious veil of Isis--the thick web of fiction man has woven round
+nature--is stripped off.
+
+
+CCCLXV
+
+If the doctrine of a Providence is to be taken as the expression, in a
+way "to be understanded of the people," of the total exclusion of chance
+from a place even in the most insignificant corner of Nature, if it
+means the strong conviction that the cosmic process is rational, and the
+faith that, throughout all duration, unbroken order has reigned in the
+universe, I not only accept it, but I am disposed to think it the most
+important of all truths. As it is of more consequence for a citizen to
+know the law than to be personally acquainted with the features of those
+who will surely carry it into effect, so this very positive doctrine of
+Providence, in the sense defined, seems to me far more important than
+all the theorems of speculative theology. If, further, the doctrine is
+held to imply that, in some indefinitely remote past aeon, the cosmic
+process was set going by some entity possessed of intelligence and
+foresight, similar to our own in kind, however superior in degree, if,
+consequently, it is held that every event, not merely in our planetary
+speck, but in untold millions of other worlds, was foreknown before
+these worlds were, scientific thought, so far as I know anything
+about it, has nothing to say about that hypothesis. It is, in fact, an
+anthropomorphic rendering of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+It may be so, but the evidence accessible to us is, to my mind, wholly
+insufficient to warrant either a positive or a negative conclusion.
+
+
+CCCLXVI
+
+It may be well to remember that the highest level of moral aspiration
+recorded in history was reached by a few ancient Jews--Micah, Isaiah,
+and the rest--who took no count whatever of what might or what might not
+happen to them after death. It is not obvious to me why the same point
+should not by and by be reached by the Gentiles.
+
+
+CCCLXVII
+
+Belief in majorities is not rooted in my breast, and if all the world
+were against me the fact might warn me to revise and criticise my
+opinions, but would not in itself supply a ghost of a reason for
+forsaking them. For myself I say deliberately, it is better to have a
+millstone tied round the neck and be thrown into the sea than to share
+the enterprises of those to whom the world has turned, and will turn,
+because they minister to its weaknesses and cover up the awful realities
+which it shudders to look at.
+
+
+CCCLXVIII
+
+Moral duty consists in the observance of those rules of conduct which
+contribute to the welfare of society, and by implication, of the
+individuals who compose it.
+
+The end of society is peace and mutual protection, so that the
+individual may reach the fullest and highest life attainable by man.
+The rules of conduct by which this end is to be attained are
+discoverable--like the other so-called laws of Nature--by observation
+and experiment, and only in that way.
+
+Some thousands of years of such experience have led to the
+generalisations, that stealing and murder, for example, are inconsistent
+with the ends of society. There is no more doubt that they are so than
+that unsupported stones tend to fall. The man who steals or murders,
+breaks his implied contract with society, and forfeits all protection.
+He becomes an outlaw, to be dealt with as any other feral creature.
+Criminal law indicates the ways which have proved most convenient for
+dealing with him.
+
+All this would be true if men had no "moral sense" at all, just as
+there are rules of perspective which must be strictly observed by a
+draughtsman, and are quite independent of his having any artistic sense.
+
+
+CCCLXIX
+
+The moral sense is a very complex affair--dependent in part upon
+associations of pleasure and pain, approbation and disapprobation formed
+by education in early youth, but in part also on an innate sense of
+moral beauty and ugliness (how originated need not be discussed), which
+is possessed by some people in great strength, while some are totally
+devoid of it--just as some children draw, or are enchanted by music
+while mere infants, while others do not know "Cherry Ripe" from "Rule
+Britannia," nor can represent the form of the simplest thing to the end
+of their lives.
+
+Now for this last sort of people there is no reason why they should
+discharge any moral duty, except from fear of punishment in all its
+grades, from mere disapprobation to hanging, and the duty of society
+is to see that they live under wholesome fear of such punishment short,
+sharp, and decisive.
+
+For the people with a keen innate sense of moral beauty there is no need
+of any other motive. What they want is knowledge of the things they may
+do and must leave undone, if the welfare of society is to be attained.
+Good people so often forget this that some of them occasionally require
+hanging almost as much as the bad.
+
+If you ask why the moral inner sense is to be (under due limitations)
+obeyed; why the few who are steered by it move the mass in whom it is
+weak? I can only reply by putting another question--Why do the few in
+whom the sense of beauty is strong--Shakespeare, Raffaele, Beethoven,
+carry the less endowed multitude away? But they do, and always will.
+People who overlook that fact attend neither to history nor to what goes
+on about them.
+
+Benjamin Franklin was a shrewd, excellent, kindly man. I have great
+respect for him. The force of genial common-sense respectability could
+no further go. George Fox was the very antipodes of all this, and yet
+one understands how he came to move the world of his day, and Franklin
+did not.
+
+
+CCCLXX
+
+As to whether we can fulfil the moral law, I should say hardly any
+of us. Some of us are utterly incapable of fulfilling its plainest
+dictates. As there are men born physically cripples, and intellectually
+idiots, so there are some who are moral cripples and idiots, and can be
+kept straight not even by punishment. For these people there is nothing
+but shutting up, or extirpation.
+
+
+CCCLXXI
+
+The cardinal fact in the University questions appears to me to be this:
+that the student to whose wants the medićval University was adjusted,
+looked to the past and sought book-learning, while the modern looks to
+the future and seeks the knowledge of things.
+
+The medićval view was that all knowledge worth having was explicitly or
+implicitly contained in various ancient writings; in the Scriptures, in
+the writings of the greater Greeks, and those of the Christian Fathers.
+Whatever apparent novelty they put forward, was professedly obtained by
+deduction from ancient data.
+
+The modern knows that the only source of real knowledge lies in the
+application of scientific methods of enquiry to the ascertainment of the
+facts of existence; that the ascertainable is infinitely greater than
+the ascertained, and that the chief business of the teacher is not so
+much to make scholars as to train pioneers.
+
+From this point of view, the University occupies a position altogether
+independent of that of the coping-stone of schools for general
+education, combined with technical schools of Theology, Law, and
+Medicine. It is not primarily an institution for testing the work of
+schoolmasters, or for ascertaining the fitness of young men to be
+curates, lawyers, or doctors.
+
+It is an institution in which a man who claims to devote himself to
+Science or Art, should be able to find some one who can teach him what
+is already known, and train him in the methods of knowing more.
+
+
+CCCLXXII
+
+The besetting sin of able men is impatience of contradiction and of
+criticism. Even those who do their best to resist the temptation,
+yield to it almost unconsciously and become the tools of toadies and
+flatterers. "Authorities," "disciples." and "schools" are the curse of
+science; and do more to interfere with the work of the scientific spirit
+than all its enemies.
+
+
+CCCLXXIII
+
+People never will recollect, that mere learning and mere cleverness are
+of next to no value in life, while energy and intellectual grip, the
+things that are inborn and cannot be taught, are everything.
+
+
+CCCLXXIV
+
+In my opinion a man's first duty is to find a way of supporting himself,
+thereby relieving other people of the necessity of supporting him.
+Moreover, the learning to do work of practical value in the world, in an
+exact and careful manner, is of itself a very-important education, the
+effects of which make themselves felt in all other pursuits. The habit
+of doing that which you do not care about when you would much rather be
+doing something else, is invaluable.
+
+
+CCCLXXV
+
+Success in any scientific career requires an unusual equipment of
+capacity, industry and energy. If you possess that equipment you will
+find leisure enough after your daily commercial work is over, to make
+an opening in the scientific ranks for yourself. If you do not, you had
+better stick to commerce.
+
+Nothing is less to be desired than the fate of a young man, who, as
+the Scotch proverb says, in 'trying to make a spoon spoils a horn' and
+becomes a mere hanger-on in literature or in science, when he might have
+been a useful and a valuable member of Society in other occupations.
+
+
+CCCLXXVI
+
+Playing Providence is a game at which one is very apt to burn one's
+fingers.
+
+
+CCCLXXVII
+
+I conceive that the leading characteristic of the nineteenth century
+has been the rapid growth of the scientific spirit, the consequent
+application of scientifc methods of investigation to all the problems
+with which the human mind is occupied, and the correlative rejection of
+traditional beliefs which have proved their incompetence to bear such
+investigation.
+
+
+CCCLXXVIII
+
+Science reckons many prophets, but there is not even a promise of a
+Messiah.
+
+
+CCCLXXIX
+
+I have not the slightest doubt about the magnitude of the evils which
+accrue from the steady increase of European armaments; but I think that
+this regrettable fact is merely the superficial expression of social
+forces, the operation of which cannot be sensibly affected by agreements
+between Governments.
+
+In my opinion it is a delusion to attribute the growth of armaments
+to the "exactions of militarism." The "exactions of industrialism,"
+generated by international commercial competition, may, I believe, claim
+a much larger share in prompting that growth. Add to this the French
+thirst for revenge, the most just determination of the German and
+Italian peoples to assert their national unity; the Russian Panslavonic
+fanaticism and desire for free access to the western seas; the Papacy
+steadily fishing in the troubled waters for the means of recovering its
+lost (I hope for ever lost) temporal possessions and spiritual
+supremacy; the "sick man," kept alive only because each of his doctors
+is afraid of the other becoming his heir.
+
+When I think of the intensity of the perturbing agencies which arise out
+of these and other conditions of modern European society, I confess
+that the attempt to counteract them by asking Governments to agree to a
+maximum military expenditure, does not appear to me to be worth making;
+indeed I think it might do harm by leading people to suppose that the
+desires of Governments are the chief agents in determining whether peace
+or war shall obtain in Europe.
+
+
+CCCLXXX
+
+I am not afraid of the priests in the long-run. Scientific method is the
+white ant which will slowly but surely destroy their fortifications.
+And the importance of scientific method in modern practical life--always
+growing and increasing--is the guarantee for the gradual emancipation of
+the ignorant upper and lower classes, the former of whom especially are
+the strength of the priests.
+
+
+CCCLXXXI
+
+There is such a thing as a science of social life, for which, if the
+term had not been so helplessly degraded, Politics is the proper name.
+
+Men are beings of a certain constitution, who, under certain conditions,
+will as surely tend to act in certain ways as stones will tend to
+fall if you leave them, unsupported. The laws of their nature are
+as invariable as the laws of gravitation, only the applications to
+particular cases offer worse problems than the case of the three bodies.
+
+The Political Economists have gone the right way to work--the way that
+the physical philosopher follows in all complex affairs--by tracing out
+the effects of one great cause of human action, the desire of wealth,
+supposing it to be unchecked.
+
+If they, or other people, have forgotten that there are other potent
+causes of action which may interfere with this, it is no fault of
+scientific method but only their own stupidity.
+
+Hydrostatics is not a "dismal science," because water does not always
+seek the lowest level--e.g. from a bottle turned upside down, if there is
+a cork in the neck!
+
+There is much need that somebody should do for what is vaguely called
+"Ethics" just what the Political Economists have done. Settle the
+question of what will be done under the unchecked action of certain
+motives, and leave the problem of "ought" for subsequent consideration.
+
+For, whatever they ought to do, it is quite certain the majority of men
+will act as if the attainment of certain positive and negative pleasures
+were the end of action.
+
+We want a science of "Eubiotics" to tell us exactly what will happen if
+human beings are exclusively actuated by the desire of well-being in the
+ordinary sense. Of course the utilitarians have laid the foundations of
+such a science, with the result that the nicknamer of genius called this
+branch of science "pig philosophy," making just the same blunder as when
+ne called political economy "dismal science."
+
+"Moderate well-being" may be no more the worthiest end of life than
+wealth. But if it is the best to be had in this queer world--it may be
+worth trying for.
+
+
+CCCLXXXII
+
+Those who wish to attain to some clear and definite solution of the
+great problems which Mr. Darwin was the first person to set before us in
+later times must base themselves upon the facts which are stated in his
+great work, and, still more, must pursue their inquiries by the methods
+of which he was so brilliant an exemplar throughout the whole of
+his life. You must have his sagacity, his untiring search after the
+knowledge of fact, his readiness always to give up a preconceived
+opinion to that which was demonstrably true, before you can hope to
+carry his doctrines to their ultimate issue; and whether the particular
+form in which he has put them before us may be such as is finally
+destined to survive or not is more, I venture to think, than anybody
+is capable at this present moment of saying. But this one thing is
+perfectly certain--that it is only by pursuing his methods, by that
+wonderful single-mindedness, devotion to truth, readiness to sacrifice
+all things for the advance of definite knowledge, that we can hope to
+come any nearer than we are at present to the truths which he struggled
+to attain.
+
+
+CCCLXXXIII
+
+Dean Stanley told me he thought being made a bishop destroyed a man's
+moral courage. I am inclined to think that the practice of the methods
+of political leaders destroys their intellect for all serious purposes.
+
+
+CCCLXXXIV
+
+It is one of the most saddening things in life that, try as we may,
+we can never be certain of making people happy, whereas we can almost
+always be certain of making them unhappy.
+
+
+CCCLXXXV
+
+Men, my dear, are very queer animals, a mixture of horse-nervousness,
+ass-stubbornness and camel-malice---with an angel bobbing about
+unexpectedly like the apple in the posset, and when they can do exactly
+as they please, they are very hard to drive.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aphorisms and Reflections from the
+Works of T. H. Huxley, by T. H. Huxley
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <title>
+      Aphorisms and Reflections, of T. Huxley
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve">
+    
+    body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify}
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+    .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; }
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+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aphorisms and Reflections from the Works of
+T. H. Huxley, by T. H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aphorisms and Reflections from the Works of T. H. Huxley
+
+Author: T. H. Huxley
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2011 [EBook #38097]
+Last Updated: January 22, 2013
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APHORISMS AND REFLECTIONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+    <div style="height: 8em;">
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </div>
+    <h1>
+      APHORISMS AND REFLECTIONS
+    </h1>
+    <h2>
+      FROM THE WORKS OF T. H. HUXLEY
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      Selected By Henrietta A. Huxley
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br /> 1908 <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a href="#link2H_PREF">PREFACE</a><br /> <br /> <a
+      href="#link2H_4_0002"><b>APHORISMS and REFLECTIONS</b></a> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      PREFACE
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      Although a man by his works and personality shall have made his mark upon
+      the age he lives in, yet when he has passed away and his influence with
+      him, the next generation, and still more the succeeding one, will know
+      little of this work, of his ideals and of the goal he strove to win,
+      although for the student his scientific work may always live.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thomas Henry Huxley may come to be remembered by the public merely as the
+      man who held that we were descended from the ape, or as the apostle of
+      Darwinism, or as the man who worsted Bishop Wilberforce at Oxford.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To prevent such limitation, and to afford more intimate and valuable
+      reasons for remembrance of this man of science and lover of his
+      fellow-men, I have gathered together passages, on widely differing themes,
+      from the nine volumes of his "Essays," from his "Scientific Memoirs" and
+      his "Letters," to be published in a small volume, complete in itself and
+      of a size that can be carried in the pocket.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Some of the passages were picked out for their philosophy, some for their
+      moral guidances, some for their scientific exposition of natural facts, or
+      for their insight into social questions; others for their charms of
+      imagination or genial humour, and many&mdash;not the least&mdash;for their
+      pure beauty of lucid English writing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In so much wealth of material it was difficult to restrict the gathering.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      My great wish is that this small book, by the easy method of its contents,
+      may attract the attention of those persons who are yet unacquainted with
+      my husband's writings; of the men and women of leisure, who, although they
+      may have heard of the "Essays," do not care to work their way through the
+      nine volumes; of others who would like to read them, but who have either
+      no time to do so or coin wherewith to buy them. More especially do I hope
+      that these selections may attract the attention of the working man, whose
+      cause my husband so ardently espoused, and to whom he was the first to
+      reveal, by his free lectures, the loveliness of Nature, the many
+      rainbow-coloured rays of science, and to show forth to his listeners how
+      all these glorious rays unite in the one pure white light of holy truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am most grateful to our son Leonard Huxley for weeding out the
+      overgrowth of my extracts, for indexing the text of the book and seeing it
+      through the press for me.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Hodeslea, Eastbourne, June 29th, 1907.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      APHORISMS and REFLECTIONS
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      I
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except veracity of
+      thought and of action, and the resolute facing of the world as it is when
+      the garment of make-believe by which pious hands have hidden its uglier
+      features is stripped off.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      II
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Natural knowledge, seeking to satisfy natural wants, has found the ideas
+      which can alone still spiritual cravings. I say that natural knowledge, in
+      desiring to ascertain the laws of comfort, has been driven to discover
+      those of conduct, and to lay the foundations of a new morality.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      III
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The improver of natural knowledge absolutely refuses to acknowledge
+      authority, as such. For him, scepticism is the highest of duties; blind
+      faith the one unpardonable sin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      IV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The man of science has learned to believe in justification, not by faith,
+      but by verification.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      V
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      No delusion is greater than the notion that method and industry can make
+      up for lack of mother-wit, either in science or in practical life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Nothing great in science has ever been done by men, whatever their powers,
+      in whom the divine afflatus of the truth-seeker was wanting.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In science, as in art, and, as I believe, in every other sphere of human
+      activity, there may be wisdom in a multitude of counsellors, but it is
+      only in one or two of them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Nothing can be more incorrect than the assumption one sometimes meets
+      with, that physics has one method, chemistry another, and biology a third.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      IX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Anyone who is practically acquainted with scientific work is aware that
+      those who refuse to go beyond fact, rarely get as far as fact; and anyone
+      who has studied the history of science knows that almost every great step
+      therein has been made by the "anticipation of Nature."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      X
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There are three great products of our time.... One of these is that
+      doctrine concerning the constitution of matter which, for want of a better
+      name, I will call "molecular"; the second is the doctrine of the
+      conservation of energy; the third is the doctrine of evolution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      M. Comte's philosophy, in practice, might be compendiously described as
+      Catholicism <i>minus</i> Christianity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Fact I know; and Law I know; but what is this Necessity, save an empty
+      shadow of my own mind's throwing?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We live in a world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain
+      duty of each and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can
+      influence somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was
+      before he entered it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The man of science, who, forgetting the limits of philosophical inquiry,
+      slides from these formul&aelig; and symbols into what is commonly
+      understood by materialism, seems to me to place himself on a level with
+      the mathematician, who should mistake the x's and y's with which he works
+      his problems for real entities&mdash;and with this further disadvantage,
+      as compared with the mathematician, that the blunders of the latter are of
+      no practical consequence, while the errors of systematic materialism may
+      paralyse the energies and destroy the beauty of a life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There are some men who are counted great because they represent the
+      actuality of their own age, and mirror it as it is. Such an one was
+      Voltaire, of whom it was epigrammatically said, "he expressed everybody's
+      thoughts better than anybody." But there are other men who attain
+      greatness because they embody the potentiality of their own day and
+      magically reflect the future. They express the thoughts which will be
+      everybody's two or three centuries after them. Such an one was Descartes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "Learn what is true, in order to do what is right." is the summing up of
+      the whole duty of man, for all who are unable to satisfy their mental
+      hunger with the east wind of authority.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When I say that Descartes consecrated doubt, you must remember that it was
+      that sort of doubt which Goethe has called "the active scepticism, whose
+      whole aim is to conquer itself"; and not that other sort which is born of
+      flippancy and ignorance, and whose aim is only to perpetuate itself, as an
+      excuse for idleness and indifference.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      What, then, is certain?.... Why, the fact that the thought, the present
+      consciousness, exists. Our thoughts may be delusive, but they cannot be
+      fictitious. As thoughts, they are real and existent, and the cleverest
+      deceiver cannot make them otherwise.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thought is existence. More than that, so far as we are concerned,
+      existence is thought, all our conceptions of existence being some kind or
+      other of thought.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is enough for all the practical purposes of human existence if we find
+      that our trust in the representations of consciousness is verified by
+      results; and that, by their help, we are enabled "to walk sure-footedly in
+      this life."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is because the body is a machine that education is possible. Education
+      is the formation of habits, a superinducing of an artificial organisation
+      upon the natural organisation of the body; so that acts, which at first
+      required a conscious effort, eventually became unconscious and mechanical.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I protest that if some great Power would agree to make me always think
+      what is true and do what is right, on condition of being turned into a
+      sort of clock and wound up every morning before I got out of bed, I should
+      instantly close with the offer.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The only freedom I care about is the freedom to do right; the freedom to
+      do wrong I am ready to part with on the cheapest terms to anyone who will
+      take it of me.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Whatever evil voices may rage, Science, secure among the powers that are
+      eternal, will do her work and be blessed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is assuredly no more effectual method of clearing up one's own mind
+      on any subject than by talking it over, so to speak, with men of real
+      power and grasp, who have considered it from a totally different point of
+      view.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The parallax of time helps us to the true position of a conception, as the
+      parallax of space helps us to that of a star.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      [If animals are conscious automata with souls] the soul stands related to
+      the body as the bell of a clock to the works, and consciousness answers to
+      the sound which the bell gives out when it is struck.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Logical consequences are the scarecrows of fools and the beacons of wise
+      men.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The only question which any wise man can ask himself, and which any honest
+      man will ask himself, is whether a doctrine is true or false.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Of all the senseless babble I have ever had occasion to read, the
+      demonstrations of these philosophers who undertake to tell us all about
+      the nature of God would be the worst, if they were not surpassed by the
+      still greater absurdities of the philosophers who try to prove that there
+      is no God.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That which is to be lamented, I fancy, is not that society should do its
+      utmost to help capacity to ascend from the lower strata to the higher, but
+      that it has no machinery by which to facilitate the descent of incapacity
+      from the higher strata to the lower.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Time, whose tooth gnaws away everything else, is powerless against truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Misery is a match that never goes out.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Genius as an explosive power beats gunpowder hollow; and if knowledge,
+      which should give that power guidance, is wanting, the chances are not
+      small that the rocket will simply run amuck among friends and foes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thoughtfulness for others, generosity, modesty, and self-respect, are the
+      qualities which make a real gentleman, or lady, as distinguished from the
+      veneered article which commonly goes by that name.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The higher the state of civilisation, the more completely do the actions
+      of one member of the social body influence all the rest, and the less
+      possible is it for any one man to do a wrong thing without interfering,
+      more or less, with the freedom of all his fellow-citizens.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I take it that the good of mankind means the attainment, by every man, of
+      all the happiness which he can enjoy without diminishing the happiness of
+      his fellow men.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Education promotes peace by teaching men the realities of life and the
+      obligations which are involved in the very existence of society; it
+      promotes intellectual development, not only by training the individual
+      intellect, but by sifting out from the masses of ordinary or inferior
+      capacities, those who are competent to increase the general welfare by
+      occupying higher positions; and, lastly, it promotes morality and
+      refinement, by teaching men to discipline themselves, and by leading them
+      to see that the highest, as it is the only permanent, content is to be
+      attained, not by grovelling in the rank and steaming valleys of sense, but
+      by continual striving towards those high peaks, where, resting in eternal
+      calm, reason discerns the undefined but bright ideal of the highest Good&mdash;"a
+      cloud by day, a pillar of fire by night."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Missionaries, whether of philosophy or of religion, rarely make rapid way,
+      unless their preachings fall in with the prepossessions of the multitude
+      of shallow thinkers, or can be made to serve as a stalking-horse for the
+      promotion of the practical aims of the still larger multitude, who do not
+      profess to think much, but are quite certain they want a great deal.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XL
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Proclaim human equality as loudly as you like, Witless will serve his
+      brother.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is no sea more dangerous than the ocean of practical politics&mdash;none
+      in which there is more need of good pilotage and of a single, unfaltering
+      purpose when the waves rise high.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The doctrine that all men are, in any sense, or have been, at any time,
+      free and equal, is an utterly baseless fiction.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For the welfare of society, as for that of individual men, it is surely
+      essential that there should be a statute of limitations in respect of the
+      consequences of wrong-doing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "Musst immer thun wie neu geboren" is the best of all maxims for the
+      guidance of the life of States, no less than of individuals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The population question is the real riddle of the sphinx, to which no
+      political OEdipus has as yet found the answer. In view of the ravages of
+      the terrible monster, over-multiplication, all other riddles sink into
+      insignificance.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The "Law of Nature" is not a command to do, or to refrain from doing,
+      anything. It contains, in reality, nothing but a statement of that which a
+      given being tends to do under the circumstances of its existence; and
+      which, in the case of a living and sensitive being, it is necessitated to
+      do if it is to escape certain kinds of disability, pain, and ultimate
+      dissolution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Probably none of the political delusions which have sprung from the
+      "natural rights" doctrine has been more mischievous than the assertion
+      that all men have a natural right to freedom, and that those who willingly
+      submit to any restriction of this freedom, beyond the point determined by
+      the deductions of <i>a priori</i> philosophers, deserve the title of
+      slave. But to my mind, this delusion is incomprehensible except as the
+      result of the error of confounding natural with moral rights.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The very existence of society depends on the fact that every member of it
+      tacitly admits that he is not the exclusive possessor of himself, and that
+      he admits the claim of the polity of which he forms a part, to act, to
+      some extent, as his master.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XLIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Surely there is a time to submit to guidance and a time to take one's own
+      way at all hazards.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      L
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Individualism, pushed to anarchy, in the family is as ill-founded
+      theoretically and as mischievous practically as it is in the State; while
+      extreme regimentation is a certain means of either destroying
+      self-reliance or of maddening to rebellion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A man in his development runs for a little while parallel with, though
+      never passing through, the form of the meanest worm, then travels for a
+      space beside the fish, then journeys along with the bird and the reptile
+      for his fellow travellers; and only at last, after a brief companionship
+      with the highest of the four-footed and four-handed world, rises into the
+      dignity of pure manhood.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Not only does every animal live at the expense of some other animal or
+      plant, but the very plants are at war.... The individuals of a species are
+      like the crew of a foundered ship, and none but good swimmers have a
+      chance of reaching the land.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When we know that living things are formed of the same elements as the
+      inorganic world, that they act and react upon it, bound by a thousand ties
+      of natural piety, is it probable, nay is it possible, that they, and they
+      alone, should have no order in their seeming disorder, no unity in their
+      seeming multiplicity, should suffer no explanation by the discovery of
+      some central and sublime law of mutual connection?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The student of Nature wonders the more and is astonished the less, the
+      more conversant he becomes with her operations; but of all the perennial
+      miracles she offers to his inspection, perhaps the most worthy of
+      admiration is the development of a plant or of an animal from its embryo.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Matter and force are the two names of the one artist who fashions the
+      living as well as the lifeless.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is not throughout Nature a law of wider application than this, that
+      a body impelled by two forces takes the direction of their resultant.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Orthodoxy is the Bourbon of the world of thought. It learns not, neither
+      can it forget.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Who shall number the patient and earnest seekers after truth, from the
+      days of Galileo until now, whose lives have been embittered and their good
+      name blasted by the mistaken zeal of Bibliolaters? Who shall count the
+      host of weaker men whose sense of truth has been destroyed in the effort
+      to harmonise impossibilities&mdash;whose life has been wasted in the
+      attempt to force the generous new wine of Science into the old bottles of
+      Judaism, compelled by the outcry of the same strong party?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When Astronomy was young "the morning stars sang together for joy," and
+      the planets were guided in their courses by celestial hands. Now, the
+      harmony of the stars has resolved itself into gravitation according to the
+      inverse squares of the distances, and the orbits of the planets are
+      deducible from the laws of the forces which allow a schoolboy's stone to
+      break a window.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The lightning was the angel of the Lord; but it has pleased Providence, in
+      these modern times, that science should make it the humble messenger of
+      man, and we know that every flash that shimmers about the horizon on a
+      summer's evening is determined by ascertainable conditions, and that its
+      direction and brightness might, if our knowledge of these were great
+      enough, have been calculated.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Why should the souls [of philosophers] be deeply vexed? The majesty of
+      Fact is on their side, and the elemental forces of Nature are working for
+      them. Not a star comes to the meridian at its calculated time but
+      testifies to the justice of their methods&mdash;their beliefs are "one
+      with the falling rain and with the growing corn." By doubt they are
+      established, and open inquiry is their bosom friend.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Harmonious order governing eternally continuous progress&mdash;the web and
+      woof of matter and force interweaving by slow decrees, without a broken
+      thread, that veil which lies between us and the Infinite&mdash;that
+      universe which alone we know or can know; such is the picture which
+      science draws of the world, and in proportion as any part of that picture
+      is in unison with the rest, so may we feel sure that it is rightly
+      painted.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Mix salt and sand, and it shall puzzle the wisest of men, with his mere
+      natural appliances, to separate all the grains of sand from all the grains
+      of salt; but a shower of rain will effect the same object in ten minutes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Elijah's great question, "Will you serve God or Baal? Choose ye," is
+      uttered audibly enough in the ears of every one of us as we come to
+      manhood. Let every man who tries to answer it seriously ask himself
+      whether he can be satisfied with the Baal of authority, and with all the
+      good things his worshippers are promised in this world and the next. If he
+      can, let him, if he be so inclined, amuse himself with such scientific
+      implements as authority tells him are safe and will not cut his fingers;
+      but let him not imagine he is, or can be, both a true son of the Church
+      and a loyal soldier of science.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Ecclesiasticism in science is only unfaithfulness to truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the blind acceptance of authority appears to him in its true colours,
+      as mere private judgment <i>in excelsis</i> and if he have the courage to
+      stand alone, face to face with the abyss of the eternal and unknowable,
+      let him be content, once for all, not only to renounce the good things
+      promised by "Infallibility," but even to bear the bad things which it
+      prophesies; content to follow reason and fact in singleness and honesty of
+      purpose, wherever they may lead, in the sure faith that a hell of honest
+      men will, to him, be more endurable than a paradise full of angelic shams.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      History warns us that it is the customary fate of new truths to begin as
+      heresies and to end as superstitions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The struggle for existence holds as much in the intellectual as in the
+      physical world. A theory is a species of thinking, and its right to exist
+      is coextensive with its power of resisting extinction by its rivals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The scientific spirit is of more value than its products, and irrationally
+      held truths may be more harmful than reasoned errors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Every belief is the product of two factors: the first is the state of the
+      mind to which the evidence in favour of that belief is presented; and the
+      second is the logical cogency of the evidence itself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Science commits suicide when it adopts a creed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of
+      the necessary mode of working of the human mind. It is simply the mode in
+      which all phenomena are reasoned about, rendered precise and exact.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There are men (and I think Priestley was one of them) to whom the
+      satisfaction of throwing down a triumphant fallacy is as great as that
+      which attends the discovery of a new truth; who feel better satisfied with
+      the government of the world, when they have been helping Providence by
+      knocking an imposture on the head; and who care even more for freedom of
+      thought than for mere advance of knowledge. These men are the Carnots who
+      organise victory for truth, and they are, at least, as important as the
+      generals who visibly fight her battles in the field.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Material advancement has its share in moral and intellectual progress.
+      Becky Sharp's acute remark that it is not difficult to be virtuous on ten
+      thousand a year, has its application to nations; and it is futile to
+      expect a hungry and squalid population to be anything but violent and
+      gross.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the twentieth century is to be better than the nineteenth, it will be
+      because there are among us men who walk in Priestley's footsteps. But
+      whether Priestley's lot be theirs, and a future generation, in justice and
+      in gratitude, set up their statues; or whether their names and fame are
+      blotted out from remembrance, their work will live as long as time
+      endures. To all eternity, the sum of truth and right will have been
+      increased by their means; to all eternity, falsehood and injustice will be
+      the weaker because they have lived.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Science is, I believe, nothing but <i>trained and organised common sense</i>,
+      differing from the latter only as a veteran may differ from a raw recruit:
+      and its methods differ from those of common sense only so far as the
+      guardsman's cut and thrust differ from the manner in which a savage wields
+      his club.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The vast results obtained by Science are won by no mystical faculties, by
+      no mental processes, other than those which are practised by every one of
+      us, in the humblest and meanest affairs of life. A detective policeman
+      discovers a burglar from the marks made by his shoe, by a mental process
+      identical with that by which Cuvier restored the extinct animals of
+      Montmartre from fragments of their bones.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is no side of the human mind which physiological study leaves
+      uncultivated. Connected by innumerable ties with abstract science,
+      Physiology is yet in the most intimate relation with humanity; and by
+      teaching us that law and order, and a definite scheme of development,
+      regulate even the strangest and wildest manifestations of individual life,
+      she prepares the student to look for a coal even amidst the erratic
+      wanderings of mankind, and to believe that history offers something more
+      than an entertaining chaos&mdash;a journal of a toilsome, tragi-comic
+      march nowhither.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I cannot but think that he who finds a certain proportion of pain and evil
+      inseparably woven up in the life of the very worms, will bear his own
+      share with more courage and submission; and will, at any rate, view with
+      suspicion those weakly amiable theories of the Divine government, which
+      would have us believe pain to be an oversight and a mistake,&mdash;to be
+      corrected by and by. On the other hand, the predominance of happiness
+      among living things&mdash;their lavish beauty&mdash;the secret and
+      wonderful harmony which pervades them all, from the highest to the lowest,
+      are equally striking refutations of that modern Manichean doctrine, which
+      exhibits the world as a slave-mill, worked with many tears, for mere
+      utilitarian ends.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To a person uninstructed in natural history, his country or sea-side
+      stroll is a walk through a gallery filled with wonderful works of art,
+      nine-tenths of which have their faces turned to the wall. Teach him
+      something of natural history, and you place in his hands a catalogue of
+      those which are worth turning round. Surely our innocent pleasures are not
+      so abundant in this life that we can afford to despise this or any other
+      source of them. We should fear being banished for our neglect to that
+      limbo where the great Florentine tells us are those who, during this life,
+      "wept when they might be joyful."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      No slavery can be abolished without a double emancipation, and the master
+      will benefit by freedom more than the freed-man.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Compare the average artisan and the average country squire, and it may be
+      doubted if you will find a pin to choose between the two in point of
+      ignorance, class feeling, or prejudice. It is true that the ignorance is
+      of a different sort&mdash;that the class feeling is in favour of a
+      different class&mdash;and that the prejudice has a distinct savour of
+      wrong-headedness in each case&mdash;but it is questionable if the one is
+      either a bit better, or a bit worse, than the other. The old protectionist
+      theory is the doctrine of trades unions as applied by the squires, and the
+      modern trades unionism is the doctrine of the squires applied by the
+      artisans. Why should we be worse off under one <i>r&eacute;gime</i> than
+      under the other?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The life, the fortune, and the happiness of every one of us, and, more or
+      less, of those who are connected with us, do depend upon our knowing
+      something of the rules of a game infinitely more difficult and complicated
+      than chess. It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every man
+      and woman of us being one of the two players in a game of his or her own.
+      The chessboard is the world, the pieces are the phenomena of the universe,
+      the rules of the game are what we call the laws of Nature. The player on
+      the other side is hidden from us. We know that his play is always fair,
+      just and patient. But also we know, to our cost, that he never overlooks a
+      mistake, or makes the smallest allowance for ignorance. To the man who
+      plays well, the highest stakes are paid, with that sort of overflowing
+      generosity with which the strong shows delight in strength. And one who
+      plays ill is checkmated&mdash;without haste, but without remorse.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Education is the instruction of the intellect in the laws of Nature, under
+      which name I include not merely things and their forces, but men and
+      then-ways; and the fashioning of the affections and of the will into an
+      earnest and loving desire to move in harmony with those laws.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To every one of us the world was once as fresh and new as to Adam. And
+      then, long before we were susceptible of any other mode of instruction,
+      Nature took us in hand, and every minute of waking life brought its
+      educational influence, shaping our actions into rough accordance with
+      Nature's laws, so that we might not be ended untimely by too gross
+      disobedience. Nor should I speak of this process of education as past for
+      any one, be he as old as he may. For every man the world is as fresh as it
+      was at the first day, and as full of untold novelties for him who has the
+      eyes to see them. And Nature is still continuing her patient education of
+      us in that great university, the universe, of which we are all members&mdash;Nature
+      having no Test-Acts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Those who take honours in Nature's university, who learn the laws which
+      govern men and things and obey them, are the really great and successful
+      men in this world. The great mass of mankind are the "Poll," who pick up
+      just enough to get through without much discredit Those who won't learn at
+      all are plucked; and then you can't come up again. Nature's pluck means
+      extermination.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Ignorance is visited as sharply as wilful disobedience&mdash;incapacity
+      meets with the same punishment as crime. Nature's discipline is not even a
+      word and a blow, and the blow first; but the blow without the word. It is
+      left to you to find out why your ears are boxed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All artificial education ought to be an anticipation of natural education.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      LXXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained in
+      youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease
+      and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of; whose
+      intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of equal
+      strength and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine, to be
+      turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as force the
+      anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great
+      and fundamental truths of Nature and of the laws of her operations; one
+      who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are
+      trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender
+      conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of Nature or of
+      art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XC
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The only medicine for suffering, crime, and all the other woes of mankind,
+      is wisdom.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Next to being right in this world, the best of all things is to be clearly
+      and definitely wrong, because you will come out somewhere. If you go
+      buzzing about between right and wrong, vibrating and fluctuating, you come
+      out nowhere; but if you are absolutely and thoroughly and persistently
+      wrong, you must, some of these days, have the extreme good fortune of
+      knocking your head against a fact, and that sets you all straight again.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      No man ever understands Shakespeare until he is old, though the youngest
+      may admire him, the reason being that he satisfies the artistic instinct
+      of the youngest and harmonises with the ripest and richest experience of
+      the oldest.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is not a question whether one order of study or another should
+      predominate. It is a question of what topics of education you shall select
+      which will combine all the needful elements in such due proportion as to
+      give the greatest amount of food, support, and encouragement to those
+      faculties which enable us to appreciate truth, and to profit by those
+      sources of innocent happiness which are open to us, and, at the same time,
+      to avoid that which is bad, and coarse, and ugly, and keep clear of the
+      multitude of pitfalls and dangers which beset those who break through the
+      natural or moral laws.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Writing is a form of drawing; therefore if you five the same attention and
+      trouble to drawing as you do to writing, depend upon it, there is nobody
+      who cannot be made to draw, more or less well.... I do not say for one
+      moment you would make an artistic draughtsman. Artists are not made; they
+      grow..... You can teach simple drawing, and you will find it an implement
+      of learning of extreme value. I do not think its value can be exaggerated,
+      because it gives you the means of training the young in attention and
+      accuracy, which are the two things in which all mankind are more deficient
+      than in any other mental quality whatever.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If a man cannot get literary culture of the highest kind out of his Bible,
+      and Chaucer, and Shakespeare, and Milton, and Hobbes, and Bishop Berkeley,
+      to mention only a few of our illustrious writers&mdash;I say, if he cannot
+      get it out of those writers, he cannot get it out of anything; and I would
+      assuredly devote a very large portion of the time of every English child
+      to the careful study of the models of English writing of such varied and
+      wonderful kind as we possess, and, what is still more important and still
+      more neglected, the habit of using that language with precision, with
+      force, and with art.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I fancy we are almost the only nation in the world who seem to think that
+      composition comes by nature. The French attend to their own language, the
+      Germans study theirs; but Englishmen do not seem to think it is worth
+      their while.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Many of the faults and mistakes of the ancient philosophers are traceable
+      to the fact that they knew no language but their own, and were often led
+      into confusing the symbol with the thought which it embodied.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the time given to education permits, add Latin and German. Latin,
+      because it is the key to nearly one-half of English and to all the Romance
+      languages; and German, because it is the key to almost all the remainder
+      of English, and helps you to understand a race from whom most of us have
+      sprung, and who have a character and a literature of a fateful force in
+      the history of the world, such as probably has been allotted to those of
+      no other people, except the Jews, the Greeks, and ourselves.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XCIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In an ideal University,.... the force of living example should fire the
+      student with a noble ambition to emulate the learning of learned men, and
+      to follow in the footsteps of the explorers of new fields of knowledge.
+      And the very air he breathes should be charged with that enthusiasm for
+      truth, that fanaticism of veracity, which is a greater possession than
+      much learning; a nobler gift than the power of increasing knowledge; by go
+      much greater and nobler than these, as the moral nature of man is greater
+      than the intellectual; for veracity is the heart of morality. Do what you
+      can to do what you ought, and leave hoping and fearing alone.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the face of the matter, it is absurd to ask whether it is more
+      important to know the limits of one's powers; or the ends for which they
+      ought to be exerted; or the conditions under which they must be exerted.
+      One may as well inquire which of the terms of a Rule of Three sum one
+      ought to know in order to get a trustworthy result. Practical life is such
+      a sum, in which your duty multiplied into your capacity, and divided by
+      your circumstances, gives you the fourth term in the proportion, which is
+      your deserts, with great accuracy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Books are the money of Literature, but only the counters of Science.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Medicine was the foster-mother of Chemistry, because it has to do with the
+      preparation of drugs and the detection of poisons; of Botany, because it
+      enabled the physician to recognise medicinal herbs; of Comparative Anatomy
+      and Physiology, because the man who studied Human Anatomy and Physiology
+      for purely medical purposes was led to extend his studies to the rest of
+      the animal world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A thorough study of Human Physiology is, in itself, an education broader
+      and more comprehensive than much that passes under that name. There is no
+      side of the intellect which it does not call into play, no region of human
+      knowledge into which either its roots, or its branches, do not extend;
+      like the Atlantic between the Old and the New Worlds, its waves wash the
+      shores of the two worlds of matter and of mind; its tributary streams flow
+      from both; through its waters, as yet unfurrowed by the keel of any
+      Columbus, lies the road, if such there be, from the one to the other; far
+      away from that North-west Passage of mere speculation, in which so many
+      brave souls have been hopelessly frozen up.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      You know that among the Bees, it depends on the kind of cell in which the
+      egg is deposited, and the quantity and quality of food which is supplied
+      to the grub, whether it shall turn out a busy little worker or a big idle
+      queen. And, in the human hive, the cells of the endowed larvae are always
+      tending to enlarge, and their food to improve, until we get queens,
+      beautiful to behold, but which gather no honey and build no comb.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Examination, like fire, is a good servant, but a bad master; and there
+      seems to me to be some danger of its becoming our master. I by no means
+      stand alone in this opinion. Experienced friends of mine do not hesitate
+      to say that students whose career they watch appear to them to become
+      deteriorated by the constant effort to pass this or that examination, just
+      as we hear of mens brains becoming affected by the daily necessity of
+      catching a train. They work to pass, not to know; and outraged Science
+      takes Her revenge. They do pass, and they don't know.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A man's worst difficulties begin when he is able to do as he likes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is but one right, and the possibilities of wrong are infinite.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is given to few to add to the store of knowledge, to strike new springs
+      of thought, or to shape new forms of beauty. But so sure as it is that men
+      live not by bread, but by ideas, so sure is it that the future of the
+      world lies in the hands of those who are able to carry the interpretation
+      of nature a step further than their predecessors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Size is not grandeur, and territory does not make a nation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Whatever practical people may say, this world is, after all, absolutely
+      governed by ideas, and very often by the wildest and most hypothetical
+      ideas. It is a matter of the very greatest importance that our theories of
+      things, and even of things that seem a long way apart from our daily
+      lives, should be as far as possible true, and as far as possible removed
+      from error.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All truth, in the long run, is only common sense clarified.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      You may read any quantity of books, and you may be almost as ignorant as
+      you were at starting, if you don't have, at the back of your minds, the
+      change for words in definite images which can only be acquired through the
+      operation of your observing faculties on the phenomena of nature.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The saying that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is to my mind, a
+      very dangerous adage. If knowledge is real and genuine, I do not believe
+      that it is other than a very valuable possession, however infinitesimal
+      its quantity may be. Indeed, if a little knowledge is dangerous, where is
+      the man who has so much as to be out of danger?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Patience and tenacity of purpose are worth more than twice their weight of
+      cleverness.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The body is a machine of the nature of an army..... Of this army each cell
+      is a soldier, an organ a brigade, the central nervous system headquarters
+      and field telegraph, the alimentary and circulatory system the
+      commissariat Losses are made good by recruits born in camp, and the life
+      of the individual is a campaign, conducted successfully for a number of
+      years, but with certain defeat in the long run.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      So far as the laws of conduct are determined by the intellect, I apprehend
+      that they belong to science, and to that part of science which is called
+      morality. But the engagement of the affections in favour of that
+      particular kind of conduct which we call good, seems to me to be something
+      quite beyond mere science. And I cannot but think that it, together with
+      the awe and reverence, which have no kinship with base fear, but arise
+      whenever one tries to pierce below the surface of things, whether they be
+      material or spiritual, constitutes all that has any unchangeable reality
+      in religion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Just as I think it would be a mistake to confound the science, morality,
+      with the affection, religion; so do I conceive it to be a most lamentable
+      and mischievous error, that the science, theology, is so confounded in the
+      minds of many&mdash;indeed, I might say, of the majority of men.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      My belief is, that no human being, and no society composed of human
+      beings, ever did, or ever will, come to much, unless their conduct was
+      governed and guided by the love of some ethical ideal.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make
+      yourself do the thing you have to do, when it ought to be done, whether
+      you like it or not; it is the first lesson that ought to be learned; and,
+      however early a man's training begins, it is probably the last lesson that
+      he learns thoroughly.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The great end of life is not knowledge, but action. What men need is, as
+      much knowledge as they can assimilate and organise into a basis for
+      action; give them more and it may become injurious. One knows people who
+      are as heavy and stupid from undigested learning as others are from
+      over-fulness of meat and drink.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is no mode of exercising the faculty of observation and the faculty
+      of accurate reproduction of that which is observed, no discipline which so
+      readily tests error in these matters, as drawing properly taught And by
+      that I do not mean artistic drawing; I mean figuring natural objects. I do
+      not wish to exaggerate, but I declare to you that, in my judgment, the
+      child who has been taught to make an accurate elevation, plan and section
+      of a pint pot has had an admirable training in accuracy of eye and hand.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Accuracy is the foundation of everything else.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Anybody who knows his business in science can make anything subservient to
+      that purpose. You know it was said of Dean Swift that he could write an
+      admirable poem upon a broomstick, and the man who has a real knowledge of
+      science can make the commonest object in the world subservient to an
+      introduction to the principles and greater truths of natural knowledge.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      My experience of the world is that things left to themselves don't get
+      right.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I remember somewhere reading of an interview between the poet Southey and
+      a good Quaker. Southey was a man of marvellous powers of work. He had a
+      habit of dividing his time into little parts each of which was filled up,
+      and he told the Quaker what he did in this hour and that, and so on
+      through the day until far into the night The Quaker listened, and at the
+      close said, "Well, but, friend Southey, when dost thee think?"
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The knowledge which is absolutely requisite in dealing with young children
+      is the knowledge you possess, as you would know your own business, and
+      which you can just turn about as if you were explaining to a boy a matter
+      of everyday life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      You may develop the intellectual side of people as far as you like, and
+      you may confer upon them all the skill that training and instruction can
+      give; but, if there is not, underneath all that outside form and
+      superficial polish, the firm fibre of healthy manhood and earnest desire
+      to do well, your labour is absolutely in vain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Our sole chance of succeeding in a competition, which must constantly
+      become more and more severe, is that our people shall not only have the
+      knowledge and the skill which are required, but that they shall have the
+      will and the energy and the honesty, without which neither knowledge nor
+      skill can be of any permanent avail.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is a great many years since, at the outset of my career, I had to think
+      seriously what life had to offer that was worth having. I came to the
+      conclusion that the chief good, for me, was freedom to learn, think, and
+      say what I pleased, when I pleased. I have acted on that conviction, and
+      have availed myself of the "rara temporum f&eacute;licitas ubi sentire qu&aelig;
+      velis, et quae sentias dicere licet," which is now enjoyable, to the best
+      of my ability; and though strongly, and perhaps wisely, warned that I
+      should probably come to grief, I am entirely satisfied with the results of
+      the line of action I have adopted.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The scientific imagination always restrains itself within the limits of
+      probability.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is a "law of nature," verifiable by everyday experience, that our
+      already formed convictions, our strong desires, our intent occupation with
+      particular ideas, modify our mental operations to a most marvellous
+      extent, and produce enduring changes in the direction and in the intensity
+      of our intellectual and moral activities.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Men can intoxicate themselves with ideas as effectually as with alcohol or
+      with bang, and produce, by dint of intense thinking, mental conditions
+      hardly distinguishable from monomania.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Demoniac possession is mythical; but the faculty of being possessed, more
+      or less completely, by an idea is probably the fundamental condition of
+      what is called genius, whether it show itself in the saint, the artist, or
+      the man of science. One calls it faith, another calls it inspiration, a
+      third calls it insight; but the "intending of the mind," to borrow
+      Newton's well-known phrase, the concentration of all the rays of
+      intellectual energy on some one point, until it glows and colours the
+      whole cast of thought with its peculiar light, is common to all.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Whatever happens, science may bide her time in patience and in confidence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The only people, scientific or other, who never make mistakes are those
+      who do nothing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The most considerable difference I note among men is not in their
+      readiness to fall into error, but in their readiness to acknowledge these
+      inevitable lapses.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Quite apart from deliberate and conscious fraud (which is a rarer thing
+      than is often supposed), people whose mythop&aelig;ic faculty is once
+      stirred are capable of saving the thing that is not, and of acting as they
+      should not, to an extent which is hardly imaginable by persons who are not
+      so easily affected by the contagion of blind faith. There is no falsify so
+      gross that honest men and, still more, virtuous women, anxious to promote
+      a good cause, will not lend themselves to it without any clear
+      consciousness of the moral bearings of what they are doing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This modern reproduction of the ancient prophet, with his "Thus saith the
+      Lord," "This is the work of the Lord," steeped in supernaturalism and
+      glorying in blind faith, is the mental antipodes of the philosopher,
+      founded in naturalism and a fanatic for evidence, to whom these
+      affirmations inevitably suggest the previous question: "How do you know
+      that the Lord saith it?" "How do you know that the Lord doeth it?" and who
+      is compelled to demand that rational ground for belief, without which, to
+      the man of science, assent is merely an immoral pretence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And it is this rational ground of belief which the writers of the Gospels,
+      no less than Paul, and Eginhard, and Fox, so little dream of offering that
+      they would regard the demand for it as a kind of blasphemy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXL
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To quarrel with the uncertainty that besets us in intellectual affairs
+      would be about as reasonable as to object to live one's life, with due
+      thought for the morrow, because no man can be sure he will be alive an
+      hour hence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I verily believe that the great good which has been effected in the world
+      by Christianity has been largely counteracted by the pestilent doctrine on
+      which all the Churches have insisted, that honest disbelief in their more
+      or less astonishing creeds is a moral offence, indeed a sin of the deepest
+      dye, deserving and involving the same future retribution as murder and
+      robbery. If we could only see in one view, the torrents of hypocrisy and
+      cruelty, the lies, the slaughter, the violations of every obligation of
+      humanity, which have flowed from this source along the course of the
+      history of Christian nations, our worst imaginations of Hell would pale
+      beside the vision.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Agnostioism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the essence of which
+      lies in the rigorous application of a single principle. That principle is
+      of great antiquity; it is as old as Socrates; as old as the writer who
+      said, "Try all things, hold fast by that which is good"; it is the
+      foundation of the Reformation, which simply illustrated the axiom that
+      every man should be able to give a reason for the faith that is in him; it
+      is the great principle of Descartes; it is the fundamental axiom of modern
+      science. Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters of the
+      intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard
+      to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the intellect do
+      not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or
+      demonstrable. That I take to be the agnostic faith, which if a man keep
+      whole and undefiled, he shall not be ashamed to look the universe in the
+      face, whatever the future may have in store for him.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The best men of the best epochs are simply those who make the fewest
+      blunders and commit the fewest sins.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That one should rejoice in the good man, forgive the bad man, and pity and
+      help all men to the best of one's ability, is surely indisputable. It is
+      the glory of Judaism and of Christianity to have proclaimed this truth,
+      through all their aberrations. But the worship of a God who needs
+      forgiveness and help, and deserves pity every hour of his existence, is no
+      better than that of any other voluntarily selected fetish. The Emperor
+      Julian's project was hopeful in comparison with the prospects of the
+      Comtist Anthropolatry.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Cleric asserts that it is morally wrong not to believe certain
+      propositions, whatever the results of a strict scientific investigation of
+      the evidence of these propositions. He tells us "that religious error is,
+      in itself, of an immoral nature." He declares that he has prejudged
+      certain conclusions, and looks upon those who show cause for arrest of
+      judgment as emissaries of Satan. It necessarily follows that, for him, the
+      attainment of faith, not the ascertainment of truth, is the highest aim of
+      mental life. And, on careful analysis of the nature of this faith, it will
+      too often be found to be, not the mystic process of unity with the Divine,
+      understood by the religious enthusiast; but that which the candid
+      simplicity of a Sunday scholar once defined it to be. "Faith," said this
+      unconscious plagiarist of Tertullian, "is the power of saying you believe
+      things which are incredible."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The science, the art, the jurisprudence, the chief political and social
+      theories, of the modern world have grown out of those of Greece and Rome&mdash;not
+      by favour of, but in the teeth of, the fundamental teachings of early
+      Christianity, to which science, art, and any serious occupation with the
+      things of this world, were alike despicable.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All that is best in the ethics of the modern world, in so far as it has
+      not Grown out of Greek thought, or Barbarian manhood, is the direct
+      development of the ethics of old Israel. There is no code of legislation,
+      ancient or modern, at once so just and so merciful, so tender to the weak
+      and poor, as the Jewish law; and, if the Gospels are to be trusted, Jesus
+      of Nazareth himself declared that he taught nothing but that which lay
+      implicitly, or explicitly, in the religious and ethical system of his
+      people.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The first-recorded judicial murder of a scientific thinker was compassed
+      and effected, not by a despot, nor by priests, but was brought about by
+      eloquent demagogues, to whom, of all men, thorough search-ings of the
+      intellect are most dangerous and therefore most hateful.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXLIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Platonic philosophy is probably the grandest example of the unscientific
+      use of the imagination extant; and it would be hard to estimate the amount
+      of detriment to clear thinking effected, directly and indirectly, by the
+      theory of ideas, on the one hand, and by the unfortunate doctrine of the
+      baseness of matter, on the other.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CL
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The development of exact natural knowledge in all its vast range, from
+      physics to history and criticism, is the consequence of the working out,
+      in this province, of the resolution to "take nothing for truth without
+      clear knowledge that it is such"; to consider all beliefs open to
+      criticism; to regard the value of authority as neither greater nor less
+      than as much as it can prove itself to be worth. The modern spirit is not
+      the spirit "which always denies," delighting only in destruction; still
+      less is it that which builds castles in the air rather than not construct;
+      it is that spirit which works and will work "without haste and without
+      rest," gathering harvest after harvest of truth into its barns and
+      devouring error with unquenchable fire.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In truth, the laboratory is the fore-court of the temple of philosophy;
+      and whoso has not offered sacrifices and undergone purification there has
+      little chance of admission into the sanctuary.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The memorable service rendered to the cause of sound thinking by Descartes
+      consisted in this: that he laid the foundation of modern philosophical
+      criticism by his inquiry into the nature of certainty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is no question in the mind of anyone acquainted with the facts that,
+      so far as observation and experiment can take us, the structure and the
+      functions of the nervous system are fundamentally the same in an ape, or
+      in a dog, and in a man. And the suggestion that we must stop at the exact
+      point at which direct proof fails us, and refuse to believe that the
+      similarity which extends so far stretches yet further, is no better than a
+      quibble. Robinson Crusoe did not feel bound to conclude, from the single
+      human footprint which he saw in the sand, that the maker of the impression
+      had only one leg.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Descartes, as we have seen, illustrates what he means by an innate idea,
+      by the analogy of hereditary diseases or hereditary mental peculiarities,
+      such as generosity. On the other hand, hereditary mental tendencies may
+      justly be termed instincts; and still more appropriately might those
+      special proclivities, which constitute what we call genus, come into the
+      same category.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The child who is impelled to draw as soon as it can hold a pencil; the
+      Mozart who breaks out into music as early; the boy Bidder who worked out
+      the most complicated sums without learning arithmetic; the boy Pascal who
+      evolved Euclid out of his own consciousness: all these may be said to have
+      been impelled by instinct, as much as are the beaver and the bee. And the
+      man of genius is distinct in kind from the man of cleverness, by reason of
+      the working within him of strong innate tendencies&mdash;which cultivation
+      may improve, but which it can no more create than horticulture can make
+      thistles bear figs. The analogy between a musical instrument and the mind
+      holds good here also. Art and industry may get much music, of a sort, out
+      of a penny whistle; but, when all is done, it has no chance against an
+      organ. The innate musical potentialities of the two are infinitely
+      different.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is notorious that, to the unthinking mass of mankind, nine-tenths of
+      the facts of fife do not suggest the relation of cause and effect; and
+      they practically deny the existence of any such relation by attributing
+      them to chance. Few gamblers but would stare if they were told that the
+      falling of a die on a particular face is as much the effect of a definite
+      cause as the fact of its falling; it is a proverb that "the wind bloweth
+      where it listeth"; and even thoughtful men usually receive with surprise
+      the suggestion, that the form of the crest of every wave that breaks,
+      wind-driven, on the sea-shore, and the direction of every particle of foam
+      that flies before the gale, are the exact effects of definite causes; and,
+      as such, must be capable of being determined, deductively, from the laws
+      of motion and the properties of air and water. So again, there are large
+      numbers of highly intelligent persons who rather pride themselves on their
+      fixed belief that our volitions have no cause; or that the will causes
+      itself, which is either the same thing, or a contradiction in terms.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To say that an idea is necessary is simply to affirm that we cannot
+      conceive the contrary; and the fact that we cannot conceive the contrary
+      of any belief may be a presumption, but is certainly no proof, of its
+      truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is remarkable that Hume does not refer to the sentimental arguments for
+      the immortality of the soul which are so much in vogue at the present day;
+      and which are based upon our desire for a longer conscious existence than
+      that which nature appears to have allotted to us. Perhaps he did not think
+      them worth notice. For indeed it is not a little strange, that our strong
+      desire that a certain occurrence should happen should be put forward as
+      evidence that it will happen. If my intense desire to see the friend, from
+      whom I have parted, does not bring him from the other side of the world,
+      or take me thither; if the mother's agonised prayer that her child should
+      live has not prevented him from dying; experience certainly affords no
+      presumption that the strong desire to be alive after death, which we call
+      the aspiration after immortality, is any more likely to be gratified. As
+      Hume truly says, "All doctrines are to be suspected which are favoured by
+      our passions"; and the doctrine, that we are immortal because we should
+      extremely like to be so, contains the quintessence of suspiciousness.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If every man possessed everything he wanted, and no one had the power to
+      interfere with such possession; or if no man desired that which could
+      damage his fellow-man, justice would have no part to play in the universe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To fail in justice, or in benevolence, is to be displeased with one's
+      self. But happiness is impossible without inward self-approval; and,
+      hence, every man who has any regard to his own happiness and welfare, will
+      find his best reward in the practice of every moral duty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Virtue is undoubtedly beneficent; but the man is to be envied to whom her
+      ways seem in anywise playful. And though she may not talk much about
+      suffering and self-denial, her silence on that topic may be accounted for
+      on the principle <i>&ccedil;a va sans dire</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If mankind cannot be engaged in practices "full of austerity and rigour?"
+      by the love of righteousness and the fear of evil, without seeking for
+      other compensation than that which flows from the gratification of such
+      love and the consciousness of escape from debasement, they are in a bad
+      case. For they will assuredly find that virtue presents no very close
+      likeness to the sportive leader of the Joyous hours in Hume's rosy
+      picture; but that she is an awful Goddess, whose ministers are the Furies,
+      and whose highest reward is peace.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Under its theological aspect, morality is obedience to the will of God;
+      and the ground for such obedience is two-fold: either we ought to obey God
+      because He will punish us if we disobey Him, which is an argument based on
+      the utility of obedience; or our obedience ought to flow from our love
+      towards God, which is an argument based on pure feeling and for which no
+      reason can be given. For, if any man should say that he takes no pleasure
+      in the contemplation of the ideal of perfect holiness, or, in other words,
+      that he does not love God, the attempt to argue him into acquiring that
+      pleasure would be as hopeless as the endeavour to persuade Peter Bell of
+      the "witchery of the soft blue sky."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In whichever way we look at the matter, morality is based on feeling, not
+      on reason; though reason alone is competent to trace out the effects of
+      our actions and thereby dictate conduct. Justice is founded on the love of
+      one's neighbour; and goodness is a kind of beauty. The moral law, like the
+      laws of physical nature, rests in the long run upon instinctive
+      intuitions, and is neither more nor less "innate" and "necessary" than
+      they are. Some people cannot by any means be got to understand the first
+      book of Euclid; but the truths of mathematics are no less necessary and
+      binding on the great mass of mankind. Some there are who cannot feel the
+      difference between the "Sonata Appassionata" and "Cherry Ripe"; or between
+      a grave-stone-cutter's cherub and the Apollo Belvidere; but the canons of
+      art are none the less acknowledged. While some there may be, who, devoid
+      of sympathy, are incapable of a sense of duty; but neither does their
+      existence affect the foundations of morality. Such pathological deviations
+      from true manhood are merely the halt, the lame, and the blind of the
+      world of consciousness; and the anatomist of the mind leaves them aside,
+      as the anatomist of the body would ignore abnormal specimens.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And as there are Pascals and Mozarts, Newtons and Raffaelles, in whom the
+      innate faculty for science or art seems to need but a touch to spring into
+      full vigour, and through whom the human race obtains new possibilities of
+      knowledge and new conceptions of beauty: so there have been men of moral
+      genius, to whom we owe ideals of duty and visions of moral perfection,
+      which ordinary mankind could never have attained: though, happily for
+      them, they can feel the beauty of a vision, which lay beyond the reach of
+      their dull imaginations, and count life well spent in shaping some faint
+      image of it in the actual world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The horror of "Materialism" which weighs upon the minds of so many
+      excellent people appears to depend, in part, upon the purely accidental
+      connexion of some forms of materialistic philosophy with ethical and
+      religious tenets by which they are repelled; and, partly, on the survival
+      of a very ancient superstition concerning the nature of matter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This superstition, for the tenacious vitality of which the idealistic
+      philosophers who are, more or less, disciples of Plato and the theologians
+      who have been influenced by them, are responsible, assumes that matter is
+      something, not merely inert and perishable, but essentially base and
+      evil-natured, if not actively antagonistic to, at least a negative
+      deadweight upon, the good.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Judging by contemporary literature, there are numbers of highly cultivated
+      and indeed superior persons to whom the material world is altogether
+      contemptible; who can see nothing in a handful of garden soil, or a rusty
+      nail, but types of the passive and the corruptible.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To modern science, these assumptions are as much out of date as the
+      equally venerable errors, that the sun goes round the earth every
+      four-and-twenty hours, or that water is an elementary body. The handful of
+      soil is a factory thronged with swarms of busy workers; the rusty nail is
+      an aggregation of millions of particles, moving with inconceivable
+      velocity in a dance of infinite complexity yet perfect measure; harmonic
+      with like performances throughout the solar system. If there is good
+      ground for any conclusion, there is such for the belief that the substance
+      of these particles has existed and will exist, that the energy which stirs
+      them has persisted and will persist, without assignable limit, either in
+      the past or the future. Surely, as Heracleitus said of his kitchen with
+      its pots and pans, "Here also are the gods." Little as we have, even yet,
+      learned of the material universe, that little makes for the belief that it
+      is a system of unbroken order and perfect symmetry, of which the form
+      incessantly changes, while the substance and the energy are imperishable.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Of all the dangerous mental habits, that which schoolboys call
+      "cocksureness" is probably the most perilous; and the inestimable value of
+      metaphysical discipline is that it furnishes an effectual counterpoise to
+      this evil proclivity. Whoso has mastered the elements of philosophy knows
+      that the attribute of unquestionable certainty appertains only to the
+      existence of a state of consciousness so long as it exists; all other
+      beliefs are mere probabilities of a higher or lower order. Sound
+      metaphysic is an amulet which renders its possessor proof alike against
+      the poison of superstition and the counter-poison of shallow negation; by
+      showing that the affirmations of the former and the denials of the latter
+      alike deal with matters about which, for lack of evidence, nothing can be
+      either affirmed or denied.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the question is asked, What then do we know about matter and motion?
+      there is but one reply possible. All that we know about motion is that it
+      is a name for certain changes in the relations of our visual, tactile, and
+      muscular sensations; and all that we know about matter is that it is the
+      hypothetical substance of physical phenomena, the assumption of the
+      existence of which is as pure a piece of metaphysical speculation as is
+      that of the existence of the substance of mind.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Our sensations, our pleasures, our pains, and the relations of these, make
+      up the sum total of the elements of positive, unquestionable knowledge. We
+      call a large section of these sensations and then-relations matter and
+      motion; the rest we term mind and thinking; and experience shows that
+      there is a certain constant order of succession between some of the former
+      and some of the latter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This is all that just metaphysical criticism leaves of the idols set up by
+      the spurious metaphysics of vulgar common sense. It is consistent either
+      with pure Materialism, or with pure Idealism, but it is neither. For the
+      Idealist, not content with declaring the truth that our knowledge is
+      limited to facts of consciousness, affirms the wholly unprovable
+      proposition that nothing exists beyond these and the substance of mind.
+      And, on the other hand, the Materialist, holding by the truth that, for
+      anything that appears to the contrary, material phenomena are the causes
+      of mental phenomena, asserts his unprovable dogma, that material phenomena
+      and the substance of matter are the sole primary existences. Strike out
+      the propositions about which neither controversialist does or can know
+      anything, and there is nothing left for them to quarrel about. Make a
+      desert of the Unknowable, and the divine Astraea of philosophic peace will
+      commence her blessed reign.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "Magna est Veritas et pr&aelig;valebit!" Truth is great, certainly, but,
+      considering her greatness, it is curious what a long time she is apt to
+      take about prevailing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To my observation, human nature has not sensibly changed through the last
+      thirty years. I doubt not that there are truths as plainly obvious and as
+      generally denied, as those contained in "Man's Place in Nature," now
+      awaiting enunciation. If there is a young man of the present generation,
+      who has taken as much trouble as I did to assure himself that they are
+      truths, let him come out with them, without troubling his head about the
+      barking of the dogs of St. Ernulphus, "Veritas pr&aelig;valebit"&mdash;some
+      day; and, even if she does not prevail in his time, he himself will be all
+      the better and the wiser for having tried to help her. And let him
+      recollect that such great reward is full payment for all his labour and
+      pains.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Ancient traditions, when tested by the severe processes of modern
+      investigations, commonly enough fade away into mere dreams: but it is
+      singular how often the dream turns out to have been a half-waking one?
+      presaging a reality. Ovid foreshadowed the discoveries of the geologist:
+      the Atlantis was an imagination, but Columbus found a western world: and
+      though the quaint forms of Centaurs and Satyrs have an existence only in
+      the realms of art, creatures approaching man more nearly than they in
+      essential structure, and yet as thoroughly brutal as the goat's or horse's
+      half of the mythical compound, are now not only known, but notorious.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is a truth of very wide, if not of universal, application, that every
+      living creature commences its existence under a form different from, and
+      simpler than, that which it eventually attains.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The oak is a more complex thing than the little rudimentary plant
+      contained in the acorn; the caterpillar is more complex than the egg; the
+      butterfly than the caterpillar; and each of these beings, in passing from
+      its rudimentary to its perfect condition, runs through a series of
+      changes, the sum of which is called its development In the higher animals
+      these changes are extremely complicated; but, within the last half
+      century, the labours of such men as Von Baer, Rathke, Reichert, Bischoff,
+      and Remak, have almost completely unravelled them, so that the successive
+      stages of development which are exhibited by a dog, for example, are now
+      as well known to the embryologist as are the steps of the metamorphosis of
+      the silk-worm moth to the schoolboy. It will be useful to consider with
+      attention the nature and the order of the stages of canine development, as
+      an example of the process in the higher animals generally.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Exactly in those respects in which the developing Man differs from the
+      Dog, he resembles the ape, which, like man, has a spheroidal yolk-sac and
+      a discoidal, sometimes partially lobed, placenta. So that it is only quite
+      in the later stages of development that the young human being presents
+      marked differences from the young ape, while the latter departs as much
+      from the dog in its development, as the man does.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Startling as the last assertion may appear to be, it is demonstrably true,
+      and it alone appears to me sufficient to place beyond all doubt the
+      structural unity of man with the rest of the animal world, and more
+      particularly and closely with the apes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he originates&mdash;identical
+      in the early stages of his formation&mdash;identical in the mode of his
+      nutrition before and after birth, with the animals which lie immediately
+      below him in the scale&mdash;Man, if his adult and perfect structure be
+      compared with theirs, exhibits, as might be expected, a marvellous
+      likeness of organisation. He resembles them as they resemble one another&mdash;he
+      differs from them as they differ from one another.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If a man cannot see a church, it is preposterous to take his opinion about
+      its altar-piece or painted window.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Perhaps no order of mammals presents us with so extraordinary a series of
+      gradations as this*&mdash;leading us insensibly from the crown and summit
+      of the animal creation down to creatures, from which there is but a step,
+      as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least intelligent of the
+      placental Mammalia. It is as if nature herself had foreseen the arrogance
+      of man, and with Roman severity had provided that his intellect, by its
+      very triumphs, should call into prominence the slaves, admonishing the
+      conqueror that he is but dust.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If Man be separated by no greater structural barrier from the brutes than
+      they are from one another&mdash;then it seems to follow that if any
+      process of physical causation can be discovered by which the genera and
+      families of ordinary animals have been produced, that process of causation
+      is amply sufficient to account for the origin of Man.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This alludes to a foregoing enumeration of the seven
+     families of Primates headed by the Anthropini containing man
+     alone.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      CLXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The whole analogy of natural operations furnishes so complete and crushing
+      an argument against the intervention of any but what are termed secondary
+      causes, in the production of all the phenomena of the universe; that, in
+      view of the intimate relations between Man and the rest of the living
+      world, and between the forces exerted by the latter and all other forces,
+      I can see no excuse for doubting that all are co-ordinated terms of
+      Nature's great progression, from the formless to the formed&mdash;from tne
+      inorganic to the organic&mdash;from blind force to conscious intellect and
+      will.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Science has fulfilled her function when she has ascertained and enunciated
+      truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thoughtful men, once escaped from the blinding influences of traditional
+      prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence Man has sprung the best
+      evidence of the splendour of his capacities; and will discern in his long
+      progress through the Past a reasonable ground of faith in his attainment
+      of a nobler Future...
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And after passion and prejudice have died away, the same result will
+      attend the teachings of the naturalist respecting that great Alps and
+      Andes of the living world&mdash;Man. Our reverence for the nobility of
+      manhood will not be lessened by the knowledge that Man is, in substance
+      and in structure, one with the brutes; for he alone possesses the
+      marvellous endowment of intelligible and rational speech, whereby, in the
+      secular period of his existence, he has slowly accumulated and organised
+      the experience which is almost wholly lost with the cessation of every
+      individual life in other animals; so that, now, he stands raised upon it
+      as on a mountain top, far above the level of nis humble fellows, and
+      transfigured from his grosser nature by reflecting, here and there, a ray
+      from the infinite source of truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Ethnology, as thus defined, is a branch of Anthropology, the great science
+      which unravels the complexities of human structure; traces out the
+      relations of man to other animals; studies all that is especially human in
+      the mode in which man's complex functions are performed; and searches
+      after the conditions whicn have determined his presence IN the world. And
+      Anthropology is a section of Zoology, which again is the animal half of
+      Biology&mdash;the science of life and living things.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Such is the position of ethnology, such are the objects of the
+      ethnologist. The paths or methods, by following which he may hope to reach
+      his goal, are diverse. He may work at man from the point of view of the
+      pure zoologist, and investigate the anatomical and physiological
+      peculiarities of Negroes, Australians, or Mongolians, just as he would
+      inquire into those of pointers, terriers, and turnspits,&mdash;"persistent
+      modifications" of man's almost universal companion. Or he may seek aid
+      from researches into the most human manifestation of humanity-Language;
+      and assuming that what is true of speech is true of the speaker&mdash;a
+      hypothesis as questionable in science as it is in ordinary life&mdash;he
+      may apply to mankind themselves the conclusions drawn from a searching
+      analysis of their words and grammatical forms.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Or, the ethnologist may turn to the study of the practical life of men;
+      and relying upon the inherent conservatism and small inventiveness of
+      untutored mankind, he may hope to discover in manners and customs, or in
+      weapons, dwellings, and other handiwork, a clue to the origin of the
+      resemblances and differences of nations. Or, he may resort to that kind of
+      evidence which is yielded by History proper, and consists of the beliefs
+      of men concerning past events, embodied in traditional, or in written,
+      testimony. Or, when that thread breaks, Archaeology, which is the
+      interpretation of the unrecorded remains of man's works, belonging to the
+      epoch since the world has reached its present condition, may still guide
+      him. And, when even the dim light of archaeology fades, there yet remains
+      Palaeontology which, in these latter years, has brought to daylight once
+      more the exuvia of ancient populations, whose world was not our world, who
+      have been buried in river beds immemorially dry, or carried by the rush of
+      waters into caves, inaccessible to inundation since the dawn of tradition.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The rapid increase of natural knowledge, which is the chief characteristic
+      of our age, is effected in various ways. The main army of science moves to
+      the conquest of new worlds slowly and surely, nor ever cedes an inch of
+      the territory gained. But the advance is covered and facilitated by the
+      ceaseless activity of clouds of light troops provided with a weapon&mdash;always
+      efficient, if not always an arm of precision&mdash;the scientific
+      imagination. It is the business of these <i>enfants perdus</i> of science
+      to make raids into the realm of ignorance wherever they see, or think they
+      see, a chance; and cheerfully to accept defeat, or it may be annihilation,
+      as the reward of error. Unfortunately the public, which watches the
+      progress of the campaign, too often mistakes a dashing incursion of the
+      Uhlans for a forward movement of the main body; fondly imagining that the
+      strategic movement to the rear, which occasionally follows, indicates a
+      battle lost by science. And it must be confessed that the error is too
+      often justified by the effects of the irrepressible tendency which men of
+      science share with all other sorts of men known to me, to be impatient of
+      that most wholesome state of mind&mdash;suspended judgment; to assume the
+      objective truth of speculations which, from the nature of the evidence in
+      their favour, can have no claim to be more than working hypotheses.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The history of the "Aryan question" affords a striking illustration of
+      these general remarks.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Language is rooted half in the bodily and half in the mental nature of
+      man. The vocal sounds which form the raw materials of language could not
+      be produced without a peculiar conformation of the organs of speech; the
+      enunciation of duly accented syllables would be impossible without the
+      nicest coordination of the action of the muscles which move these organs;
+      and such co-ordination depends on the mechanism of certain portions of the
+      nervous system. It is therefore conceivable that the structure of this
+      highly complex speaking apparatus should determine a man's linguistic
+      potentiality; that is to say, should enable him to use a language of one
+      class and not of another. It is further conceivable that a particular
+      linguistic potentiality should be inherited and become as good a race mark
+      as any other. As a matter of fact, it is not proven that the linguistic
+      potentialities of all men are the same.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Community of language is no proof of unity of race, is not even
+      presumptive evidence of racial identity. All that it does prove is that,
+      at some time or other, free and prolonged intercourse has taken place
+      between the speakers of the same language.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The capacity of the population of Europe for independent progress while in
+      the copper and early bronze stage&mdash;the "palaeo-metallic" stage, as it
+      might be called&mdash;appears to me to be demonstrated in a remarkable
+      manner by the remains of their architecture. From the crannog to the
+      elaborate pile-dwelling, and from the rudest enclosure to the complex
+      fortification of the terramare, there is an advance which is obviously a
+      native product. So with the sepulchral constructions; the stone cist, with
+      or without a preservative or memorial cairn, grows into the chambered
+      graves lodged in tumuli; into such megalithic edifices as the dromic
+      vaults of Maes How and New Grange; to culminate in the finished masonry of
+      the tombs of Mycenae, constructed on exactly the same plan. Can anyone
+      look at the varied series of forms which lie between the primitive five or
+      six flat stones fitted together into a mere box, and such a building as
+      Maes How, and yet imagine that the latter is the result of foreign
+      tuition? But the men who built Maes How, without metal tools, could
+      certainly have built the so-called "treasure-house" of Mycenae, with them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Reckoned by centuries, the remoteness of the quaternary, or pleistocene,
+      age from our own is immense, and it is difficult to form an adequate
+      notion of its duration. Undoubtedly there is an abysmal difference between
+      the Neanderthaloid race and the comely living specimens of the blond
+      long-heads with whom we are familiar. But the abyss of time between the
+      period at which North Europe was first covered with ice, when savages
+      pursued mammoths and scratched their portraits with sharp stones in
+      central France, and the present day, ever widens as we learn more about
+      the events which bridge it. And, if the differences between the
+      Neanderthaloid men and ourselves could be divided into as many parts as
+      that time contains centuries, the progress from part to part would
+      probably be almost imperceptible.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I have not been one of those fortunate persons who are able to regard a
+      popular lecture as a mere <i>hors d'oeuvre</i>, unworthy of being ranked
+      among the serious efforts of a philosopher; and who keep their fame as
+      scientific hierophants unsullied by attempts&mdash;at least of the
+      successful sort&mdash;to be understanded of the people.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the contrary, I found that the task of putting the truths learned in
+      the field, the laboratory and the museum, into language which, without
+      bating a jot of scientific accuracy shall be generally intelligible, taxed
+      such scientific and literary faculty as I possessed to the uttermost;
+      indeed my experience has furnished me with no better corrective of the
+      tendency to scholastic pedantry which besets all those who are absorbed in
+      pursuits remote from the common ways of men, and become habituated to
+      think and speak in the technical dialect of their own little world, as if
+      there were no other.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the popular lecture thus, as I believe, finds one moiety of its
+      justification in the self-discipline of the lecturer, it surely finds the
+      other half in its effect on the auditory. For though various sadly comical
+      experiences of the results of my own efforts have led me to entertain a
+      very moderate estimate of the purely intellectual value of lectures;
+      though I venture to doubt if more than one in ten of an average audience
+      carries away an accurate notion of what the speaker has been driving at;
+      yet is that not equally true of the oratory of the hustings, of the House
+      of Commons, and even of the pulpit?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Yet the children of this world are wise in their generation; and both the
+      politician and the priest are justified by results. The living voice has
+      an influence over human action altogether independent of the intellectual
+      worth of that which it utters. Many years ago, I was a guest at a great
+      City dinner. A famous orator, endowed with a voice of rare flexibility and
+      power; a born actor, ranging with ease through every part, from refined
+      comedy to tragic unction, was called upon to reply to a toast. The orator
+      was a very busy man, a charming conversationalist and by no means despised
+      a good dinner; and, I imagine, rose without having given a thought to what
+      he was going to say. The rhythmic roll of sound was admirable, the
+      gestures perfect, the earnestness impressive; nothing was lacking save
+      sense and, occasionally, grammar. When the speaker sat down the applause
+      was terrific and one of my neighbours was especially enthusiastic. So when
+      he had quieted down, I asked him what the orator had said. And he could
+      not tell me.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That sagacious person John Wesley is reported to have replied to some one
+      who questioned the propriety of his adaptation of sacred words to
+      extremely secular airs, that he did not see why the Devil should be left
+      in possession of all the best tunes. And I do not see why science should
+      not turn to account the peculiarities of human nature thus exploited by
+      other agencies: all the more because science, by the nature of its being,
+      cannot desire to stir the passions, or profit by the weaknesses, of human
+      nature. The most zealous of popular lecturers can aim at nothing more than
+      the awakening of a sympathy for abstract truth, in those who do not really
+      follow his arguments; and of a desire to know more and better in the few
+      who do.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At the same time it must be admitted that the popularisation of science,
+      whether by lecture or essay, has its drawbacks. Success in this department
+      has its perils for those who succeed. The "people who fail" take their
+      revenge, as we have recently had occasion to observe, by ignoring all the
+      rest of a man's work and glibly labelling him a mere populariser. If the
+      falsehood were not too glaring, they would say the same of Faraday and
+      Helmholtz and Kelvin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Of the affliction caused by persons who think that what they have picked
+      up from popular exposition qualifies them for discussing the great
+      problems of science, it may be said, as the Radical toast said of the
+      power of the Crown in bygone days, that it "has increased, is increasing,
+      and ought to be diminished." The oddities of "English as she is spoke"
+      might be abundantly paralleled by those of "Science as she is
+      misunderstood" in the sermon, the novel, and the leading article; and a
+      collection of the grotesque travesties of scientific conceptions, in the
+      shape of essays on such trifles as "the Nature of Life" and the "Origin of
+      All Things," which reach me, from time to time, might well be bound up
+      with them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The essay on Geological Reform unfortunately brought me, I will not say
+      into collision, but into a position of critical remonstrance with regard
+      to some charges of physical heterodoxy, brought by my distinguished friend
+      Lord Kelvin, against British Geology. As President of the Geological
+      Society of London at that time (1869), I thought I might venture to plead
+      that we were not such heretics as we seemed to be; and that, even if we
+      were, recantation would not affect the question of evolution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am glad to see that Lord Kelvin has just reprinted his reply to my plea,
+      and I refer the reader to it. I shall not presume to question anything,
+      that on such ripe consideration, Lord Kelvin has to say upon the physical
+      problems involved. But I may remark that no one can have asserted more
+      strongly than I have done, the necessity of looking to physics and
+      mathematics, for help in regard to the earliest history of the globe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And I take the opportunity of repeating the opinion that, whether what we
+      call geological time has the lower limit assigned to it by Lord Kelvin, or
+      the higher assumed by other philosophers; whether the germs of all living
+      things have originated in the globe itself, or whether they have been
+      imported on, or in, meteorites from without, the problem of the origin of
+      those successive Faunae and Florae of the earth, the existence of which is
+      fully demonstrated by palaeontology, remains exactly where it was.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For I think it will be admitted, that the germs brought to us by
+      meteorites, if any, were not ova of elephants, nor of crocodiles; not
+      cocoa-nuts nor acorns; not even eggs of shell-fish and corals; but only
+      those of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life. Therefore, since
+      it is proved that, from a very remote epoch of geological time, the earth
+      has been peopled by a continual succession of the higher forms of animals
+      and plants, these either must have been created, or they have arisen by
+      evolution. And in respect of certain groups of animals, the
+      well-established facts of palaeontology leave no rational doubt that they
+      arose by the latter method.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the second place, there are no data whatever, which justify the
+      biologist in assigning any, even approximately definite, period of time,
+      either long or short, to the evolution of one species from another by the
+      process of variation and selection. In the essay on Geological
+      Contemporaneity and Persistent Types of Life I have taken pains to prove
+      that the change of animals has gone on at very different rates in
+      different groups of living beings; that some types have persisted with
+      little change from the palaeozoic epoch till now, while others have
+      changed rapidly within the limits of an epoch. In 1862 (see Coll. Ess viii
+      pp. 303,304) in 1863 (vol ii., p 461) and again in 1864 (ibid., pp. 89-91)
+      I argued, not as a matter of speculation, but from palaeontological facts,
+      the bearing of which I believe, up to that time, had not been shown, that
+      any adequate hypothesis of the causes of evolution must be consistent with
+      progression, stationariness and retrogression, of the same type at
+      different epochs; of different types in the same epoch; and that Darwin's
+      hypothesis fulfilled these conditions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      According to that hypothesis, two factors are at work, variation and
+      selection. Next to nothing is known of the causes of the former process;
+      nothing whatever of the time required for the production of a certain
+      amount of deviation from the existing type. And, as respects selection,
+      which operates by extinguishing all but a small minority of variations, we
+      have not the slightest means of estimating the rapidity with which it does
+      its work. All that we are justified in saying is that the rate at which it
+      takes place may vary almost indefinitely. If the famous paint-root of
+      Florida, which kills white pigs but not black ones, were abundant and
+      certain in its action, black pigs might be substituted for white in the
+      course of two or three years. If, on the other hand, it was rare and
+      uncertain in action, the white pigs might linger on for centuries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CLXXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A great chapter of the history of the world is written in the chalk. Few
+      passages in the history of man can be supported by such an overwhelming
+      mass of direct and indirect evidence as that which testifies to the truth
+      of the fragment of the history of the globe, which I hope to enable you to
+      read, with your own eyes, to-night. Let me add, that few chapters of human
+      history have a more profound significance for ourselves. I weigh my words
+      well when I assert, that the man who should know the true history of the
+      bit of chalk which every carpenter carries about in his breeches-pocket,
+      though ignorant of all other history, is likely, if he will think his
+      knowledge out to its ultimate results, to have a truer, and therefore a
+      better, conception of this wonderful universe, and of man's relation to
+      it, than the most learned student who is deep-read in the records of
+      humanity and ignorant of those of Nature.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXC
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The examination of a transparent slice gives a good notion of the manner
+      in which the components of the chalk are arranged, and of their relative
+      proportions. But, by rubbing up some chalk with a brush in water and then
+      pouring off the milky fluid, so as to obtain sediments of different
+      degrees of fineness, the granules and the minute rounded bodies may be
+      pretty well separated from one another, and submitted to microscopic
+      examination, either as opaque or as transparent objects. By combining the
+      views obtained in these various methods, each of the rounded bodies may be
+      proved to be a beautifully-constructed calcareous fabric, made up of a
+      number of chambers, communicating freely with one another. The chambered
+      bodies are of various forms. One of the commonest is something like a
+      badly-grown raspberry, being formed of a number of nearly globular
+      chambers of different sizes congregated together. It is called <i>Globigerina</i>,
+      and some specimens of chalk consist of little else than <i>Globigerin&aelig;</i>
+      and granules. Let us fix our attention upon the <i>Globigerina</i>. It is
+      the spoor of the game we are tracking. If we can learn what it is and what
+      are the conditions of its existence, we shall see our way to the origin
+      and past history of the chalk.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It so happens that calcareous skeletons, exactly similar to the <i>Globigerin&aelig;</i>
+      of the chalk, are being formed, at the present moment, by minute living
+      creatures, which flourish in multitudes, literally more numerous than the
+      sands of the sea-shore, over a large extent of that part of the earth's
+      surface which is covered by the ocean.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The history of the discovery of these living <i>Globigerin&aelig;</i> and
+      of the part which they play in rock building, is singular enough. It is a
+      discovery which, like others of no less scientific importance, has arisen,
+      incidentally, out of work devoted to very different and exceedingly
+      practical interests. When men first took to the sea, they speedily learned
+      to look out for shoals and rocks; and the more the burthen of their ships
+      increased, the more imperatively necessary it became for sailors to
+      ascertain with precision the depth of the waters they traversed. Out of
+      this necessity grew the use of the lead and sounding line; and,
+      ultimately, marine-surveying, which is the recording of the form of coasts
+      and of the depth of the sea, as ascertained by the sounding-lead, upon
+      charts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Lieut Brooke, of the American Navy, some years ago invented a most
+      ingenious machine, by which a considerable portion of the superficial
+      layer of the sea-bottom can be scooped out and brought up from any depth
+      to which the lead descends. In 1853, Lieut. Brooke obtained mud from the
+      bottom of the North Atlantic, between Newfoundland and the Azores, at a
+      depth of more than 10,000 feet, or two miles, by the help of this sounding
+      apparatus. The specimens were sent for examination to Ehrenberg of Berlin,
+      and to Bailey of West Point, and those able microscopists found that this
+      deep-sea mud was almost entirety composed of the skeletons of living
+      organisms&mdash;the greater proportion of these being just like the <i>Globigerin&aelig;</i>
+      already known to occur in the chalk.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus far, the work had been carried on simply in the interests of science,
+      but Lieut Brooke's method of sounding acquired a high commercial value,
+      when the enterprise of laying down the telegraph-cable between this
+      country and the United States was undertaken. For it became a matter of
+      immense importance to know, not only the depth of the sea over the whole
+      line along which the cable was to be laid, but the exact nature of the
+      bottom, so as to guard against chances of cutting or fraying the strands
+      of that costly rope. The Admiralty consequently ordered Captain Dayman, an
+      old friend and shipmate of mine, to ascertain the depth over the whole
+      line of the cable, and to bring back specimens of the bottom. In former
+      days, such a command as this might have sounded very much like one of the
+      impossible things which the young Prince in the Fairy Tales is ordered to
+      do before he can obtain the hand of the Princess. However, in the months
+      of June and July, 1857, my friend performed the task assigned to nim with
+      great expedition and precision, without, so far as I know, having met with
+      any reward of that kind. The specimens of Atlantic mud which he procured
+      were sent to me to be examined and reported upon.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The result of all these operations is, that we know the contours and the
+      nature of the surface-soil covered by the North Atlantic for a distance of
+      1,700 miles from east to west, as well as we know that of any part of the
+      dry land. It is a prodigious plain-one of the widest and most even plains
+      in the world. If the sea were drained off, you might drive a waggon all
+      the way from Valentia, on the west coast of Ireland, to Trinity Bay in
+      Newfoundland. And, except upon one sharp incline about 200 miles from Valentia,
+      I am not quite sure that it would even be necessary to put the skid on, so
+      gentle are the ascents and descents upon that long route. From Valentia
+      the road would lie down-hill for about 200 miles to the point at which the
+      bottom is now covered by 1,700 fathoms of sea-water. Then would come the
+      central plain, more than a thousand miles wide, the inequalities of the
+      surface of which would be hardly perceptible, though the depth of water
+      upon it now varies from 10,000 to 15,000 feet; and there are places in
+      which Mont Blanc might be sunk without showing its peak above water.
+      Beyond this, the ascent on the American side commences, and gradually
+      leads, for about 300 miles, to the Newfoundland shore.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When we consider that the remains of more than three thousand distinct
+      species of aquatic animals have been discovered among the fossils of the
+      chalk, that the great majority of them are of such forms as are now met
+      with only in the sea, and that there is no reason to believe that any one
+      of them inhabited fresh water&mdash;the collateral evidence that the chalk
+      represents an ancient sea-bottom acquires as great force as the proof
+      derived from the nature of the chalk itself. I think you will now allow
+      that I did not overstate my case when I asserted that we have as strong
+      grounds for believing that all the vast area of dry land, at present
+      occupied by the chalk, was once at the bottom of the sea, as we have for
+      any matter of history whatever; while there is no justification for any
+      other belief.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      No less certain it is that the time during which the countries we now call
+      south-east England, France, Germany, Poland, Russia, Egypt, Arabia, Syria,
+      were more or less completely covered by a deep sea, was of considerable
+      duration. We have already seen that the chalk is, in places, more than a
+      thousand feet thick. I think you will agree with me that it must have
+      taken some time for the skeletons of animalcules of a hundredth of an inch
+      in diameter to heap up such a mass as that.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the decay of the soft parts of the sea-urchin; the attachment, growth
+      to maturity, and decay of the <i>Crania</i>; and the subsequent attachment
+      and growth of the coralline, took a year (which is a low-estimate enough),
+      the accumulation of the inch of chalk must have taken more than a year:
+      and the deposit of a thousand feet of chalk must, consequently, have taken
+      more than twelve thousand years.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is a writing upon the wall of cliffs at Cromer, and whoso runs may
+      read it. It tells us, with an authority which cannot be impeached, that
+      the ancient sea-bed of the chalk sea was raised up, and remained dry land,
+      until it was covered with forest, stocked with the great game the spoils
+      of which have rejoiced your geologists. How long it remained in that
+      condition cannot be said; but "the whirligig of time brought its revenges"
+      in those days as in these. That dry land, with the bones and teeth of
+      generations of long-lived elephants, hidden away among the gnarled roots
+      and dry leaves of its ancient trees, sank gradually to the bottom of the
+      icy sea, which covered it with huge masses of drift and boulder clay.
+      Sea-beasts, such as the walrus, now restricted to the extreme north,
+      paddled about where birds had twittered among the topmost twigs of the
+      fir-trees. How long this state of things endured we know not, but at
+      length it came to an end. The upheaved glacial mud hardened into the soil
+      of modern Norfolk. Forests grew once more, the wolf and the beaver
+      replaced the reindeer and the elephant; and at length what we call the
+      history of England dawned.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Direct proof may be given that some parts of the land of the northern
+      hemisphere are at this moment insensibly rising and others insensibly
+      sinking; and there is indirect, but perfectly satisfactory, proof, that an
+      enormous area now covered by the Pacific has been deepened thousands of
+      feet, since the present inhabitants of that sea came into existence. Thus
+      there is not a shadow of a reason for believing that the physical changes
+      of the globe, in past times, have been effected by other than natural
+      causes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A small beginning has led us to a great ending. If I were to put the bit
+      of chalk with which we started into the hot but obscure flame of burning
+      hydrogen, it would presently shine like the sun. It seems to me that this
+      physical metamorphosis is no false image of what has been the result of
+      our subjecting it to a jet of fervent, though nowise brilliant, thought
+      to-night. It has become luminous, and its clear rays, penetrating the
+      abyss of the remote past, have brought within our ken some stages of the
+      evolution of the earth. And in the shifting "without haste, but without
+      rest" of the land and sea, as in the endless variation of the forms
+      assumed by living beings, we have observed nothing but the natural product
+      of the forces originally possessed by the substance of the universe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CXCIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In certain parts of the sea bottom in the immediate vicinity of the
+      British Islands, as in the Clyde district, among the Hebrides, in the
+      Moray Firth, and in the German Ocean, there are depressed are&aelig;,
+      forming a kind of submarine valleys, the centres of which are from 80 to
+      100 fathoms, or more, deep. These depressions are inhabited by assemblages
+      of marine animals, which differ from those found over the adjacent and
+      shallower region, and resemble those which are met with much farther
+      north, on the Norwegian coast. Forbes called these Scandinavian
+      detachments "Northern outliers."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      How did these isolated patches of a northern population get into these
+      deep places? To explain the mystery, Forbes called to mind the fact that,
+      in the epoch which immediately preceded the present, the climate was much
+      colder (whence the name of "glacial epoch" applied to it); and that the
+      shells which are found fossil, or sub-fossil, in deposits of that age are
+      precisely such as are now to be met with only in the Scandinavian, or
+      still more Arctic, regions. Undoubtedly, during the glacial epoch, the
+      general population of our seas had, universally, the northern aspect which
+      is now presented only by the "northern outliers"; just as the vegetation
+      of the land, down to the sea-level, had the northern character which is,
+      at present, exhibited only by the plants which live on the tops of our
+      mountains. But, as the glacial epoch passed away, and the present climatal
+      conditions were developed, the northern plants were able to maintain
+      themselves only on the bleak heights, on which southern forms could not
+      compete with them. And, in like manner, Forbes suggested that, after the
+      glacial epoch, the northern animals then inhabiting the sea became
+      restricted to the deeps in which they could hold their own against
+      invaders from the south, better fitted than they to flourish in the warmer
+      waters of the shallows. Thus depth in the sea corresponded in its effect
+      upon distribution to height on the land.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CC
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Among the scientific instructions for the voyage* drawn up by a committee
+      of the Royal Society, there is a remarkable letter from Von Humboldt to
+      Lord Minto, then First Lord of the Admiralty, in which, among other
+      things, he dwells upon the significance of the researches into the
+      microscopic composition of rocks, and the discovery of the great share
+      which microscopic organisms take in the formation of the crust of the
+      earth at the present day, made by Ehrenberg in the years 1836-39.
+      Ehrenberg, in fact, had shown that the extensive beds of "rotten-stone" or
+      "Tripoli" which occur in various parts of the world, and notably at Bilin
+      in Bohemia, consisted of accumulations of the silicious cases and
+      skeletons of <i>Diatomace&aelig;</i> sponges, and <i>Radiolaria</i>; he
+      had proved that similar deposits were being formed by Diatomace&aelig;, in
+      the pools of the Thiergarten in Berlin and elsewhere, and had pointed out
+      that, if it were commercially worth while, rotten-stone might be
+      manufactured by a process of diatom-culture. Observations conducted at
+      Cuxhaven, in 1839, had revealed the existence, at the surface of the
+      waters of the Baltic, of living Diatoms and <i>Radiolaria</i> of the same
+      species as those which, in a fossil state, constitute extensive rocks of
+      tertiary age at Caltanisetta, Zante, and Oran, on the shores of the
+      Mediterranean.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Of the Challenger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Moreover, in the fresh-water rotten-stone beds of Bilin, Ehrenberg had
+      traced out the metamorphosis, effected apparently by the action of
+      percolating water, of the primitively loose and friable deposit of
+      organized particles, in which the silex exists in the hydrated or soluble
+      condition. The silex, in fact undergoes solution and slow redeposition,
+      until, in ultimate result, the excessively finegrained sand, each particle
+      of which is a skeleton, becomes converted into a dense opaline stone, with
+      only here and there an indication of an organism.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From the consideration of these facts, Ehrenberg, as early as the year
+      1839, had arrived at the conclusion that rocks, altogether similar to
+      those which constitute a large part of the crust of the earth, must be
+      forming, at the present day, at the bottom of the sea; and he threw out
+      the suggestion that even where no trace of organic structure is to be
+      found in the older rocks, it may have been lost by metamorphosis.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is highly creditable to the ingenuity of our ancestors that the
+      peculiar property of fermented liquids, in virtue of which they "make glad
+      the heart of man," seems to have been known in the remotest periods of
+      which we have any record. All savages take to alcoholic fluids as if they
+      were to the manner born. Our Vedic forefathers intoxicated themselves with
+      the juice of the "soma"; Noah, by a not unnatural reaction against a
+      superfluity of water, appears to have taken the earliest practicable
+      opportunity of qualifying that which he was obliged to drink; and the
+      ghosts of the ancient Egyptians were solaced by pictures of banquets in
+      which the wine-cup passes round, graven on the walls of their tombs. A
+      knowledge of the process of fermentation, therefore, was in all
+      probability possessed by the prehistoric populations of the globe; and it
+      must have become a matter of great interest even to primaeval wine-bibbers
+      to study the methods by which fermented liquids could be surely
+      manufactured. No doubt it was soon discovered that the most certain, as
+      well as the most expeditious, way of making a sweet juice ferment was to
+      add to it a little of the scum, or lees, of another fermenting juice. And
+      it can hardly be questioned that this singular excitation of fermentation
+      in one fluid, by a sort of infection, or inoculation, of a little ferment
+      taken from some other fluid, together with the strange swelling, foaming,
+      and hissing of the fermented substance, must have always attracted
+      attention from the more thoughtful. Nevertheless, the commencement of the
+      scientific analysis of the Sphenomena dates from a period not earlier than
+      the first half of the seventeenth century. At this time, Van Helmont made
+      a first step, by pointing out that the peculiar hissing and bubbling of a
+      fermented liquid is due, not to the evolution of common air (which he, as
+      the inventor of the term "gas," calls "gas ventosum"), but to that of a
+      peculiar kind of air such as is occasionally met with in caves, mines, and
+      wells, and which he calls "gas sylvestre."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But a century elapsed before the nature of this "gas sylvestre," or as it
+      was afterwards called, "fixed air," was clearly determined, and it was
+      found to be identical with that deadly "choke-damp" by which the lives of
+      those who descend into old wells, or mines, or brewers' vats, are
+      sometimes suddenly ended; and with the poisonous aeriform fluid which is
+      produced by the combustion of charcoal, and now goes by the name of
+      carbonic acid gas.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      During the same time it gradually became evident that the presence of
+      sugar was essential to the production of alcohol and the evolution of
+      carbonic acid gas, which are the two great and conspicuous products of
+      fermentation. And finally, in 1787, the Italian chemist, Fabroni, made the
+      capital discovery that the yeast ferment, the presence of which is
+      necessary to fermentation, is what he termed a "vegeto-animal" substance;
+      that is, a body which gives off ammoniacal salts when it is burned, and
+      is, in other ways, similar to the gluten of plants and the albumen and
+      casein of animals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The living club-mosses are, for the most part, insignificant and creeping
+      herbs, which, superficially, very closely resemble true mosses, and none
+      of them reach more than two or three feet in height. But, in their
+      essential structure, they very closely resemble the earliest
+      Lepidodendroid trees of the coal: their stems and leaves are similar; so
+      are their cones; and no less like are the sporangia and spores; while even
+      in their size, the spores of the <i>Lepidodendron</i> and those of the
+      existing <i>Lycopodium</i>, or club-moss, very closely approach one
+      another.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus, the singular conclusion is forced upon us, that the greater and the
+      smaller sacs of the "Better-Bed" and other coals, in which the primitive
+      structure is well preserved, are simply the sporangia and spores of
+      certain plants, many of whicn were closely allied to the existing
+      club-mosses. And if, as I believe, it can be demonstrated that ordinary
+      coal Is nothing but "saccular" coal which has undergone a certain amount
+      of that alteration which, if continued, would convert it into anthracite;
+      then, the conclusion is obvious, that the great mass of the coal we burn
+      is the result of the accumulation of the spores and spore-cases of plants,
+      other parts of which have furnished the carbonized stems and the mineral
+      charcoal, or have left their impressions on the surfaces of the layer.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The position of the beds which constitute the coal-measures is infinitely
+      diverse. Sometimes they are tilted up vertically, sometimes they are
+      horizontal, sometimes curved into great basins; sometimes they come to the
+      surface, sometimes they are covered up by thousands of feet of rock. But,
+      whatever then-present position, there is abundant and conclusive evidence
+      that every under-clay was once a surface soil. Not only do carbonized
+      root-fibres frequently abound in these under-clays; but the stools of
+      trees, the trunks of which are broken off and confounded with the bed of
+      coal, have been repeatedly found passing into radiating roots, still
+      embedded in the under-clay. On many parts of the coast of England, what
+      are commonly known as "submarine forests" are to be seen at low water.
+      They consist, for the most part, of short stools of oak, beech, and
+      fir-trees, still fixed by their long roots in the bed of blue clay in
+      which they originally grew. If one of these submarine forest beds should
+      be gradually depressed and covered up by new deposits, it would present
+      just the same characters as an under-clay of the coal, if the <i>Sigillaria</i>
+      and <i>Lepidodendron</i> of the ancient world were substituted for the
+      oak, or the beech, of our own times.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In a tropical forest, at the present day, the trunks of fallen trees, and
+      the stools of such trees as may have been broken by the violence of
+      storms, remain entire for but a short time. Contrary to what might be
+      expected, the dense wood of the tree decays, and suffers from the ravages
+      of insects, more swiftly than the bark. And the traveller, setting his
+      foot on a prostrate trunk, finds that it is a mere shell, which breaks
+      under his weight, and lands his foot amidst the insects, or the reptiles,
+      which have sought food or refuge within.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The coal accumulated upon the area covered by one of the great forests of
+      the carboniferous epoch would, in course of time, have been wasted away by
+      the small, but constant, wear and tear of rain and streams, had the land
+      which supported it remained at the same level, or been gradually raised to
+      a greater elevation. And, no doubt, as much coal as now exists has been
+      destroyed, after its formation, in this way.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Once more, an invariably-recurring lesson of geological history, at
+      whatever point its study is taken up: the lesson of the almost infinite
+      slowness of the modification of living forms. The lines of the pedigrees
+      of living things break off almost before they begin to converge.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Yet another curious consideration. Let us suppose that one of the stupid,
+      salamander-like Labyrinthodonts, which pottered, with much belly and
+      little leg, like Falstaff in his old age, among the coal-forests, could
+      have had thinking power enough in his small brain to reflect upon the
+      showers of spores which kept on falling through years and centuries, while
+      perhaps not one in ten million fulfilled its apparent purpose, and
+      reproduced the organism which gave it birth: surely he might have been
+      excused for moralizing upon the thoughtless and wanton extravagance which
+      Nature displayed in her operations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But we have the advantage over our shovel-headed predecessor&mdash;or
+      possibly ancestor&mdash;and can perceive that a certain vein of thrift
+      runs through this apparent prodigality. Nature is never in a hurry, and
+      seems to have had always before her eyes the adage, "Keep a thing long
+      enough, and you will find a use for it." She has kept her beds of coal
+      many millions of years without being able to find much use for them; she
+      has sent them down beneath the sea, and the sea-beasts could make nothing
+      of them; she has raised them up into dry land, and laid the black veins
+      bare, and still, for ages and ages, there was no living thing on the face
+      of the earth that could see any sort of value in them; and it was only the
+      other day, so to speak, that she turned a new creature out of her
+      workshop, who by degrees acquired sufficient wits to make a fire, and then
+      to discover that the black rock would burn.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I suppose that nineteen hundred years ago, when Julius C&aelig;sar was
+      good enough to deal with Britain as we have dealt with New Zealand, the
+      prim&aelig;val Briton, blue with cold and woad, may have known that the
+      strange black stone, of which he found lumps here and there in his
+      wanderings, would burn, and so help to warm his body and cook his food.
+      Saxon, Dane, and Norman swarmed into the land. The English people grew
+      into a powerful nation, and Nature still waited for a full return of the
+      capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses. The eighteenth
+      century arrived, and with it James Watt. The brain of that man was the
+      spore out of which was developed the modern steam-engine, and all the
+      prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which have grown out of
+      this. But coal is as much an essential condition of this growth and
+      development as carbonic acid is for that of a club-moss. Wanting coal, we
+      could not have smelted the iron needed to make our engines, nor have
+      worked our engines when we had got them. But take away the engines, and
+      the great towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire vanish like a dream.
+      Manufactures give place to agriculture and pasture, and not ten men can
+      live where now ten thousand are amply supported.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus, all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is Nature's
+      interest upon her investment in club-mosses, and the like, so long ago.
+      But what becomes of the coal which is burnt in yielding this interest?
+      Heat comes out of it, light comes out of it; and if we could gather
+      together all that goes up the chimney, and all that remains in the grate
+      of a thoroughly-burnt coal-fire, we should find ourselves in possession of
+      a quantity of carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and mineral matters, exactly
+      equal in weight to the coal. But these are the very matters with which
+      Nature supplied the club-mosses which made the coal. She is paid back
+      principal and interest at the same time; and she straightway invests the
+      carbonic acid, the water, and the ammonia in new forms of life, feeding
+      with them the plants that now live. Thrifty Nature! Surely no prodigal,
+      but most notable of housekeepers!
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Here, then, is a capital fact. The movements of the lobster are due to
+      muscular contractility. But why does a muscle contract at one time and not
+      at another? Why does one whole group of muscles contract when the lobster
+      wishes to extend his tail and another group when he desires to bend it?
+      What is it originates, directs, and controls the motive power?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Experiment, the great instrument for the ascertainment of truth in
+      physical science, answers this question for us. In the head of the lobster
+      there lies a small mass of that peculiar tissue which is known as nervous
+      substance. Cords of similar matter connect this brain of the lobster,
+      directly or indirectly, with the muscles. Now, if these communicating
+      cords are cut, the brain remaining entire, the power of exerting what we
+      call voluntary motion m the parts below the section is destroyed; and, on
+      the other hand, if, the cords remaining entire, the brain mass be
+      destroyed, the same voluntary mobility is equally lost, whence the
+      inevitable conclusion is, that the power of originating these motions
+      resides in the brain and is propagated along the nervous cords.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the higher animals the phenomena which attend this transmission have
+      been investigated, and the exertion of the peculiar energy which resides
+      in the nerves has been found to be accompanied by a disturbance of the
+      electrical state of their molecules.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If we could exactly estimate the signification of this disturbance; if we
+      could obtain the value of a given exertion of nerve force by determining
+      the quantity of electricity, or of heat, of which it is the equivalent; if
+      we could ascertain upon what arrangement, or other condition of the
+      molecules of matter, the manifestation of the nervous and muscular
+      energies depends (and doubtless science will some day or other ascertain
+      these points), physiologists would have attained their ultimate goal in
+      this direction; they would have determined the relation of the motive
+      force of animals to the other forms of force found in nature; and if the
+      same process had been successfully performed for all the operations which
+      are carried on in, and by, the animal frame, physiology would be perfect,
+      and the facts of morphology and distribution would be deducible from the
+      laws which physiologists had established, combined with those determining
+      the condition of the surrounding universe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The object of lectures is, in the first place, to awaken the attention and
+      excite the enthusiasm of the student; and this, I am sure, may be effected
+      to a far greater extent by the oral discourse and by the personal
+      influence of a respected teacher than in any other way. Secondly, lectures
+      have the double use of guiding the student to the salient points of a
+      subject, and at the same time forcing him to attend to the whole of it,
+      and not merely to that part which takes his fancy. And lastly, lectures
+      afford the student the opportunity of seeking explanations of those
+      difficulties which will, and indeed ought to, arise in the course of his
+      studies.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      What books shall I read? is a question constantly put by the student to
+      the teacher. My reply usually is, "None: write your notes out carefully
+      and fully; strive to understand them thoroughly; come to me for the
+      explanation of anything you cannot understand; and I would rather you did
+      not distract your mind by reading." A properly composed course of lectures
+      ought to contain fully as much matter as a student can assimilate in the
+      time occupied by its delivery; and the teacher should always recollect
+      that his business is to feed and not to cram the intellect. Indeed, I
+      believe that a student who gains from a course of lectures the simple
+      habit of concentrating his attention upon a definitely limited series of
+      facts, until they are thoroughly mastered, has made a step of immeasurable
+      importance.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      However good lectures may be, and however extensive the course of
+      reading-by which they are followed up, they are but accessories to the
+      great instrument of scientific teaching&mdash;demonstration. If I insist
+      unweariedly, nay fanatically, upon the importance of physical science as
+      an educational agent, it is because the study of any branch of science, if
+      properly conducted, appears to me to fill up a void left by all other
+      means of education. I have the greatest respect and love for literature;
+      nothing would grieve me more than to see literary training other than a
+      very prominent branch of education: indeed, I wish that real literary
+      discipline were far more attended to than it is; but I cannot shut my eyes
+      to the fact that there is a vast difference between men who have had a
+      purely literary, and those who have had a sound scientific, training.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the world of letters, learning and knowledge are one, and books are the
+      source of both; whereas in science, as in life, learning and knowledge are
+      distinct, and the study of things, and not of books, is the source of the
+      latter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All that literature has to bestow may be obtained by reading and by
+      practical exercise in writing and in speaking; but I do not exaggerate
+      when I say that none of the best gifts of science are to be won by these
+      means. On the contrary, the great benefit which a scientific education
+      bestows, whether as training or as knowledge, is dependent upon the extent
+      to which the mind of the student is brought into immediate contact with
+      facts&mdash;upon the degree to which he learns the habit of appealing
+      directly to Nature, and of acquiring through his senses concrete images of
+      those properties of things, which are, and always will be, but
+      approximatively expressed in human language. Our way of looking at Nature,
+      and of speaking about her, varies from year to year; but a fact once seen,
+      a relation of cause and effect, once demonstratively apprehended, are
+      possessions which neither change nor pass away, but, on the contrary, form
+      fixed centres, about which other truths aggregate by natural affinity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Therefore, the great business of the scientific teacher is, to imprint the
+      fundamental, irrefragable facts of his science, not only by words upon the
+      mind, but by sensible impressions upon tne eye, and ear, and touch of the
+      student, in so complete a manner, that every term used, or law enunciated,
+      should afterwards call up vivid images of the particular structural, or
+      other, facts which furnished the demonstration of the law, or the
+      illustration of the term.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      What is the purpose of primary intellectual education? I apprehend that
+      its first object is to train the young in the use of those tools wherewith
+      men extract knowledge from the ever-shifting; succession of phenomena
+      which pass before their eyes; and that its second object is to inform them
+      of the fundamental laws which have been found by experience to govern the
+      course of things, so that they may not be turned out into the world naked,
+      defenceless, and a prey to the events they might control.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A boy is taught to read his own and other languages, in order that he may
+      have access to infinitely wider stores of knowledge than could ever be
+      opened to him by oral intercourse with his fellow men; he learns to write,
+      that his means of communication with the rest of mankind may be
+      indefinitely enlarged, and that he may record and store up the knowledge
+      he acquires. He is taught elementary mathematics, that he may understand
+      all those relations of number and form, upon which the transactions of
+      men, associated in complicated societies, are built, and that he may have
+      some practice in deductive reasoning.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All these operations of reading, writing, and ciphering are intellectual
+      tools, whose use should, before all things, be learned, and learned
+      thoroughly; so that the youth may be enabled to make his life that which
+      it ought to be, a continual progress in learning and in wisdom.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In addition, primary education endeavours to fit a boy out with a certain
+      equipment of positive knowledge. He is taught the great laws of morality;
+      the religion of his sect; so much history and geography as will tell him
+      where the great countries of the world are, what they are, and now they
+      have become what they are.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But if I regard it closely, a curious reflection arises. I suppose that,
+      fifteen hundred years ago, the child of any well-to-do Roman citizen was
+      taught just these same things; reading and writing in his own, and,
+      perhaps, the Greek tongue; the elements of mathematics; and the religion,
+      morality, history, and geography current in his time. Furthermore, I do
+      not think I err in affirming that, if such a Christian Roman boy, who had
+      finished his education, could be transplanted into one of our public
+      schools, and pass through its course of instruction, he would not meet
+      with a single unfamiliar line of thought; amidst all the new facts he
+      would have to learn, not one would suggest a different mode of regarding
+      the universe from that current in his own time.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And yet surely there is some great difference between the civilisation of
+      the fourth century and that of the nineteenth, and still more between the
+      intellectual habits and tone of thought of that day and this?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And what has made this difference? I answer fearlessly&mdash;The
+      prodigious development of physical science within the last two centuries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Modern civilisation rests upon physical science; take away her gifts to
+      our own country, and our position among the leading nations of the world
+      is gone to-morrow; for it is physical science only that makes intelligence
+      and moral energy stronger than brute force.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The whole of modern thought is steeped in science; it has made its way
+      into the works of our best poets, and even the mere man of letters, who
+      affects to ignore and despise science, is unconsciously impregnated with
+      her spirit, and indebted for his best products to her methods. I believe
+      that the greatest intellectual revolution mankind has yet seen is now
+      slowly taking place by her agency. She is teaching the world that the
+      ultimate court of appeal is observation and experiment, and not authority;
+      she is teaching it to estimate the value of evidence; she is creating a
+      firm and living faith in the existence of immutable moral and physical
+      laws, perfect obedience to which is the highest possible aim of an
+      intelligent being.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But of all this your old stereotyped system of education takes no note.
+      Physical science, its methods, its problems, and its difficulties, will
+      meet the poorest boy at every turn, and yet we educate him in such a
+      manner that he shall enter the world as ignorant of the existence of the
+      methods and facts of science as the day he was born. The modern world is
+      full of artillery; and we turn out our children to do battle in it,
+      equipped with the shield and sword of an ancient gladiator.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Posterity will cry shame on us if we do not remedy this deplorable state
+      of things. Nay, if we live twenty years longer, our own consciences will
+      cry shame on us.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is my firm conviction that the only way to remedy it is to make the
+      elements of physical science an integral part of primary education. I have
+      endeavoured to show you how that may be done for that branch of science
+      which it is my business to pursue; and I can but add, that I should look
+      upon the day when every schoolmaster throughout this land was a centre of
+      genuine, however rudimentary, scientific knowledge as an epoch in the
+      history of the country.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But let me entreat you to remember my last words. Addressing myself to
+      you, as teachers, I would say, mere book learning in physical science is a
+      sham and a delusion&mdash;what you teach, unless you wish to be impostors,
+      that you must first know; and real knowledge in science means personal
+      acquaintance with the facts, be they few or many.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The first distinct enunciation of the hypothesis that all living matter
+      has sprung from pre-existing living matter came from a contemporary,
+      though a junior, of Harvey, a native of that country, fertile in men great
+      in all departments of human activity, which was to intellectual Europe, in
+      the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, what Germany is in the
+      nineteenth. It was in Italy, and from Italian teachers, that Harvey
+      received the most important part of his scientific education. And it was a
+      student trained in the same schools, Francesco Redi&mdash;a man of the
+      widest knowledge and most versatile abilities, distinguished alike as
+      scholar, poet, physician and, naturalist&mdash;who, just two hundred and
+      two years ago,* published his "Esperienze intorno alia Generazione
+      degl'Insetti," and gave to the world the idea, the growth of which it is
+      my purpose to trace. Redi's book went through five editions in twenty
+      years; and the extreme simplicity of his experiments, and the clearness of
+      his arguments, gained for his views and for their consequences, almost
+      universal acceptance.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Redi did not trouble himself much with speculative considerations, but
+      attacked particular cases of what was supposed to be "spontaneous
+      generation" experimentally. Here are dead animals, or pieces of meat, says
+      he; I expose them to the air in hot weather, and in a few days they swarm
+      with maggots. You tell me that these are generated in the dead flesh; but
+      if I put similar bodies, while quite fresh, into a jar, and tie some fine
+      gauze over the top of the jar, not a maggot makes its appearance, while
+      the dead substances, nevertheless, putrefy just in the same way as before.
+      It is obvious, therefore, that the maggots are not generated by the
+      corruption of the meat; and that the cause of their formation must be a
+      something which is kept away by gauze. But gauze will not keep away
+      aeriform bodies, or fluids. This something must therefore, exist in the
+      form of solid particles too big to get through the gauze. Nor is one long
+      left in doubt what these solid particles are; for the blow-flies,
+      attracted by the odour of the meat, swarm round the vessel, and, urged by
+      a powerful but in this case misleading instinct, lay eggs out of which
+      maggots are immediately hatched, upon the gauze. The conclusion,
+      therefore, is unavoidable; the maggots are not generated by the meat, but
+      the eggs which give rise to them are brought through the air by the flies.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These words were written in 1870.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These experiments seem almost childishly simple, and one wonders how it
+      was that no one ever thought of them before. Simple as they are, however,
+      they are worthy of the most careful study, for every piece of experimental
+      work since done, in regard to this subject, has been shaped upon the model
+      furnished by the Italian philosopher. As the results of his experiments
+      were the same, however varied the nature of the materials he used, it is
+      not wonderful that there arose in Redi's mind a presumption that, in all
+      such cases of the seeming production of life from dead matter, the real
+      explanation was the introduction of living germs from without into that
+      dead matter. And thus the hypothesis that living matter always arises by
+      the agency of pre-existing living matter, took definite shape; and had,
+      henceforward, a right to be considered and a claim to be refuted, in each
+      particular case, before the production of living matter in any other way
+      could be admitted by careful reasoners. It will be necessary for me to
+      refer to this hypothesis so frequently, that, to save circumlocution, I
+      shall call it the hypothesis of <i>Biogenesis</i>; and I shall term the
+      contrary doctrine&mdash;that living matter may be produced by not living
+      matter&mdash;the hypothesis of <i>Abiogenesis</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the seventeenth century, as I have said, the latter was the dominant
+      view, sanctioned alike by antiquity and by authority; and it is
+      interesting to observe that Redi did not escape the customary tax upon a
+      discoverer of having to defend himself against the charge of impugning the
+      authority of the Scriptures; for his adversaries declared that the
+      generation of bees from the carcase of a dead lion is affirmed, in the
+      Book of Judges, to have been the origin of the famous riddle with which
+      Samson perplexed the Philistines:&mdash;
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     "Out of the cater came forth meat,
+     And out of the strong came forth sweetness"
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      CCXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The great tragedy of Science&mdash;the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis
+      by an ugly fact.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It remains yet in the order of logic, though not of history, to show that
+      among these solid destructible particles there really do exist germs
+      capable of giving rise to the development of living forms in suitable
+      menstrua. This piece of work was done by M. Pasteur in those beautiful
+      researches which will ever render his name famous; and which, in spite of
+      all attacks upon them, appear to me now, as they did seven years ago, to
+      be models of accurate experimentation and logical reasoning. He strained
+      air through cotton-wool, and found, as Schroeder and Dusch had done, that
+      it contained nothing competent to give rise to the development of life in
+      fluids highly fitted for that purpose. But the important further links in
+      the chain of evidence added by Pasteur are three. In the first place he
+      subjected to microscopic examination the cottonwool which had served as
+      strainer, and found that sundry bodies clearly recognisable as germs were
+      among the solid particles strained off. Secondly, he proved that these
+      germs were competent to give rise to living forms by simply sowing them in
+      a solution fitted for their development. And, thirdly, he showed that the
+      incapacity of air strained through cotton-wool to give rise to life was
+      not due to any occult change effected in the constituents of the air by
+      the wool, by proving that the cotton-wool might be dispensed with
+      altogether, and perfectly free access left between the exterior air and
+      that in the experimental flask. If the neck of the flask is drawn out into
+      a tube and bent downwards; and if, after the contained fluid has been
+      carefully boiled, the tube is heated sufficiently to destroy any germs
+      which may be present in the air which enters as the fluid cools, the
+      apparatus may be left to itself for any time and no life will appear in
+      the fluid. The reason is plain. Although there is free communication
+      between the atmosphere laden with germs and the germless air in the flask,
+      contact between the two takes place only in the tube; and as the germs
+      cannot fall upwards, and there are no currents, they never reach the
+      interior of the flask. But if the tube be broken short off where it
+      proceeds from the flask, and free access be thus given to germs falling
+      vertically out of the air, the fluid, which has remained clear and desert
+      for months, becomes, in a few days, turbid and full of life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In autumn it is not uncommon to see flies motionless upon a window-pane,
+      with a sort of magic circle, in white, drawn round them. On microscopic
+      examination, the magic circle is found to consist of innumerable spores,
+      which have been thrown off in all directions by a minute fungus called <i>Empusa
+      muse&aelig;</i> the spore-forming filaments of which stand out like a pile
+      of velvet from the body of the fly. These spore-forming filaments are
+      connected with others which fill the interior of the fly's body like so
+      much fine wool, having eaten away and destroyed the creature's viscera.
+      This is the full-grown condition of the <i>Empusa</i>. If traced back to
+      its earliest stages, in flies which are still active, and to all
+      appearance healthy, it is found to exist in the form of minute corpuscles
+      which float in the blood of the fly. These multiply and lengthen into
+      filaments, at the expense of the fly's substance; and when they have at
+      last killed the patient, they grow out of its body and give off spores.
+      Healthy flies shut up with diseased ones catch this mortal disease, and
+      perish like the others. A most competent observer, M. Cohn, who studied
+      the development of the <i>Empusa</i> very carefully, was utterly unable to
+      discover in what manner the smallest germs of the <i>Empusa</i> got into
+      the fly. The spores could not be made to give rise to such germs by
+      cultivation; nor were such germs discoverable in the air, or in the food
+      of the fly. It looked exceedingly like a case of Abiogenesis, or, at any
+      rate, of Xenogenesis; and it is only quite recently that the real course
+      of events has been made out. It has been ascertained that when one of the
+      spores falls upon the body of a fly, it begins to germinate, and sends out
+      a process which bores its way through the fly's skin; this, having reached
+      the interior cavities of its body, gives off the minute floating
+      corpuscles which are the earliest stage of the <i>Empusa</i>. The disease
+      is "contagious", because a healthy fly coming in contact with a diseased
+      one, from which the spore-bearing filaments protrude, is pretty sure to
+      carry off a spore or two. It is "infectious" because the spores become
+      scattered about all sorts of matter m the neighbourhood of the slain
+      flies. Silkworms are liable to many diseases; and, even before 1853, a
+      peculiar epizootic, frequently accompanied by the appearance of dark spots
+      upon the skin (whence the name of "P&eacute;brine" which it has received),
+      had been noted for its mortality. But in the years following 1853 this
+      malady broke out with such extreme violence, that, in 1858, the silk-crop
+      was reduced to a third of the amount which it had reached in 1853; and, up
+      till within the last year or two, it has never attained half the yield of
+      1853. This means not only that the great number of people engaged in silk
+      growing are some thirty millions sterling poorer than they might have
+      been; it means not only that high prices have had to be paid for imported
+      silkworm eggs, and that, after investing his money in them, in paying for
+      mulberry-leaves and for attendance, the cultivator has constantly seen his
+      silkworms perish and himself plunged in ruin; but it means that the looms
+      of Lyons have lacked employment, and that, for years, enforced idleness
+      and misery have been the portion of a vast population which, in former
+      days, was industrious and well-to-do.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In reading the Report made by M. de Quatrefages in 1859, it is exceedingly
+      interesting to observe that his elaborate study of the P&eacute;brine
+      forced the conviction upon his mind that, in its mode of occurrence and
+      propagation, the disease of the silkworm is, in every respect, comparable
+      to the cholera among mankind. But it differs from the cholera, and so far
+      is a more formidable malady, in being hereditary, and in being, under some
+      circumstances, contagious as well as infectious.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Italian naturalist, Filippi, discovered in the blood of the silkworms
+      affected by this strange disorder a multitude of cylindrical corpuscles,
+      each about 1/6000th of an inch long. These have been carefully studied by
+      Lebert, and named by him <i>Panhistophyton</i>; for the reason that in
+      subjects in which the disease is strongly developed, the corpuscles swarm
+      in every tissue and organ of the body, and even pass into the undeveloped
+      eggs of the female moth. But are these corpuscles causes, or mere
+      concomitants, of the disease? Some naturalists took one view and some
+      another; and it was not until the French Government, alarmed by the
+      continued ravages of the malady, and the inefficiency of the remedies
+      which had been suggested, despatched M. Pasteur to study it, that the
+      question received its final settlement; at a great sacrifice, not only of
+      the time and peace of mind of that eminent philosopher, but, I regret to
+      have to add, of his health.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But the sacrifice has not been in vain. It is now certain that this
+      devastating, cholera-like P&eacute;brine is the effect of the growth and
+      multiplication of the <i>Panhistophyton</i> in the silkworm. It is
+      contagious and infectious, because the corpuscles of the <i>Panhistophyton</i>
+      pass away from the bodies of the diseased caterpillars, directly or
+      indirectly, to the alimentary canal of healthy silkworms in their
+      neighbourhood; it is hereditary because the corpuscles enter into the eggs
+      while they are being formed, and consequently are carried within them when
+      they are laid; and for this reason, also? it presents the very singular
+      peculiarity of being inherited only on the mother's side. There is not a
+      single one of all the apparently capricious and unaccountable phenomena
+      presented by the P&eacute;brine, but has received its explanation from the
+      fact that the disease is the result of the presence of the microscopic
+      organism, <i>Panhistophyton</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I commenced this Address by asking you to follow me in an attempt to trace
+      the path which has been followed by a scientific idea, in its long and
+      slow progress from the position of a probable hypothesis to that of an
+      established law of nature. Our survey has not taken us into very
+      attractive regions; it has lain, chiefly, in a land flowing with the
+      abominable, and peopled with mere grubs and mouldiness. And it may be
+      imagined with what smiles and shrugs, practical and serious contemporaries
+      of Redi and of Spallanzani may have commented on the waste of their high
+      abilities in toiling at the solution of problems which, though curious
+      enough in themselves, could be of no conceivable utility to mankind.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Nevertheless, you will have observed that before we had travelled very far
+      upon our road, there appeared, on the right hand and on the left, fields
+      laden with a harvest of golden grain, immediately convertible into those
+      things which the most solidly practical men will admit to have value&mdash;viz.,
+      money and life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The direct loss to France caused by the P&eacute;brine in seventeen years
+      cannot be estimated at less than fifty millions sterling; and if we add to
+      this what Redi's idea, in Pasteur's hands, has done for the wine-grower
+      and for the vinegar-maker; and try to capitalise its value, we shall find
+      that it will go a long way towards repairing; the money losses caused by
+      the frightful and calamitous war of this autumn (1870). And as to the
+      equivalent of Redi's thought in life, how can we overestimate the value of
+      that knowledge of the nature of epidemic and epizootic diseases, and
+      consequently of the means of checking, or eradicating them, the dawn of
+      which has assuredly commenced?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Looking back no further than ten years, it is possible to select three
+      (1863, 1864, and 1869) in which the total number of deaths from
+      scarlet-fever alone amounted to ninety thousand. That is the return of
+      killed, the maimed and disabled being left out of sight Why, it is to be
+      hoped that the list of killed in the present bloodiest of all wars will
+      not amount to more than this! But the facts which I have placed before you
+      must leave the least sanguine without a doubt that the nature and the
+      causes of this scourge will, one day, be as well understood as those of
+      the P&eacute;brine are now; and that the long-suffered massacre of our
+      innocents will come to an end.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And thus mankind will have one more admonition that "the people perish for
+      lack of knowledge"; and that the alleviation of the miseries, and the
+      promotion of the welfare, of men must be sought, by those who will not
+      lose their pains, in that diligent, patient, loving study of all the
+      multitudinous aspects of Nature, the results of which constitute exact
+      knowledge, or Science.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I find three, more or less contradictory, systems of geological thought,
+      each of which might fairly enough claim these appellations, standing side
+      by side in Britain. I shall call one of them Catastrophisim another
+      Uniformitarianism, the third Evolutionism; and I shall try briefly to
+      sketch the characters of each, that you may say whether the classification
+      is, or is not, exhaustive.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      By Catastrophism I mean any form of geological speculation which, in order
+      to account for the phenomena of geology supposes the operation of forces
+      different in their nature, or immeasurably different in power, from those
+      which we at present see in action in the universe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Mosaic cosmogony is, in this sense, catastrophic, because it assumes
+      the operation of extra-natural power. The doctrine of violent upheavals,
+      <i>d&eacute;b&acirc;cles</i> and cataclysms in general, is catastrophic,
+      so far as it assumes that these were brought about by causes which have
+      now no parallel. There was a time when catastrophism might, pre-eminently,
+      have claimed the title of "British popular geology"; and assuredly it has
+      yet many adherents, and reckons among its supporters some of the most
+      honoured members of this Society.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      By Uniformitarianism I mean especially the teaching of Hutton and of
+      Lyell.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That great though incomplete work, "The Theory of the Earth", seems to me
+      to be one of the most remarkable contributions to geology which is
+      recorded in the annals of the science. So far as the not-living world is
+      concerned, uniformitarianism lies there, not only in germ, but in blossom
+      and fruit.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If one asks how it is that Hutton was led to entertain views so far in
+      advance of those prevalent in his time, in some respects; while, in
+      others, they seem almost curiously limited, the answer appears to me to be
+      plain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Hutton was in advance of the geological speculation of his time, because,
+      in the first place, he had amassed a vast store of knowledge of the facts
+      of geology, gathered by personal observation in travels of considerable
+      extent; and because, in the second place, he was thoroughly trained in the
+      physical and chemical science of his day, and thus possessed, as much as
+      any one in his time could possess it, the knowledge which is requisite for
+      the just interpretation of geological phenomena, and the habit of thought
+      which fits a man for scientific inquiry.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is to this thorough scientific training that I ascribe Hutton's steady
+      and persistent refusal to look to other causes than those now in operation
+      for the explanation of geological phenomena.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The internal heat of the earth, the elevation and depression of its crust,
+      its belchings forth of vapours, ashes, and lava, are its activities, in as
+      strict a sense as are warmth and the movements and products of respiration
+      the activities of an animal. The phenomena of the seasons, of the trade
+      winds, of the Gulf-stream, are as much the results of the reaction between
+      these inner activities and outward forces as are the budding of the leaves
+      in spring and their falling in autumn the effects of the interaction
+      between the organisation of a plant and the solar light and heat. And, as
+      the study of the activities of the living being is called its physiology,
+      so are these phenomena the subject-matter of an analogous telluric
+      physiology, to which we sometimes give the name of meteorology, sometimes
+      that of physical geography, sometimes that of geology. Again, the earth
+      has a place in space and in time, and relations to other bodies in both
+      these respects, which constitute its distribution. This subject is usually
+      left to the astronomer; but a knowledge of its broad outlines seems to me
+      to be an essential constituent of the stock of geological ideas.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All that can be ascertained concerning the structure succession of
+      conditions, actions, and position m space of the earth, is the matter of
+      fact of its natural history. But? as in biology, there remains the matter
+      of reasoning from these facts to their causes, which is just as much
+      science as the other, and indeed more; and this constitutes geological
+      aetiology.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I suppose that it would be very easy to pick holes in the details of
+      Kant's speculations, whether cosmo-logical, or specially telluric, in
+      their application. But for all that, he seems to me to have been the first
+      person to frame a complete system of geological speculation by founding
+      the doctrine of evolution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I have said that the three schools of geological speculation which I have
+      termed Catastrophism, Uniformitarianism, and Evolutionism, are commonly
+      supposed to be antagonistic to one another; and I presume it will have
+      become obvious that in my belief, the last is destined to swallow up the
+      other two. But it is proper to remark that each of the latter has kept
+      alive the tradition of precious truths.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To my mind there appears to be no sort of necessary theoretical antagonism
+      between Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism. On the contrary, it is very
+      conceivable that catastrophes may be part and parcel of uniformity. Let me
+      illustrate my case by analogy. The working of a clock is a model of
+      uniform action; good time-keeping means uniformity of action. But the
+      striking of the clock is essentially a catastrophe; the hammer might be
+      made to blow up a barrel of gunpowder, or turn on a deluge of water; and,
+      by proper arrangement, the clock, instead of marking the hours, might
+      strike at all sorts of irregular periods, never twice alike, in the
+      intervals, force, or number of its blows. Nevertheless, all these
+      irregular, and apparently lawless, catastrophes would be the result of an
+      absolutely uniformitarian action; and we might have two schools of
+      clock-theorists, one studying the hammer and the other the pendulum.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Mathematics may be compared to a mill of exquisite workmanship, which
+      grinds your stuff of any degree of fineness; but, nevertheless, what you
+      get out depends upon what you put in; and as the grandest mill in tne
+      world will not extract wheat-flour from peascods, so pages of formul&aelig;
+      will not get a definite result out of loose data.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The motive of the drama of human life is the necessity, laid upon every
+      man who comes into the world, of discovering the mean between
+      self-assertion and self-restraint suited to his character and his
+      circumstances. And the eternally tragic aspect of the drama lies in this:
+      that the problem set before us is one the elements of which can be but
+      imperfectly known, and of which even an approximately right solution
+      rarely presents itself, until that stern critic, aged experience, has been
+      furnished with ample justification for venting his sarcastic humour upon
+      the irreparable blunders we have already made.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That which endures is not one or another association of living forms, but
+      the process of which the cosmos is the product, and of which these are
+      among the transitory expressions. And in the living world, one of the most
+      characteristic features of this cosmic process is the struggle for
+      existence, the competition of each with all, the result of which is the
+      selection, that is to say, the survival of those forms which, on the
+      whole, are best adapted to the conditions which at any period obtain; and
+      which are therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the
+      fittest. The acme reached by the cosmic process in the vegetation of the
+      downs is seen in the turf, with its weed and gorse. Under the conditions,
+      they have come out of the struggle victorious; and, by surviving, have
+      proved that they are the fittest to survive.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As a natural process, of the same character as the development of a tree
+      from its seed; or of a fowl from its egg, evolution excludes creation and
+      all other kinds of supernatural intervention. As the expression of a fixed
+      order, every stage of which is the effect of causes operating according to
+      definite rules, the conception of evolution no less excludes that of
+      chance. It is very desirable to remember that evolution is not an
+      explanation of the cosmic process, but merely a generalized statement of
+      the method and results of that process. And, further, that, if there is
+      proof that the cosmic process was set going by any agent, then that agent
+      will be the creator of it and of all its products, although, supernatural
+      intervention may remain strictly excluded from its further course.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All plants and animals exhibit the tendency to vary, the causes of which
+      have yet to be ascertained; it is the tendency of the conditions of life,
+      at any given time, while favouring the existence of the variations best
+      adapted to them, to oppose that of the rest and thus to exercise
+      selection; and all living things tend to multiply without limit, while the
+      means of support are limited; the obvious cause of which is the production
+      of offspring more numerous than their progenitors, but with actual
+      expectation of life in the actuarial sense. Without tne first tendency
+      there could be no evolution. Without the second, there would be no good
+      reason why one variation should disappear and another take its place; that
+      is to say, there would be no selection. Without the third, the struggle
+      for existence, the agent of the selective process in the state of nature,
+      would vanish.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The faith which is born of knowledge finds its object in an eternal order,
+      bringing forth ceaseless chance, through endless time, in endless space;
+      the manifestations of the cosmic energy alternating between phases of
+      potentiality and phases of explication.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      With all their enormous differences in natural endowment, men agree in one
+      thing, and that is their innate desire to enjoy the pleasures and escape
+      the pains of life; and, in short, to do nothing but that which it pleases
+      them to do, without the least reference to the welfare of the society into
+      which they are born. That is their inheritance (the reality at the bottom
+      of the doctrine of original sin) from the long series of ancestors, human
+      and semi-human and brutal, in whom the strength of this innate tendency to
+      self-assertion was the condition of victory in the struggle for existence.
+      That is the reason of the <i>aviditas vit&aelig;</i>&mdash;the insatiable
+      hunger for enjoyment&mdash;of all mankind, which is one of the essential
+      conditions of success in the war with the state of nature outside; and yet
+      the sure agent of the destruction of society if allowed free play within.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The check upon this free play of self-assertion, or natural liberty, which
+      is the necessary condition for the origin of human society, is the product
+      of organic necessities of a different land from those upon which the
+      constitution of the hive depends. One of these is the mutual affection of
+      parent and offspring, intensified by the long infancy of the human
+      species. But the most important is the tendency, so strongly developed in
+      man, to reproduce in himself actions and feelings similar to, or
+      correlated with, those of other men. Man is the most consummate of all
+      mimics in the animal world; none but himself can draw or model; none comes
+      near him in the scope, variety, and exactness of vocal imitation; none is
+      such a master of gesture; while he seems to be impelled thus to imitate
+      for the pure pleasure of it. And there is no such another emotional
+      chameleon. By a purely reflex operation of the mind, we take the hue of
+      passion of those who are about us, or, it may be, the complementary
+      colour. It is not by any conscious "putting one's self in the place" of a
+      joyful or a suffering person that the state of mind we call sympathy
+      usually arises; indeed, it is often contrary to one's sense of right, and
+      in spite of one's will, that "fellow-feeling makes us wondrous kind," or
+      the reverse. However complete may be the indifference to public opinion,
+      in a cool, intellectual view, of the traditional sage, it has not yet been
+      my fortune to meet with any actual sage who took its hostile
+      manifestations with entire equanimity. Indeed, I doubt if the philosopher
+      lives, or ever has lived, who could know himself to be heartily despised
+      by a street boy without some irritation. And, though one cannot justify
+      Haman for wishing to hang Mordecai on such a very high gibbet, yet,
+      really, the consciousness of the Vizier of Ahasuerus, as he went in and
+      out of the gate, that this obscure Jew had no respect for him, must have
+      been very annoying.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is needful only to look around us, to see that the greatest restrainer
+      of the anti-social tendencies of men is fear, not of the law, but of the
+      opinion of their fellows. The conventions of honour bad men who break
+      legal, moral, and religious bonds; and, while people endure the extremity
+      of physical pain rather than part with life, shame drives the weakest to
+      suicide.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Every forward step of social progress brings men into closer relations
+      with their fellows, and increases the importance of the pleasures and
+      pains derived from sympathy. We judge the acts of others by our own
+      sympathies, and we judge our own acts by the sympathies of others, every
+      day and all day long, from childhood upwards, until associations, as
+      indissoluble as those of language, are formed between certain acts and the
+      feelings of approbation or disapprobation. It becomes impossible to
+      imagine some acts without disapprobation, or others without approbation of
+      the actor, whether he be one's self or anyone else. We come to think in
+      the acquired dialect of morals. An artificial personality, the "man
+      within," as Adam Smith calls conscience, is built up beside the natural
+      personality. He is the watchman of society, charged to restrain the
+      antisocial tendencies of the natural man within the limits required by
+      social welfare.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I have termed this evolution of the feelings out of which the primitive
+      bonds of human society are so largely forged, into the organized and
+      personified sympathy we call conscience, the ethical process. So far as it
+      tends to make any human society more efficient in the struggle for
+      existence with the state of nature, or with other societies, it works in
+      harmonious contrast with the cosmic process. But it is none the less true
+      that, since law and morals are restraints upon the struggle for existence
+      between men in society, the ethical process is in opposition to the
+      principle of the cosmic process, and tends to the suppression of the
+      qualities best fitted for success in that struggle.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Moralists of all ages and of all faiths, attending only to the relations
+      of men towards one another in an ideal society, have agreed upon the
+      "golden rule," "Do as you would be done by." In other words, let sympathy
+      be your guide; put yourself in the place of the man towards whom your
+      action is directed; and do to him what you would like to have done to
+      yourself under the circumstances. However much one may admire the
+      generosity of such a rule of conduct; however confident one may be that
+      average men may be thoroughly depended upon not to carry it out to its
+      full logical consequences; it is nevertheless desirable to recognise the
+      fact that these consequences are incompatible with the existence of a
+      civil state, under any circumstances of this world which have obtained,
+      or, so far as one can see, are likely to come to pass.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For I imagine there can be no doubt that the great desire of every
+      wrongdoer is to escape from the painful consequences of his actions. If I
+      put myself in the place of the man who has robbed me, I find that I am
+      possessed by an exceeding desire not to be fined or imprisoned; if in that
+      of the man who has smitten me on one cheek, I contemplate with
+      satisfaction the absence of any worse result than the turning of the other
+      cheek for like treatment. Strictly observed, the "golden rule" involves
+      the negation of law by the refusal to put it in motion against
+      law-breakers; and, as regards the external relations of a polity, it is
+      the refusal to continue the struggle for existence. It can be obeyed, even
+      partially, only under the protection of a society which repudiates it
+      without such shelter the followers of the "golden rule" may indulge in
+      hopes of heaven, but they must reckon with the certainty that other people
+      will be masters of the earth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      What would become of the garden if the gardener treated all the weeds and
+      slugs and birds and trespassers as he would like to be treated if he were
+      in their place?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In a large proportion of cases, crime and pauperism have nothing to do
+      with heredity; but are the consequence, partly, of circumstances and,
+      partly, of the possession of qualities, which, under different conditions
+      of life, might have excited esteem and even admiration. It was a shrewd
+      man of the world who, in discussing sewage problems, remarked that dirt is
+      riches in the wrong; place; and that sound aphorism has moral
+      applications. The benevolence and open-handed generosity which adorn a
+      rich man may make a pauper of a poor one; the energy and courage to which
+      the successful soldier owes his rise, the cool and daring subtlety to
+      which the great financier owes his fortune, may very easily, under
+      unfavourable conditions, lead their possessors to the gallows, or to the
+      hulks. Moreover, it is fairly probable that the children of a "failure"
+      will receive from their other parent just that little modification of
+      character which makes all the difference. I sometimes wonder whether
+      people, who talk so freely about extirpating the unfit, ever
+      dispassionately consider their own history. Surely, one must be very "fit"
+      indeed not to know of an occasion, or perhaps two, in one's life, when it
+      would have been only too easy to qualify for a place among the "unfit."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the struggle for the means of enjoyment, the qualities which ensure
+      success are energy, industry, intellectual capacity, tenacity of purpose,
+      and, at least as much sympathy as is necessary to make a man understand
+      the feelings of his fellows. Were there none of those artificial
+      arrangements by which fools and knaves are kept at the top of society
+      instead of sinking to their natural place at the bottom, the struggle for
+      the means of enjoyment would ensure a constant circulation of the human
+      units of the social compound, from the bottom to the top and from the top
+      to the bottom. The survivors of the contest, those who continued to form
+      the great bulk of the polity, would not be those "fittest" who got to the
+      very top, but the great body of the moderately "fit," whose numbers and
+      superior propagative power enable them always to swamp the exceptionally
+      endowed minority.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I think it must be obvious to every one that, whether we consider the
+      internal or the external interests of society, it is desirable they should
+      be in the hands of those who are endowed with the largest share of energy,
+      of industry, of intellectual capacity, of tenacity of purpose, while they
+      are not devoid of sympathetic humanity; and, in so far as the struggle for
+      the means of enjoyment tends to place such men in possession of wealth and
+      influence, it is a process which tends to the good of society. But the
+      process, as we have seen, has no real resemblance to that which adapts
+      living beings to current conditions in the state of nature; nor any to the
+      artificial selection of the horticulturist.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Even should the whole human race be absorbed in one vast polity, within
+      which "absolute political justice" reigns, the struggle for existence with
+      the state of nature outside it, and the tendency to the return of the
+      struggle within, in consequence of over-multiplication, will remain; and,
+      unless men's inheritance from the ancestors who fought a good fight in the
+      state of nature, their dose of original sin, is rooted out by some method
+      at present unrevealed, at any rate to disbelievers in supernaturalism,
+      every child born into the world will still bring with him the instinct of
+      unlimited self-assertion. He will have to learn the lesson of
+      self-restraint and renunciation. But the practice of self-restraint and
+      renunciation is not happiness, though it may be something much better.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That man, as a "political animal," is susceptible of a vast amount of
+      improvement, by education, by instruction, and by the application of his
+      intelligence to the adaptation of tne conditions of life to his higher
+      needs, I entertain not the slightest doubt. But, so long as he remains
+      liable to error, intellectual or moral; so long as he is compelled to be
+      perpetually on guard against the cosmic forces, whose ends are not his
+      ends, without and within himself; so long as he is haunted by inexpugnable
+      memories and hopeless aspirations; so long as the recognition of his
+      intellectual limitations forces him to acknowledge his incapacity to
+      penetrate the mystery of existence; the prospect of attaining untroubled
+      happiness, or of a state which can, even remotely, deserve the title of
+      perfection, appears to me to be as misleading an illusion as ever was
+      dangled before the eyes of poor humanity. And there have been many of
+      them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That which lies before the human race is a constant struggle to maintain
+      and improve, in opposition to the State of Nature, the State of Art of an
+      organized polity; in which, and by which, man may develop a worthy
+      civilization, capable of maintaining and constantly improving itself,
+      until the evolution of our globe shall have entered so far upon its
+      downward course that the cosmic process resumes its sway; and, once more,
+      the State of Nature prevails over the surface of our planet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From very low forms up to the highest&mdash;in the animal no less than in
+      the vegetable kingdom&mdash;the process of life presents the same
+      appearance of cyclical evolution. Nay, we have but to cast our eyes over
+      the rest of the world and cyclical change presents itself on all sides. It
+      meets us in the water that flows to the sea and returns to the springs; in
+      the heavenly bodies that wax and wane, go and return to their places; in
+      the inexorable sequence of the ages of man's life; in that successive
+      rise, apogee, and fall of dynasties and of states which is the most
+      prominent topic of civil history.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXL
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As no man fording a swift stream can dip his foot twice into the same
+      water, so no man can, with exactness, affirm of anything in the sensible
+      world that it is. As he utters the words, nay, as he thinks them, the
+      predicate ceases to be applicable; the present has become the past; the
+      "is" should be "was." And the more we learn of the nature of things, the
+      more evident is it that what we call rest is only unperceived activity;
+      that seeming peace is silent but strenuous battle. In every part, at every
+      moment, the state of the cosmos is the expression of a transitory
+      adjustment of contending forces; a scene of strife, in which all the
+      combatants fall in turn. What is true of each part is true of the whole.
+      Natural knowledge tends more and more to the conclusion that "all the
+      choir of heaven and furniture of the earth" are the transitory forms of
+      parcels of cosmic substance wending along the road of evolution, from
+      nebulous potentiality, through endless growths of sun and planet and
+      satellite; through all varieties of matter; through infinite diversities
+      of life and thought; possibly, through modes of being of which we neither
+      have a conception, nor are competent to form any, back to the indefinable
+      latency from which they arose. Thus the most obvious attribute of the
+      cosmos is its impermanence. It assumes the aspect not so much of a
+      permanent entity as of a changeful process, in which naught endures save
+      the flow of energy and the rational order which pervades it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Man, the animal, in fact, has worked his way to the headship of the
+      sentient world, and has become the superb animal which he is in virtue of
+      his success in the struggle for existence. The conditions having been of a
+      certain order, man's organization has adjusted itself to them better than
+      mat of his competitors in the cosmic strife. In the case of mankind, the
+      self-assertion, the unscrupulous seizing upon all that can be grasped, the
+      tenacious holding of all that can be kept, which constitute the essence of
+      the struggle for existence, have answered. For his successful progress,
+      throughout the savage state, man has been largely indebted to those
+      qualities which he shares with the ape and the tiger; his exceptional
+      physical organization; his cunning, his sociability, his curiosity, and
+      his imitativeness; his ruthless and ferocious destructiveness when his
+      anger is roused by opposition.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But, in proportion as men have passed from anarchy to social organization,
+      and in proportion as civilization has grown in worth, these deeply
+      ingrained serviceable qualities have become defects. After the manner of
+      successful persons, civilized man would gladly kick down the ladder by
+      which he has climbed. He would be only too pleased to see "the ape and
+      tiger die." But they decline to suit his convenience; and the unwelcome
+      intrusion of these boon companions of his hot youth into the ranged
+      existence of civil life adds pains and griefs, innumerable and
+      immeasurably great, to those which the cosmic process necessarily brings
+      on the mere animal. In fact, civilized man brands all these ape and tiger
+      promptings with the name of sins; he punishes many of the acts which flow
+      from them as crimes; and, in extreme cases, he does his best to put an end
+      to the survival of the fittest of former days by axe and rope.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXLII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In Hindustan, as in Ionia, a period of relatively high and tolerably
+      stable civilization had succeeded long ages of semi-barbarism and
+      struggle. Out of wealth and security had come leisure and refinement, and,
+      close at their heels, had followed the malady of thought. To the struggle
+      for bare existence, which never ends, though it may be alleviated and
+      partially disguised for a fortunate few, succeeded the struggle to make
+      existence intelligible and to bring the order of things into harmony with
+      the moral sense of man, which also never ends, but, for the thinking few,
+      becomes keener with every increase of knowledge and with every step
+      towards the realization of a worthy ideal of life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Two thousand five hundred years ago the value of civilization was as
+      apparent as it is now; then, as now, it was obvious that only in the
+      garden of an orderly polity can the finest fruits humanity is capable of
+      bearing be produced. But it had also become evident that the blessings of
+      culture were not unmixed. The garden was apt to turn into a hothouse. The
+      stimulation of the senses, the pampering of the emotions, endlessly
+      multiplied the sources of pleasure. The constant widening of the
+      intellectual field indefinitely extended the range of that especially
+      human faculty of looking before and after, which adds to the fleeting
+      present those old and new worlds of the past and the future, wherein men
+      dwell the more the higher their culture. But that very sharpening of the
+      sense and that subtle refinement of emotion, which brought such a wealth
+      of pleasures, were fatally attended by a proportional enlargement of the
+      capacity for suffering; and the divine faculty of imagination, while it
+      created new heavens and new earths, provided them with the corresponding
+      hells of futile regret for the past and morbid anxiety for the future.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXLIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the
+      conception of justice. Society is impossible unless those who are
+      associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct towards one another;
+      its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide by that
+      agreement; and, so far as they waver, that mutual trust which is the bond
+      of society is weakened or destroyed. Wolves could not hunt in packs except
+      for the real, though unexpressed, understanding that they should not
+      attack one another during the chase. The most rudimentary polity is a pack
+      of men living under the like tacit, or expressed, understanding; and
+      having made the very important advance upon wolf society, that they agree
+      to use the force of the whole body against individuals who violate it and
+      in favour of those who observe it. This observance of a common
+      understanding, with the consequent distribution of punishments and rewards
+      according to accepted rules, received the name of justice, while the
+      contrary was called injustice. Early ethics did not take much note of the
+      animus of the violator of the rules. But civilization could not advance
+      far without the establishment of a capital distinction between the case of
+      involuntary and that of wilful misdeed; between a merely wrong action and
+      a guilty one.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And, with increasing refinement of moral appreciation, the problem of
+      desert, which arises out of this distinction, acquired more and more
+      theoretical and practical importance. If life must be given for life, yet
+      it was recognized that the unintentional slayer did not altogether deserve
+      death; and, by a sort of compromise between the public and the private
+      conception of justice, a sanctuary was provided in which he might take
+      refuge from the avenger of blood.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The idea of justice thus underwent a gradual sublimation from punishment
+      and reward according to acts, to punishment and reward according to
+      desert; or, in other words, according to motive. Righteousness, that is,
+      action from right motive, not only became synonymous with justice, but the
+      positive constituent of innocence and the very heart of goodness.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXLIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Everyday experience familiarizes us with the facts which are grouped under
+      the name of heredity. Every one of us bears upon him obvious marks of his
+      parentage, perhaps of remoter relationships. More particularly, the sum of
+      tendencies to act in a certain, way, which we call "character," is often
+      to be traced through a long series of progenitors and collaterals. So we
+      may justly say that this "character"&mdash;this moral and intellectual
+      essence of a man&mdash;does veritably pass over from one fleshy tabernacle
+      to another, ana does really transmigrate from generation to generation. In
+      the new-born infant the character of the stock lies latent, and the Ego is
+      little more than a bundle of potentialities. But, very early, these become
+      actualities; from childhood to age they manifest themselves in dulness or
+      brightness, weakness or strength, viciousness or uprightness; and with
+      each feature modified by confluence with another character, if by nothing
+      else, the character passes on to its incarnation in new bodies.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXLV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Only one rule of conduct could be based upon the remarkable theory of
+      which I have endeavoured to give a reasoned outline. It was folly to
+      continue to exist when an overplus of pain was certain; and the
+      probabilities in favour of the increase of misery with the prolongation of
+      existence, were so overwhelming. Slaying the body only made matters worse;
+      there was nothing for it but to slay the soul by the voluntary arrest of
+      all its activities. Property, social ties, family affections, common
+      companionship, must be abandoned; the most natural appetites, even that
+      for food, must be suppressed, or at least minimized; until all that
+      remained of a man was the impassive, extenuated, mendicant monk,
+      self-hypnotised into cataleptic trances, which the deluded mystic took for
+      foretastes of the final union with Brahma.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXLVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the cosmos is the effect of an immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely
+      beneficent cause, the existence in it of real evil, still less of
+      necessarily inherent evil, is plainly inadmissible. Yet the universal
+      experience of mankind testified then, as now, that, whether we look within
+      us or without us, evil stares us in the face on all sides; that if
+      anything is real, pain and sorrow and wrong are realities.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It would be a new thing in history if <i>a priori</i> philosophers were
+      daunted by the factious opposition of experience; and the Stoics were the
+      last men to allow themselves to be beaten by mere facts. "Give me a
+      doctrine and I will find the reasons for it," said Chrysippus. So they
+      perfected, if they did not invent, that ingenious and plausible form of
+      pleading, the Theodicy; for the purpose of showing firstly, that there is
+      no such thing as evil; secondly, that if there is, it is the necessary
+      correlate of good; and, moreover, that it is either due to our own fault,
+      or inflicted for our benefit.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXLVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Unfortunately, it is much easier to shut one's eyes to good than to evil.
+      Pain and sorrow knock at our doors more loudly than pleasure and
+      happiness; and the prints of their heavy footsteps are less easily
+      effaced.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXLVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the language of the Stoa, "Nature" was a word of many meanings. There
+      was the "Nature" of the cosmos, and the "Nature" of man. In the latter,
+      the animal "nature," which man shares with a moiety of the living part of
+      the cosmos, was distinguished from a higher "nature." Even in this higher
+      nature there were grades of rank. The logical faculty is an instrument
+      which may be turned to account for any purpose. The passions and the
+      emotions are so closely tied to tne lower nature that they may be
+      considered to be pathological, rather than normal, phenomena. The one
+      supreme, hegemonic, faculty, which constitutes the essential "nature" of
+      man, is most nearly represented by that which, in the language of a later
+      philosophy, has been called the pure reason. It is this "nature" which
+      holds up the ideal of the supreme good and demands absolute submission of
+      the will to its behests. It is this which commands all men to love one
+      another, to return good for evil, to regard one another as fellow-citizens
+      of one great state. Indeed, seeing that the progress towards perfection of
+      a civilised state, or polity, depends on the obedience of its members to
+      these commands, the Stoics sometimes termed the pure reason the
+      "political" nature. Unfortunately, the sense of the adjective has
+      undergone so much modification that the application of it to that which
+      commands the sacrifice of self to the common good would now sound almost
+      grotesque.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXLIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The majority of us, I apprehend, profess neither pessimism nor optimism.
+      We hold that the world is neither so good, nor so bad, as it conceivably
+      might be; and, as most of us have reason, now and again, to discover that
+      it can be. Those who have failed to experience the joys that make life
+      worth living are, probably, in as small a minority as those who have never
+      known the griefs that rob existence of its savour and turn its richest
+      fruits into mere dust and ashes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCL
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is another fallacy which appears to me to pervade the so-called
+      "ethics of evolution." It is the notion that because, on the whole,
+      animals and plants have advanced in perfection of organization by means of
+      the struggle for existence and the consequent "survival of the fittest";
+      therefore men in society, men as ethical beings, must look to the same
+      process to help them towards perfection. I suspect that this fallacy has
+      arisen out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the phrase "survival of the
+      fittest." "Fittest" has a connotation of "best"; and about "best" there
+      hangs a moral flavour. In cosmic nature, however, what is "fittest"
+      depends upon the conditions. Long since, I ventured to point out that if
+      our hemisphere were to cool again, the survival of the fittest might bring
+      about, in the vegetable kingdom, a population of more and more stunted and
+      humbler and humbler organisms, until the "fittest" that survived might be
+      nothing but lichens, diatoms, and such microscopic organisms as those
+      which give red snow its colour; while, if it became hotter, the pleasant
+      valleys of the Thames and Isis might be uninhabitable by any animated
+      beings save those that flourish in a tropical jungle. They, as the
+      fittest, the best adapted to the changed conditions, would survive.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The practice of that which is ethically best&mdash;what we call goodness
+      or virtue&mdash;involves a course of conduct which, in all respects, is
+      opposed to that which leads to success in the cosmic struggle for
+      existence. In place of ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint;
+      in place of thrusting aside, or treading down, all competitors, it
+      requires that the individual shall not merely respect, but shall help his
+      fellows; its influence is directed, not so much to the survival of the
+      fittest, as to the fitting of as many as possible to survive. It
+      repudiates the gladiatorial theory of existence. It demands that each man
+      who enters into the enjoyment of the advantages of a polity shall be
+      mindful of his debt to those who have laboriously constructed it: and
+      shall take heed that no act of his weakens the fabric in which he has been
+      permitted to live. Laws and moral precepts are directed to the end of
+      curbing the cosmic process and reminding the individual of his duty to the
+      community, to the protection and influence of which he owes, if not
+      existence itself, at least the life of something better than a brutal
+      savage.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The theory of evolution encourages no millennial anticipations. If, for
+      millions of years, our globe has taken the upward road, yet, some time,
+      the summit will be reached and the downward route will be commenced. The
+      most daring imagination will hardly venture upon the suggestion that the
+      power and the intelligence of man can ever arrest the procession of the
+      great year.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Moreover, the cosmic nature born with us and, to a large extent, necessary
+      for our maintenance, is the outcome of millions of years of severe
+      training, and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries will
+      suffice to subdue its masterfulness to purely ethical ends. Ethical nature
+      may count upon having to reckon with a tenacious and powerful enemy as
+      long as the world lasts. But, on the other hand, I see no limit to the
+      extent to which intelligence and will, guided by sound principles of
+      investigation, and organized in common effort, may modify the conditions
+      of existence, for a period longer than that now covered by history. And
+      much may be done to change the nature of man himself. The intelligence
+      which has converted the brother of the wolf into the faithful guardian of
+      the flock ought to be able to do something towards curbing the instincts
+      of savagery in civilized men.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But if we may permit ourselves a larger hope of abatement of the essential
+      evil of the world than was possible to those who, in the infancy of exact
+      knowledge, faced the problem of existence more than a score of centuries
+      ago, I deem it an essential condition of the realization of that hope that
+      we should cast aside the notion that the escape from pain and sorrow is
+      the proper object of life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our race, when
+      good and evil could be met with the same "frolic welcome"; the attempts to
+      escape from evil, whether Indian or Greek, have ended in flight from the
+      battle-field; it remains to us to throw aside the youthful over-confidence
+      and the no less youthful discouragement of nonage. We are grown men, and
+      must play the man
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+                           strong in will
+     To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield,
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      cherishing the good that falls in our way, and bearing the evil, in and
+      around us, with stout hearts set on diminishing it. So far, we all may
+      strive in one faith towards one hope:
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     It may be that the gulfs will wash us down,
+     It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles,
+
+ .... but something ere the end,
+     Some work of noble note may yet be done.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      CCLIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I do not suppose that I am exceptionally endowed because I have all my
+      life enjoyed a keen perception of the beauty offered us by nature and by
+      art Now physical science may and probably will, some day, enable our
+      posterity to set forth the exact physical concomitants and conditions of
+      the strange rapture of beauty. But if ever that day arrives, the rapture
+      will remain, just as it is now, outside and beyond the physical world;
+      and, even in the mental world, something superadded to mere sensation. I
+      do not wish to crow unduly over my humble cousin the orang, but in the
+      aesthetic province, as in that of tine intellect, I am afraid he is
+      nowhere. I doubt not he would detect a fruit amidst a wilderness of leaves
+      where I could see nothing; but I am tolerably confident that he has never
+      been awestruck, as I have been, by the dim religious gloom, as of a temple
+      devoted to the earthgods, of the tropical forests which he inhabits. Yet I
+      doubt not that our poor long-armed and short-legged friend, as he sits
+      meditatively munching his durian fruit, has something behind that sad
+      Socratic face of his which is utterly "beyond the bounds of physical
+      science." Physical science may know all about his clutching the fruit and
+      munching it and digesting it, and how the physical titillation of his
+      palate is transmitted to some microscopic cells of the gray matter of his
+      brain. But the feelings of sweetness and of satisfaction which, for a
+      moment, hang out their signal lights in his melancholy eyes, are as
+      utterly outside the bounds of physics as is the "fine frenzy" of a human
+      rhapsodist.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When I was a mere boy, with a perverse tendency to think when I ought to
+      have been playing, my mind was greatly exercised by this formidable
+      problem, What would become of things if they lost their qualities? As the
+      qualities had no objective existence, and the thing without qualities was
+      nothing, the solid world seemed whittled away&mdash;to my great horror. As
+      I grew older, and learned to use the terms "matter" and "force," the
+      boyish problem was revived, <i>mutato nomine</i>. On the one hand, the
+      notion of matter without force seemed to resolve the world into a set of
+      geometrical ghosts, too dead even to jabber. On the other hand,
+      Boscovich's hypothesis, by which matter was resolved into centres of
+      force, was very attractive. But when one tried to think it out, what in
+      the world became of force considered as an objective entity? Force, even
+      the most materialistic of philosophers will agree with the most
+      idealistic, is nothing but a name for the cause of motion. And if, with
+      Boscovich, I resolved things into centres of force, then matter vanished
+      altogether and left immaterial entities in its place. One might as well
+      frankly accept Idealism and have done with it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Tolerably early in life I discovered that one of the unpardonable sins, in
+      the eyes of most people, is for a man to presume to go about unlabeled.
+      The world regards such a person as the police do an unmuzzled dog, not
+      under proper control. I could find no label that would suit me, so, in my
+      desire to range myself and be respectable, I invented one; and, as the
+      chief thing I was sure of was that I did not know a great many things that
+      the -ists and the -ites about me professed to be familiar with, I called
+      myself an Agnostic. Surely no denomination could be more modest or more
+      appropriate; and I cannot imagine why I should be every now and then haled
+      out of my refuge and declared sometimes to be a Materialist, sometimes an
+      Atheist, sometimes a Positivist, and sometimes, alas and alack, a cowardly
+      or reactionary Obscurantist.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Lastly, with respect to the old riddle of the freedom of the will. In the
+      only sense in which the word freedom is intelligible to me&mdash;that is
+      to say, the absence of any restraint upon doing what one likes within
+      certain limits&mdash;physical science certainly gives no more ground for
+      doubting it than the common sense of mankind does. And if physical
+      science, in strengthening our belief in the universality of causation and
+      abolishing chance as an absurdity, leads to the conclusion of determinism,
+      it does no more than follow the track of consistent and logical thinkers
+      in philosophy and in theology, before it existed or was thought of.
+      Whoever accepts the universality of the law of causation as a dogma of
+      philosophy, denies the existence of uncaused phenomena. And the essence of
+      that which is improperly called the freewill doctrine is that
+      occasionally, at any rate, human volition is self-caused, that is to say,
+      not caused at all; for to cause oneself one must have anteceded oneself&mdash;which
+      is, to say the least of it, difficult to imagine.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the diseases of society consist in the weakness of its faith in the
+      existence of the God of the theologians, in a future state, and in
+      uncaused volitions, the indication, as the doctors say, is to suppress
+      Theology and Philosophy, whose bickerings about things of which they know
+      nothing have been the prime cause and continual sustenance of that evil
+      scepticism which is the Nemesis of meddling with the unknowable.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Cinderella is modestly conscious of her ignorance of these high matters.
+      She lights the fire, sweeps the house, and provides the dinner; and is
+      rewarded by being told that she is a base creature, devoted to low and
+      material interests. But in her garret she has fairy visions out of the ken
+      of the pair of shrews who are quarrelling downstairs. She sees the order
+      which pervades the seeming disorder of the world; the great drama of
+      evolution, with its full share of pity and terror, but also with abundant
+      goodness and beauty, unrolls itself before her eyes; and she learns, in
+      her heart of hearts, the lesson, that the foundation of morality is to
+      have done, once and for all, with lying; to give up pretending to believe
+      that for which there is no evidence, and repeating unintelligible
+      propositions about things beyond the possibilities of knowledge.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      She knows that the safety of morality lies neither in the adoption of this
+      or that philosophical speculation, or this or that theological creed, but
+      in a real and living belief in that fixed order of nature which sends
+      social disorganisation upon the track of immorality, as surely as it sends
+      physical disease after physical trespasses. And of that firm and lively
+      faith it is her high mission to be the priestess.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The first act of a new-born child is to draw a deep breath. In fact, it
+      will never draw a deeper, inasmuch as the passages and chambers of the
+      lungs, once distended with air, do not empty themselves again; it is only
+      a fraction of their contents which passes in and out with the flow and the
+      ebb of the respiratory tide. Mechanically, this act of drawing breath, or
+      inspiration, is of the same nature as that by which the handles of a
+      bellows are separated, in order to fill the bellows with air; and, in like
+      manner, it involves that expenditure of energy which we call exertion, or
+      work, or labour. It is, therefore, no mere metaphor to say that man is
+      destined to a life of toil: the work of respiration which began with his
+      first breath ends only with his last; nor does one born in the purple get
+      off with a lighter task than the child who first sees light under a hedge.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      How is it that the new-born infant is enabled to perform this first
+      instalment of the sentence of lifelong labour which no man may escape?
+      Whatever else a child may be, in respect of this particular question, it
+      is a complicated piece of mechanism, built up out of materials supplied by
+      its mother; and in the course of such building-up, provided with a set of
+      motors&mdash;the muscles. Each of these muscles contains a stock of
+      substance capable of yielding energy under certain conditions, one of
+      which is a change of state in the nerve-fibres connected with it The
+      powder in a loaded gun is such another stock of substance capable of
+      yielding energy in consequence of a change of state in the mechanism of
+      the lock, which intervenes between the finger of the man who pulls the
+      trigger and the cartridge. If that change is brought about, the potential
+      energy of the powder passes suddenly into actual energy, and does the work
+      of propelling the bullet The powder, therefore, may be appropriately
+      called work-stuff not only because it is stuff which is easily made to
+      yield work in the physical sense, but because a good deal of work in the
+      economical sense has contributed to its production. Labour was necessary
+      to collect, transport, and purify the raw sulphur and saltpetre; to cut
+      wood and convert it into powdered charcoal; to mix these ingredients in
+      the right proportions; to give the mixture the proper grain, and so on.
+      The powder once formed part of the stock, or capital, of a powder-maker:
+      and it is not only certain natural bodies which are collected and stored
+      in the gunpowder, but the labour bestowed on the operations mentioned may
+      be figuratively said to be incorporated in it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In principle, the work-stuff stored in the muscles of the new-born child
+      is comparable to that stored in the gun-barrel. The infant is launched
+      into altogether new surroundings; and these operate through the mechanism
+      of the nervous machinery, with the result that the potential energy of
+      some of the work-stuff in the muscles which bring about inspiration is
+      suddenly converted into actual energy; and this, operating through the
+      mechanism of the respiratory apparatus, gives rise to an act of
+      inspiration. As the bullet is propelled by the "going off" of the powder,
+      as it might be said that the ribs are raised and the midriff depressed by
+      the "going off" of certain portions of muscular work-stuff. This
+      work-stuff is part of a stock or capital of that commodity stored up in
+      the child s organism before birth, at the expense of the mother; and the
+      mother has made good her expenditure by drawing upon the capital of
+      food-stuffs which furnished her daily maintenance.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Under these circumstances, it does not appear to me to be open to doubt
+      that the primary act of outward labour in the series which necessarily
+      accompany the life of man is dependent upon the pre-existence of a stock
+      of material which is not only of use to him, but which is disposed in such
+      a manner as to be utilisable with facility. And I further imagine that the
+      propriety of the application of the term "capital" to this stock of useful
+      substance cannot be justly called in question; inasmuch as it is easy to
+      prove that the essential constituents of the work-stuff accumulated in the
+      child's muscles have merely been transferred from the store of
+      food-stuffs, which everybody admits to be capital, by means of the
+      maternal organism to that of the child, in which they are again deposited
+      to await use. Every subsequent act of labour, in like manner, involves an
+      equivalent consumption of the child's store of work-stuff&mdash;its vital
+      capital; and one of the main objects of the process of breathing is to get
+      rid of some of the effects of that consumption. It follows, then, that,
+      even if no other than the respiratory work were going on in the organism,
+      the capital of work-stuff, which the child brought with it into the world,
+      must sooner or later be used up, and the movements of breathing must come
+      to an end; just as the see-saw of the piston of a steam-engine stops when
+      the coal in the fireplace has burnt away. Milk, however, is a stock of
+      materials which essentially consists of savings from the food-stuffs
+      supplied to the mother. And these savings are in such a physical and
+      chemical condition that the organism of the child can easily convert them
+      into work-stuff. That is to say, by borrowing directly from the vital
+      capital of the mother, indirectly from the store in the natural bodies
+      accessible to her; it can make good the loss of its own. The operation of
+      borrowing, however, involves further work; that is, the labour of sucking,
+      which is a mechanical operation of much the same nature as breathing. The
+      child thus pays for the capital it borrows m labour; but as the value in
+      work-stuff of the milk obtained is very far greater than the value of that
+      labour, estimated by the consumption of work-stuff it involves, the
+      operation yields a large profit to the infant. The overplus of food-stuff
+      suffices to increase the child's capital of work-stuff; and to supply not
+      only the materials for the enlargement of the "buildings and machinery"
+      which is expressed by the child's growth, but also the energy required to
+      put all these materials together, and to carry them to their proper
+      places. Thus, throughout the years of infancy, and so long thereafter as
+      the youth or man is not thrown upon his own resources, he lives by
+      consuming the vital capital provided by others.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Let us now suppose the child come to man's estate in the condition of a
+      wandering savage, dependent for his food upon what he can pick up or
+      catch, after the fashion of the Australian aborigines. It is plain that
+      the place of mother, as the supplier of vital capital, is now taken by the
+      fruits, seeds, and roots of plants and by various kinds of animals....
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The savage, like the child, borrows the capital he needs, and, at any
+      rate, intentionally, does nothing towards repayment; it would plainly be
+      an improper use of the word "produce" to say that his labour in hunting
+      for the roots, or the fruits, or the eggs, or the grubs and snakes, which
+      he finds and eats, "produces" or contributes to "produce" them. The same
+      thing is true of more advanced tribes, who are still merely hunters, such
+      as the Esquimaux. They may expend more labour and skill; but it is spent
+      in destruction.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When we find set forth as an "absolute" truth the statement that the
+      essential factors in economic production are land, capital and labour&mdash;when
+      this is offered as an axiom whence all sorts of other important truths may
+      be deduced&mdash;it is needful to remember that the assertion is true only
+      with a qualification. Undoubtedly "vital capital" is essential; for, as we
+      have seen, no human work can be done unless it exists, not even that
+      internal work of the body which is necessary to passive life. But, with
+      respect to labour (that is, human labour) I hope to have left no doubt on
+      the reader's mind that, m regard to production, the importance of human
+      labour may be so small as to be almost a vanishing quantity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The one thing needful for economic production is the green plant, as the
+      sole producer of vital capital from natural inorganic bodies. Men might
+      exist without labour (in the ordinary sense) and without land; without
+      plants they must inevitably perish.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Since no amount of labour can produce an ounce of food-stuff beyond the
+      maximum producible by a limited number of plants, under the most
+      favourable circumstances in regard to those conditions which are not
+      affected by labour, it follows that, if the number of men to be fed
+      increases indefinitely, a time must come when some will have to starve.
+      That is the essence of the so-called Malthusian doctrine; and it is a
+      truth which, to my mind, is as plain as the general proposition that a
+      quantity which constantly increases will, some time or other, exceed any
+      greater quantity the amount of which is fixed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "Virtually" is apt to cover more intellectual sins than "charity" does
+      moral delicts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The notion that the value of a thing bears any necessary relation to the
+      amount of labour (average or otherwise) bestowed upon it, is a fallacy
+      which needs no further refutation than it has already received. The
+      average amount of labour bestowed upon warming-pans confers no value upon
+      them in the eyes of a Gold-Coast negro; nor would an Esquimaux give a
+      slice of blubber for the most elaborate of ice-machines.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Who has ever imagined that wealth which, in the hands of an employer, is
+      capital, ceases to be capital if it is in the hands of a labourer? Suppose
+      a workman to be paid thirty shillings on Saturday evening for six days'
+      labour, that thirty shillings comes out of the employer's capital, and
+      receives the name of "wages" simply because it is exchanged for labour. In
+      the workman's pocket, as he goes home, it is a part of his capital, in
+      exactly the same sense as, half an hour before, it was part of the
+      employer's capital; he is a capitalist just as much as if he were a
+      Rothschild.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I think it may be not too much to say that, of all the political delusions
+      which are current in this queer world, the very stupidest are those which
+      assume that labour and capital are necessarily antagonistic; that all
+      capital is produced by labour and therefore, by natural right, is the
+      property of the labourer; that the possessor of capital is a robber who
+      preys on the workman and appropriates to himself that which he has had no
+      share in producing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the contrary, capital and labour are necessarily, close allies; capital
+      is never a product of human labour alone; it exists apart from human
+      labour; it is the necessary antecedent of labour; and it furnishes the
+      materials on which labour is employed. The only indispensable form of
+      capital&mdash;vital capital&mdash;cannot be produced by human labour. All
+      that man can do is to favour its formation by the real producers. There is
+      no intrinsic relation between the amount of labour bestowed on an article
+      and its value in exchange. The claim of labour to the total result of
+      operations which are rendered possible only by capital is simply an <i>a
+      priori</i> iniquity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The vast and varied procession of events, which we call Nature, affords a
+      sublime spectacle and an inexhaustible wealth of attractive problems to
+      the speculative observer. If we confine our attention to that aspect which
+      engages the attention of the intellect, nature appears a beautiful and
+      harmonious whole, the incarnation of a faultless logical process, from
+      certain premisses in the past to an inevitable conclusion in the future.
+      But if it be regarded from a less elevated, though more human, point of
+      view; if our moral sympathies are allowed to influence our judgment, and
+      we permit ourselves to criticize our great mother as we criticize one
+      another; then our verdict, at least so far as sentient nature is
+      concerned, can hardly be so favourable.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In sober truth, to those who have made a study of the phenomena of life as
+      they are exhibited by the higher forms of the animal world, the optimistic
+      dogma, that this is the best of all possible worlds, will seem little
+      better than a libel upon possibility. It is really only another instance
+      to be added to the many extant, of the audacity of <i>a priori</i>
+      speculators who, having created God in their own image, find no difficulty
+      in assuming that the Almighty must have been actuated by the same motives
+      as themselves. They are quite sure that, had any other course been
+      practicable, He would no more have made infinite suffering a necessary
+      ingredient of His handiwork than a respectable philosopher would have done
+      the like.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But even the modified optimism of the time-honoured thesis of
+      physico-theology, that the sentient world is, on the whole, regulated by
+      principles of benevolence, does but ill stand the test of impartial
+      confrontation with the facts of the case. No doubt it is quite true that
+      sentient nature affords hosts of examples of subtle contrivances directed
+      towards the production of pleasure or the avoidance of pain; and it may be
+      proper to say that these are evidences of benevolence. But if so, why is
+      it not equally proper to say of the equally numerous arrangements, the no
+      less necessary result of which is the production of pain, that they are
+      evidences of malevolence?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If a vast amount of that which, in a piece of human workmanship, we should
+      call skill, is visible in those parts of the organization of a deer to
+      which it owes its ability to escape from beasts of prey, there is at least
+      equal skill displayed in that bodily mechanism of the wolf which enables
+      him to track, and sooner or later to bring down, the deer. Viewed under
+      the dry light of science, deer and wolf are alike admirable; and, if both
+      were non-sentient automata, there would be nothing to qualify our
+      admiration of the action of the one on the other. But the fact that the
+      deer suffers, while the wolf inflicts suffering, engages our moral
+      sympathies. We should call men like the deer innocent and good, men such
+      as the wolf malignant and bad; we should call those who defended the deer
+      and aided him to escape brave and compassionate, and those who helped the
+      wolf in his bloody work base and cruel. Surely, if we transfer these
+      judgments to nature outside the world of man at all, we must do so
+      impartially. In that case, the goodness of the right hand which helps the
+      deer, and wickedness of the left hand which eggs on the wolf, will
+      neutralize one another: and the course of nature will appear to be neither
+      moral nor immoral, but non-moral.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This conclusion is thrust upon us by analogous facts in every part of the
+      sentient world; yet, mas-much as it not only jars upon prevalent
+      prejudices, but arouses the natural dislike to that which is painful, much
+      ingenuity has been exercised in devising an escape from it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From the point of view of the moralist the animal world is on about the
+      same level as a gladiator's show. The creatures are fairly well treated,
+      and set to fight&mdash;whereby the strongest, the swiftest, and the
+      cunningest live to fight another day. The spectator has no need to turn
+      his thumbs down, as no quarter is given. He must admit that the skill and
+      training displayed are wonderful. But he must shut his eyes if he would
+      not see that more or less enduring suffering is the meed of both
+      vanquished and victor. And since the great game is going on in every
+      corner of the world, thousands of times a minute; since, were our ears
+      sharp enough, we need not descend to the gates of hell to hear&mdash;
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+       ....sospiri, pianti, ed alti guai.
+     Voci alte e fioche, e suon di man con elle
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &mdash;it seems to follow that, if this world is governed by benevolence,
+      it must be a different sort of benevolence from that of John Howard.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This may not be the best of all possible worlds, but to say that it is the
+      worst is mere petulant nonsense. A worn-out voluptuary may find nothing
+      good under the sun, or a vain and inexperienced youth, who cannot get the
+      moon he cries for, may vent his irritation in pessimistic moanings; but
+      there can be no doubt in the mind of any reasonable person that mankind
+      could, would, and in fact do, get on fairly well with vastly less
+      happiness and far more misery than find their way into the lives of nine
+      people out of ten. If each and all of us had been visited by an attack of
+      neuralgia, or of extreme mental depression, for one hour in every
+      twenty-four&mdash;a supposition which many tolerably vigorous people know,
+      to their cost, is not extravagant&mdash;the burden of life would have been
+      immensely increased without much practical hindrance to its general
+      course. Men with any manhood in them find life quite worth living under
+      worse conditions than these.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is another sufficiently obvious fact, which renders the hypothesis
+      that the course of sentient nature is dictated by malevolence quite
+      untenable. A vast multitude of pleasures, and these among the purest and
+      the best, are superfluities, bits of good which are to all appearance
+      unnecessary as inducements to live, and are, so to speak, thrown into the
+      bargain of life. To those who experience them, few delights can be more
+      entrancing than such as are afforded by natural beauty, or by the arts,
+      and especially by music; but they are products of, rather than factors in,
+      evolution, and it is probable that they are known, in any considerable
+      degree, to but a very small proportion of mankind.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be that, if Ormuzd has not had
+      his way in this world, neither has Ahriman. Pessimism is as little
+      consonant with the facts of sentient existence as optimism. If we desire
+      to represent the course of nature in terms of human thought, and assume
+      that it was intended to be that which it is, we must say that its
+      governing principle is intellectual and not moral; that it is a
+      materialized logical process, accompanied by pleasures and pains, the
+      incidence of which, in the majority of cases, has not the slightest
+      reference to moral desert That the rain falls alike upon the just and the
+      unjust, and that those upon whom the Tower of Siloam fell were no worse
+      than their neighbours, seem to be Oriental modes of expressing the same
+      conclusion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the strict sense of the word "nature," it denotes the sum of the
+      phenomenal world, of that which has been, and is, and will be; and
+      society, like art, is therefore a part of nature. But it is convenient to
+      distinguish those parts of nature in which man plays the part of immediate
+      cause, as something apart; and therefore, society, like art, is usefully
+      to be considered as distinct from nature. It is the more desirable, and
+      even necessary, to make this distinction, since society differs from
+      nature in having a definite moral object; whence it comes about that the
+      course shaped by the ethical man&mdash;the member of society or citizen&mdash;necessarily
+      runs counter to that which tne non-ethical man&mdash;the primitive savage,
+      or man as a mere member of the animal kingdom&mdash;tends to adopt. The
+      latter fights out the struggle for existence to the bitter end, like any
+      other animal; the former devotes his best energies to the object of
+      setting limits to the struggle.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The first men who substituted the state of mutual peace for that of mutual
+      war, whatever the motive which impelled them to take that step, created
+      society. But, in establishing peace, they obviously put a limit upon the
+      struggle for existence. Between the members of that society, at any rate,
+      it was not to be pursued <i>&agrave; outrance</i>. And of all the
+      successive shapes which society has taken, that most nearly approaches
+      perfection in which the war of individual against individual is most
+      strictly limited. The primitive savage, tutored by Istar, appropriated
+      whatever took his fancy, and killed whosoever opposed him, if he could. On
+      the contrary, the ideal of the ethical man is to limit his freedom of
+      action to a sphere in which he does not interfere with the freedom of
+      others; he seeks the common weal as much as his own; and, indeed, as an
+      essential part of his own welfare. Peace is both end and means with him;
+      and he founds his life on a more or less complete self-restraint, which is
+      the negation of the unlimited struggle for existence. He tries to escape
+      from his place in the animal kingdom, founded on the free development of
+      the principle of non-moral evolution, and to establish a kingdom of Man,
+      governed upon the principle of moral evolution. For society not only has a
+      moral end, but in its perfection, social life, is embodied morality.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I was once talking with a very eminent physician* about the vis medicatrix
+      natur&aelig;. "Stuff!" said he; "nine times out of ten nature does not
+      want to cure the man: she wants to put him in his coffin."
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The late Sir W. Gull.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Let us look at home. For seventy years peace and industry have had their
+      way among us with less interruption and under more favourable conditions
+      than in any other country on the face of the earth. The wealth of Croesus
+      was nothing to that which we have accumulated, and our prosperity has
+      filled the world with envy. But Nemesis did not forget Croesus: has she
+      forgotten us?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Judged by an ethical standard, nothing can be less satisfactory than the
+      position in which we find ourselves. In a real, though incomplete, degree
+      we have attained the condition of peace which is the main object of social
+      organization; and, for argument's sake, it may be assumed that we desire
+      nothing but that which is in itself innocent and praiseworthy&mdash;namely,
+      the enjoyment of the fruits of honest industry. And lo! in spite of
+      ourselves, we are in reality engaged in an internecine struggle for
+      existence with our presumably no less peaceful and well-meaning
+      neighbours. We seek peace and we do not ensue it. The moral nature in us
+      asks for no more than is compatible with the general good; the non-moral
+      nature proclaims and acts upon that fine old Scottish family motto, "Thou
+      shalt starve ere I want." Let us be under no illusions, then. So long as
+      unlimited multiplication goes on, no social organization which has ever
+      been devised, or is likely to be devised, no fiddle-faddling with the
+      distribution of wealth, will deliver society from the tendency to be
+      destroyed by the reproduction within itself, in its intensest form, of
+      that struggle for existence the limitation of which is the object of
+      society. And however shocking to the moral sense this eternal competition
+      of man against man and of nation against nation may be; however revolting
+      may be the accumulation of misery at the negative pole of society, in
+      contrast with that of monstrous wealth at the positive pole; this state of
+      things must abide, and grow continually worse, so long as Istar holds her
+      way unchecked. It is the true riddle of the Sphinx; and every nation which
+      does not solve it will sooner or later be devoured by the monster itself
+      has generated.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It would be folly to entertain any ill-feeling towards those neighbours
+      and rivals who, like ourselves, are slaves of Istar; but if somebody is to
+      be starved, the modern world has no Oracle of Delphi to which the nations
+      can appeal for an indication of the victim. It is open to us to try our
+      fortune; and, if we avoid impending fate, there will be a certain ground
+      for believing: that we are the right people to escape. <i>Securus judical
+      orbis</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To this end, it is well to look into the necessary conditions of our
+      salvation by works. They are two, one plain to all the world and hardly
+      needing insistence; the other seemingly not so plain, since too often it
+      has been theoretically and practically left out of sight The obvious
+      condition is that our produce snail be better than that of others. There
+      is only one reason why our goods should be referred to those of our rivals&mdash;our
+      customers must find them better at the price. That means that we must use
+      more knowledge, skill, and industry in producing them, without a
+      proportionate increase in the cost of production; and, as the price of
+      labour constitutes a large element in that cost, the rate of wages must be
+      restricted within certain limits. It is perfectly true that cheap
+      production and cheap labour are by no means synonymous; but it is also
+      true that wages cannot increase beyond a certain proportion without
+      destroying cheapness. Cheapness, then, with, as part and parcel of
+      cheapness, a moderate price of labour, is essential to our success as
+      competitors in the markets of the world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The second condition is really quite as plainly indispensable as the
+      first, if one thinks seriously about the matter. It is social stability.
+      Society-is stable when the wants of its members obtain as much
+      satisfaction as, life being what it is, common sense and experience show
+      may be reasonably expected. Mankind, in general, care very little for
+      forms of government or ideal considerations of any sort; and nothing
+      really stirs the great multitude to break with custom and incur the
+      manifest perils of revolt except the belief that misery in this world, or
+      damnation in the next, or both, are threatened by the continuance of the
+      state of things in which they have been brought up. But when they do
+      attain that conviction, society becomes as unstable as a package of
+      dynamite, and a very small matter will produce the explosion which sends
+      it back to the chaos of savagery.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Intelligence, knowledge, and skill are undoubtedly conditions of success;
+      but of what avail are they likely to be unless they are backed up by
+      honesty, energy, goodwill, and all the physical and moral faculties that
+      go to the making of manhood, and unless they are stimulated by hope of
+      such reward as men may fairly look to? And what dweller in the slough of
+      want, dwarfed in body and soul, demoralized, hopeless, can reasonably be
+      expected to possess these qualities?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am as strongly convinced as the most pronounced individualist can be,
+      that it is desirable that every man should be free to act in every way
+      which does not limit the corresponding freedom of his fellow-man. But I
+      fail to connect that great induction of political science with the
+      practical corollary which is frequently drawn from it: that the State&mdash;that
+      is, the people in their corporate capacity&mdash;has no business to meddle
+      with anything but the administration of justice and external defence. It
+      appears to me that the amount of freedom which incorporate society may
+      fitly leave to its members is not a fixed quantity, to be determined <i>a
+      priori</i> by deduction from the fiction called "natural rights"; but that
+      it must be determined by, and vary with, circumstances. I conceive it to
+      be demonstrable that the higher and the more complex the organization of
+      the social body, the more closely is the life of each member bound up with
+      that of the whole; and the larger becomes the category of acts which cease
+      to be merely self-regarding, and which interfere with the freedom of
+      others more or less seriously.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If a squatter, living ten miles away from any neighbour, chooses to burn
+      his house down to get rid of vermin, there may be no necessity (in the
+      absence of insurance offices) that the law should interfere with his
+      freedom of action; his act can hurt nobody but himself. But if the dweller
+      in a street chooses to do the same thing, the State very properly makes
+      such a proceeding a crime, and punishes it as such. He does meddle with
+      his neighbour's freedom, and that seriously. So it might, perhaps, be a
+      tenable doctrine, that it would be needless, and even tyrannous, to make
+      education compulsory in a sparse agricultural population, living in
+      abundance on the produce of its own soil; but, in a densely populated
+      manufacturing country, struggling for existence with competitors, every
+      ignorant person tends to become a burden upon, and, so far, an infringer
+      of the liberty of, his fellows, and an obstacle to their success. Under
+      such circumstances an education rate is, in fact, a war tax, levied for
+      purposes of defence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That State action always has been more or less misdirected, and always
+      will be so, is, I believe, perfectly true. But I am not aware that it is
+      more true of the action of men in their corporate capacity than it is of
+      the doings of individuals. The wisest and most dispassionate man in
+      existence, merely wishing to go from one stile in a field to the opposite,
+      will not walk quite straight&mdash;he is always going a little wrong, and
+      always correcting himself; and I can only congratulate the individualist
+      who is able to say that his general course of life has been of a less
+      undulatory character. To abolish State action, because its direction is
+      never more than approximately correct, appears to me to be much the same
+      thing as abolishing the man at the wheel altogether, because, do what he
+      will, the ship yaws more or less. "Why should I be robbed of my property
+      to pay for teaching another man's children?" is an individualist question,
+      which is not unfrequently put as if it settles the whole business. Perhaps
+      it does, but I find difficulties in seeing why it should. The parish in
+      which I live makes me pay my share for the paving and lighting of a great
+      many streets that I never pass through; and I might plead that I am robbed
+      to smooth the way and lighten the darkness of other people. But I am
+      afraid the parochial authorities would not let me off on this plea; and I
+      must confess I do not see why they should.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I cannot speak of my own knowledge, but I have every reason to believe
+      that I came into this world a small reddish person, certainly without a
+      gold spoon in my mouth, and in fact with no discernible abstract or
+      concrete "rights" or property of any description. If a foot was not set
+      upon me at once, as a squalling nuisance, it was either the natural
+      affection of those about me, which I certainly had done nothing to
+      deserve, or the fear of the law which, ages before my birth, was painfully
+      built up by the society into which I intruded, that prevented that
+      catastrophe. If I was nourished, cared for, taught, saved from the
+      vagabondage of a wastrel, I certainly am not aware that I did anything to
+      deserve those advantages. And, if I possess anything now, it strikes me
+      that, though I may have fairly earned my day's wages for my day's work,
+      and may justly call them my property&mdash;yet, without that organization
+      of society, created out of the toil and blood of long generations before
+      my time, I should probably have had nothing but a flint axe and an
+      indifferent hut to call my own; and even those would be mine only so long
+      as no stranger savage came my way.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      So that if society, having, quite gratuitously, done all these things for
+      me, asks me in turn to do something towards its preservation&mdash;even if
+      that something is to contribute to the teaching of other men's children&mdash;I
+      really, in spite of all my individualist learnings, feel rather ashamed to
+      say no. And, if I were not ashamed, I cannot say that I think that society
+      would be dealing unjustly with me in converting the moral obligation into
+      a legal one. There is a manifest unfairness in letting all the burden be
+      borne by the willing horse.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is impossible to insist too strongly upon the fact that efficient
+      teachers of science and of technology are not to be made by the processes
+      in vogue at ordinary training colleges. The memory loaded with mere
+      bookwork is not the thing wanted&mdash;is, in fact, rather worse than
+      useless&mdash;in the teacher of scientific subjects. It is absolutely
+      essential that his mind should be full of knowledge and not of mere
+      learning, and that what he knows should have been learned in the
+      laboratory rather than in the library.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The attempt to form a just conception of the value of work done in any
+      department of human knowledge, and of its significance as an indication of
+      the intellectual and moral qualities of which it was the product, is an
+      undertaking which must always be beset with difficulties, and may easily
+      end in making the limitations of the appraiser more obvious than the true
+      worth of that which he appraises. For the judgment of a contemporary is
+      liable to be obscured by intellectual incompatibilities and warped by
+      personal antagonisms; while the critic of a later generation, though he
+      may escape the influence of these sources of error, is often ignorant, or
+      forgetful, of the conditions under which the labours of his predecessors
+      have been carried on. He is prone to lose sight of the fact that without
+      their clearing of the ground and rough-hewing of the foundation-stones,
+      the stately edifice of later builders could not have been erected.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The vulgar antithesis of fact and theory is founded on a misconception of
+      the nature of scientific theory, which is, or ought to be, no more than
+      the expression of fact in a general form. Whatever goes beyond such
+      expression is hypothesis; and hypotheses are not ends, but means. They
+      should be regarded as instruments by which new lines of inquiry are
+      indicated; or by the aid of which a provisional coherency and
+      intelligibility may be given to seemingly disconnected groups of
+      phenomena. The most useful of servants to the man of science, they are the
+      worst of masters. And when the establishment of the hypothesis becomes the
+      end, and fact is alluded to only so far as it suits the "Idee," science
+      has no longer anything to do with the business.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Scientific observation tell us that living birds form a group or class of
+      animals, through which a certain form of skeleton runs; and that this kind
+      of skeleton differs in certain well-defined characters from that of
+      mammals. On the other hand, if anyone utterly ignorant of osteology, but
+      endowed with the artistic sense of form, were set before a bird skeleton
+      and a mammalian skeleton, he would at once see that the two were similar
+      and yet different. Very likely he would be unable to give clear expression
+      to his just sense of the differences and resemblances; perhaps he would
+      make great mistakes in detail if he tried. Nevertheless, he would be able
+      to draw from memory a couple of sketches, in which all the salient points
+      of likeness and unlikeness would be reproduced with sufficient accuracy.
+      The mere osteologist, however accurately he might put the resemblances and
+      differences into words, if he lacked the artistic visualising faculty,
+      might be hopelessly incompetent to perform any such feat; lost in details,
+      it might not even occur to him that it was possible; or, still more
+      probably, the habit of looking for differences might impair the perception
+      of resemblances.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Under these circumstances, the artist might be led to higher and broader
+      views, and thus be more useful to the progress of science than the
+      osteological expert. Not that the former attains the higher truth by a
+      different method; for the way of reaching truth is one and indivisible.
+      Whether he knows it or not, the artist has made a generalization from two
+      sets of facts, which is perfectly scientific in form; and trustworthy so
+      far as it rests upon the direct perception of similarities and
+      dissimilarities. The only peculiarity of the artistic application of
+      scientific method lies in the artist's power of visualizing the result of
+      his mental processes, of embodying the facts of resemblance in a visible
+      "type," and of showing the manner in which the differences may be
+      represented as modifications of that type; he does, in fact,
+      instinctively, what an architect, who desires to demonstrate the community
+      of plan in certain ancient temples, does by the methodical construction of
+      plans, sections, and elevations; the comparison of which will furnish him
+      with the "type" of such temples.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus, what I may term the artistic fashion of dealing with anatomy is not
+      only perfectly legitimate, but has been of great utility. The harm of it
+      does not begin until tine attempt is made to get more out of this visual
+      projection of thought than it contains; until the origin of the notion of
+      "type" is forgotten and the speculative philosopher deludes himself with
+      the supposition that the generalization suggested by fact is an "Idea" of
+      the Pure Reason, with which fact must, somehow or other, be made to agree.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Flowers are the primers of the morphologist; those who run may read in
+      them uniformity of type amidst endless diversity, singleness of plan with
+      complex multiplicity of detail. As a musician might say, every natural
+      group of flowering plants is a sort of visible fugue, wandering about a
+      central theme which is never forsaken, however it may, momentarily, cease
+      to be apparent.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCLXXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Like all the really great men of literature, Goethe added some of the
+      qualities of the man of science to those of the artist, especially the
+      habit of careful and patient observation of Nature. The great poet was no
+      mere book-learned speculator. His acquaintance with mineralogy, geology,
+      botany and osteology, the fruit of long and wide studies, would have
+      sufficed to satisfy the requirements of a professoriate in those days, if
+      only he could have pleaded ignorance of everything else. Unfortunately for
+      Goethe's credit with his scientific contemporaries, and, consequently, for
+      the attention attracted by his work, he did not come forward as a man of
+      science until the public had ranged him among the men of literature. And
+      when the little men have thus classified a big man, they consider that the
+      last word has been said about him; it appears to the thought hardly decent
+      on his part if he venture to stray beyond the speciality they have
+      assigned to him. It does not seem to occur to them that a clear intellect
+      is an engine capable of supplying power to all sorts of mental factories;
+      nor to admit that, as Goethe somewhere pathetically remarks, a man may
+      have a right to live for himself as well as for the public; to follow the
+      line of work that happens to interest him, rather than that which
+      interests them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the face of the matter it is not obvious that the brilliant poet had
+      less chance of doing good service in natural science than the dullest of
+      dissectors and nomenclators. Indeed, as I have endeavoured to indicate,
+      there was considerable reason, a hundred years ago, for thinking that an
+      infusion of the artistic way of looking at things might tend to revivify
+      the somewhat mummified body of technical zoology and botany. Great ideas
+      were floating about; the artistic apprehension was needed to give these
+      airy nothings a local habitation and a name; to convert vague suppositions
+      into definite hypotheses. And I apprehend that it was just this service
+      which Goethe rendered by writing his essays on the intermaxillary bone, on
+      osteology generally, and on the metamorphoses of plants.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXC
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All this is mere justice to Goethe; but, as it is the unpleasant duty of
+      the historian to do justice upon, as well as to, great men, it behoves me
+      to add that the germs of the worst faults of later ioeculative
+      morphologists are no less visible in his writings than their great merits.
+      In the artist-philosopher there was, at best, a good deal more artist than
+      philosopher; and when Goethe ventured into the regions which belong to
+      pure science, this excess of a virtue had all the consequences of a vice.
+      "Trennen und zahlen lag nicht in meiner Natur," says he; but the mental
+      operations of which "analysis and numeration" are partial expressions are
+      indispensable for every step of progress beyond happy glimpses, even in
+      morphology; while, in physiology and in physics, failure in the most exact
+      performance of these operations involves sheer disaster, as indeed Goethe
+      was afforded abundant opportunity of learning. Yet he never understood the
+      sharp lessons he received, and put down to malice, or prejudice, the
+      ill-reception of his unfortunate attempts to deal with purely physical
+      problems.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There was never any lack of the scientific imagination about the great
+      anatomist; and the charge of indifference to general ideas, sometimes
+      brought against him, is stupidly unjust. But Cuvier was one of those
+      happily endowed persons in whom genius never parts company with
+      common-sense; and whose perception of the importance of sound method is so
+      great that they look at even a truth, hit upon by those who pursue an
+      essentially vicious method, with the sort of feeling with which an honest
+      trader regards the winnings of a gambler. They hold it better to remain
+      poor than obtain riches by the road that, as a rule, leads to ruin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The irony of history is nowhere more apparent than in science. Here we see
+      the men, over whose minds the coming events of the world of biology cast
+      their shadows, doing their best to spoil their case in stating it; while
+      the man who represented sound scientific method is doing his best to stay
+      the inevitable progress of thought and bolster up antiquated traditions.
+      The progress of knowledge during the last seventy years enables us to see
+      that neither Geoffroy, nor Cuvier, was altogether right nor altogether
+      wrong; and that they were meant to hunt m couples instead of pulling
+      against one another. Science has need of servants of very different
+      qualifications; of artistic constructors no less than of men of business;
+      of people to design her palaces and of others to see that the materials
+      are sound and well-fitted together; of some to spur investigators, and of
+      others to keep their heads cool. The only would-be servants, who are
+      entirely unprofitable, are those who do not take the trouble to
+      interrogate Nature, but imagine vain things about her; and spin, from
+      their inner consciousness, webs, as exquisitely symmetrical as those of
+      the most geometrical of spiders, but alas! as easily torn to pieces by
+      some inconsidered bluebottle of a fact.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is always a Cape Horn in one's life that one either weathers or
+      wrecks one's self on.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A Local Museum should be exactly what its name implies, viz., "Local"&mdash;illustrating
+      local Geology, local Botany, local Zoology, and local Archaeology.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Such a museum, if residents who are interested in these sciences take
+      proper pains, may be brought to a great degree of perfection and be unique
+      of its kind. It will tell both natives and strangers exactly what they
+      want to know, and possess great scientific interest and importance.
+      Whereas the ordinary lumber-room of clubs from New Zealand, Hindoo idols,
+      sharks' teeth, mangy monkeys, scorpions, and conch shells&mdash;who shall
+      describe the weary inutility of it? It is really worse than nothing,
+      because it leads the unwary to look for the objects of science elsewhere
+      than under their noses. What they want to know is that their "America is
+      here," as Wilhelm Meister has it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A man who speaks out honestly and fearlessly that which he knows, and that
+      which he believes, will always enlist the good-will and the respect,
+      however much he may fail in winning the assent, of his fellow men.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Science and literature are not two things, but two sides of one thing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I neither deny nor affirm the immortality of man. I see no reason for
+      believing in it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disproving it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I have no <i>a priori</i> objections to the doctrine. No man who has to
+      deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about <i>a priori</i>
+      difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing
+      anything else, and I will believe that Why should I not? It is not half so
+      wonderful as the conservation of force, or the indestructibility of
+      matter. &lt;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Whoso clearly appreciates all that is implied in the falling of a stone
+      can have no difficulty about any doctrine simply on account of its
+      marvellousness. But the longer I live, the more obvious it is to me that
+      the most sacred act of a man's life is to say and to feel, "I believe such
+      and such to be true." All the greatest rewards and all the heaviest
+      penalties of existence cling about that act The universe is one and the
+      same throughout; and if the condition of my success in unravelling some
+      little difficulty of anatomy or physiology is that I shall rigorously
+      refuse to put faith in that which does not rest on sufficient evidence, I
+      cannot believe that the great mysteries of existence will be laid open to
+      me on other terms.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I cannot conceive of my personality as a thing apart from the phenomena of
+      my life. When I try to form such a conception I discover that, as
+      Coleridge would have said, I only hypostatize a word, and it alters
+      nothing if, with Fichte, I suppose the universe to be nothing but a
+      manifestation of my personality. I am neither more nor less eternal than I
+      was before.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCXCIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I do not know whether the animals persist after they disappear or not. I
+      do not even know whether the infinite difference between us and them may
+      not be compensated by <i>their</i> persistence and <i>my</i> cessation
+      after apparent death, just as the humble bulb of an annual fives, whilst
+      the glorious flowers it has put forth die away.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCC
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      My business is to teach my aspirations to confirm themselves to fact, not
+      to try and make facts harmonize with my aspirations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Science seems to me to teach in the highest and strongest manner the great
+      truth which is embodied in the Christian conception of entire surrender to
+      the will of God. Sit down before fact as a little child, be prepared to
+      give up every preconceived notion, follow numbly wherever and to whatever
+      abysses nature leads, or you shall learn nothing. I have only begun to
+      learn content and peace of mind since I have resolved at all risks to do
+      this.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There are, however, other arguments commonly brought forward in favour of
+      the immortality of man, which are to my mind not only delusive but
+      mischievous. The one is the notion that the moral government of the world
+      is imperfect without a system of future rewards and punishments. The other
+      is: that such a system is indispensable to practical morality. I believe
+      that both these dogmas are very mischievous lies.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      With respect to the first, I am no optimist, but I have the firmest belief
+      that the Divine Government (if we may use such a phrase to express the sum
+      of the "customs of matter") is wholly just The more I know intimately of
+      the lives of other men (to say nothing of my own), the more obvious it is
+      to me that the wicked does <i>not</i> flourish nor is the righteous
+      punished. But for this to be clear we must bear in mind what almost all
+      forget, that the rewards of life are contingent upon obedience to the <i>whole</i>
+      Law&mdash;physical as well as moral&mdash;and that moral obedience will
+      not atone for physical sin, or <i>vice versa</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The ledger of the Almighty is strictly kept, and every one of us has the
+      balance of his operations paid over to him at the end of every minute of
+      his existence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Life cannot exist without a certain conformity to the surrounding universe&mdash;that
+      conformity involves a certain amount of happiness in excess of pain. In
+      short, as we live we are paid for living.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is to be recollected in view of the apparent discrepancy between men's
+      acts and their rewards that Nature is juster than we. She takes into
+      account what a man brings with him into the world, which human justice
+      cannot do. If I, born a bloodthirsty and savage brute, inheriting these
+      qualities from others, kill you, my fellow-men will very justly hang me,
+      but I shall not be visited with the horrible remorse which would be my
+      real punishment if, my nature being higher, I had done the same thing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The absolute justice of the system of things is as clear to me as any
+      scientific fact The gravitation of sin to sorrow is as certain as that of
+      the earth to the sun, and more so&mdash;for experimental proof of the fact
+      is within reach of us all&mdash;nay, is before us all in our own lives, if
+      we had but the eyes to see it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Not only do I disbelieve in the need for compensation, but I believe that
+      the seeking for rewards and punishments out of this life leads men to a
+      ruinous ignorance of the fact that their inevitable rewards and
+      punishments are here.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the expectation of hell hereafter can keep me from evil-doing, surely
+      <i>a fortiori</i> the certainty of hell now will do so? If a man could be
+      firmly impressed with the belief that stealing damaged him as much as
+      swallowing arsenic would do (and it does), would not the dissuasive force
+      of that belief be greater than that of any based on mere future
+      expectations?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As I stood behind the coffin of my little son the other day, with my mind
+      bent on anything but disputation, the officiating minister read, as a part
+      of his duty, the words, "If the dead rise not again, let us eat and drink,
+      for to-morrow we die." I cannot tell you how inexpressibly they shocked
+      me. Paul had neither wife nor child, or he must have known that his
+      alternative involved a blasphemy against all that was best and noblest in
+      human nature. I could have laughed with scorn. What! because I am face to
+      face with irreparable loss, because I have given back to the source from
+      whence it came, the cause of a great happiness, still retaining through
+      all my life the blessings which have sprung and will spring from that
+      cause, I am to renounce my manhood, and, howling, grovel in bestiality?
+      Why, the very apes know better, and if you shoot their young the poor
+      brutes grieve their grief out and do not immediately seek distraction in a
+      gorge.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He had intellect to comprehend his highest duty distinctly, and force of
+      character to do it; which of us dare ask for a higher summary of his life
+      than that? For such a man there can be no fear in facing the great
+      unknown, his life has been one long experience of the substantial justice
+      of the laws by which this world is governed, and he will calmly trust to
+      them still as he lays his head down for his long sleep.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Whether astronomy and geology can or cannot be made to agree with the
+      statements as to the matters of fact laid down in Genesis&mdash;whether
+      the Gospels are historically true or not&mdash;are matters of
+      comparatively small moment in the face of the impassable gulf between the
+      anthropomorphism (however refined) of theology and the passionless
+      impersonality of the unknown and unknowable which science shows everywhere
+      underlying the thin veil of phenomena.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am too much a believer in Butler and in the great principle of the
+      "Analogy" that "there is no absurdity in theology so great that you cannot
+      parallel it by a greater absurdity of Nature" (it is not commonly stated
+      in this way), to have any difficulties about miracles. I have never had
+      the least sympathy with the <i>a priori</i> reasons against orthodoxy, and
+      I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible antipathy to all
+      the atheistic and infidel school.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This universe is, I conceive, like to a great game being played out, and
+      we poor mortals are allowed to take a hand. By great good fortune the
+      wiser among us have made out some few of the rules of the game, as at
+      present played. We call them "Laws of Nature," and honour them because we
+      find that if we obey them we win something for our pains. The cards are
+      our theories and hypotheses, the tricks our experimental verifications.
+      But what sane man would endeavour to solve this problem: given the rules
+      of a game and the winnings, to find whether the cards are made of
+      pasteboard or gold-leaf? Yet the problem of the metaphysicians is to my
+      mind no saner.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I have not the smallest sentimental sympathy with the negro; don't believe
+      in him at all, in short. But it is clear to me that slavery means, for the
+      white man, bad political economy; bad social morality; bad internal
+      political organisation, and a bad influence upon free labour and freedom
+      all over the world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At the present time the important question for England is not the duration
+      of her coal, but the due comprehension of the truths of science, and the
+      labours of her scientific men.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is better for a man to go wrong in freedom than to go right in chains.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A good book is comparable to a piece of meat, and fools are as flies who
+      swarm to it, each for the purpose of depositing and hatching his own
+      particular maggot of an idea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Children work a greater metamorphosis in men than any other condition of
+      life. They ripen one wonderfully and make life ten times better worth
+      having than it was.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Teach a child what is wise, that is <i>morality</i>, Teach him what is
+      wise and beautiful, that is <i>religion!</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      People may talk about intellectual teaching, but what we principally want
+      is the moral teaching.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We are in the midst of a gigantic movement greater than that which
+      preceded and produced the Reformation, and really only the continuation of
+      that movement But there is nothing new in the ideas which lie at the
+      bottom of the movement, nor is any reconcilement possible between free
+      thought and traditional authority. One or other will have to succumb after
+      a struggle of unknown duration, which will have as side issues vast
+      political and social troubles. I have no more doubt that free thought will
+      win in the long run than I have that I sit here writing to you, or that
+      this free thought will organize itself into a coherent system, embracing
+      human life and the world as one harmonious whole. But this organization
+      will be the work of generations of men, and those who further it most will
+      be those who teach men to rest in no lie, and to rest in no verbal
+      delusions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Make up your mind to act decidedly and take the consequences. No good is
+      ever done in this world by hesitation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The world is neither wise nor just, but it makes up for all its folly and
+      injustice by being damnably sentimental.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Without seeing any reason to believe that women are, on the average, so
+      strong physically, intellectually, or morally, as men, I cannot shut my
+      eyes to the fact that many women are much better endowed in all these
+      respects than many men, and I am at a loss to understand on what grounds
+      of justice or public policy a career which is open to the weakest and most
+      foolish of the male sex should be forcibly closed to women of vigour and
+      capacity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have heard a great deal lately about the physical disabilities of
+      women. Some of these alleged impediments, no doubt, are realty inherent in
+      their organization, but nine-tenths of them are artificial&mdash;the
+      products of their modes of life. I believe that nothing would tend so
+      effectually to get rid of these creations of idleness, weariness, and that
+      "over stimulation of the emotions" which, in plainer-spoken days, used to
+      be called wantonness, than a fair share of healthy work, directed towards
+      a definite object, combined with an equally fair share of healthy play,
+      during the years of adolescence; and those who are best acquainted with
+      the acquirements of an average medical practitioner will find it hardest
+      to believe that the attempt to reach that standard is like to prove
+      exhausting to an ordinarily intelligent and well-educated young woman.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The only good that I can see in the demonstration of the truth of
+      "Spiritualism" is to furnish an additional argument against suicide.
+      Better live a crossing-sweeper than die and be made to talk twaddle by a
+      "medium" hired at a guinea a s&eacute;ance.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I ask myself&mdash;suppose you knew that by inflicting prolonged pain on
+      100 rabbits you could discover a way to the extirpation of leprosy, or
+      consumption, or locomotor ataxy, or of suicidal melancholia among human
+      beings, dare you refuse to inflict that pain? Now I am quite unable to say
+      that I dare. That sort of daring would seem to me to be extreme moral
+      cowardice, to involve gross inconsistency.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For the advantage and protection of society, we all agree to inflict pain
+      upon man&mdash;pain of the most prolonged and acute character&mdash;in our
+      prisons, and on our battlefields. If England were invaded, we should have
+      no hesitation about inflicting the maximum of suffering upon our invaders
+      for no other object than our own good.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But if the good of society and of a nation is a sufficient plea for
+      inflicting pain on men, I think it may suffice us for experimenting on
+      rabbits or dogs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At the same time, I think that a heavy moral responsibility rests on those
+      who perform experiments of the second kind.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The wanton infliction of pain on man or beast is a crime; pity is that so
+      many of those who (as I think rightly) hold this view, seem to forget that
+      the criminality lies in the wantonness and not in the act of inflicting
+      pain <i>per se</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The one condition of success, your sole safeguard, is the moral worth and
+      intellectual clearness of the individual citizen. Education cannot give
+      these, but it can cherish them and bring them to the front in whatever
+      station of society they are to be found, and the universities ought to be
+      and may be, the fortresses of the higher life of the nation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As a matter of fact, men sin, and the consequences of their sins affect
+      endless generations of their progeny. Men are tempted, men are punished
+      for the sins of others without merit or demerit of their own; and they are
+      tormented for their evil deeds as long as their consciousness lasts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I find that as a matter of experience, erroneous beliefs are punished, and
+      right beliefs are rewarded&mdash;though very often the erroneous belief is
+      based on a more conscientious study of the facts than right belief.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If we are to assume that anybody has designedly set this wonderful
+      universe going, it is perfectly clear to me that he is no more entirely
+      benevolent and just in any intelligible sense of the words, than that he
+      is malevolent and unjust. Infinite benevolence need not have invented pain
+      and sorrow at all&mdash;infinite malevolence would very easily have
+      deprived us of the large measure of content and happiness that falls to
+      our lot After all, Butler's "Analogy" is unassailable, and there is
+      nothing in theological dogmas more contradictory to our moral sense, than
+      is to be found in the facts of nature. From which, however, the Bishop's
+      conclusion that the dogmas are true doesn't follow.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It appears to me that if every person who is engaged in an industry had
+      access to instruction in the scientific principles on which that industry
+      is based; in the mode of applying these principles to practice; in the
+      actual use of the means and appliances employed; in the language of the
+      people who know as much about the matter as we do ourselves; and lastly,
+      in the art of keeping accounts, Technical Education would have done all
+      that can be required of it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Though under-instruction is a bad thing, it is not impossible that
+      over-instruction may be worse.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There are two things I really care about&mdash;one is the progress of
+      scientific thought, and the other is the bettering of the condition of the
+      masses of the people by bettering them in the way of lifting themselves
+      out of the misery which has hitherto been the lot of the majority of them.
+      Posthumous fame is not particularly attractive to me, but, if I am to be
+      remembered at all, I would rather it should be as "a man who did his best
+      to help the people" than by other title.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am of opinion that our Indian Empire is a curse to us. But so long as we
+      make up our minds to hold it, we must also make up our minds to do those
+      things which are needful to hold it effectually, and in the long-run it
+      will be found that so doing is real justice both for ourselves, our
+      subject population, and the Afghans themselves.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The great thing in the world is not so much to seek happiness as to earn
+      peace and self-respect.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The more rapidly truth is spread among mankind the better it will be for
+      them. Only let us be sure that it is truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Your astonishment at the tenacity of life of fallacies, permit me to say,
+      is shockingly unphysiological. They, like other low organisms, are
+      independent of brains, and only wriggle the more, the more they are
+      smitten on the place where the brains ought to be.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I don't know what you think about anniversaries. I like them, being always
+      minded to drink my cup of life to the bottom, and take my chance of the
+      sweets and bitters.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Of the few innocent pleasures left to men past middle life&mdash;the
+      jamming common-sense down the throats of fools is perhaps the keenest.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXL
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Life is like walking along a crowded street&mdash;there always seem to be
+      fewer obstacles to getting along on the opposite pavement&mdash;and yet,
+      if one crosses over, matters are rarely mended.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The great thing one has to wish for as time goes on is vigour as long as
+      one lives, and death as soon as vigour flags.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Whether motion disintegrates or integrates is, I apprehend, a question of
+      conditions. A whirlpool in a stream may remain in the same spot for any
+      imaginable time. Yet it is the effect of the motion of the particles of
+      the water in that spot which continually integrate themselves into the
+      whirlpool and disintegrate themselves from it The whirlpool is permanent
+      while the conditions last, though its constituents incessantly change.
+      Living bodies are just such whirlpools. Matter sets into them in the shape
+      of food,&mdash;sets out of them in the shape of waste products. Their
+      individuality lies in the constant maintenance of a characteristic form,
+      not in the preservation of material identity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Most of us are idolators, and ascribe divine powers to the abstractions
+      "Force," "Gravity," "Vitality," which our own brains have created. I do
+      not know anything about "inert" things in nature. If we reduce the world
+      to matter and motion, the matter is not "inert," inasmuch as the same
+      amount of motion affects different kinds of matter in different ways. To
+      go back to my own illustration. The fabric of the watch is not inert,
+      every particle of it is in violent and rapid motion, and the winding-up
+      simply perturbs the whole infinitely complicated system in a particular
+      fashion. Equilibrium means death, because life is a succession of changes,
+      while a changing equilibrium is a contradiction m terms. I am not at all
+      clear that a living being is comparable to a machine running down. On this
+      side of the question the whirlpool affords a better parallel than the
+      watch. If you dam the stream above or below; the whirlpool dies; just as
+      the living being does if you cut off its food, or choke it with its own
+      waste products. And if you alter the sides or bottom of the stream you may
+      kill the whirlpool, just as you kill the animal by interfering with its
+      structure. Heat and oxidation as a source of heat appear to supply energy
+      to the living machine, the molecular structure of the germ furnishing the
+      "sides and bottom of the stream," that is, determining the results which
+      the energy supplied shall produce.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I believe that history might be, and ought to be, taught in a new fashion
+      so as to make the meaning of it as a process of evolution&mdash;intelligible
+      to the young.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Government by average opinion is merely a circuitous method of going to
+      the devil; those who profess to lead but in fact slavishly follow this
+      average opinion are simply the fastest runners and the loudest squeakers
+      of the herd which is rushing blindly down to its destruction.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It's very sad to lose your child just when he was beginning to bind
+      himself to you, and I don't know that it is much consolation to reflect
+      that the longer he had wound himself up in your heart-strings the worse
+      the tear would have been, which seems to have been inevitable sooner or
+      later. One does not weigh and measure these things while grief is fresh,
+      and in my experience a deep plunge into the waters of sorrow is the
+      hopefullest way of getting through them on to one's daily road of life
+      again. No one can help another very much in these crises of life; but love
+      and sympathy count for something.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is amazingly little evidence of "reverential care for unoffending
+      creation" in the arrangements of nature, that I can discover. If our ears
+      were sharp enough to hear all the cries of pain that are uttered in the
+      earth by men and beasts, we should be deafened by one continuous scream!
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And yet the wealth of superfluous loveliness in the world condemns
+      pessimism. It is a hopeless riddle.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A man who has only half as much food as he needs is indubitably starved,
+      even though his short rations consist of ortolans and are served upon gold
+      plate.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCXLIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Economy does not lie in sparing money, but in spending it wisely.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCL
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We men of science, at any rate, hold ourselves morally bound to "try all
+      things and hold fast to that which is good"; and among public benefactors,
+      we reckon him who explodes old error, as next in rank to him who discovers
+      new truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Whatever Linn&aelig;us may say, man is not a rational animal&mdash;especially
+      in his parental capacity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The inquiry into the truth or falsehood of a matter of history is just as
+      much a question of pure science as the inquiry into the truth or falsehood
+      of a matter of geology, and the value of evidence in the two cases must be
+      tested in the same way. If anyone tells me that the evidence of the
+      existence of man in the miocene epoch is as good as that upon which I
+      frequently act every day of my life, I reply that this is quite true, but
+      that it is no sort of reason for believing in the existence of miocene
+      man.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Surely no one but a born fool can fail to be aware that we constantly, and
+      in very grave conjunctions, are obliged to act upon extremely bad
+      evidence, and that very often we suffer all sorts of penalties in
+      consequence. And surely one must be something worse than a born fool to
+      pretend that such decision under the pressure of the enigmas of life ought
+      to have the smallest influence in those judgments which are made with due
+      and sufficient deliberation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1. The Church founded by Jesus has <i>not</i> made its way; has <i>not</i>
+      permeated the world&mdash;but <i>did</i> become extinct in the country of
+      its birth&mdash;as Nazarenism and Ebionism.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      2. The Church that did make its way and coalesced with the State in the
+      4th century had no more to do with the Church founded by Jesus than
+      Ultra-montanism has with Quakerism. It is Alexandrian Judaism and
+      Neoplatonistic mystagogy, and as much of the old idolatry and demonology
+      as could be got in under new or old names.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      3. Paul has said that the Law was schoolmaster to Christ with more truth
+      than he knew. Throughout the Empire the synagogues had their cloud of
+      Gentile hangers-on&mdash;those who "feared God"&mdash;and who were fully
+      prepared to accept a Christianity, which was merely an expurgated Judaism
+      and the belief in Jesus as the Messiah.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      4. The Christian "Sodalitia" were not merely religious bodies, but
+      friendly societies, burial societies, and guilds. They hung together for
+      all purposes&mdash;the mob hated them as it now hates the Jews in Eastern
+      Europe, because they were more frugal, more industrious, and lived better
+      lives than their neighbours, while they stuck together like Scotchmen.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If these things are so&mdash;and I appeal to your knowledge of history
+      that they are so&mdash;what has the success of Christianity to do with the
+      truth or falsehood of the story of Jesus?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is Baur's great merit to have seen that the key to the problem of
+      Christianity lies in the Epistle to the Galatians. No doubt he and his
+      followers rather overdid the thing, but that is always the way with those
+      who take up a new idea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If a man cannot do brain work without stimulants of any kind, he had
+      better turn to hand work&mdash;it is an indication on Nature's part that
+      she did not mean him to be a head worker.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is not to be forgotten that what we call rational grounds for our
+      beliefs are often extremely irrational attempts to justify our instincts.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Even the best of modern civilisations appears to me to exhibit a condition
+      of mankind which neither embodies any worthy ideal nor even possesses the
+      merit of stability. I do not hesitate to express my opinion that, if there
+      is no hope of a large improvement of the condition of the greater part of
+      the human family; if it is true that the increase of knowledge, the
+      winning of a greater dominion over Nature which is its consequence, and
+      the wealth which follows upon that dominion, are to make no difference in
+      the extent and the intensity of Want, with its concomitant physical and
+      moral degradation, among the masses of the people, I should hail the
+      advent of some kindly comet, which would sweep the whole affair away, as a
+      desirable consummation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      What profits it to the human Prometheus that he has stolen the fire of
+      heaven to be his servant, and that the spirits of the earth and of the air
+      obey him, if the vulture of pauperism is eternally to tear his very vitals
+      and keep him on the brink of destruction?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      No induction, however broad its basis, can confer certainty&mdash;in the
+      strict sense of the word. The experience of the whole human race through
+      innumerable years has shown that stones unsupported fall to the ground,
+      but that does not make it certain that any day next week unsupported
+      stones will not move the other way. All that it does justify is the very
+      strong expectation, which hitherto has been invariably verified, that they
+      will do just the contrary.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Only one absolute certainty is possible to man&mdash;namely, that at any
+      given moment the feeling which he has exists.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All other so-called certainties are beliefs of greater or less intensity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Of moral purpose I see no trace in Nature. That is an article of
+      exclusively human manufacture&mdash;and very much to our credit.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is nothing of permanent value (putting aside a few human
+      affections), nothing that satisfies quiet reflection&mdash;except the
+      sense of having worked according to one's capacity and light, to make
+      things clear and get rid of cant and shams of all sorts. That was the
+      lesson I learned from Carlyle's books when I was a boy, and it has stuck
+      by me all my life.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      You may make more of failing to get money, and of succeeding in getting
+      abuse&mdash;until such time in your life (if you are teachable) you have
+      ceased to care much about either.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The doctrine of the conservation of energy tells neither one way nor the
+      other [on the doctrine of immortality]. Energy is the cause of movement of
+      body, i.e. things having mass. States of consciousness have no mass, even
+      if they can be conceded to be movable. Therefore even if they are caused
+      by molecular movements, they would not in any way affect the store of
+      energy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Physical causation need not be the only kind of causation, and when
+      Cabanis said that thought was a function of the brain, in the same way as
+      bile secretion is a <i>function</i> of the liver, he blundered
+      philosophically. Bile is a product of the transformation of material
+      energy. But in the mathematical sense of the word "function" thought may
+      be a function of the brain. That is to say, it may arise only when certain
+      physical particles take on a certain order.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      By way of a coarse analogy, consider a parallel-sided piece of glass
+      through which light passes. It forms no picture. Shape it so as to be a
+      bi-convex, and a picture appears in its focus.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Is not the formation of the picture a "function" of the piece of glass
+      thus shaped?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      So, from your own point of view, suppose a mind-stuff&mdash;[&mdash;Greek&mdash;]&mdash;a
+      noumenal cosmic light such as is shadowed in the fourth gospel. The brain
+      of a dog will convert it into one set of phenomenal pictures, and the
+      brain of a man into another. But in both cases the result is the
+      consequence of the way in which the respective brains perform their
+      "function."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The actions we call sinful are as much the consequence of the order of
+      nature as those we call virtuous. They are part and parcel of the struggle
+      for existence through which all living things have passed, and they have
+      become sins because man alone seeks a higher life in voluntary
+      association.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Therefore the instrument has never been marred; on the contrary, we are
+      trying to get music out of harps, sacbuts, and psalteries, which never
+      were in tune and seemingly never will be.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I have always been, am, and propose to remain a mere scholar. All that I
+      have ever proposed to myself is to say, this and this I have learned; thus
+      and thus have I learned it: go thou and learn better; but do not thrust on
+      my shoulders the responsibility for your own laziness if you elect to
+      take, on my authority, conclusions, the value of which you ought to have
+      tested for yourself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is endless backwoodsman's work yet to be done. If "those also serve
+      who only stand and wait," still more do those who sweep and cleanse; and
+      if any man elect to give his strength to the weeder's and scavenger's
+      occupation, I remain of the opinion that his service should be counted
+      acceptable, and that no one has a right to ask more of him than faithful
+      performance of the duties he has undertaken. I venture to count it an
+      improbable suggestion that any such person&mdash;a man, let us say, who
+      has well-nigh reached his threescore years and ten, and has graduated in
+      all the faculties of human relationships; who has taken his share in all
+      the deep joys and deeper anxieties which cling about them; who has felt
+      the burden of young; lives entrusted to his care, and has stood alone with
+      his dead before the abyss of the eternal&mdash;has never had a thought
+      beyond negative criticism. It seems to me incredible that such an one can
+      have done his day's work, always with a light heart, with no sense of
+      responsibility, no terror of that which may appear when the factitious
+      veil of Isis&mdash;the thick web of fiction man has woven round nature&mdash;is
+      stripped off.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If the doctrine of a Providence is to be taken as the expression, in a way
+      "to be understanded of the people," of the total exclusion of chance from
+      a place even in the most insignificant corner of Nature, if it means the
+      strong conviction that the cosmic process is rational, and the faith that,
+      throughout all duration, unbroken order has reigned in the universe, I not
+      only accept it, but I am disposed to think it the most important of all
+      truths. As it is of more consequence for a citizen to know the law than to
+      be personally acquainted with the features of those who will surely carry
+      it into effect, so this very positive doctrine of Providence, in the sense
+      defined, seems to me far more important than all the theorems of
+      speculative theology. If, further, the doctrine is held to imply that, in
+      some indefinitely remote past aeon, the cosmic process was set going by
+      some entity possessed of intelligence and foresight, similar to our own in
+      kind, however superior in degree, if, consequently, it is held that every
+      event, not merely in our planetary speck, but in untold millions of other
+      worlds, was foreknown before these worlds were, scientific thought, so far
+      as I know anything about it, has nothing to say about that hypothesis. It
+      is, in fact, an anthropomorphic rendering of the doctrine of evolution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It may be so, but the evidence accessible to us is, to my mind, wholly
+      insufficient to warrant either a positive or a negative conclusion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It may be well to remember that the highest level of moral aspiration
+      recorded in history was reached by a few ancient Jews&mdash;Micah, Isaiah,
+      and the rest&mdash;who took no count whatever of what might or what might
+      not happen to them after death. It is not obvious to me why the same point
+      should not by and by be reached by the Gentiles.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Belief in majorities is not rooted in my breast, and if all the world were
+      against me the fact might warn me to revise and criticise my opinions, but
+      would not in itself supply a ghost of a reason for forsaking them. For
+      myself I say deliberately, it is better to have a millstone tied round the
+      neck and be thrown into the sea than to share the enterprises of those to
+      whom the world has turned, and will turn, because they minister to its
+      weaknesses and cover up the awful realities which it shudders to look at.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Moral duty consists in the observance of those rules of conduct which
+      contribute to the welfare of society, and by implication, of the
+      individuals who compose it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The end of society is peace and mutual protection, so that the individual
+      may reach the fullest and highest life attainable by man. The rules of
+      conduct by which this end is to be attained are discoverable&mdash;like
+      the other so-called laws of Nature&mdash;by observation and experiment,
+      and only in that way.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Some thousands of years of such experience have led to the
+      generalisations, that stealing and murder, for example, are inconsistent
+      with the ends of society. There is no more doubt that they are so than
+      that unsupported stones tend to fall. The man who steals or murders,
+      breaks his implied contract with society, and forfeits all protection. He
+      becomes an outlaw, to be dealt with as any other feral creature. Criminal
+      law indicates the ways which have proved most convenient for dealing with
+      him.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All this would be true if men had no "moral sense" at all, just as there
+      are rules of perspective which must be strictly observed by a draughtsman,
+      and are quite independent of his having any artistic sense.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The moral sense is a very complex affair&mdash;dependent in part upon
+      associations of pleasure and pain, approbation and disapprobation formed
+      by education in early youth, but in part also on an innate sense of moral
+      beauty and ugliness (how originated need not be discussed), which is
+      possessed by some people in great strength, while some are totally devoid
+      of it&mdash;just as some children draw, or are enchanted by music while
+      mere infants, while others do not know "Cherry Ripe" from "Rule
+      Britannia," nor can represent the form of the simplest thing to the end of
+      their lives.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Now for this last sort of people there is no reason why they should
+      discharge any moral duty, except from fear of punishment in all its
+      grades, from mere disapprobation to hanging, and the duty of society is to
+      see that they live under wholesome fear of such punishment short, sharp,
+      and decisive.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For the people with a keen innate sense of moral beauty there is no need
+      of any other motive. What they want is knowledge of the things they may do
+      and must leave undone, if the welfare of society is to be attained. Good
+      people so often forget this that some of them occasionally require hanging
+      almost as much as the bad.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If you ask why the moral inner sense is to be (under due limitations)
+      obeyed; why the few who are steered by it move the mass in whom it is
+      weak? I can only reply by putting another question&mdash;Why do the few in
+      whom the sense of beauty is strong&mdash;Shakespeare, Raffaele, Beethoven,
+      carry the less endowed multitude away? But they do, and always will.
+      People who overlook that fact attend neither to history nor to what goes
+      on about them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Benjamin Franklin was a shrewd, excellent, kindly man. I have great
+      respect for him. The force of genial common-sense respectability could no
+      further go. George Fox was the very antipodes of all this, and yet one
+      understands how he came to move the world of his day, and Franklin did
+      not.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As to whether we can fulfil the moral law, I should say hardly any of us.
+      Some of us are utterly incapable of fulfilling its plainest dictates. As
+      there are men born physically cripples, and intellectually idiots, so
+      there are some who are moral cripples and idiots, and can be kept straight
+      not even by punishment. For these people there is nothing but shutting up,
+      or extirpation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The cardinal fact in the University questions appears to me to be this:
+      that the student to whose wants the medi&aelig;val University was
+      adjusted, looked to the past and sought book-learning, while the modern
+      looks to the future and seeks the knowledge of things.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The medi&aelig;val view was that all knowledge worth having was explicitly
+      or implicitly contained in various ancient writings; in the Scriptures, in
+      the writings of the greater Greeks, and those of the Christian Fathers.
+      Whatever apparent novelty they put forward, was professedly obtained by
+      deduction from ancient data.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The modern knows that the only source of real knowledge lies in the
+      application of scientific methods of enquiry to the ascertainment of the
+      facts of existence; that the ascertainable is infinitely greater than the
+      ascertained, and that the chief business of the teacher is not so much to
+      make scholars as to train pioneers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From this point of view, the University occupies a position altogether
+      independent of that of the coping-stone of schools for general education,
+      combined with technical schools of Theology, Law, and Medicine. It is not
+      primarily an institution for testing the work of schoolmasters, or for
+      ascertaining the fitness of young men to be curates, lawyers, or doctors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is an institution in which a man who claims to devote himself to
+      Science or Art, should be able to find some one who can teach him what is
+      already known, and train him in the methods of knowing more.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The besetting sin of able men is impatience of contradiction and of
+      criticism. Even those who do their best to resist the temptation, yield to
+      it almost unconsciously and become the tools of toadies and flatterers.
+      "Authorities," "disciples." and "schools" are the curse of science; and do
+      more to interfere with the work of the scientific spirit than all its
+      enemies.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      People never will recollect, that mere learning and mere cleverness are of
+      next to no value in life, while energy and intellectual grip, the things
+      that are inborn and cannot be taught, are everything.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In my opinion a man's first duty is to find a way of supporting himself,
+      thereby relieving other people of the necessity of supporting him.
+      Moreover, the learning to do work of practical value in the world, in an
+      exact and careful manner, is of itself a very-important education, the
+      effects of which make themselves felt in all other pursuits. The habit of
+      doing that which you do not care about when you would much rather be doing
+      something else, is invaluable.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Success in any scientific career requires an unusual equipment of
+      capacity, industry and energy. If you possess that equipment you will find
+      leisure enough after your daily commercial work is over, to make an
+      opening in the scientific ranks for yourself. If you do not, you had
+      better stick to commerce.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Nothing is less to be desired than the fate of a young man, who, as the
+      Scotch proverb says, in 'trying to make a spoon spoils a horn' and becomes
+      a mere hanger-on in literature or in science, when he might have been a
+      useful and a valuable member of Society in other occupations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXVI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Playing Providence is a game at which one is very apt to burn one's
+      fingers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXVII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I conceive that the leading characteristic of the nineteenth century has
+      been the rapid growth of the scientific spirit, the consequent application
+      of scientifc methods of investigation to all the problems with which the
+      human mind is occupied, and the correlative rejection of traditional
+      beliefs which have proved their incompetence to bear such investigation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXVIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Science reckons many prophets, but there is not even a promise of a
+      Messiah.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXIX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I have not the slightest doubt about the magnitude of the evils which
+      accrue from the steady increase of European armaments; but I think that
+      this regrettable fact is merely the superficial expression of social
+      forces, the operation of which cannot be sensibly affected by agreements
+      between Governments.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In my opinion it is a delusion to attribute the growth of armaments to the
+      "exactions of militarism." The "exactions of industrialism," generated by
+      international commercial competition, may, I believe, claim a much larger
+      share in prompting that growth. Add to this the French thirst for revenge,
+      the most just determination of the German and Italian peoples to assert
+      their national unity; the Russian Panslavonic fanaticism and desire for
+      free access to the western seas; the Papacy steadily fishing in the
+      troubled waters for the means of recovering its lost (I hope for ever
+      lost) temporal possessions and spiritual supremacy; the "sick man," kept
+      alive only because each of his doctors is afraid of the other becoming his
+      heir.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When I think of the intensity of the perturbing agencies which arise out
+      of these and other conditions of modern European society, I confess that
+      the attempt to counteract them by asking Governments to agree to a maximum
+      military expenditure, does not appear to me to be worth making; indeed I
+      think it might do harm by leading people to suppose that the desires of
+      Governments are the chief agents in determining whether peace or war shall
+      obtain in Europe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am not afraid of the priests in the long-run. Scientific method is the
+      white ant which will slowly but surely destroy their fortifications. And
+      the importance of scientific method in modern practical life&mdash;always
+      growing and increasing&mdash;is the guarantee for the gradual emancipation
+      of the ignorant upper and lower classes, the former of whom especially are
+      the strength of the priests.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXXI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is such a thing as a science of social life, for which, if the term
+      had not been so helplessly degraded, Politics is the proper name.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Men are beings of a certain constitution, who, under certain conditions,
+      will as surely tend to act in certain ways as stones will tend to fall if
+      you leave them, unsupported. The laws of their nature are as invariable as
+      the laws of gravitation, only the applications to particular cases offer
+      worse problems than the case of the three bodies.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Political Economists have gone the right way to work&mdash;the way
+      that the physical philosopher follows in all complex affairs&mdash;by
+      tracing out the effects of one great cause of human action, the desire of
+      wealth, supposing it to be unchecked.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If they, or other people, have forgotten that there are other potent
+      causes of action which may interfere with this, it is no fault of
+      scientific method but only their own stupidity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Hydrostatics is not a "dismal science," because water does not always seek
+      the lowest level&mdash;e.g. from a bottle turned upside down, if there is
+      a cork in the neck!
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is much need that somebody should do for what is vaguely called
+      "Ethics" just what the Political Economists have done. Settle the question
+      of what will be done under the unchecked action of certain motives, and
+      leave the problem of "ought" for subsequent consideration.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For, whatever they ought to do, it is quite certain the majority of men
+      will act as if the attainment of certain positive and negative pleasures
+      were the end of action.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We want a science of "Eubiotics" to tell us exactly what will happen if
+      human beings are exclusively actuated by the desire of well-being in the
+      ordinary sense. Of course the utilitarians have laid the foundations of
+      such a science, with the result that the nicknamer of genius called this
+      branch of science "pig philosophy," making just the same blunder as when
+      ne called political economy "dismal science."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "Moderate well-being" may be no more the worthiest end of life than
+      wealth. But if it is the best to be had in this queer world&mdash;it may
+      be worth trying for.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXXII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Those who wish to attain to some clear and definite solution of the great
+      problems which Mr. Darwin was the first person to set before us in later
+      times must base themselves upon the facts which are stated in his great
+      work, and, still more, must pursue their inquiries by the methods of which
+      he was so brilliant an exemplar throughout the whole of his life. You must
+      have his sagacity, his untiring search after the knowledge of fact, his
+      readiness always to give up a preconceived opinion to that which was
+      demonstrably true, before you can hope to carry his doctrines to their
+      ultimate issue; and whether the particular form in which he has put them
+      before us may be such as is finally destined to survive or not is more, I
+      venture to think, than anybody is capable at this present moment of
+      saying. But this one thing is perfectly certain&mdash;that it is only by
+      pursuing his methods, by that wonderful single-mindedness, devotion to
+      truth, readiness to sacrifice all things for the advance of definite
+      knowledge, that we can hope to come any nearer than we are at present to
+      the truths which he struggled to attain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXXIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Dean Stanley told me he thought being made a bishop destroyed a man's
+      moral courage. I am inclined to think that the practice of the methods of
+      political leaders destroys their intellect for all serious purposes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXXIV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is one of the most saddening things in life that, try as we may, we can
+      never be certain of making people happy, whereas we can almost always be
+      certain of making them unhappy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      CCCLXXXV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Men, my dear, are very queer animals, a mixture of horse-nervousness,
+      ass-stubbornness and camel-malice&mdash;-with an angel bobbing about
+      unexpectedly like the apple in the posset, and when they can do exactly as
+      they please, they are very hard to drive.
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 6em;">
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
+  </body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aphorisms and Reflections from the Works of
+T. H. Huxley, by T. H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aphorisms and Reflections from the Works of T. H. Huxley
+
+Author: T. H. Huxley
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2011 [EBook #38097]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APHORISMS AND REFLECTIONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+
+APHORISMS AND REFLECTIONS
+
+FROM THE WORKS OF T. H. HUXLEY
+
+
+Selected By Henrietta A. Huxley
+
+
+1908
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+Although a man by his works and personality shall have made his mark
+upon the age he lives in, yet when he has passed away and his influence
+with him, the next generation, and still more the succeeding one, will
+know little of this work, of his ideals and of the goal he strove to
+win, although for the student his scientific work may always live.
+
+Thomas Henry Huxley may come to be remembered by the public merely as
+the man who held that we were descended from the ape, or as the apostle
+of Darwinism, or as the man who worsted Bishop Wilberforce at Oxford.
+
+To prevent such limitation, and to afford more intimate and valuable
+reasons for remembrance of this man of science and lover of his
+fellow-men, I have gathered together passages, on widely differing
+themes, from the nine volumes of his "Essays," from his "Scientific
+Memoirs" and his "Letters," to be published in a small volume, complete
+in itself and of a size that can be carried in the pocket.
+
+Some of the passages were picked out for their philosophy, some for
+their moral guidances, some for their scientific exposition of natural
+facts, or for their insight into social questions; others for their
+charms of imagination or genial humour, and many--not the least--for
+their pure beauty of lucid English writing.
+
+In so much wealth of material it was difficult to restrict the
+gathering.
+
+My great wish is that this small book, by the easy method of its
+contents, may attract the attention of those persons who are yet
+unacquainted with my husband's writings; of the men and women of
+leisure, who, although they may have heard of the "Essays," do not care
+to work their way through the nine volumes; of others who would like to
+read them, but who have either no time to do so or coin wherewith to buy
+them. More especially do I hope that these selections may attract
+the attention of the working man, whose cause my husband so ardently
+espoused, and to whom he was the first to reveal, by his free lectures,
+the loveliness of Nature, the many rainbow-coloured rays of science, and
+to show forth to his listeners how all these glorious rays unite in the
+one pure white light of holy truth.
+
+I am most grateful to our son Leonard Huxley for weeding out the
+overgrowth of my extracts, for indexing the text of the book and seeing
+it through the press for me.
+
+Hodeslea, Eastbourne, June 29th, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+APHORISMS and REFLECTIONS
+
+
+I
+
+There is no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except veracity
+of thought and of action, and the resolute facing of the world as it is
+when the garment of make-believe by which pious hands have hidden its
+uglier features is stripped off.
+
+
+II
+
+Natural knowledge, seeking to satisfy natural wants, has found the ideas
+which can alone still spiritual cravings. I say that natural knowledge,
+in desiring to ascertain the laws of comfort, has been driven to
+discover those of conduct, and to lay the foundations of a new morality.
+
+
+III
+
+The improver of natural knowledge absolutely refuses to acknowledge
+authority, as such. For him, scepticism is the highest of duties; blind
+faith the one unpardonable sin.
+
+
+IV
+
+The man of science has learned to believe in justification, not by
+faith, but by verification.
+
+
+V
+
+No delusion is greater than the notion that method and industry can make
+up for lack of mother-wit, either in science or in practical life.
+
+
+VI
+
+Nothing great in science has ever been done by men, whatever their
+powers, in whom the divine afflatus of the truth-seeker was wanting.
+
+
+VII
+
+In science, as in art, and, as I believe, in every other sphere of human
+activity, there may be wisdom in a multitude of counsellors, but it is
+only in one or two of them.
+
+
+VIII
+
+Nothing can be more incorrect than the assumption one sometimes meets
+with, that physics has one method, chemistry another, and biology a
+third.
+
+
+IX
+
+Anyone who is practically acquainted with scientific work is aware
+that those who refuse to go beyond fact, rarely get as far as fact; and
+anyone who has studied the history of science knows that almost every
+great step therein has been made by the "anticipation of Nature."
+
+
+X
+
+There are three great products of our time.... One of these is that
+doctrine concerning the constitution of matter which, for want of a
+better name, I will call "molecular"; the second is the doctrine of the
+conservation of energy; the third is the doctrine of evolution.
+
+
+XI
+
+M. Comte's philosophy, in practice, might be compendiously described as
+Catholicism _minus_ Christianity.
+
+
+XII
+
+Fact I know; and Law I know; but what is this Necessity, save an empty
+shadow of my own mind's throwing?
+
+
+XIII
+
+We live in a world which is full of misery and ignorance, and the plain
+duty of each and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can
+influence somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was
+before he entered it.
+
+
+XIV
+
+The man of science, who, forgetting the limits of philosophical inquiry,
+slides from these formulae and symbols into what is commonly understood
+by materialism, seems to me to place himself on a level with the
+mathematician, who should mistake the x's and y's with which he works
+his problems for real entities--and with this further disadvantage, as
+compared with the mathematician, that the blunders of the latter are of
+no practical consequence, while the errors of systematic materialism may
+paralyse the energies and destroy the beauty of a life.
+
+
+XV
+
+There are some men who are counted great because they represent the
+actuality of their own age, and mirror it as it is. Such an one
+was Voltaire, of whom it was epigrammatically said, "he expressed
+everybody's thoughts better than anybody." But there are other men who
+attain greatness because they embody the potentiality of their own day
+and magically reflect the future. They express the thoughts which
+will be everybody's two or three centuries after them. Such an one was
+Descartes.
+
+
+XVI
+
+"Learn what is true, in order to do what is right." is the summing up
+of the whole duty of man, for all who are unable to satisfy their mental
+hunger with the east wind of authority.
+
+
+XVII
+
+When I say that Descartes consecrated doubt, you must remember that it
+was that sort of doubt which Goethe has called "the active scepticism,
+whose whole aim is to conquer itself"; and not that other sort which
+is born of flippancy and ignorance, and whose aim is only to perpetuate
+itself, as an excuse for idleness and indifference.
+
+
+XVIII
+
+What, then, is certain?.... Why, the fact that the thought, the present
+consciousness, exists. Our thoughts may be delusive, but they cannot be
+fictitious. As thoughts, they are real and existent, and the cleverest
+deceiver cannot make them otherwise.
+
+
+XIX
+
+Thought is existence. More than that, so far as we are concerned,
+existence is thought, all our conceptions of existence being some kind
+or other of thought.
+
+
+XX
+
+It is enough for all the practical purposes of human existence if we
+find that our trust in the representations of consciousness is
+verified by results; and that, by their help, we are enabled "to walk
+sure-footedly in this life."
+
+
+XXI
+
+It is because the body is a machine that education is possible.
+Education is the formation of habits, a superinducing of an artificial
+organisation upon the natural organisation of the body; so that
+acts, which at first required a conscious effort, eventually became
+unconscious and mechanical.
+
+
+XXII
+
+I protest that if some great Power would agree to make me always think
+what is true and do what is right, on condition of being turned into
+a sort of clock and wound up every morning before I got out of bed, I
+should instantly close with the offer.
+
+
+XXIII
+
+The only freedom I care about is the freedom to do right; the freedom
+to do wrong I am ready to part with on the cheapest terms to anyone who
+will take it of me.
+
+
+XXIV
+
+Whatever evil voices may rage, Science, secure among the powers that are
+eternal, will do her work and be blessed.
+
+
+XXV
+
+There is assuredly no more effectual method of clearing up one's own
+mind on any subject than by talking it over, so to speak, with men of
+real power and grasp, who have considered it from a totally different
+point of view.
+
+
+XXVI
+
+The parallax of time helps us to the true position of a conception, as
+the parallax of space helps us to that of a star.
+
+
+XXVII
+
+[If animals are conscious automata with souls] the soul stands related
+to the body as the bell of a clock to the works, and consciousness
+answers to the sound which the bell gives out when it is struck.
+
+
+XXVIII
+
+Logical consequences are the scarecrows of fools and the beacons of wise
+men.
+
+
+XXIX
+
+The only question which any wise man can ask himself, and which any
+honest man will ask himself, is whether a doctrine is true or false.
+
+
+XXX
+
+Of all the senseless babble I have ever had occasion to read, the
+demonstrations of these philosophers who undertake to tell us all about
+the nature of God would be the worst, if they were not surpassed by
+the still greater absurdities of the philosophers who try to prove that
+there is no God.
+
+
+XXXI
+
+That which is to be lamented, I fancy, is not that society should do its
+utmost to help capacity to ascend from the lower strata to the higher,
+but that it has no machinery by which to facilitate the descent of
+incapacity from the higher strata to the lower.
+
+
+XXXII
+
+Time, whose tooth gnaws away everything else, is powerless against
+truth.
+
+
+XXXIII
+
+Misery is a match that never goes out.
+
+
+XXXIV
+
+Genius as an explosive power beats gunpowder hollow; and if knowledge,
+which should give that power guidance, is wanting, the chances are not
+small that the rocket will simply run amuck among friends and foes.
+
+
+XXXV
+
+Thoughtfulness for others, generosity, modesty, and self-respect, are
+the qualities which make a real gentleman, or lady, as distinguished
+from the veneered article which commonly goes by that name.
+
+
+XXXVI
+
+The higher the state of civilisation, the more completely do the actions
+of one member of the social body influence all the rest, and the less
+possible is it for any one man to do a wrong thing without interfering,
+more or less, with the freedom of all his fellow-citizens.
+
+
+XXXVII
+
+I take it that the good of mankind means the attainment, by every
+man, of all the happiness which he can enjoy without diminishing the
+happiness of his fellow men.
+
+
+XXXVIII
+
+Education promotes peace by teaching men the realities of life and the
+obligations which are involved in the very existence of society; it
+promotes intellectual development, not only by training the individual
+intellect, but by sifting out from the masses of ordinary or inferior
+capacities, those who are competent to increase the general welfare
+by occupying higher positions; and, lastly, it promotes morality and
+refinement, by teaching men to discipline themselves, and by leading
+them to see that the highest, as it is the only permanent, content is
+to be attained, not by grovelling in the rank and steaming valleys
+of sense, but by continual striving towards those high peaks, where,
+resting in eternal calm, reason discerns the undefined but bright ideal
+of the highest Good--"a cloud by day, a pillar of fire by night."
+
+
+XXXIX
+
+Missionaries, whether of philosophy or of religion, rarely make rapid
+way, unless their preachings fall in with the prepossessions of
+the multitude of shallow thinkers, or can be made to serve as a
+stalking-horse for the promotion of the practical aims of the still
+larger multitude, who do not profess to think much, but are quite
+certain they want a great deal.
+
+
+XL
+
+Proclaim human equality as loudly as you like, Witless will serve his
+brother.
+
+
+XLI
+
+There is no sea more dangerous than the ocean of practical
+politics--none in which there is more need of good pilotage and of a
+single, unfaltering purpose when the waves rise high.
+
+
+XLII
+
+The doctrine that all men are, in any sense, or have been, at any time,
+free and equal, is an utterly baseless fiction.
+
+
+XLIII
+
+For the welfare of society, as for that of individual men, it is surely
+essential that there should be a statute of limitations in respect of
+the consequences of wrong-doing.
+
+
+XLIV
+
+"Musst immer thun wie neu geboren" is the best of all maxims for the
+guidance of the life of States, no less than of individuals.
+
+
+XLV
+
+The population question is the real riddle of the sphinx, to which no
+political OEdipus has as yet found the answer. In view of the ravages of
+the terrible monster, over-multiplication, all other riddles sink into
+insignificance.
+
+
+XLVI
+
+The "Law of Nature" is not a command to do, or to refrain from doing,
+anything. It contains, in reality, nothing but a statement of that which
+a given being tends to do under the circumstances of its existence; and
+which, in the case of a living and sensitive being, it is necessitated
+to do if it is to escape certain kinds of disability, pain, and ultimate
+dissolution.
+
+
+XLVII
+
+Probably none of the political delusions which have sprung from the
+"natural rights" doctrine has been more mischievous than the assertion
+that all men have a natural right to freedom, and that those who
+willingly submit to any restriction of this freedom, beyond the point
+determined by the deductions of _a priori_ philosophers, deserve the
+title of slave. But to my mind, this delusion is incomprehensible except
+as the result of the error of confounding natural with moral rights.
+
+
+XLVIII
+
+The very existence of society depends on the fact that every member of
+it tacitly admits that he is not the exclusive possessor of himself, and
+that he admits the claim of the polity of which he forms a part, to act,
+to some extent, as his master.
+
+
+XLIX
+
+Surely there is a time to submit to guidance and a time to take one's
+own way at all hazards.
+
+
+L
+
+Individualism, pushed to anarchy, in the family is as ill-founded
+theoretically and as mischievous practically as it is in the State;
+while extreme regimentation is a certain means of either destroying
+self-reliance or of maddening to rebellion.
+
+
+LI
+
+A man in his development runs for a little while parallel with, though
+never passing through, the form of the meanest worm, then travels for a
+space beside the fish, then journeys along with the bird and the reptile
+for his fellow travellers; and only at last, after a brief companionship
+with the highest of the four-footed and four-handed world, rises into
+the dignity of pure manhood.
+
+
+LII
+
+Not only does every animal live at the expense of some other animal or
+plant, but the very plants are at war.... The individuals of a species
+are like the crew of a foundered ship, and none but good swimmers have a
+chance of reaching the land.
+
+
+LIII
+
+When we know that living things are formed of the same elements as the
+inorganic world, that they act and react upon it, bound by a thousand
+ties of natural piety, is it probable, nay is it possible, that they,
+and they alone, should have no order in their seeming disorder, no
+unity in their seeming multiplicity, should suffer no explanation by the
+discovery of some central and sublime law of mutual connection?
+
+
+LIV
+
+The student of Nature wonders the more and is astonished the less, the
+more conversant he becomes with her operations; but of all the perennial
+miracles she offers to his inspection, perhaps the most worthy of
+admiration is the development of a plant or of an animal from its
+embryo.
+
+
+LV
+
+Matter and force are the two names of the one artist who fashions the
+living as well as the lifeless.
+
+
+LVI
+
+There is not throughout Nature a law of wider application than this,
+that a body impelled by two forces takes the direction of their
+resultant.
+
+
+LVII
+
+Orthodoxy is the Bourbon of the world of thought. It learns not, neither
+can it forget.
+
+
+LVIII
+
+Who shall number the patient and earnest seekers after truth, from the
+days of Galileo until now, whose lives have been embittered and their
+good name blasted by the mistaken zeal of Bibliolaters? Who shall count
+the host of weaker men whose sense of truth has been destroyed in the
+effort to harmonise impossibilities--whose life has been wasted in the
+attempt to force the generous new wine of Science into the old bottles
+of Judaism, compelled by the outcry of the same strong party?
+
+
+LIX
+
+When Astronomy was young "the morning stars sang together for joy," and
+the planets were guided in their courses by celestial hands. Now, the
+harmony of the stars has resolved itself into gravitation according to
+the inverse squares of the distances, and the orbits of the planets are
+deducible from the laws of the forces which allow a schoolboy's stone to
+break a window.
+
+
+LX
+
+The lightning was the angel of the Lord; but it has pleased Providence,
+in these modern times, that science should make it the humble messenger
+of man, and we know that every flash that shimmers about the horizon on
+a summer's evening is determined by ascertainable conditions, and that
+its direction and brightness might, if our knowledge of these were great
+enough, have been calculated.
+
+
+LXI
+
+Why should the souls [of philosophers] be deeply vexed? The majesty of
+Fact is on their side, and the elemental forces of Nature are working
+for them. Not a star comes to the meridian at its calculated time but
+testifies to the justice of their methods--their beliefs are "one
+with the falling rain and with the growing corn." By doubt they are
+established, and open inquiry is their bosom friend.
+
+
+LXII
+
+Harmonious order governing eternally continuous progress--the web and
+woof of matter and force interweaving by slow decrees, without a broken
+thread, that veil which lies between us and the Infinite--that universe
+which alone we know or can know; such is the picture which science draws
+of the world, and in proportion as any part of that picture is in unison
+with the rest, so may we feel sure that it is rightly painted.
+
+
+LXIII
+
+Mix salt and sand, and it shall puzzle the wisest of men, with his mere
+natural appliances, to separate all the grains of sand from all the
+grains of salt; but a shower of rain will effect the same object in ten
+minutes.
+
+
+LXIV
+
+Elijah's great question, "Will you serve God or Baal? Choose ye," is
+uttered audibly enough in the ears of every one of us as we come to
+manhood. Let every man who tries to answer it seriously ask himself
+whether he can be satisfied with the Baal of authority, and with all the
+good things his worshippers are promised in this world and the next.
+If he can, let him, if he be so inclined, amuse himself with such
+scientific implements as authority tells him are safe and will not cut
+his fingers; but let him not imagine he is, or can be, both a true son
+of the Church and a loyal soldier of science.
+
+
+LXV
+
+Ecclesiasticism in science is only unfaithfulness to truth.
+
+
+LXVI
+
+If the blind acceptance of authority appears to him in its true colours,
+as mere private judgment _in excelsis_ and if he have the courage to
+stand alone, face to face with the abyss of the eternal and unknowable,
+let him be content, once for all, not only to renounce the good things
+promised by "Infallibility," but even to bear the bad things which it
+prophesies; content to follow reason and fact in singleness and honesty
+of purpose, wherever they may lead, in the sure faith that a hell of
+honest men will, to him, be more endurable than a paradise full of
+angelic shams.
+
+
+LXVII
+
+History warns us that it is the customary fate of new truths to begin as
+heresies and to end as superstitions.
+
+
+LXVIII
+
+The struggle for existence holds as much in the intellectual as in the
+physical world. A theory is a species of thinking, and its right to
+exist is coextensive with its power of resisting extinction by its
+rivals.
+
+
+LXIX
+
+The scientific spirit is of more value than its products, and
+irrationally held truths may be more harmful than reasoned errors.
+
+
+LXX
+
+Every belief is the product of two factors: the first is the state of
+the mind to which the evidence in favour of that belief is presented;
+and the second is the logical cogency of the evidence itself.
+
+
+LXXI
+
+Science commits suicide when it adopts a creed.
+
+
+LXXII
+
+The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of
+the necessary mode of working of the human mind. It is simply the mode
+in which all phenomena are reasoned about, rendered precise and exact.
+
+
+LXXIII
+
+There are men (and I think Priestley was one of them) to whom the
+satisfaction of throwing down a triumphant fallacy is as great as that
+which attends the discovery of a new truth; who feel better satisfied
+with the government of the world, when they have been helping Providence
+by knocking an imposture on the head; and who care even more for freedom
+of thought than for mere advance of knowledge. These men are the Carnots
+who organise victory for truth, and they are, at least, as important as
+the generals who visibly fight her battles in the field.
+
+
+LXXIV
+
+Material advancement has its share in moral and intellectual progress.
+Becky Sharp's acute remark that it is not difficult to be virtuous on
+ten thousand a year, has its application to nations; and it is futile
+to expect a hungry and squalid population to be anything but violent and
+gross.
+
+
+LXXV
+
+If the twentieth century is to be better than the nineteenth, it will
+be because there are among us men who walk in Priestley's footsteps. But
+whether Priestley's lot be theirs, and a future generation, in justice
+and in gratitude, set up their statues; or whether their names and fame
+are blotted out from remembrance, their work will live as long as time
+endures. To all eternity, the sum of truth and right will have been
+increased by their means; to all eternity, falsehood and injustice will
+be the weaker because they have lived.
+
+
+LXXVI
+
+Science is, I believe, nothing but _trained and organised common sense_,
+differing from the latter only as a veteran may differ from a raw
+recruit: and its methods differ from those of common sense only so
+far as the guardsman's cut and thrust differ from the manner in which a
+savage wields his club.
+
+
+LXXVII
+
+The vast results obtained by Science are won by no mystical faculties,
+by no mental processes, other than those which are practised by every
+one of us, in the humblest and meanest affairs of life. A detective
+policeman discovers a burglar from the marks made by his shoe, by a
+mental process identical with that by which Cuvier restored the extinct
+animals of Montmartre from fragments of their bones.
+
+
+LXXVIII
+
+There is no side of the human mind which physiological study leaves
+uncultivated. Connected by innumerable ties with abstract science,
+Physiology is yet in the most intimate relation with humanity; and by
+teaching us that law and order, and a definite scheme of development,
+regulate even the strangest and wildest manifestations of individual
+life, she prepares the student to look for a coal even amidst the
+erratic wanderings of mankind, and to believe that history offers
+something more than an entertaining chaos--a journal of a toilsome,
+tragi-comic march nowhither.
+
+
+LXXIX
+
+I cannot but think that he who finds a certain proportion of pain and
+evil inseparably woven up in the life of the very worms, will bear his
+own share with more courage and submission; and will, at any rate, view
+with suspicion those weakly amiable theories of the Divine government,
+which would have us believe pain to be an oversight and a mistake,--to
+be corrected by and by. On the other hand, the predominance of happiness
+among living things--their lavish beauty--the secret and wonderful
+harmony which pervades them all, from the highest to the lowest, are
+equally striking refutations of that modern Manichean doctrine, which
+exhibits the world as a slave-mill, worked with many tears, for mere
+utilitarian ends.
+
+
+LXXX
+
+To a person uninstructed in natural history, his country or sea-side
+stroll is a walk through a gallery filled with wonderful works of art,
+nine-tenths of which have their faces turned to the wall. Teach him
+something of natural history, and you place in his hands a catalogue of
+those which are worth turning round. Surely our innocent pleasures are
+not so abundant in this life that we can afford to despise this or any
+other source of them. We should fear being banished for our neglect to
+that limbo where the great Florentine tells us are those who, during
+this life, "wept when they might be joyful."
+
+
+LXXXI
+
+No slavery can be abolished without a double emancipation, and the
+master will benefit by freedom more than the freed-man.
+
+
+LXXXII
+
+Compare the average artisan and the average country squire, and it may
+be doubted if you will find a pin to choose between the two in point of
+ignorance, class feeling, or prejudice. It is true that the ignorance is
+of a different sort--that the class feeling is in favour of a different
+class--and that the prejudice has a distinct savour of wrong-headedness
+in each case--but it is questionable if the one is either a bit better,
+or a bit worse, than the other. The old protectionist theory is the
+doctrine of trades unions as applied by the squires, and the modern
+trades unionism is the doctrine of the squires applied by the artisans.
+Why should we be worse off under one _regime_ than under the other?
+
+
+LXXXIII
+
+The life, the fortune, and the happiness of every one of us, and, more
+or less, of those who are connected with us, do depend upon our
+knowing something of the rules of a game infinitely more difficult and
+complicated than chess. It is a game which has been played for untold
+ages, every man and woman of us being one of the two players in a game
+of his or her own. The chessboard is the world, the pieces are the
+phenomena of the universe, the rules of the game are what we call the
+laws of Nature. The player on the other side is hidden from us. We know
+that his play is always fair, just and patient. But also we know, to our
+cost, that he never overlooks a mistake, or makes the smallest allowance
+for ignorance. To the man who plays well, the highest stakes are paid,
+with that sort of overflowing generosity with which the strong shows
+delight in strength. And one who plays ill is checkmated--without haste,
+but without remorse.
+
+
+LXXXIV
+
+Education is the instruction of the intellect in the laws of Nature,
+under which name I include not merely things and their forces, but men
+and then-ways; and the fashioning of the affections and of the will into
+an earnest and loving desire to move in harmony with those laws.
+
+
+LXXXV
+
+To every one of us the world was once as fresh and new as to Adam. And
+then, long before we were susceptible of any other mode of instruction,
+Nature took us in hand, and every minute of waking life brought its
+educational influence, shaping our actions into rough accordance with
+Nature's laws, so that we might not be ended untimely by too gross
+disobedience. Nor should I speak of this process of education as past
+for any one, be he as old as he may. For every man the world is as fresh
+as it was at the first day, and as full of untold novelties for him who
+has the eyes to see them. And Nature is still continuing her patient
+education of us in that great university, the universe, of which we are
+all members--Nature having no Test-Acts.
+
+
+LXXXVI
+
+Those who take honours in Nature's university, who learn the laws which
+govern men and things and obey them, are the really great and successful
+men in this world. The great mass of mankind are the "Poll," who pick up
+just enough to get through without much discredit Those who won't learn
+at all are plucked; and then you can't come up again. Nature's pluck
+means extermination.
+
+
+LXXXVII
+
+Ignorance is visited as sharply as wilful disobedience--incapacity meets
+with the same punishment as crime. Nature's discipline is not even a
+word and a blow, and the blow first; but the blow without the word. It
+is left to you to find out why your ears are boxed.
+
+
+LXXXVIII
+
+All artificial education ought to be an anticipation of natural
+education.
+
+
+LXXXIX
+
+That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained
+in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with
+ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of;
+whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of
+equal strength and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine,
+to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as
+force the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge
+of the great and fundamental truths of Nature and of the laws of her
+operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire,
+but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the
+servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty,
+whether of Nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others
+as himself.
+
+
+XC
+
+The only medicine for suffering, crime, and all the other woes of
+mankind, is wisdom.
+
+
+XCI
+
+Next to being right in this world, the best of all things is to be
+clearly and definitely wrong, because you will come out somewhere. If
+you go buzzing about between right and wrong, vibrating and fluctuating,
+you come out nowhere; but if you are absolutely and thoroughly and
+persistently wrong, you must, some of these days, have the extreme good
+fortune of knocking your head against a fact, and that sets you all
+straight again.
+
+
+XCII
+
+No man ever understands Shakespeare until he is old, though the youngest
+may admire him, the reason being that he satisfies the artistic instinct
+of the youngest and harmonises with the ripest and richest experience of
+the oldest.
+
+
+XCIII
+
+It is not a question whether one order of study or another should
+predominate. It is a question of what topics of education you shall
+select which will combine all the needful elements in such due
+proportion as to give the greatest amount of food, support, and
+encouragement to those faculties which enable us to appreciate truth,
+and to profit by those sources of innocent happiness which are open to
+us, and, at the same time, to avoid that which is bad, and coarse, and
+ugly, and keep clear of the multitude of pitfalls and dangers which
+beset those who break through the natural or moral laws.
+
+
+XCIV
+
+Writing is a form of drawing; therefore if you five the same attention
+and trouble to drawing as you do to writing, depend upon it, there is
+nobody who cannot be made to draw, more or less well.... I do not say
+for one moment you would make an artistic draughtsman. Artists are not
+made; they grow..... You can teach simple drawing, and you will find it
+an implement of learning of extreme value. I do not think its value can
+be exaggerated, because it gives you the means of training the young in
+attention and accuracy, which are the two things in which all mankind
+are more deficient than in any other mental quality whatever.
+
+
+XCV
+
+If a man cannot get literary culture of the highest kind out of his
+Bible, and Chaucer, and Shakespeare, and Milton, and Hobbes, and Bishop
+Berkeley, to mention only a few of our illustrious writers--I say, if
+he cannot get it out of those writers, he cannot get it out of anything;
+and I would assuredly devote a very large portion of the time of every
+English child to the careful study of the models of English writing of
+such varied and wonderful kind as we possess, and, what is still more
+important and still more neglected, the habit of using that language
+with precision, with force, and with art.
+
+
+XCVI
+
+I fancy we are almost the only nation in the world who seem to think
+that composition comes by nature. The French attend to their own
+language, the Germans study theirs; but Englishmen do not seem to think
+it is worth their while.
+
+
+XCVII
+
+Many of the faults and mistakes of the ancient philosophers are
+traceable to the fact that they knew no language but their own, and were
+often led into confusing the symbol with the thought which it embodied.
+
+
+XCVIII
+
+If the time given to education permits, add Latin and German. Latin,
+because it is the key to nearly one-half of English and to all the
+Romance languages; and German, because it is the key to almost all the
+remainder of English, and helps you to understand a race from whom
+most of us have sprung, and who have a character and a literature of
+a fateful force in the history of the world, such as probably has been
+allotted to those of no other people, except the Jews, the Greeks, and
+ourselves.
+
+
+XCIX
+
+In an ideal University,.... the force of living example should fire the
+student with a noble ambition to emulate the learning of learned
+men, and to follow in the footsteps of the explorers of new fields of
+knowledge. And the very air he breathes should be charged with that
+enthusiasm for truth, that fanaticism of veracity, which is a greater
+possession than much learning; a nobler gift than the power of
+increasing knowledge; by go much greater and nobler than these, as the
+moral nature of man is greater than the intellectual; for veracity is
+the heart of morality. Do what you can to do what you ought, and leave
+hoping and fearing alone.
+
+
+CI
+
+On the face of the matter, it is absurd to ask whether it is more
+important to know the limits of one's powers; or the ends for which they
+ought to be exerted; or the conditions under which they must be exerted.
+One may as well inquire which of the terms of a Rule of Three sum one
+ought to know in order to get a trustworthy result. Practical life
+is such a sum, in which your duty multiplied into your capacity,
+and divided by your circumstances, gives you the fourth term in the
+proportion, which is your deserts, with great accuracy.
+
+
+CII
+
+Books are the money of Literature, but only the counters of Science.
+
+
+CIII
+
+Medicine was the foster-mother of Chemistry, because it has to do
+with the preparation of drugs and the detection of poisons; of Botany,
+because it enabled the physician to recognise medicinal herbs; of
+Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, because the man who studied Human
+Anatomy and Physiology for purely medical purposes was led to extend his
+studies to the rest of the animal world.
+
+
+CIV
+
+A thorough study of Human Physiology is, in itself, an education broader
+and more comprehensive than much that passes under that name. There is
+no side of the intellect which it does not call into play, no region
+of human knowledge into which either its roots, or its branches, do not
+extend; like the Atlantic between the Old and the New Worlds, its waves
+wash the shores of the two worlds of matter and of mind; its tributary
+streams flow from both; through its waters, as yet unfurrowed by the
+keel of any Columbus, lies the road, if such there be, from the one to
+the other; far away from that North-west Passage of mere speculation, in
+which so many brave souls have been hopelessly frozen up.
+
+
+CV
+
+You know that among the Bees, it depends on the kind of cell in which
+the egg is deposited, and the quantity and quality of food which is
+supplied to the grub, whether it shall turn out a busy little worker
+or a big idle queen. And, in the human hive, the cells of the endowed
+larvae are always tending to enlarge, and their food to improve, until
+we get queens, beautiful to behold, but which gather no honey and build
+no comb.
+
+
+CVI
+
+Examination, like fire, is a good servant, but a bad master; and there
+seems to me to be some danger of its becoming our master. I by no means
+stand alone in this opinion. Experienced friends of mine do not hesitate
+to say that students whose career they watch appear to them to become
+deteriorated by the constant effort to pass this or that examination,
+just as we hear of mens brains becoming affected by the daily necessity
+of catching a train. They work to pass, not to know; and outraged
+Science takes Her revenge. They do pass, and they don't know.
+
+
+CVII
+
+A man's worst difficulties begin when he is able to do as he likes.
+
+
+CVIII
+
+There is but one right, and the possibilities of wrong are infinite.
+
+
+CIX
+
+It is given to few to add to the store of knowledge, to strike new
+springs of thought, or to shape new forms of beauty. But so sure as
+it is that men live not by bread, but by ideas, so sure is it that the
+future of the world lies in the hands of those who are able to carry the
+interpretation of nature a step further than their predecessors.
+
+
+CX
+
+Size is not grandeur, and territory does not make a nation.
+
+
+CXI
+
+Whatever practical people may say, this world is, after all, absolutely
+governed by ideas, and very often by the wildest and most hypothetical
+ideas. It is a matter of the very greatest importance that our theories
+of things, and even of things that seem a long way apart from our daily
+lives, should be as far as possible true, and as far as possible removed
+from error.
+
+
+CXII
+
+All truth, in the long run, is only common sense clarified.
+
+
+CXIII
+
+You may read any quantity of books, and you may be almost as ignorant as
+you were at starting, if you don't have, at the back of your minds, the
+change for words in definite images which can only be acquired through
+the operation of your observing faculties on the phenomena of nature.
+
+
+CXIV
+
+The saying that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is to my mind, a
+very dangerous adage. If knowledge is real and genuine, I do not believe
+that it is other than a very valuable possession, however infinitesimal
+its quantity may be. Indeed, if a little knowledge is dangerous, where
+is the man who has so much as to be out of danger?
+
+
+CXV
+
+Patience and tenacity of purpose are worth more than twice their weight
+of cleverness.
+
+
+CXVI
+
+The body is a machine of the nature of an army..... Of this army each
+cell is a soldier, an organ a brigade, the central nervous system
+headquarters and field telegraph, the alimentary and circulatory system
+the commissariat Losses are made good by recruits born in camp, and
+the life of the individual is a campaign, conducted successfully for a
+number of years, but with certain defeat in the long run.
+
+
+CXVII
+
+So far as the laws of conduct are determined by the intellect, I
+apprehend that they belong to science, and to that part of science which
+is called morality. But the engagement of the affections in favour of
+that particular kind of conduct which we call good, seems to me to be
+something quite beyond mere science. And I cannot but think that it,
+together with the awe and reverence, which have no kinship with base
+fear, but arise whenever one tries to pierce below the surface of
+things, whether they be material or spiritual, constitutes all that has
+any unchangeable reality in religion.
+
+
+CXVIII
+
+Just as I think it would be a mistake to confound the science,
+morality, with the affection, religion; so do I conceive it to be a
+most lamentable and mischievous error, that the science, theology, is so
+confounded in the minds of many--indeed, I might say, of the majority of
+men.
+
+
+CXIX
+
+My belief is, that no human being, and no society composed of human
+beings, ever did, or ever will, come to much, unless their conduct was
+governed and guided by the love of some ethical ideal.
+
+
+CXX
+
+Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make
+yourself do the thing you have to do, when it ought to be done, whether
+you like it or not; it is the first lesson that ought to be learned;
+and, however early a man's training begins, it is probably the last
+lesson that he learns thoroughly.
+
+
+CXXI
+
+The great end of life is not knowledge, but action. What men need is,
+as much knowledge as they can assimilate and organise into a basis for
+action; give them more and it may become injurious. One knows people
+who are as heavy and stupid from undigested learning as others are from
+over-fulness of meat and drink.
+
+
+CXXII
+
+There is no mode of exercising the faculty of observation and the
+faculty of accurate reproduction of that which is observed, no
+discipline which so readily tests error in these matters, as drawing
+properly taught And by that I do not mean artistic drawing; I mean
+figuring natural objects. I do not wish to exaggerate, but I declare
+to you that, in my judgment, the child who has been taught to make an
+accurate elevation, plan and section of a pint pot has had an admirable
+training in accuracy of eye and hand.
+
+
+CXXIII
+
+Accuracy is the foundation of everything else.
+
+
+CXXIV
+
+Anybody who knows his business in science can make anything subservient
+to that purpose. You know it was said of Dean Swift that he could
+write an admirable poem upon a broomstick, and the man who has a
+real knowledge of science can make the commonest object in the world
+subservient to an introduction to the principles and greater truths of
+natural knowledge.
+
+
+CXXV
+
+My experience of the world is that things left to themselves don't get
+right.
+
+
+CXXVI
+
+I remember somewhere reading of an interview between the poet Southey
+and a good Quaker. Southey was a man of marvellous powers of work. He
+had a habit of dividing his time into little parts each of which was
+filled up, and he told the Quaker what he did in this hour and that, and
+so on through the day until far into the night The Quaker listened, and
+at the close said, "Well, but, friend Southey, when dost thee think?"
+
+
+CXXVII
+
+The knowledge which is absolutely requisite in dealing with young
+children is the knowledge you possess, as you would know your own
+business, and which you can just turn about as if you were explaining to
+a boy a matter of everyday life.
+
+
+CXXVIII
+
+You may develop the intellectual side of people as far as you like, and
+you may confer upon them all the skill that training and instruction
+can give; but, if there is not, underneath all that outside form and
+superficial polish, the firm fibre of healthy manhood and earnest desire
+to do well, your labour is absolutely in vain.
+
+
+CXXIX
+
+Our sole chance of succeeding in a competition, which must constantly
+become more and more severe, is that our people shall not only have the
+knowledge and the skill which are required, but that they shall have the
+will and the energy and the honesty, without which neither knowledge nor
+skill can be of any permanent avail.
+
+
+CXXX
+
+It is a great many years since, at the outset of my career, I had to
+think seriously what life had to offer that was worth having. I came to
+the conclusion that the chief good, for me, was freedom to learn, think,
+and say what I pleased, when I pleased. I have acted on that conviction,
+and have availed myself of the "rara temporum felicitas ubi sentire quae
+velis, et quae sentias dicere licet," which is now enjoyable, to the
+best of my ability; and though strongly, and perhaps wisely, warned
+that I should probably come to grief, I am entirely satisfied with the
+results of the line of action I have adopted.
+
+
+CXXXI
+
+The scientific imagination always restrains itself within the limits of
+probability.
+
+
+CXXXII
+
+It is a "law of nature," verifiable by everyday experience, that our
+already formed convictions, our strong desires, our intent occupation
+with particular ideas, modify our mental operations to a most marvellous
+extent, and produce enduring changes in the direction and in the
+intensity of our intellectual and moral activities.
+
+
+CXXXIII
+
+Men can intoxicate themselves with ideas as effectually as with
+alcohol or with bang, and produce, by dint of intense thinking, mental
+conditions hardly distinguishable from monomania.
+
+
+CXXXIV
+
+Demoniac possession is mythical; but the faculty of being possessed,
+more or less completely, by an idea is probably the fundamental
+condition of what is called genius, whether it show itself in the saint,
+the artist, or the man of science. One calls it faith, another calls it
+inspiration, a third calls it insight; but the "intending of the mind,"
+to borrow Newton's well-known phrase, the concentration of all the rays
+of intellectual energy on some one point, until it glows and colours the
+whole cast of thought with its peculiar light, is common to all.
+
+
+CXXXV
+
+Whatever happens, science may bide her time in patience and in
+confidence.
+
+
+CXXXVI
+
+The only people, scientific or other, who never make mistakes are those
+who do nothing.
+
+
+CXXXVII
+
+The most considerable difference I note among men is not in their
+readiness to fall into error, but in their readiness to acknowledge
+these inevitable lapses.
+
+
+CXXXVIII
+
+Quite apart from deliberate and conscious fraud (which is a rarer thing
+than is often supposed), people whose mythopaeic faculty is once stirred
+are capable of saving the thing that is not, and of acting as they
+should not, to an extent which is hardly imaginable by persons who are
+not so easily affected by the contagion of blind faith. There is no
+falsify so gross that honest men and, still more, virtuous women,
+anxious to promote a good cause, will not lend themselves to it without
+any clear consciousness of the moral bearings of what they are doing.
+
+
+CXXXIX
+
+This modern reproduction of the ancient prophet, with his "Thus saith
+the Lord," "This is the work of the Lord," steeped in supernaturalism
+and glorying in blind faith, is the mental antipodes of the philosopher,
+founded in naturalism and a fanatic for evidence, to whom these
+affirmations inevitably suggest the previous question: "How do you know
+that the Lord saith it?" "How do you know that the Lord doeth it?" and
+who is compelled to demand that rational ground for belief, without
+which, to the man of science, assent is merely an immoral pretence.
+
+And it is this rational ground of belief which the writers of the
+Gospels, no less than Paul, and Eginhard, and Fox, so little dream
+of offering that they would regard the demand for it as a kind of
+blasphemy.
+
+
+CXL
+
+To quarrel with the uncertainty that besets us in intellectual affairs
+would be about as reasonable as to object to live one's life, with due
+thought for the morrow, because no man can be sure he will be alive an
+hour hence.
+
+
+CXLI
+
+I verily believe that the great good which has been effected in the
+world by Christianity has been largely counteracted by the pestilent
+doctrine on which all the Churches have insisted, that honest disbelief
+in their more or less astonishing creeds is a moral offence, indeed
+a sin of the deepest dye, deserving and involving the same future
+retribution as murder and robbery. If we could only see in one view,
+the torrents of hypocrisy and cruelty, the lies, the slaughter, the
+violations of every obligation of humanity, which have flowed from this
+source along the course of the history of Christian nations, our worst
+imaginations of Hell would pale beside the vision.
+
+
+CXLII
+
+Agnostioism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the essence of which
+lies in the rigorous application of a single principle. That principle
+is of great antiquity; it is as old as Socrates; as old as the writer
+who said, "Try all things, hold fast by that which is good"; it is the
+foundation of the Reformation, which simply illustrated the axiom that
+every man should be able to give a reason for the faith that is in him;
+it is the great principle of Descartes; it is the fundamental axiom of
+modern science. Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters
+of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without
+regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the
+intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not
+demonstrated or demonstrable. That I take to be the agnostic faith,
+which if a man keep whole and undefiled, he shall not be ashamed to look
+the universe in the face, whatever the future may have in store for him.
+
+
+CXLIII
+
+The best men of the best epochs are simply those who make the fewest
+blunders and commit the fewest sins.
+
+
+CXLIV
+
+That one should rejoice in the good man, forgive the bad man, and pity
+and help all men to the best of one's ability, is surely indisputable.
+It is the glory of Judaism and of Christianity to have proclaimed this
+truth, through all their aberrations. But the worship of a God who needs
+forgiveness and help, and deserves pity every hour of his existence,
+is no better than that of any other voluntarily selected fetish. The
+Emperor Julian's project was hopeful in comparison with the prospects of
+the Comtist Anthropolatry.
+
+
+CXLV
+
+The Cleric asserts that it is morally wrong not to believe certain
+propositions, whatever the results of a strict scientific investigation
+of the evidence of these propositions. He tells us "that religious error
+is, in itself, of an immoral nature." He declares that he has prejudged
+certain conclusions, and looks upon those who show cause for arrest of
+judgment as emissaries of Satan. It necessarily follows that, for him,
+the attainment of faith, not the ascertainment of truth, is the highest
+aim of mental life. And, on careful analysis of the nature of this
+faith, it will too often be found to be, not the mystic process of unity
+with the Divine, understood by the religious enthusiast; but that
+which the candid simplicity of a Sunday scholar once defined it to be.
+"Faith," said this unconscious plagiarist of Tertullian, "is the power
+of saying you believe things which are incredible."
+
+
+CXLVI
+
+The science, the art, the jurisprudence, the chief political and social
+theories, of the modern world have grown out of those of Greece and
+Rome--not by favour of, but in the teeth of, the fundamental teachings
+of early Christianity, to which science, art, and any serious occupation
+with the things of this world, were alike despicable.
+
+
+CXLVII
+
+All that is best in the ethics of the modern world, in so far as it
+has not Grown out of Greek thought, or Barbarian manhood, is the
+direct development of the ethics of old Israel. There is no code of
+legislation, ancient or modern, at once so just and so merciful, so
+tender to the weak and poor, as the Jewish law; and, if the Gospels are
+to be trusted, Jesus of Nazareth himself declared that he taught nothing
+but that which lay implicitly, or explicitly, in the religious and
+ethical system of his people.
+
+
+CXLVIII
+
+The first-recorded judicial murder of a scientific thinker was compassed
+and effected, not by a despot, nor by priests, but was brought about by
+eloquent demagogues, to whom, of all men, thorough search-ings of the
+intellect are most dangerous and therefore most hateful.
+
+
+CXLIX
+
+Platonic philosophy is probably the grandest example of the unscientific
+use of the imagination extant; and it would be hard to estimate the
+amount of detriment to clear thinking effected, directly and indirectly,
+by the theory of ideas, on the one hand, and by the unfortunate doctrine
+of the baseness of matter, on the other.
+
+
+CL
+
+The development of exact natural knowledge in all its vast range, from
+physics to history and criticism, is the consequence of the working out,
+in this province, of the resolution to "take nothing for truth without
+clear knowledge that it is such"; to consider all beliefs open to
+criticism; to regard the value of authority as neither greater nor less
+than as much as it can prove itself to be worth. The modern spirit is
+not the spirit "which always denies," delighting only in destruction;
+still less is it that which builds castles in the air rather than not
+construct; it is that spirit which works and will work "without haste
+and without rest," gathering harvest after harvest of truth into its
+barns and devouring error with unquenchable fire.
+
+
+CLI
+
+In truth, the laboratory is the fore-court of the temple of philosophy;
+and whoso has not offered sacrifices and undergone purification there
+has little chance of admission into the sanctuary.
+
+
+CLII
+
+The memorable service rendered to the cause of sound thinking by
+Descartes consisted in this: that he laid the foundation of modern
+philosophical criticism by his inquiry into the nature of certainty.
+
+
+CLIII
+
+There is no question in the mind of anyone acquainted with the facts
+that, so far as observation and experiment can take us, the structure
+and the functions of the nervous system are fundamentally the same in an
+ape, or in a dog, and in a man. And the suggestion that we must stop at
+the exact point at which direct proof fails us, and refuse to believe
+that the similarity which extends so far stretches yet further, is no
+better than a quibble. Robinson Crusoe did not feel bound to conclude,
+from the single human footprint which he saw in the sand, that the maker
+of the impression had only one leg.
+
+
+CLIV
+
+Descartes, as we have seen, illustrates what he means by an innate
+idea, by the analogy of hereditary diseases or hereditary mental
+peculiarities, such as generosity. On the other hand, hereditary mental
+tendencies may justly be termed instincts; and still more appropriately
+might those special proclivities, which constitute what we call genus,
+come into the same category.
+
+
+CLV
+
+The child who is impelled to draw as soon as it can hold a pencil; the
+Mozart who breaks out into music as early; the boy Bidder who worked out
+the most complicated sums without learning arithmetic; the boy Pascal
+who evolved Euclid out of his own consciousness: all these may be said
+to have been impelled by instinct, as much as are the beaver and
+the bee. And the man of genius is distinct in kind from the man of
+cleverness, by reason of the working within him of strong innate
+tendencies--which cultivation may improve, but which it can no more
+create than horticulture can make thistles bear figs. The analogy
+between a musical instrument and the mind holds good here also. Art and
+industry may get much music, of a sort, out of a penny whistle; but,
+when all is done, it has no chance against an organ. The innate musical
+potentialities of the two are infinitely different.
+
+
+CLVI
+
+It is notorious that, to the unthinking mass of mankind, nine-tenths of
+the facts of fife do not suggest the relation of cause and effect; and
+they practically deny the existence of any such relation by attributing
+them to chance. Few gamblers but would stare if they were told that
+the falling of a die on a particular face is as much the effect of a
+definite cause as the fact of its falling; it is a proverb that "the
+wind bloweth where it listeth"; and even thoughtful men usually receive
+with surprise the suggestion, that the form of the crest of every wave
+that breaks, wind-driven, on the sea-shore, and the direction of every
+particle of foam that flies before the gale, are the exact effects of
+definite causes; and, as such, must be capable of being determined,
+deductively, from the laws of motion and the properties of air and
+water. So again, there are large numbers of highly intelligent persons
+who rather pride themselves on their fixed belief that our volitions
+have no cause; or that the will causes itself, which is either the same
+thing, or a contradiction in terms.
+
+
+CLVII
+
+To say that an idea is necessary is simply to affirm that we cannot
+conceive the contrary; and the fact that we cannot conceive the contrary
+of any belief may be a presumption, but is certainly no proof, of its
+truth.
+
+
+CLVIII
+
+It is remarkable that Hume does not refer to the sentimental arguments
+for the immortality of the soul which are so much in vogue at the
+present day; and which are based upon our desire for a longer conscious
+existence than that which nature appears to have allotted to us. Perhaps
+he did not think them worth notice. For indeed it is not a little
+strange, that our strong desire that a certain occurrence should happen
+should be put forward as evidence that it will happen. If my intense
+desire to see the friend, from whom I have parted, does not bring him
+from the other side of the world, or take me thither; if the mother's
+agonised prayer that her child should live has not prevented him from
+dying; experience certainly affords no presumption that the strong
+desire to be alive after death, which we call the aspiration after
+immortality, is any more likely to be gratified. As Hume truly says,
+"All doctrines are to be suspected which are favoured by our passions";
+and the doctrine, that we are immortal because we should extremely like
+to be so, contains the quintessence of suspiciousness.
+
+
+CLIX
+
+If every man possessed everything he wanted, and no one had the power
+to interfere with such possession; or if no man desired that which
+could damage his fellow-man, justice would have no part to play in the
+universe.
+
+
+CLX
+
+To fail in justice, or in benevolence, is to be displeased with one's
+self. But happiness is impossible without inward self-approval; and,
+hence, every man who has any regard to his own happiness and welfare,
+will find his best reward in the practice of every moral duty.
+
+
+CLXI
+
+Virtue is undoubtedly beneficent; but the man is to be envied to whom
+her ways seem in anywise playful. And though she may not talk much about
+suffering and self-denial, her silence on that topic may be accounted
+for on the principle _ca va sans dire_.
+
+
+CLXII
+
+If mankind cannot be engaged in practices "full of austerity and
+rigour?" by the love of righteousness and the fear of evil, without
+seeking for other compensation than that which flows from the
+gratification of such love and the consciousness of escape from
+debasement, they are in a bad case. For they will assuredly find that
+virtue presents no very close likeness to the sportive leader of the
+Joyous hours in Hume's rosy picture; but that she is an awful Goddess,
+whose ministers are the Furies, and whose highest reward is peace.
+
+
+CLXIII
+
+Under its theological aspect, morality is obedience to the will of God;
+and the ground for such obedience is two-fold: either we ought to obey
+God because He will punish us if we disobey Him, which is an argument
+based on the utility of obedience; or our obedience ought to flow from
+our love towards God, which is an argument based on pure feeling and for
+which no reason can be given. For, if any man should say that he takes
+no pleasure in the contemplation of the ideal of perfect holiness, or,
+in other words, that he does not love God, the attempt to argue him
+into acquiring that pleasure would be as hopeless as the endeavour to
+persuade Peter Bell of the "witchery of the soft blue sky."
+
+
+CLXIV
+
+In whichever way we look at the matter, morality is based on feeling,
+not on reason; though reason alone is competent to trace out the effects
+of our actions and thereby dictate conduct. Justice is founded on the
+love of one's neighbour; and goodness is a kind of beauty. The moral
+law, like the laws of physical nature, rests in the long run upon
+instinctive intuitions, and is neither more nor less "innate" and
+"necessary" than they are. Some people cannot by any means be got to
+understand the first book of Euclid; but the truths of mathematics are
+no less necessary and binding on the great mass of mankind. Some there
+are who cannot feel the difference between the "Sonata Appassionata" and
+"Cherry Ripe"; or between a grave-stone-cutter's cherub and the Apollo
+Belvidere; but the canons of art are none the less acknowledged. While
+some there may be, who, devoid of sympathy, are incapable of a sense
+of duty; but neither does their existence affect the foundations of
+morality. Such pathological deviations from true manhood are merely the
+halt, the lame, and the blind of the world of consciousness; and the
+anatomist of the mind leaves them aside, as the anatomist of the body
+would ignore abnormal specimens.
+
+And as there are Pascals and Mozarts, Newtons and Raffaelles, in whom
+the innate faculty for science or art seems to need but a touch to
+spring into full vigour, and through whom the human race obtains new
+possibilities of knowledge and new conceptions of beauty: so there have
+been men of moral genius, to whom we owe ideals of duty and visions
+of moral perfection, which ordinary mankind could never have attained:
+though, happily for them, they can feel the beauty of a vision, which
+lay beyond the reach of their dull imaginations, and count life well
+spent in shaping some faint image of it in the actual world.
+
+
+CLXV
+
+The horror of "Materialism" which weighs upon the minds of so many
+excellent people appears to depend, in part, upon the purely accidental
+connexion of some forms of materialistic philosophy with ethical
+and religious tenets by which they are repelled; and, partly, on the
+survival of a very ancient superstition concerning the nature of matter.
+
+This superstition, for the tenacious vitality of which the idealistic
+philosophers who are, more or less, disciples of Plato and the
+theologians who have been influenced by them, are responsible,
+assumes that matter is something, not merely inert and perishable, but
+essentially base and evil-natured, if not actively antagonistic to, at
+least a negative deadweight upon, the good.
+
+
+CLXVI
+
+Judging by contemporary literature, there are numbers of highly
+cultivated and indeed superior persons to whom the material world is
+altogether contemptible; who can see nothing in a handful of garden
+soil, or a rusty nail, but types of the passive and the corruptible.
+
+To modern science, these assumptions are as much out of date as the
+equally venerable errors, that the sun goes round the earth every
+four-and-twenty hours, or that water is an elementary body. The handful
+of soil is a factory thronged with swarms of busy workers; the
+rusty nail is an aggregation of millions of particles, moving with
+inconceivable velocity in a dance of infinite complexity yet perfect
+measure; harmonic with like performances throughout the solar system.
+If there is good ground for any conclusion, there is such for the belief
+that the substance of these particles has existed and will exist, that
+the energy which stirs them has persisted and will persist, without
+assignable limit, either in the past or the future. Surely, as
+Heracleitus said of his kitchen with its pots and pans, "Here also
+are the gods." Little as we have, even yet, learned of the material
+universe, that little makes for the belief that it is a system of
+unbroken order and perfect symmetry, of which the form incessantly
+changes, while the substance and the energy are imperishable.
+
+
+CLXVII
+
+Of all the dangerous mental habits, that which schoolboys call
+"cocksureness" is probably the most perilous; and the inestimable
+value of metaphysical discipline is that it furnishes an effectual
+counterpoise to this evil proclivity. Whoso has mastered the elements
+of philosophy knows that the attribute of unquestionable certainty
+appertains only to the existence of a state of consciousness so long as
+it exists; all other beliefs are mere probabilities of a higher or lower
+order. Sound metaphysic is an amulet which renders its possessor proof
+alike against the poison of superstition and the counter-poison of
+shallow negation; by showing that the affirmations of the former and the
+denials of the latter alike deal with matters about which, for lack of
+evidence, nothing can be either affirmed or denied.
+
+
+CLXVIII
+
+If the question is asked, What then do we know about matter and motion?
+there is but one reply possible. All that we know about motion is
+that it is a name for certain changes in the relations of our visual,
+tactile, and muscular sensations; and all that we know about matter
+is that it is the hypothetical substance of physical phenomena, the
+assumption of the existence of which is as pure a piece of metaphysical
+speculation as is that of the existence of the substance of mind.
+
+Our sensations, our pleasures, our pains, and the relations of these,
+make up the sum total of the elements of positive, unquestionable
+knowledge. We call a large section of these sensations and
+then-relations matter and motion; the rest we term mind and thinking;
+and experience shows that there is a certain constant order of
+succession between some of the former and some of the latter.
+
+This is all that just metaphysical criticism leaves of the idols set
+up by the spurious metaphysics of vulgar common sense. It is consistent
+either with pure Materialism, or with pure Idealism, but it is neither.
+For the Idealist, not content with declaring the truth that our
+knowledge is limited to facts of consciousness, affirms the wholly
+unprovable proposition that nothing exists beyond these and the
+substance of mind. And, on the other hand, the Materialist, holding
+by the truth that, for anything that appears to the contrary, material
+phenomena are the causes of mental phenomena, asserts his unprovable
+dogma, that material phenomena and the substance of matter are the sole
+primary existences. Strike out the propositions about which neither
+controversialist does or can know anything, and there is nothing left
+for them to quarrel about. Make a desert of the Unknowable, and the
+divine Astraea of philosophic peace will commence her blessed reign.
+
+
+CLXIX
+
+"Magna est Veritas et praevalebit!" Truth is great, certainly, but,
+considering her greatness, it is curious what a long time she is apt to
+take about prevailing.
+
+
+CLXX
+
+To my observation, human nature has not sensibly changed through the
+last thirty years. I doubt not that there are truths as plainly obvious
+and as generally denied, as those contained in "Man's Place in Nature,"
+now awaiting enunciation. If there is a young man of the present
+generation, who has taken as much trouble as I did to assure himself
+that they are truths, let him come out with them, without troubling
+his head about the barking of the dogs of St. Ernulphus, "Veritas
+praevalebit"--some day; and, even if she does not prevail in his time,
+he himself will be all the better and the wiser for having tried to help
+her. And let him recollect that such great reward is full payment for
+all his labour and pains.
+
+
+CLXXI
+
+Ancient traditions, when tested by the severe processes of modern
+investigations, commonly enough fade away into mere dreams: but it is
+singular how often the dream turns out to have been a half-waking one?
+presaging a reality. Ovid foreshadowed the discoveries of the geologist:
+the Atlantis was an imagination, but Columbus found a western world: and
+though the quaint forms of Centaurs and Satyrs have an existence only
+in the realms of art, creatures approaching man more nearly than they
+in essential structure, and yet as thoroughly brutal as the goat's
+or horse's half of the mythical compound, are now not only known, but
+notorious.
+
+
+CLXXII
+
+It is a truth of very wide, if not of universal, application, that every
+living creature commences its existence under a form different from, and
+simpler than, that which it eventually attains.
+
+The oak is a more complex thing than the little rudimentary plant
+contained in the acorn; the caterpillar is more complex than the egg;
+the butterfly than the caterpillar; and each of these beings, in passing
+from its rudimentary to its perfect condition, runs through a series
+of changes, the sum of which is called its development In the higher
+animals these changes are extremely complicated; but, within the last
+half century, the labours of such men as Von Baer, Rathke, Reichert,
+Bischoff, and Remak, have almost completely unravelled them, so that
+the successive stages of development which are exhibited by a dog, for
+example, are now as well known to the embryologist as are the steps of
+the metamorphosis of the silk-worm moth to the schoolboy. It will be
+useful to consider with attention the nature and the order of the
+stages of canine development, as an example of the process in the higher
+animals generally.
+
+
+CLXXIII
+
+Exactly in those respects in which the developing Man differs from the
+Dog, he resembles the ape, which, like man, has a spheroidal yolk-sac
+and a discoidal, sometimes partially lobed, placenta. So that it is
+only quite in the later stages of development that the young human being
+presents marked differences from the young ape, while the latter departs
+as much from the dog in its development, as the man does.
+
+Startling as the last assertion may appear to be, it is demonstrably
+true, and it alone appears to me sufficient to place beyond all doubt
+the structural unity of man with the rest of the animal world, and more
+particularly and closely with the apes.
+
+Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he
+originates--identical in the early stages of his formation--identical in
+the mode of his nutrition before and after birth, with the animals which
+lie immediately below him in the scale--Man, if his adult and perfect
+structure be compared with theirs, exhibits, as might be expected, a
+marvellous likeness of organisation. He resembles them as they resemble
+one another--he differs from them as they differ from one another.
+
+
+CLXXIV
+
+If a man cannot see a church, it is preposterous to take his opinion
+about its altar-piece or painted window.
+
+
+CLXXV
+
+Perhaps no order of mammals presents us with so extraordinary a series
+of gradations as this*--leading us insensibly from the crown and summit
+of the animal creation down to creatures, from which there is but a
+step, as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least intelligent of
+the placental Mammalia. It is as if nature herself had foreseen
+the arrogance of man, and with Roman severity had provided that his
+intellect, by its very triumphs, should call into prominence the slaves,
+admonishing the conqueror that he is but dust.
+
+
+CLXXVI
+
+If Man be separated by no greater structural barrier from the brutes
+than they are from one another--then it seems to follow that if any
+process of physical causation can be discovered by which the genera
+and families of ordinary animals have been produced, that process of
+causation is amply sufficient to account for the origin of Man.
+
+     * This alludes to a foregoing enumeration of the seven
+     families of Primates headed by the Anthropini containing man
+     alone.
+
+
+CLXXVII
+
+The whole analogy of natural operations furnishes so complete and
+crushing an argument against the intervention of any but what are
+termed secondary causes, in the production of all the phenomena of the
+universe; that, in view of the intimate relations between Man and the
+rest of the living world, and between the forces exerted by the latter
+and all other forces, I can see no excuse for doubting that all are
+co-ordinated terms of Nature's great progression, from the formless
+to the formed--from tne inorganic to the organic--from blind force to
+conscious intellect and will.
+
+
+CLXXVIII
+
+Science has fulfilled her function when she has ascertained and
+enunciated truth.
+
+
+CLXXIX
+
+Thoughtful men, once escaped from the blinding influences of traditional
+prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence Man has sprung the best
+evidence of the splendour of his capacities; and will discern in his
+long progress through the Past a reasonable ground of faith in his
+attainment of a nobler Future...
+
+And after passion and prejudice have died away, the same result will
+attend the teachings of the naturalist respecting that great Alps
+and Andes of the living world--Man. Our reverence for the nobility of
+manhood will not be lessened by the knowledge that Man is, in substance
+and in structure, one with the brutes; for he alone possesses the
+marvellous endowment of intelligible and rational speech, whereby,
+in the secular period of his existence, he has slowly accumulated and
+organised the experience which is almost wholly lost with the cessation
+of every individual life in other animals; so that, now, he stands
+raised upon it as on a mountain top, far above the level of nis humble
+fellows, and transfigured from his grosser nature by reflecting, here
+and there, a ray from the infinite source of truth.
+
+
+CLXXX
+
+Ethnology, as thus defined, is a branch of Anthropology, the great
+science which unravels the complexities of human structure; traces out
+the relations of man to other animals; studies all that is especially
+human in the mode in which man's complex functions are performed; and
+searches after the conditions whicn have determined his presence IN
+the world. And Anthropology is a section of Zoology, which again is the
+animal half of Biology--the science of life and living things.
+
+Such is the position of ethnology, such are the objects of the
+ethnologist. The paths or methods, by following which he may hope to
+reach his goal, are diverse. He may work at man from the point of view
+of the pure zoologist, and investigate the anatomical and physiological
+peculiarities of Negroes, Australians, or Mongolians, just as he would
+inquire into those of pointers, terriers, and turnspits,--"persistent
+modifications" of man's almost universal companion. Or he may seek aid
+from researches into the most human manifestation of humanity-Language;
+and assuming that what is true of speech is true of the speaker--a
+hypothesis as questionable in science as it is in ordinary life--he
+may apply to mankind themselves the conclusions drawn from a searching
+analysis of their words and grammatical forms.
+
+Or, the ethnologist may turn to the study of the practical life of men;
+and relying upon the inherent conservatism and small inventiveness of
+untutored mankind, he may hope to discover in manners and customs, or
+in weapons, dwellings, and other handiwork, a clue to the origin of the
+resemblances and differences of nations. Or, he may resort to that kind
+of evidence which is yielded by History proper, and consists of the
+beliefs of men concerning past events, embodied in traditional, or in
+written, testimony. Or, when that thread breaks, Archaeology, which is
+the interpretation of the unrecorded remains of man's works, belonging
+to the epoch since the world has reached its present condition, may
+still guide him. And, when even the dim light of archaeology fades,
+there yet remains Palaeontology which, in these latter years, has
+brought to daylight once more the exuvia of ancient populations, whose
+world was not our world, who have been buried in river beds immemorially
+dry, or carried by the rush of waters into caves, inaccessible to
+inundation since the dawn of tradition.
+
+
+CLXXXI
+
+The rapid increase of natural knowledge, which is the chief
+characteristic of our age, is effected in various ways. The main army of
+science moves to the conquest of new worlds slowly and surely, nor ever
+cedes an inch of the territory gained. But the advance is covered and
+facilitated by the ceaseless activity of clouds of light troops provided
+with a weapon--always efficient, if not always an arm of precision--the
+scientific imagination. It is the business of these _enfants perdus_ of
+science to make raids into the realm of ignorance wherever they see, or
+think they see, a chance; and cheerfully to accept defeat, or it may be
+annihilation, as the reward of error. Unfortunately the public, which
+watches the progress of the campaign, too often mistakes a dashing
+incursion of the Uhlans for a forward movement of the main body; fondly
+imagining that the strategic movement to the rear, which occasionally
+follows, indicates a battle lost by science. And it must be
+confessed that the error is too often justified by the effects of the
+irrepressible tendency which men of science share with all other sorts
+of men known to me, to be impatient of that most wholesome state of
+mind--suspended judgment; to assume the objective truth of speculations
+which, from the nature of the evidence in their favour, can have no
+claim to be more than working hypotheses.
+
+The history of the "Aryan question" affords a striking illustration of
+these general remarks.
+
+
+CLXXXII
+
+Language is rooted half in the bodily and half in the mental nature of
+man. The vocal sounds which form the raw materials of language could not
+be produced without a peculiar conformation of the organs of speech; the
+enunciation of duly accented syllables would be impossible without
+the nicest coordination of the action of the muscles which move these
+organs; and such co-ordination depends on the mechanism of certain
+portions of the nervous system. It is therefore conceivable that the
+structure of this highly complex speaking apparatus should determine a
+man's linguistic potentiality; that is to say, should enable him to use
+a language of one class and not of another. It is further conceivable
+that a particular linguistic potentiality should be inherited and become
+as good a race mark as any other. As a matter of fact, it is not proven
+that the linguistic potentialities of all men are the same.
+
+
+CLXXXIII
+
+Community of language is no proof of unity of race, is not even
+presumptive evidence of racial identity. All that it does prove is that,
+at some time or other, free and prolonged intercourse has taken place
+between the speakers of the same language.
+
+
+CLXXXIV
+
+The capacity of the population of Europe for independent progress while
+in the copper and early bronze stage--the "palaeo-metallic" stage, as it
+might be called--appears to me to be demonstrated in a remarkable manner
+by the remains of their architecture. From the crannog to the
+elaborate pile-dwelling, and from the rudest enclosure to the complex
+fortification of the terramare, there is an advance which is obviously
+a native product. So with the sepulchral constructions; the stone
+cist, with or without a preservative or memorial cairn, grows into the
+chambered graves lodged in tumuli; into such megalithic edifices as the
+dromic vaults of Maes How and New Grange; to culminate in the finished
+masonry of the tombs of Mycenae, constructed on exactly the same plan.
+Can anyone look at the varied series of forms which lie between the
+primitive five or six flat stones fitted together into a mere box, and
+such a building as Maes How, and yet imagine that the latter is the
+result of foreign tuition? But the men who built Maes How, without metal
+tools, could certainly have built the so-called "treasure-house" of
+Mycenae, with them.
+
+
+CLXXXV
+
+Reckoned by centuries, the remoteness of the quaternary, or pleistocene,
+age from our own is immense, and it is difficult to form an adequate
+notion of its duration. Undoubtedly there is an abysmal difference
+between the Neanderthaloid race and the comely living specimens of
+the blond long-heads with whom we are familiar. But the abyss of time
+between the period at which North Europe was first covered with ice,
+when savages pursued mammoths and scratched their portraits with sharp
+stones in central France, and the present day, ever widens as we learn
+more about the events which bridge it. And, if the differences between
+the Neanderthaloid men and ourselves could be divided into as many parts
+as that time contains centuries, the progress from part to part would
+probably be almost imperceptible.
+
+
+CLXXXVI
+
+I have not been one of those fortunate persons who are able to regard
+a popular lecture as a mere _hors d'oeuvre_, unworthy of being ranked
+among the serious efforts of a philosopher; and who keep their fame as
+scientific hierophants unsullied by attempts--at least of the successful
+sort--to be understanded of the people.
+
+On the contrary, I found that the task of putting the truths learned in
+the field, the laboratory and the museum, into language which, without
+bating a jot of scientific accuracy shall be generally intelligible,
+taxed such scientific and literary faculty as I possessed to the
+uttermost; indeed my experience has furnished me with no better
+corrective of the tendency to scholastic pedantry which besets all those
+who are absorbed in pursuits remote from the common ways of men, and
+become habituated to think and speak in the technical dialect of their
+own little world, as if there were no other.
+
+If the popular lecture thus, as I believe, finds one moiety of its
+justification in the self-discipline of the lecturer, it surely finds
+the other half in its effect on the auditory. For though various sadly
+comical experiences of the results of my own efforts have led me to
+entertain a very moderate estimate of the purely intellectual value of
+lectures; though I venture to doubt if more than one in ten of an average
+audience carries away an accurate notion of what the speaker has been
+driving at; yet is that not equally true of the oratory of the hustings,
+of the House of Commons, and even of the pulpit?
+
+Yet the children of this world are wise in their generation; and both
+the politician and the priest are justified by results. The living
+voice has an influence over human action altogether independent of the
+intellectual worth of that which it utters. Many years ago, I was a
+guest at a great City dinner. A famous orator, endowed with a voice
+of rare flexibility and power; a born actor, ranging with ease through
+every part, from refined comedy to tragic unction, was called upon
+to reply to a toast. The orator was a very busy man, a charming
+conversationalist and by no means despised a good dinner; and, I
+imagine, rose without having given a thought to what he was going to
+say. The rhythmic roll of sound was admirable, the gestures perfect,
+the earnestness impressive; nothing was lacking save sense and,
+occasionally, grammar. When the speaker sat down the applause was
+terrific and one of my neighbours was especially enthusiastic. So when
+he had quieted down, I asked him what the orator had said. And he could
+not tell me.
+
+That sagacious person John Wesley is reported to have replied to some
+one who questioned the propriety of his adaptation of sacred words to
+extremely secular airs, that he did not see why the Devil should be left
+in possession of all the best tunes. And I do not see why science should
+not turn to account the peculiarities of human nature thus exploited
+by other agencies: all the more because science, by the nature of its
+being, cannot desire to stir the passions, or profit by the weaknesses,
+of human nature. The most zealous of popular lecturers can aim at
+nothing more than the awakening of a sympathy for abstract truth, in
+those who do not really follow his arguments; and of a desire to know
+more and better in the few who do.
+
+At the same time it must be admitted that the popularisation of
+science, whether by lecture or essay, has its drawbacks. Success in this
+department has its perils for those who succeed. The "people who fail"
+take their revenge, as we have recently had occasion to observe, by
+ignoring all the rest of a man's work and glibly labelling him a mere
+populariser. If the falsehood were not too glaring, they would say the
+same of Faraday and Helmholtz and Kelvin.
+
+
+CLXXXVII
+
+Of the affliction caused by persons who think that what they have picked
+up from popular exposition qualifies them for discussing the great
+problems of science, it may be said, as the Radical toast said of
+the power of the Crown in bygone days, that it "has increased, is
+increasing, and ought to be diminished." The oddities of "English as she
+is spoke" might be abundantly paralleled by those of "Science as she is
+misunderstood" in the sermon, the novel, and the leading article; and a
+collection of the grotesque travesties of scientific conceptions, in the
+shape of essays on such trifles as "the Nature of Life" and the "Origin
+of All Things," which reach me, from time to time, might well be bound
+up with them.
+
+
+CLXXXVIII
+
+The essay on Geological Reform unfortunately brought me, I will not say
+into collision, but into a position of critical remonstrance with regard
+to some charges of physical heterodoxy, brought by my distinguished
+friend Lord Kelvin, against British Geology. As President of the
+Geological Society of London at that time (1869), I thought I might
+venture to plead that we were not such heretics as we seemed to be;
+and that, even if we were, recantation would not affect the question of
+evolution.
+
+I am glad to see that Lord Kelvin has just reprinted his reply to my
+plea, and I refer the reader to it. I shall not presume to question
+anything, that on such ripe consideration, Lord Kelvin has to say upon
+the physical problems involved. But I may remark that no one can have
+asserted more strongly than I have done, the necessity of looking to
+physics and mathematics, for help in regard to the earliest history of
+the globe.
+
+And I take the opportunity of repeating the opinion that, whether what
+we call geological time has the lower limit assigned to it by Lord
+Kelvin, or the higher assumed by other philosophers; whether the germs
+of all living things have originated in the globe itself, or whether
+they have been imported on, or in, meteorites from without, the problem
+of the origin of those successive Faunae and Florae of the earth, the
+existence of which is fully demonstrated by palaeontology, remains
+exactly where it was.
+
+For I think it will be admitted, that the germs brought to us by
+meteorites, if any, were not ova of elephants, nor of crocodiles; not
+cocoa-nuts nor acorns; not even eggs of shell-fish and corals; but only
+those of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life. Therefore, since
+it is proved that, from a very remote epoch of geological time, the
+earth has been peopled by a continual succession of the higher forms of
+animals and plants, these either must have been created, or they have
+arisen by evolution. And in respect of certain groups of animals, the
+well-established facts of palaeontology leave no rational doubt that
+they arose by the latter method.
+
+In the second place, there are no data whatever, which justify the
+biologist in assigning any, even approximately definite, period of time,
+either long or short, to the evolution of one species from another
+by the process of variation and selection. In the essay on Geological
+Contemporaneity and Persistent Types of Life I have taken pains to
+prove that the change of animals has gone on at very different rates in
+different groups of living beings; that some types have persisted with
+little change from the palaeozoic epoch till now, while others have
+changed rapidly within the limits of an epoch. In 1862 (see Coll. Ess
+viii pp. 303,304) in 1863 (vol ii., p 461) and again in 1864 (ibid.,
+pp. 89-91) I argued, not as a matter of speculation, but from
+palaeontological facts, the bearing of which I believe, up to that
+time, had not been shown, that any adequate hypothesis of the causes
+of evolution must be consistent with progression, stationariness and
+retrogression, of the same type at different epochs; of different
+types in the same epoch; and that Darwin's hypothesis fulfilled these
+conditions.
+
+According to that hypothesis, two factors are at work, variation and
+selection. Next to nothing is known of the causes of the former process;
+nothing whatever of the time required for the production of a certain
+amount of deviation from the existing type. And, as respects selection,
+which operates by extinguishing all but a small minority of variations,
+we have not the slightest means of estimating the rapidity with which it
+does its work. All that we are justified in saying is that the rate
+at which it takes place may vary almost indefinitely. If the famous
+paint-root of Florida, which kills white pigs but not black ones, were
+abundant and certain in its action, black pigs might be substituted for
+white in the course of two or three years. If, on the other hand, it
+was rare and uncertain in action, the white pigs might linger on for
+centuries.
+
+
+CLXXXIX
+
+A great chapter of the history of the world is written in the chalk. Few
+passages in the history of man can be supported by such an overwhelming
+mass of direct and indirect evidence as that which testifies to the
+truth of the fragment of the history of the globe, which I hope to
+enable you to read, with your own eyes, to-night. Let me add, that
+few chapters of human history have a more profound significance for
+ourselves. I weigh my words well when I assert, that the man who should
+know the true history of the bit of chalk which every carpenter carries
+about in his breeches-pocket, though ignorant of all other history, is
+likely, if he will think his knowledge out to its ultimate results,
+to have a truer, and therefore a better, conception of this wonderful
+universe, and of man's relation to it, than the most learned student who
+is deep-read in the records of humanity and ignorant of those of Nature.
+
+
+CXC
+
+The examination of a transparent slice gives a good notion of the manner
+in which the components of the chalk are arranged, and of their relative
+proportions. But, by rubbing up some chalk with a brush in water and
+then pouring off the milky fluid, so as to obtain sediments of different
+degrees of fineness, the granules and the minute rounded bodies may be
+pretty well separated from one another, and submitted to microscopic
+examination, either as opaque or as transparent objects. By combining
+the views obtained in these various methods, each of the rounded bodies
+may be proved to be a beautifully-constructed calcareous fabric, made
+up of a number of chambers, communicating freely with one another. The
+chambered bodies are of various forms. One of the commonest is something
+like a badly-grown raspberry, being formed of a number of nearly
+globular chambers of different sizes congregated together. It is called
+_Globigerina_, and some specimens of chalk consist of little else
+than _Globigerinae_ and granules. Let us fix our attention upon the
+_Globigerina_. It is the spoor of the game we are tracking. If we can
+learn what it is and what are the conditions of its existence, we shall
+see our way to the origin and past history of the chalk.
+
+
+CXCI
+
+It so happens that calcareous skeletons, exactly similar to the
+_Globigerinae_ of the chalk, are being formed, at the present moment, by
+minute living creatures, which flourish in multitudes, literally more
+numerous than the sands of the sea-shore, over a large extent of that
+part of the earth's surface which is covered by the ocean.
+
+The history of the discovery of these living _Globigerinae_ and of the
+part which they play in rock building, is singular enough. It is a
+discovery which, like others of no less scientific importance, has
+arisen, incidentally, out of work devoted to very different and
+exceedingly practical interests. When men first took to the sea, they
+speedily learned to look out for shoals and rocks; and the more the
+burthen of their ships increased, the more imperatively necessary it
+became for sailors to ascertain with precision the depth of the waters
+they traversed. Out of this necessity grew the use of the lead and
+sounding line; and, ultimately, marine-surveying, which is the recording
+of the form of coasts and of the depth of the sea, as ascertained by the
+sounding-lead, upon charts.
+
+
+CXCII
+
+Lieut Brooke, of the American Navy, some years ago invented a most
+ingenious machine, by which a considerable portion of the superficial
+layer of the sea-bottom can be scooped out and brought up from any depth
+to which the lead descends. In 1853, Lieut. Brooke obtained mud from the
+bottom of the North Atlantic, between Newfoundland and the Azores, at
+a depth of more than 10,000 feet, or two miles, by the help of this
+sounding apparatus. The specimens were sent for examination to Ehrenberg
+of Berlin, and to Bailey of West Point, and those able microscopists
+found that this deep-sea mud was almost entirety composed of the
+skeletons of living organisms--the greater proportion of these being
+just like the _Globigerinae_ already known to occur in the chalk.
+
+Thus far, the work had been carried on simply in the interests
+of science, but Lieut Brooke's method of sounding acquired a high
+commercial value, when the enterprise of laying down the telegraph-cable
+between this country and the United States was undertaken. For it became
+a matter of immense importance to know, not only the depth of the sea
+over the whole line along which the cable was to be laid, but the exact
+nature of the bottom, so as to guard against chances of cutting or
+fraying the strands of that costly rope. The Admiralty consequently
+ordered Captain Dayman, an old friend and shipmate of mine, to ascertain
+the depth over the whole line of the cable, and to bring back specimens
+of the bottom. In former days, such a command as this might have sounded
+very much like one of the impossible things which the young Prince in
+the Fairy Tales is ordered to do before he can obtain the hand of the
+Princess. However, in the months of June and July, 1857, my friend
+performed the task assigned to nim with great expedition and precision,
+without, so far as I know, having met with any reward of that kind.
+The specimens of Atlantic mud which he procured were sent to me to be
+examined and reported upon.
+
+
+CXCIII
+
+The result of all these operations is, that we know the contours and the
+nature of the surface-soil covered by the North Atlantic for a distance
+of 1,700 miles from east to west, as well as we know that of any part of
+the dry land. It is a prodigious plain-one of the widest and most even
+plains in the world. If the sea were drained off, you might drive a
+waggon all the way from Valentia, on the west coast of Ireland, to
+Trinity Bay in Newfoundland. And, except upon one sharp incline about
+200 miles from Valentia, I am not quite sure that it would even be
+necessary to put the skid on, so gentle are the ascents and descents
+upon that long route. From Valentia the road would lie down-hill for
+about 200 miles to the point at which the bottom is now covered by 1,700
+fathoms of sea-water. Then would come the central plain, more than a
+thousand miles wide, the inequalities of the surface of which would be
+hardly perceptible, though the depth of water upon it now varies from
+10,000 to 15,000 feet; and there are places in which Mont Blanc might
+be sunk without showing its peak above water. Beyond this, the ascent on
+the American side commences, and gradually leads, for about 300 miles,
+to the Newfoundland shore.
+
+
+CXCIV
+
+When we consider that the remains of more than three thousand distinct
+species of aquatic animals have been discovered among the fossils of the
+chalk, that the great majority of them are of such forms as are now met
+with only in the sea, and that there is no reason to believe that any
+one of them inhabited fresh water--the collateral evidence that the
+chalk represents an ancient sea-bottom acquires as great force as the
+proof derived from the nature of the chalk itself. I think you will now
+allow that I did not overstate my case when I asserted that we have
+as strong grounds for believing that all the vast area of dry land, at
+present occupied by the chalk, was once at the bottom of the sea, as we
+have for any matter of history whatever; while there is no justification
+for any other belief.
+
+No less certain it is that the time during which the countries we now
+call south-east England, France, Germany, Poland, Russia, Egypt, Arabia,
+Syria, were more or less completely covered by a deep sea, was of
+considerable duration. We have already seen that the chalk is, in
+places, more than a thousand feet thick. I think you will agree with me
+that it must have taken some time for the skeletons of animalcules of a
+hundredth of an inch in diameter to heap up such a mass as that.
+
+
+CXCV
+
+If the decay of the soft parts of the sea-urchin; the attachment, growth
+to maturity, and decay of the _Crania_; and the subsequent attachment
+and growth of the coralline, took a year (which is a low-estimate
+enough), the accumulation of the inch of chalk must have taken more than
+a year: and the deposit of a thousand feet of chalk must, consequently,
+have taken more than twelve thousand years.
+
+
+CXCVI
+
+There is a writing upon the wall of cliffs at Cromer, and whoso runs may
+read it. It tells us, with an authority which cannot be impeached, that
+the ancient sea-bed of the chalk sea was raised up, and remained dry
+land, until it was covered with forest, stocked with the great game the
+spoils of which have rejoiced your geologists. How long it remained in
+that condition cannot be said; but "the whirligig of time brought its
+revenges" in those days as in these. That dry land, with the bones and
+teeth of generations of long-lived elephants, hidden away among the
+gnarled roots and dry leaves of its ancient trees, sank gradually to the
+bottom of the icy sea, which covered it with huge masses of drift and
+boulder clay. Sea-beasts, such as the walrus, now restricted to the
+extreme north, paddled about where birds had twittered among the topmost
+twigs of the fir-trees. How long this state of things endured we know
+not, but at length it came to an end. The upheaved glacial mud hardened
+into the soil of modern Norfolk. Forests grew once more, the wolf and
+the beaver replaced the reindeer and the elephant; and at length what we
+call the history of England dawned.
+
+
+CXCVII
+
+Direct proof may be given that some parts of the land of the northern
+hemisphere are at this moment insensibly rising and others insensibly
+sinking; and there is indirect, but perfectly satisfactory, proof, that
+an enormous area now covered by the Pacific has been deepened thousands
+of feet, since the present inhabitants of that sea came into existence.
+Thus there is not a shadow of a reason for believing that the physical
+changes of the globe, in past times, have been effected by other than
+natural causes.
+
+
+CXCVIII
+
+A small beginning has led us to a great ending. If I were to put the bit
+of chalk with which we started into the hot but obscure flame of burning
+hydrogen, it would presently shine like the sun. It seems to me that
+this physical metamorphosis is no false image of what has been
+the result of our subjecting it to a jet of fervent, though nowise
+brilliant, thought to-night. It has become luminous, and its clear rays,
+penetrating the abyss of the remote past, have brought within our ken
+some stages of the evolution of the earth. And in the shifting "without
+haste, but without rest" of the land and sea, as in the endless
+variation of the forms assumed by living beings, we have observed
+nothing but the natural product of the forces originally possessed by
+the substance of the universe.
+
+
+CXCIX
+
+In certain parts of the sea bottom in the immediate vicinity of the
+British Islands, as in the Clyde district, among the Hebrides, in the
+Moray Firth, and in the German Ocean, there are depressed areae, forming
+a kind of submarine valleys, the centres of which are from 80 to 100
+fathoms, or more, deep. These depressions are inhabited by assemblages
+of marine animals, which differ from those found over the adjacent and
+shallower region, and resemble those which are met with much farther
+north, on the Norwegian coast. Forbes called these Scandinavian
+detachments "Northern outliers."
+
+How did these isolated patches of a northern population get into these
+deep places? To explain the mystery, Forbes called to mind the fact
+that, in the epoch which immediately preceded the present, the climate
+was much colder (whence the name of "glacial epoch" applied to it); and
+that the shells which are found fossil, or sub-fossil, in deposits
+of that age are precisely such as are now to be met with only in the
+Scandinavian, or still more Arctic, regions. Undoubtedly, during the
+glacial epoch, the general population of our seas had, universally, the
+northern aspect which is now presented only by the "northern outliers";
+just as the vegetation of the land, down to the sea-level, had the
+northern character which is, at present, exhibited only by the plants
+which live on the tops of our mountains. But, as the glacial epoch
+passed away, and the present climatal conditions were developed, the
+northern plants were able to maintain themselves only on the bleak
+heights, on which southern forms could not compete with them. And,
+in like manner, Forbes suggested that, after the glacial epoch, the
+northern animals then inhabiting the sea became restricted to the deeps
+in which they could hold their own against invaders from the south,
+better fitted than they to flourish in the warmer waters of the
+shallows. Thus depth in the sea corresponded in its effect upon
+distribution to height on the land.
+
+
+CC
+
+Among the scientific instructions for the voyage* drawn up by a
+committee of the Royal Society, there is a remarkable letter from Von
+Humboldt to Lord Minto, then First Lord of the Admiralty, in which,
+among other things, he dwells upon the significance of the researches
+into the microscopic composition of rocks, and the discovery of the
+great share which microscopic organisms take in the formation of the
+crust of the earth at the present day, made by Ehrenberg in the years
+1836-39. Ehrenberg, in fact, had shown that the extensive beds of
+"rotten-stone" or "Tripoli" which occur in various parts of the world,
+and notably at Bilin in Bohemia, consisted of accumulations of the
+silicious cases and skeletons of _Diatomaceae_ sponges, and _Radiolaria_;
+he had proved that similar deposits were being formed by Diatomaceae, in
+the pools of the Thiergarten in Berlin and elsewhere, and had pointed
+out that, if it were commercially worth while, rotten-stone might be
+manufactured by a process of diatom-culture. Observations conducted at
+Cuxhaven, in 1839, had revealed the existence, at the surface of the
+waters of the Baltic, of living Diatoms and _Radiolaria_ of the same
+species as those which, in a fossil state, constitute extensive rocks
+of tertiary age at Caltanisetta, Zante, and Oran, on the shores of the
+Mediterranean.
+
+     * Of the Challenger.
+
+Moreover, in the fresh-water rotten-stone beds of Bilin, Ehrenberg
+had traced out the metamorphosis, effected apparently by the action
+of percolating water, of the primitively loose and friable deposit
+of organized particles, in which the silex exists in the hydrated
+or soluble condition. The silex, in fact undergoes solution and slow
+redeposition, until, in ultimate result, the excessively finegrained
+sand, each particle of which is a skeleton, becomes converted into
+a dense opaline stone, with only here and there an indication of an
+organism.
+
+From the consideration of these facts, Ehrenberg, as early as the year
+1839, had arrived at the conclusion that rocks, altogether similar to
+those which constitute a large part of the crust of the earth, must be
+forming, at the present day, at the bottom of the sea; and he threw out
+the suggestion that even where no trace of organic structure is to be
+found in the older rocks, it may have been lost by metamorphosis.
+
+
+CCI
+
+It is highly creditable to the ingenuity of our ancestors that the
+peculiar property of fermented liquids, in virtue of which they "make
+glad the heart of man," seems to have been known in the remotest periods
+of which we have any record. All savages take to alcoholic fluids as
+if they were to the manner born. Our Vedic forefathers intoxicated
+themselves with the juice of the "soma"; Noah, by a not unnatural
+reaction against a superfluity of water, appears to have taken the
+earliest practicable opportunity of qualifying that which he was obliged
+to drink; and the ghosts of the ancient Egyptians were solaced by
+pictures of banquets in which the wine-cup passes round, graven on
+the walls of their tombs. A knowledge of the process of fermentation,
+therefore, was in all probability possessed by the prehistoric
+populations of the globe; and it must have become a matter of great
+interest even to primaeval wine-bibbers to study the methods by which
+fermented liquids could be surely manufactured. No doubt it was soon
+discovered that the most certain, as well as the most expeditious, way
+of making a sweet juice ferment was to add to it a little of the scum,
+or lees, of another fermenting juice. And it can hardly be questioned
+that this singular excitation of fermentation in one fluid, by a sort
+of infection, or inoculation, of a little ferment taken from some other
+fluid, together with the strange swelling, foaming, and hissing of the
+fermented substance, must have always attracted attention from the more
+thoughtful. Nevertheless, the commencement of the scientific analysis of
+the Sphenomena dates from a period not earlier than the first half of the
+seventeenth century. At this time, Van Helmont made a first step, by
+pointing out that the peculiar hissing and bubbling of a fermented
+liquid is due, not to the evolution of common air (which he, as the
+inventor of the term "gas," calls "gas ventosum"), but to that of a
+peculiar kind of air such as is occasionally met with in caves, mines,
+and wells, and which he calls "gas sylvestre."
+
+But a century elapsed before the nature of this "gas sylvestre," or as
+it was afterwards called, "fixed air," was clearly determined, and it
+was found to be identical with that deadly "choke-damp" by which the
+lives of those who descend into old wells, or mines, or brewers' vats,
+are sometimes suddenly ended; and with the poisonous aeriform fluid
+which is produced by the combustion of charcoal, and now goes by the
+name of carbonic acid gas.
+
+During the same time it gradually became evident that the presence of
+sugar was essential to the production of alcohol and the evolution of
+carbonic acid gas, which are the two great and conspicuous
+products of fermentation. And finally, in 1787, the Italian chemist,
+Fabroni, made the capital discovery that the yeast ferment, the
+presence of which is necessary to fermentation, is what he termed a
+"vegeto-animal" substance; that is, a body which gives off ammoniacal
+salts when it is burned, and is, in other ways, similar to the gluten of
+plants and the albumen and casein of animals.
+
+
+CCII
+
+The living club-mosses are, for the most part, insignificant and
+creeping herbs, which, superficially, very closely resemble true mosses,
+and none of them reach more than two or three feet in height. But,
+in their essential structure, they very closely resemble the earliest
+Lepidodendroid trees of the coal: their stems and leaves are similar;
+so are their cones; and no less like are the sporangia and spores; while
+even in their size, the spores of the _Lepidodendron_ and those of the
+existing _Lycopodium_, or club-moss, very closely approach one another.
+
+Thus, the singular conclusion is forced upon us, that the greater and
+the smaller sacs of the "Better-Bed" and other coals, in which the
+primitive structure is well preserved, are simply the sporangia and
+spores of certain plants, many of whicn were closely allied to the
+existing club-mosses. And if, as I believe, it can be demonstrated
+that ordinary coal Is nothing but "saccular" coal which has undergone a
+certain amount of that alteration which, if continued, would convert it
+into anthracite; then, the conclusion is obvious, that the great mass
+of the coal we burn is the result of the accumulation of the spores
+and spore-cases of plants, other parts of which have furnished
+the carbonized stems and the mineral charcoal, or have left their
+impressions on the surfaces of the layer.
+
+
+CCIII
+
+The position of the beds which constitute the coal-measures is
+infinitely diverse. Sometimes they are tilted up vertically, sometimes
+they are horizontal, sometimes curved into great basins; sometimes they
+come to the surface, sometimes they are covered up by thousands of feet
+of rock. But, whatever then-present position, there is abundant and
+conclusive evidence that every under-clay was once a surface soil. Not
+only do carbonized root-fibres frequently abound in these under-clays;
+but the stools of trees, the trunks of which are broken off and
+confounded with the bed of coal, have been repeatedly found passing into
+radiating roots, still embedded in the under-clay. On many parts of the
+coast of England, what are commonly known as "submarine forests" are to
+be seen at low water. They consist, for the most part, of short stools
+of oak, beech, and fir-trees, still fixed by their long roots in the bed
+of blue clay in which they originally grew. If one of these submarine
+forest beds should be gradually depressed and covered up by new
+deposits, it would present just the same characters as an under-clay of
+the coal, if the _Sigillaria_ and _Lepidodendron_ of the ancient world
+were substituted for the oak, or the beech, of our own times.
+
+In a tropical forest, at the present day, the trunks of fallen trees,
+and the stools of such trees as may have been broken by the violence of
+storms, remain entire for but a short time. Contrary to what might
+be expected, the dense wood of the tree decays, and suffers from the
+ravages of insects, more swiftly than the bark. And the traveller,
+setting his foot on a prostrate trunk, finds that it is a mere shell,
+which breaks under his weight, and lands his foot amidst the insects, or
+the reptiles, which have sought food or refuge within.
+
+
+CCIV
+
+The coal accumulated upon the area covered by one of the great forests
+of the carboniferous epoch would, in course of time, have been wasted
+away by the small, but constant, wear and tear of rain and streams,
+had the land which supported it remained at the same level, or been
+gradually raised to a greater elevation. And, no doubt, as much coal as
+now exists has been destroyed, after its formation, in this way.
+
+
+CCV
+
+Once more, an invariably-recurring lesson of geological history, at
+whatever point its study is taken up: the lesson of the almost infinite
+slowness of the modification of living forms. The lines of the pedigrees
+of living things break off almost before they begin to converge.
+
+
+CCVI
+
+Yet another curious consideration. Let us suppose that one of the
+stupid, salamander-like Labyrinthodonts, which pottered, with much belly
+and little leg, like Falstaff in his old age, among the coal-forests,
+could have had thinking power enough in his small brain to reflect upon
+the showers of spores which kept on falling through years and centuries,
+while perhaps not one in ten million fulfilled its apparent purpose, and
+reproduced the organism which gave it birth: surely he might have been
+excused for moralizing upon the thoughtless and wanton extravagance
+which Nature displayed in her operations.
+
+But we have the advantage over our shovel-headed predecessor--or
+possibly ancestor--and can perceive that a certain vein of thrift runs
+through this apparent prodigality. Nature is never in a hurry, and seems
+to have had always before her eyes the adage, "Keep a thing long enough,
+and you will find a use for it." She has kept her beds of coal many
+millions of years without being able to find much use for them; she has
+sent them down beneath the sea, and the sea-beasts could make nothing
+of them; she has raised them up into dry land, and laid the black veins
+bare, and still, for ages and ages, there was no living thing on the
+face of the earth that could see any sort of value in them; and it was
+only the other day, so to speak, that she turned a new creature out of
+her workshop, who by degrees acquired sufficient wits to make a fire,
+and then to discover that the black rock would burn.
+
+I suppose that nineteen hundred years ago, when Julius Caesar was good
+enough to deal with Britain as we have dealt with New Zealand, the
+primaeval Briton, blue with cold and woad, may have known that the
+strange black stone, of which he found lumps here and there in his
+wanderings, would burn, and so help to warm his body and cook his food.
+Saxon, Dane, and Norman swarmed into the land. The English people grew
+into a powerful nation, and Nature still waited for a full return of
+the capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses. The eighteenth
+century arrived, and with it James Watt. The brain of that man was the
+spore out of which was developed the modern steam-engine, and all the
+prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which have grown out
+of this. But coal is as much an essential condition of this growth and
+development as carbonic acid is for that of a club-moss. Wanting coal,
+we could not have smelted the iron needed to make our engines, nor have
+worked our engines when we had got them. But take away the engines,
+and the great towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire vanish like a dream.
+Manufactures give place to agriculture and pasture, and not ten men can
+live where now ten thousand are amply supported.
+
+Thus, all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is Nature's
+interest upon her investment in club-mosses, and the like, so long ago.
+But what becomes of the coal which is burnt in yielding this interest?
+Heat comes out of it, light comes out of it; and if we could gather
+together all that goes up the chimney, and all that remains in the grate
+of a thoroughly-burnt coal-fire, we should find ourselves in possession
+of a quantity of carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and mineral matters,
+exactly equal in weight to the coal. But these are the very matters with
+which Nature supplied the club-mosses which made the coal. She is
+paid back principal and interest at the same time; and she straightway
+invests the carbonic acid, the water, and the ammonia in new forms of
+life, feeding with them the plants that now live. Thrifty Nature! Surely
+no prodigal, but most notable of housekeepers!
+
+
+CCVII
+
+Here, then, is a capital fact. The movements of the lobster are due to
+muscular contractility. But why does a muscle contract at one time and
+not at another? Why does one whole group of muscles contract when the
+lobster wishes to extend his tail and another group when he desires to
+bend it? What is it originates, directs, and controls the motive power?
+
+Experiment, the great instrument for the ascertainment of truth in
+physical science, answers this question for us. In the head of the
+lobster there lies a small mass of that peculiar tissue which is known
+as nervous substance. Cords of similar matter connect this brain of
+the lobster, directly or indirectly, with the muscles. Now, if these
+communicating cords are cut, the brain remaining entire, the power of
+exerting what we call voluntary motion m the parts below the section is
+destroyed; and, on the other hand, if, the cords remaining entire, the
+brain mass be destroyed, the same voluntary mobility is equally lost,
+whence the inevitable conclusion is, that the power of originating these
+motions resides in the brain and is propagated along the nervous cords.
+
+In the higher animals the phenomena which attend this transmission have
+been investigated, and the exertion of the peculiar energy which resides
+in the nerves has been found to be accompanied by a disturbance of the
+electrical state of their molecules.
+
+If we could exactly estimate the signification of this disturbance;
+if we could obtain the value of a given exertion of nerve force by
+determining the quantity of electricity, or of heat, of which it is the
+equivalent; if we could ascertain upon what arrangement, or other
+condition of the molecules of matter, the manifestation of the nervous
+and muscular energies depends (and doubtless science will some day or
+other ascertain these points), physiologists would have attained their
+ultimate goal in this direction; they would have determined the relation
+of the motive force of animals to the other forms of force found in
+nature; and if the same process had been successfully performed for all
+the operations which are carried on in, and by, the animal frame,
+physiology would be perfect, and the facts of morphology and
+distribution would be deducible from the laws which physiologists had
+established, combined with those determining the condition of the
+surrounding universe.
+
+
+CCVIII
+
+The object of lectures is, in the first place, to awaken the attention
+and excite the enthusiasm of the student; and this, I am sure, may
+be effected to a far greater extent by the oral discourse and by
+the personal influence of a respected teacher than in any other way.
+Secondly, lectures have the double use of guiding the student to the
+salient points of a subject, and at the same time forcing him to attend
+to the whole of it, and not merely to that part which takes his fancy.
+And lastly, lectures afford the student the opportunity of seeking
+explanations of those difficulties which will, and indeed ought to,
+arise in the course of his studies.
+
+
+CCIX
+
+What books shall I read? is a question constantly put by the student to
+the teacher. My reply usually is, "None: write your notes out carefully
+and fully; strive to understand them thoroughly; come to me for the
+explanation of anything you cannot understand; and I would rather you
+did not distract your mind by reading." A properly composed course
+of lectures ought to contain fully as much matter as a student can
+assimilate in the time occupied by its delivery; and the teacher should
+always recollect that his business is to feed and not to cram the
+intellect. Indeed, I believe that a student who gains from a course
+of lectures the simple habit of concentrating his attention upon a
+definitely limited series of facts, until they are thoroughly mastered,
+has made a step of immeasurable importance.
+
+
+CCX
+
+However good lectures may be, and however extensive the course of
+reading-by which they are followed up, they are but accessories to the
+great instrument of scientific teaching--demonstration. If I insist
+unweariedly, nay fanatically, upon the importance of physical science as
+an educational agent, it is because the study of any branch of science,
+if properly conducted, appears to me to fill up a void left by all other
+means of education. I have the greatest respect and love for literature;
+nothing would grieve me more than to see literary training other than
+a very prominent branch of education: indeed, I wish that real literary
+discipline were far more attended to than it is; but I cannot shut my
+eyes to the fact that there is a vast difference between men who have
+had a purely literary, and those who have had a sound scientific,
+training.
+
+
+CCXI
+
+In the world of letters, learning and knowledge are one, and books
+are the source of both; whereas in science, as in life, learning and
+knowledge are distinct, and the study of things, and not of books, is
+the source of the latter.
+
+
+CCXII
+
+All that literature has to bestow may be obtained by reading and by
+practical exercise in writing and in speaking; but I do not exaggerate
+when I say that none of the best gifts of science are to be won by these
+means. On the contrary, the great benefit which a scientific education
+bestows, whether as training or as knowledge, is dependent upon the
+extent to which the mind of the student is brought into immediate
+contact with facts--upon the degree to which he learns the habit of
+appealing directly to Nature, and of acquiring through his senses
+concrete images of those properties of things, which are, and always
+will be, but approximatively expressed in human language. Our way of
+looking at Nature, and of speaking about her, varies from year to
+year; but a fact once seen, a relation of cause and effect, once
+demonstratively apprehended, are possessions which neither change nor
+pass away, but, on the contrary, form fixed centres, about which other
+truths aggregate by natural affinity.
+
+Therefore, the great business of the scientific teacher is, to imprint
+the fundamental, irrefragable facts of his science, not only by words
+upon the mind, but by sensible impressions upon tne eye, and ear, and
+touch of the student, in so complete a manner, that every term used, or
+law enunciated, should afterwards call up vivid images of the particular
+structural, or other, facts which furnished the demonstration of the
+law, or the illustration of the term.
+
+
+CCXIII
+
+What is the purpose of primary intellectual education? I apprehend
+that its first object is to train the young in the use of those tools
+wherewith men extract knowledge from the ever-shifting; succession of
+phenomena which pass before their eyes; and that its second object is to
+inform them of the fundamental laws which have been found by experience
+to govern the course of things, so that they may not be turned out
+into the world naked, defenceless, and a prey to the events they might
+control.
+
+A boy is taught to read his own and other languages, in order that he
+may have access to infinitely wider stores of knowledge than could ever
+be opened to him by oral intercourse with his fellow men; he learns to
+write, that his means of communication with the rest of mankind may be
+indefinitely enlarged, and that he may record and store up the knowledge
+he acquires. He is taught elementary mathematics, that he may understand
+all those relations of number and form, upon which the transactions of
+men, associated in complicated societies, are built, and that he may
+have some practice in deductive reasoning.
+
+All these operations of reading, writing, and ciphering are intellectual
+tools, whose use should, before all things, be learned, and learned
+thoroughly; so that the youth may be enabled to make his life that which
+it ought to be, a continual progress in learning and in wisdom.
+
+
+CCXIV
+
+In addition, primary education endeavours to fit a boy out with a
+certain equipment of positive knowledge. He is taught the great laws
+of morality; the religion of his sect; so much history and geography as
+will tell him where the great countries of the world are, what they are,
+and now they have become what they are.
+
+But if I regard it closely, a curious reflection arises. I suppose that,
+fifteen hundred years ago, the child of any well-to-do Roman citizen
+was taught just these same things; reading and writing in his own,
+and, perhaps, the Greek tongue; the elements of mathematics; and
+the religion, morality, history, and geography current in his time.
+Furthermore, I do not think I err in affirming that, if such a Christian
+Roman boy, who had finished his education, could be transplanted into
+one of our public schools, and pass through its course of instruction,
+he would not meet with a single unfamiliar line of thought; amidst all
+the new facts he would have to learn, not one would suggest a different
+mode of regarding the universe from that current in his own time.
+
+And yet surely there is some great difference between the civilisation
+of the fourth century and that of the nineteenth, and still more between
+the intellectual habits and tone of thought of that day and this?
+
+And what has made this difference? I answer fearlessly--The prodigious
+development of physical science within the last two centuries.
+
+
+CCXV
+
+Modern civilisation rests upon physical science; take away her gifts to
+our own country, and our position among the leading nations of the
+world is gone to-morrow; for it is physical science only that makes
+intelligence and moral energy stronger than brute force.
+
+
+CCXVI
+
+The whole of modern thought is steeped in science; it has made its way
+into the works of our best poets, and even the mere man of letters, who
+affects to ignore and despise science, is unconsciously impregnated with
+her spirit, and indebted for his best products to her methods. I believe
+that the greatest intellectual revolution mankind has yet seen is now
+slowly taking place by her agency. She is teaching the world that
+the ultimate court of appeal is observation and experiment, and not
+authority; she is teaching it to estimate the value of evidence; she is
+creating a firm and living faith in the existence of immutable moral and
+physical laws, perfect obedience to which is the highest possible aim of
+an intelligent being.
+
+But of all this your old stereotyped system of education takes no note.
+Physical science, its methods, its problems, and its difficulties, will
+meet the poorest boy at every turn, and yet we educate him in such a
+manner that he shall enter the world as ignorant of the existence of the
+methods and facts of science as the day he was born. The modern world
+is full of artillery; and we turn out our children to do battle in it,
+equipped with the shield and sword of an ancient gladiator.
+
+
+CCXVII
+
+Posterity will cry shame on us if we do not remedy this deplorable state
+of things. Nay, if we live twenty years longer, our own consciences will
+cry shame on us.
+
+It is my firm conviction that the only way to remedy it is to make the
+elements of physical science an integral part of primary education. I
+have endeavoured to show you how that may be done for that branch of
+science which it is my business to pursue; and I can but add, that I
+should look upon the day when every schoolmaster throughout this land
+was a centre of genuine, however rudimentary, scientific knowledge as an
+epoch in the history of the country.
+
+But let me entreat you to remember my last words. Addressing myself to
+you, as teachers, I would say, mere book learning in physical science is
+a sham and a delusion--what you teach, unless you wish to be impostors,
+that you must first know; and real knowledge in science means personal
+acquaintance with the facts, be they few or many.
+
+
+CCXVIII
+
+The first distinct enunciation of the hypothesis that all living matter
+has sprung from pre-existing living matter came from a contemporary,
+though a junior, of Harvey, a native of that country, fertile in men
+great in all departments of human activity, which was to intellectual
+Europe, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, what Germany is in
+the nineteenth. It was in Italy, and from Italian teachers, that Harvey
+received the most important part of his scientific education. And it
+was a student trained in the same schools, Francesco Redi--a man of the
+widest knowledge and most versatile abilities, distinguished alike as
+scholar, poet, physician and, naturalist--who, just two hundred and
+two years ago,* published his "Esperienze intorno alia Generazione
+degl'Insetti," and gave to the world the idea, the growth of which it
+is my purpose to trace. Redi's book went through five editions in twenty
+years; and the extreme simplicity of his experiments, and the clearness
+of his arguments, gained for his views and for their consequences,
+almost universal acceptance.
+
+Redi did not trouble himself much with speculative considerations,
+but attacked particular cases of what was supposed to be "spontaneous
+generation" experimentally. Here are dead animals, or pieces of meat,
+says he; I expose them to the air in hot weather, and in a few days they
+swarm with maggots. You tell me that these are generated in the dead
+flesh; but if I put similar bodies, while quite fresh, into a jar, and
+tie some fine gauze over the top of the jar, not a maggot makes its
+appearance, while the dead substances, nevertheless, putrefy just in the
+same way as before. It is obvious, therefore, that the maggots are not
+generated by the corruption of the meat; and that the cause of their
+formation must be a something which is kept away by gauze. But gauze
+will not keep away aeriform bodies, or fluids. This something must
+therefore, exist in the form of solid particles too big to get through
+the gauze. Nor is one long left in doubt what these solid particles are;
+for the blow-flies, attracted by the odour of the meat, swarm round the
+vessel, and, urged by a powerful but in this case misleading instinct,
+lay eggs out of which maggots are immediately hatched, upon the gauze.
+The conclusion, therefore, is unavoidable; the maggots are not generated
+by the meat, but the eggs which give rise to them are brought through
+the air by the flies.
+
+     * These words were written in 1870.
+
+These experiments seem almost childishly simple, and one wonders how
+it was that no one ever thought of them before. Simple as they are,
+however, they are worthy of the most careful study, for every piece of
+experimental work since done, in regard to this subject, has been shaped
+upon the model furnished by the Italian philosopher. As the results
+of his experiments were the same, however varied the nature of the
+materials he used, it is not wonderful that there arose in Redi's mind
+a presumption that, in all such cases of the seeming production of life
+from dead matter, the real explanation was the introduction of living
+germs from without into that dead matter. And thus the hypothesis that
+living matter always arises by the agency of pre-existing living matter,
+took definite shape; and had, henceforward, a right to be considered and
+a claim to be refuted, in each particular case, before the production of
+living matter in any other way could be admitted by careful reasoners.
+It will be necessary for me to refer to this hypothesis so frequently,
+that, to save circumlocution, I shall call it the hypothesis of
+_Biogenesis_; and I shall term the contrary doctrine--that living matter
+may be produced by not living matter--the hypothesis of _Abiogenesis_.
+
+In the seventeenth century, as I have said, the latter was the dominant
+view, sanctioned alike by antiquity and by authority; and it is
+interesting to observe that Redi did not escape the customary tax upon
+a discoverer of having to defend himself against the charge of impugning
+the authority of the Scriptures; for his adversaries declared that the
+generation of bees from the carcase of a dead lion is affirmed, in the
+Book of Judges, to have been the origin of the famous riddle with which
+Samson perplexed the Philistines:--
+
+     "Out of the cater came forth meat,
+     And out of the strong came forth sweetness"
+
+
+CCXIX
+
+The great tragedy of Science--the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by
+an ugly fact.
+
+
+CCXX
+
+It remains yet in the order of logic, though not of history, to show
+that among these solid destructible particles there really do exist
+germs capable of giving rise to the development of living forms in
+suitable menstrua. This piece of work was done by M. Pasteur in those
+beautiful researches which will ever render his name famous; and which,
+in spite of all attacks upon them, appear to me now, as they did
+seven years ago, to be models of accurate experimentation and logical
+reasoning. He strained air through cotton-wool, and found, as Schroeder
+and Dusch had done, that it contained nothing competent to give rise to
+the development of life in fluids highly fitted for that purpose. But
+the important further links in the chain of evidence added by Pasteur
+are three. In the first place he subjected to microscopic examination
+the cottonwool which had served as strainer, and found that sundry
+bodies clearly recognisable as germs were among the solid particles
+strained off. Secondly, he proved that these germs were competent to
+give rise to living forms by simply sowing them in a solution fitted for
+their development. And, thirdly, he showed that the incapacity of air
+strained through cotton-wool to give rise to life was not due to any
+occult change effected in the constituents of the air by the wool, by
+proving that the cotton-wool might be dispensed with altogether, and
+perfectly free access left between the exterior air and that in the
+experimental flask. If the neck of the flask is drawn out into a tube
+and bent downwards; and if, after the contained fluid has been carefully
+boiled, the tube is heated sufficiently to destroy any germs which may
+be present in the air which enters as the fluid cools, the apparatus may
+be left to itself for any time and no life will appear in the fluid.
+The reason is plain. Although there is free communication between the
+atmosphere laden with germs and the germless air in the flask, contact
+between the two takes place only in the tube; and as the germs cannot
+fall upwards, and there are no currents, they never reach the interior
+of the flask. But if the tube be broken short off where it proceeds from
+the flask, and free access be thus given to germs falling vertically out
+of the air, the fluid, which has remained clear and desert for months,
+becomes, in a few days, turbid and full of life.
+
+
+CCXXI
+
+In autumn it is not uncommon to see flies motionless upon a window-pane,
+with a sort of magic circle, in white, drawn round them. On microscopic
+examination, the magic circle is found to consist of innumerable spores,
+which have been thrown off in all directions by a minute fungus called
+_Empusa museae_ the spore-forming filaments of which stand out like a
+pile of velvet from the body of the fly. These spore-forming filaments
+are connected with others which fill the interior of the fly's body
+like so much fine wool, having eaten away and destroyed the creature's
+viscera. This is the full-grown condition of the _Empusa_. If traced
+back to its earliest stages, in flies which are still active, and to
+all appearance healthy, it is found to exist in the form of minute
+corpuscles which float in the blood of the fly. These multiply and
+lengthen into filaments, at the expense of the fly's substance; and when
+they have at last killed the patient, they grow out of its body and give
+off spores. Healthy flies shut up with diseased ones catch this mortal
+disease, and perish like the others. A most competent observer, M. Cohn,
+who studied the development of the _Empusa_ very carefully, was utterly
+unable to discover in what manner the smallest germs of the _Empusa_ got
+into the fly. The spores could not be made to give rise to such germs by
+cultivation; nor were such germs discoverable in the air, or in the food
+of the fly. It looked exceedingly like a case of Abiogenesis, or, at any
+rate, of Xenogenesis; and it is only quite recently that the real course
+of events has been made out. It has been ascertained that when one of
+the spores falls upon the body of a fly, it begins to germinate, and
+sends out a process which bores its way through the fly's skin; this,
+having reached the interior cavities of its body, gives off the minute
+floating corpuscles which are the earliest stage of the _Empusa_. The
+disease is "contagious", because a healthy fly coming in contact with a
+diseased one, from which the spore-bearing filaments protrude, is pretty
+sure to carry off a spore or two. It is "infectious" because the spores
+become scattered about all sorts of matter m the neighbourhood of the
+slain flies. Silkworms are liable to many diseases; and, even before
+1853, a peculiar epizootic, frequently accompanied by the appearance
+of dark spots upon the skin (whence the name of "Pebrine" which it has
+received), had been noted for its mortality. But in the years following
+1853 this malady broke out with such extreme violence, that, in 1858,
+the silk-crop was reduced to a third of the amount which it had reached
+in 1853; and, up till within the last year or two, it has never attained
+half the yield of 1853. This means not only that the great number of
+people engaged in silk growing are some thirty millions sterling poorer
+than they might have been; it means not only that high prices have had
+to be paid for imported silkworm eggs, and that, after investing his
+money in them, in paying for mulberry-leaves and for attendance, the
+cultivator has constantly seen his silkworms perish and himself plunged
+in ruin; but it means that the looms of Lyons have lacked employment,
+and that, for years, enforced idleness and misery have been the
+portion of a vast population which, in former days, was industrious and
+well-to-do.
+
+In reading the Report made by M. de Quatrefages in 1859, it is
+exceedingly interesting to observe that his elaborate study of the
+Pebrine forced the conviction upon his mind that, in its mode of
+occurrence and propagation, the disease of the silkworm is, in every
+respect, comparable to the cholera among mankind. But it differs
+from the cholera, and so far is a more formidable malady, in being
+hereditary, and in being, under some circumstances, contagious as well
+as infectious.
+
+The Italian naturalist, Filippi, discovered in the blood of the
+silkworms affected by this strange disorder a multitude of cylindrical
+corpuscles, each about 1/6000th of an inch long. These have been
+carefully studied by Lebert, and named by him _Panhistophyton_; for the
+reason that in subjects in which the disease is strongly developed, the
+corpuscles swarm in every tissue and organ of the body, and even pass
+into the undeveloped eggs of the female moth. But are these corpuscles
+causes, or mere concomitants, of the disease? Some naturalists took
+one view and some another; and it was not until the French Government,
+alarmed by the continued ravages of the malady, and the inefficiency of
+the remedies which had been suggested, despatched M. Pasteur to
+study it, that the question received its final settlement; at a great
+sacrifice, not only of the time and peace of mind of that eminent
+philosopher, but, I regret to have to add, of his health.
+
+But the sacrifice has not been in vain. It is now certain that this
+devastating, cholera-like Pebrine is the effect of the growth and
+multiplication of the _Panhistophyton_ in the silkworm. It is contagious
+and infectious, because the corpuscles of the _Panhistophyton_ pass away
+from the bodies of the diseased caterpillars, directly or indirectly, to
+the alimentary canal of healthy silkworms in their neighbourhood; it
+is hereditary because the corpuscles enter into the eggs while they are
+being formed, and consequently are carried within them when they
+are laid; and for this reason, also? it presents the very singular
+peculiarity of being inherited only on the mother's side. There is not a
+single one of all the apparently capricious and unaccountable phenomena
+presented by the Pebrine, but has received its explanation from the
+fact that the disease is the result of the presence of the microscopic
+organism, _Panhistophyton_.
+
+
+CCXXII
+
+I commenced this Address by asking you to follow me in an attempt to
+trace the path which has been followed by a scientific idea, in its long
+and slow progress from the position of a probable hypothesis to that
+of an established law of nature. Our survey has not taken us into very
+attractive regions; it has lain, chiefly, in a land flowing with the
+abominable, and peopled with mere grubs and mouldiness. And it may
+be imagined with what smiles and shrugs, practical and serious
+contemporaries of Redi and of Spallanzani may have commented on the
+waste of their high abilities in toiling at the solution of problems
+which, though curious enough in themselves, could be of no conceivable
+utility to mankind.
+
+Nevertheless, you will have observed that before we had travelled very
+far upon our road, there appeared, on the right hand and on the left,
+fields laden with a harvest of golden grain, immediately convertible
+into those things which the most solidly practical men will admit to
+have value--viz., money and life.
+
+The direct loss to France caused by the Pebrine in seventeen years
+cannot be estimated at less than fifty millions sterling; and if we
+add to this what Redi's idea, in Pasteur's hands, has done for the
+wine-grower and for the vinegar-maker; and try to capitalise its value,
+we shall find that it will go a long way towards repairing; the money
+losses caused by the frightful and calamitous war of this autumn
+(1870). And as to the equivalent of Redi's thought in life, how can we
+overestimate the value of that knowledge of the nature of epidemic
+and epizootic diseases, and consequently of the means of checking, or
+eradicating them, the dawn of which has assuredly commenced?
+
+Looking back no further than ten years, it is possible to select
+three (1863, 1864, and 1869) in which the total number of deaths from
+scarlet-fever alone amounted to ninety thousand. That is the return of
+killed, the maimed and disabled being left out of sight Why, it is to be
+hoped that the list of killed in the present bloodiest of all wars will
+not amount to more than this! But the facts which I have placed before
+you must leave the least sanguine without a doubt that the nature and
+the causes of this scourge will, one day, be as well understood as
+those of the Pebrine are now; and that the long-suffered massacre of our
+innocents will come to an end.
+
+And thus mankind will have one more admonition that "the people perish
+for lack of knowledge"; and that the alleviation of the miseries, and
+the promotion of the welfare, of men must be sought, by those who will
+not lose their pains, in that diligent, patient, loving study of all the
+multitudinous aspects of Nature, the results of which constitute exact
+knowledge, or Science.
+
+
+CCXXIII
+
+I find three, more or less contradictory, systems of geological thought,
+each of which might fairly enough claim these appellations, standing
+side by side in Britain. I shall call one of them Catastrophisim another
+Uniformitarianism, the third Evolutionism; and I shall try briefly
+to sketch the characters of each, that you may say whether the
+classification is, or is not, exhaustive.
+
+By Catastrophism I mean any form of geological speculation which, in
+order to account for the phenomena of geology supposes the operation of
+forces different in their nature, or immeasurably different in power,
+from those which we at present see in action in the universe.
+
+The Mosaic cosmogony is, in this sense, catastrophic, because it assumes
+the operation of extra-natural power. The doctrine of violent upheavals,
+_debacles_ and cataclysms in general, is catastrophic, so far as it
+assumes that these were brought about by causes which have now no
+parallel. There was a time when catastrophism might, pre-eminently, have
+claimed the title of "British popular geology"; and assuredly it has
+yet many adherents, and reckons among its supporters some of the most
+honoured members of this Society.
+
+By Uniformitarianism I mean especially the teaching of Hutton and of
+Lyell.
+
+That great though incomplete work, "The Theory of the Earth", seems to
+me to be one of the most remarkable contributions to geology which is
+recorded in the annals of the science. So far as the not-living world
+is concerned, uniformitarianism lies there, not only in germ, but in
+blossom and fruit.
+
+If one asks how it is that Hutton was led to entertain views so far
+in advance of those prevalent in his time, in some respects; while, in
+others, they seem almost curiously limited, the answer appears to me to
+be plain.
+
+Hutton was in advance of the geological speculation of his time,
+because, in the first place, he had amassed a vast store of knowledge
+of the facts of geology, gathered by personal observation in travels of
+considerable extent; and because, in the second place, he was thoroughly
+trained in the physical and chemical science of his day, and thus
+possessed, as much as any one in his time could possess it, the
+knowledge which is requisite for the just interpretation of geological
+phenomena, and the habit of thought which fits a man for scientific
+inquiry.
+
+It is to this thorough scientific training that I ascribe Hutton's
+steady and persistent refusal to look to other causes than those now in
+operation for the explanation of geological phenomena.
+
+The internal heat of the earth, the elevation and depression of
+its crust, its belchings forth of vapours, ashes, and lava, are its
+activities, in as strict a sense as are warmth and the movements and
+products of respiration the activities of an animal. The phenomena of
+the seasons, of the trade winds, of the Gulf-stream, are as much the
+results of the reaction between these inner activities and outward
+forces as are the budding of the leaves in spring and their falling
+in autumn the effects of the interaction between the organisation of a
+plant and the solar light and heat. And, as the study of the activities
+of the living being is called its physiology, so are these phenomena
+the subject-matter of an analogous telluric physiology, to which we
+sometimes give the name of meteorology, sometimes that of physical
+geography, sometimes that of geology. Again, the earth has a place in
+space and in time, and relations to other bodies in both these respects,
+which constitute its distribution. This subject is usually left to the
+astronomer; but a knowledge of its broad outlines seems to me to be an
+essential constituent of the stock of geological ideas.
+
+
+CCXXIV
+
+All that can be ascertained concerning the structure succession of
+conditions, actions, and position m space of the earth, is the matter
+of fact of its natural history. But? as in biology, there remains the
+matter of reasoning from these facts to their causes, which is just
+as much science as the other, and indeed more; and this constitutes
+geological aetiology.
+
+
+CCXXV
+
+I suppose that it would be very easy to pick holes in the details of
+Kant's speculations, whether cosmo-logical, or specially telluric, in
+their application. But for all that, he seems to me to have been the
+first person to frame a complete system of geological speculation by
+founding the doctrine of evolution.
+
+I have said that the three schools of geological speculation which I
+have termed Catastrophism, Uniformitarianism, and Evolutionism, are
+commonly supposed to be antagonistic to one another; and I presume it
+will have become obvious that in my belief, the last is destined to
+swallow up the other two. But it is proper to remark that each of the
+latter has kept alive the tradition of precious truths.
+
+To my mind there appears to be no sort of necessary theoretical
+antagonism between Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism. On the contrary,
+it is very conceivable that catastrophes may be part and parcel of
+uniformity. Let me illustrate my case by analogy. The working of a clock
+is a model of uniform action; good time-keeping means uniformity of
+action. But the striking of the clock is essentially a catastrophe;
+the hammer might be made to blow up a barrel of gunpowder, or turn on
+a deluge of water; and, by proper arrangement, the clock, instead of
+marking the hours, might strike at all sorts of irregular periods,
+never twice alike, in the intervals, force, or number of its blows.
+Nevertheless, all these irregular, and apparently lawless, catastrophes
+would be the result of an absolutely uniformitarian action; and we might
+have two schools of clock-theorists, one studying the hammer and the
+other the pendulum.
+
+
+CCXXVI
+
+Mathematics may be compared to a mill of exquisite workmanship, which
+grinds your stuff of any degree of fineness; but, nevertheless, what you
+get out depends upon what you put in; and as the grandest mill in tne
+world will not extract wheat-flour from peascods, so pages of formulae
+will not get a definite result out of loose data.
+
+
+CCXXVII
+
+The motive of the drama of human life is the necessity, laid upon
+every man who comes into the world, of discovering the mean between
+self-assertion and self-restraint suited to his character and his
+circumstances. And the eternally tragic aspect of the drama lies in
+this: that the problem set before us is one the elements of which can
+be but imperfectly known, and of which even an approximately right
+solution rarely presents itself, until that stern critic, aged
+experience, has been furnished with ample justification for venting his
+sarcastic humour upon the irreparable blunders we have already made.
+
+
+CCXXVIII
+
+That which endures is not one or another association of living forms,
+but the process of which the cosmos is the product, and of which these
+are among the transitory expressions. And in the living world, one of
+the most characteristic features of this cosmic process is the struggle
+for existence, the competition of each with all, the result of which is
+the selection, that is to say, the survival of those forms which, on the
+whole, are best adapted to the conditions which at any period obtain;
+and which are therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the
+fittest. The acme reached by the cosmic process in the vegetation of
+the downs is seen in the turf, with its weed and gorse. Under the
+conditions, they have come out of the struggle victorious; and, by
+surviving, have proved that they are the fittest to survive.
+
+
+CCXXIX
+
+As a natural process, of the same character as the development of a tree
+from its seed; or of a fowl from its egg, evolution excludes creation
+and all other kinds of supernatural intervention. As the expression of
+a fixed order, every stage of which is the effect of causes operating
+according to definite rules, the conception of evolution no less
+excludes that of chance. It is very desirable to remember that evolution
+is not an explanation of the cosmic process, but merely a generalized
+statement of the method and results of that process. And, further, that,
+if there is proof that the cosmic process was set going by any agent,
+then that agent will be the creator of it and of all its products,
+although, supernatural intervention may remain strictly excluded from
+its further course.
+
+
+CCXXX
+
+All plants and animals exhibit the tendency to vary, the causes of which
+have yet to be ascertained; it is the tendency of the conditions of
+life, at any given time, while favouring the existence of the variations
+best adapted to them, to oppose that of the rest and thus to exercise
+selection; and all living things tend to multiply without limit, while
+the means of support are limited; the obvious cause of which is the
+production of offspring more numerous than their progenitors, but with
+actual expectation of life in the actuarial sense. Without tne first
+tendency there could be no evolution. Without the second, there would be
+no good reason why one variation should disappear and another take its
+place; that is to say, there would be no selection. Without the third,
+the struggle for existence, the agent of the selective process in the
+state of nature, would vanish.
+
+
+CCXXXI
+
+The faith which is born of knowledge finds its object in an eternal
+order, bringing forth ceaseless chance, through endless time, in endless
+space; the manifestations of the cosmic energy alternating between
+phases of potentiality and phases of explication.
+
+
+CCXXXII
+
+With all their enormous differences in natural endowment, men agree in
+one thing, and that is their innate desire to enjoy the pleasures and
+escape the pains of life; and, in short, to do nothing but that which
+it pleases them to do, without the least reference to the welfare of the
+society into which they are born. That is their inheritance (the reality
+at the bottom of the doctrine of original sin) from the long series of
+ancestors, human and semi-human and brutal, in whom the strength of this
+innate tendency to self-assertion was the condition of victory in the
+struggle for existence. That is the reason of the _aviditas vitae_--the
+insatiable hunger for enjoyment--of all mankind, which is one of the
+essential conditions of success in the war with the state of nature
+outside; and yet the sure agent of the destruction of society if allowed
+free play within.
+
+
+CCXXXIII
+
+The check upon this free play of self-assertion, or natural liberty,
+which is the necessary condition for the origin of human society, is the
+product of organic necessities of a different land from those upon
+which the constitution of the hive depends. One of these is the mutual
+affection of parent and offspring, intensified by the long infancy of
+the human species. But the most important is the tendency, so strongly
+developed in man, to reproduce in himself actions and feelings similar
+to, or correlated with, those of other men. Man is the most consummate
+of all mimics in the animal world; none but himself can draw or model;
+none comes near him in the scope, variety, and exactness of vocal
+imitation; none is such a master of gesture; while he seems to be
+impelled thus to imitate for the pure pleasure of it. And there is no
+such another emotional chameleon. By a purely reflex operation of the
+mind, we take the hue of passion of those who are about us, or, it may
+be, the complementary colour. It is not by any conscious "putting one's
+self in the place" of a joyful or a suffering person that the state of
+mind we call sympathy usually arises; indeed, it is often contrary to
+one's sense of right, and in spite of one's will, that "fellow-feeling
+makes us wondrous kind," or the reverse. However complete may be the
+indifference to public opinion, in a cool, intellectual view, of the
+traditional sage, it has not yet been my fortune to meet with any actual
+sage who took its hostile manifestations with entire equanimity. Indeed,
+I doubt if the philosopher lives, or ever has lived, who could know
+himself to be heartily despised by a street boy without some irritation.
+And, though one cannot justify Haman for wishing to hang Mordecai on
+such a very high gibbet, yet, really, the consciousness of the Vizier of
+Ahasuerus, as he went in and out of the gate, that this obscure Jew had
+no respect for him, must have been very annoying.
+
+It is needful only to look around us, to see that the greatest restrainer
+of the anti-social tendencies of men is fear, not of the law, but of the
+opinion of their fellows. The conventions of honour bad men who
+break legal, moral, and religious bonds; and, while people endure the
+extremity of physical pain rather than part with life, shame drives the
+weakest to suicide.
+
+Every forward step of social progress brings men into closer relations
+with their fellows, and increases the importance of the pleasures and
+pains derived from sympathy. We judge the acts of others by our own
+sympathies, and we judge our own acts by the sympathies of others, every
+day and all day long, from childhood upwards, until associations, as
+indissoluble as those of language, are formed between certain acts and
+the feelings of approbation or disapprobation. It becomes impossible to
+imagine some acts without disapprobation, or others without approbation
+of the actor, whether he be one's self or anyone else. We come to think
+in the acquired dialect of morals. An artificial personality, the "man
+within," as Adam Smith calls conscience, is built up beside the natural
+personality. He is the watchman of society, charged to restrain the
+antisocial tendencies of the natural man within the limits required by
+social welfare.
+
+
+CCXXXIV
+
+I have termed this evolution of the feelings out of which the primitive
+bonds of human society are so largely forged, into the organized and
+personified sympathy we call conscience, the ethical process. So far as
+it tends to make any human society more efficient in the struggle for
+existence with the state of nature, or with other societies, it works
+in harmonious contrast with the cosmic process. But it is none the less
+true that, since law and morals are restraints upon the struggle for
+existence between men in society, the ethical process is in opposition
+to the principle of the cosmic process, and tends to the suppression of
+the qualities best fitted for success in that struggle.
+
+
+CCXXXV
+
+Moralists of all ages and of all faiths, attending only to the relations
+of men towards one another in an ideal society, have agreed upon
+the "golden rule," "Do as you would be done by." In other words, let
+sympathy be your guide; put yourself in the place of the man towards
+whom your action is directed; and do to him what you would like to have
+done to yourself under the circumstances. However much one may admire
+the generosity of such a rule of conduct; however confident one may be
+that average men may be thoroughly depended upon not to carry it out to
+its full logical consequences; it is nevertheless desirable to recognise
+the fact that these consequences are incompatible with the existence
+of a civil state, under any circumstances of this world which have
+obtained, or, so far as one can see, are likely to come to pass.
+
+For I imagine there can be no doubt that the great desire of every
+wrongdoer is to escape from the painful consequences of his actions. If
+I put myself in the place of the man who has robbed me, I find that I
+am possessed by an exceeding desire not to be fined or imprisoned; if
+in that of the man who has smitten me on one cheek, I contemplate with
+satisfaction the absence of any worse result than the turning of the
+other cheek for like treatment. Strictly observed, the "golden rule"
+involves the negation of law by the refusal to put it in motion against
+law-breakers; and, as regards the external relations of a polity, it is
+the refusal to continue the struggle for existence. It can be obeyed,
+even partially, only under the protection of a society which repudiates
+it without such shelter the followers of the "golden rule" may indulge
+in hopes of heaven, but they must reckon with the certainty that other
+people will be masters of the earth.
+
+What would become of the garden if the gardener treated all the weeds
+and slugs and birds and trespassers as he would like to be treated if he
+were in their place?
+
+
+CCXXXVI
+
+In a large proportion of cases, crime and pauperism have nothing to do
+with heredity; but are the consequence, partly, of circumstances
+and, partly, of the possession of qualities, which, under different
+conditions of life, might have excited esteem and even admiration.
+It was a shrewd man of the world who, in discussing sewage problems,
+remarked that dirt is riches in the wrong; place; and that sound
+aphorism has moral applications. The benevolence and open-handed
+generosity which adorn a rich man may make a pauper of a poor one; the
+energy and courage to which the successful soldier owes his rise, the
+cool and daring subtlety to which the great financier owes his fortune,
+may very easily, under unfavourable conditions, lead their possessors to
+the gallows, or to the hulks. Moreover, it is fairly probable that the
+children of a "failure" will receive from their other parent just that
+little modification of character which makes all the difference. I
+sometimes wonder whether people, who talk so freely about extirpating
+the unfit, ever dispassionately consider their own history. Surely, one
+must be very "fit" indeed not to know of an occasion, or perhaps two, in
+one's life, when it would have been only too easy to qualify for a place
+among the "unfit."
+
+
+CCXXXVII
+
+In the struggle for the means of enjoyment, the qualities which ensure
+success are energy, industry, intellectual capacity, tenacity of
+purpose, and, at least as much sympathy as is necessary to make a
+man understand the feelings of his fellows. Were there none of those
+artificial arrangements by which fools and knaves are kept at the top
+of society instead of sinking to their natural place at the bottom, the
+struggle for the means of enjoyment would ensure a constant circulation
+of the human units of the social compound, from the bottom to the top
+and from the top to the bottom. The survivors of the contest, those
+who continued to form the great bulk of the polity, would not be those
+"fittest" who got to the very top, but the great body of the moderately
+"fit," whose numbers and superior propagative power enable them always
+to swamp the exceptionally endowed minority.
+
+I think it must be obvious to every one that, whether we consider the
+internal or the external interests of society, it is desirable they
+should be in the hands of those who are endowed with the largest
+share of energy, of industry, of intellectual capacity, of tenacity of
+purpose, while they are not devoid of sympathetic humanity; and, in so
+far as the struggle for the means of enjoyment tends to place such men
+in possession of wealth and influence, it is a process which tends
+to the good of society. But the process, as we have seen, has no real
+resemblance to that which adapts living beings to current conditions
+in the state of nature; nor any to the artificial selection of the
+horticulturist.
+
+
+CCXXXVIII
+
+Even should the whole human race be absorbed in one vast polity, within
+which "absolute political justice" reigns, the struggle for existence
+with the state of nature outside it, and the tendency to the return of
+the struggle within, in consequence of over-multiplication, will remain;
+and, unless men's inheritance from the ancestors who fought a good fight
+in the state of nature, their dose of original sin, is rooted out
+by some method at present unrevealed, at any rate to disbelievers in
+supernaturalism, every child born into the world will still bring with
+him the instinct of unlimited self-assertion. He will have to learn
+the lesson of self-restraint and renunciation. But the practice of
+self-restraint and renunciation is not happiness, though it may be
+something much better.
+
+That man, as a "political animal," is susceptible of a vast amount of
+improvement, by education, by instruction, and by the application of his
+intelligence to the adaptation of tne conditions of life to his higher
+needs, I entertain not the slightest doubt. But, so long as he remains
+liable to error, intellectual or moral; so long as he is compelled to be
+perpetually on guard against the cosmic forces, whose ends are not
+his ends, without and within himself; so long as he is haunted
+by inexpugnable memories and hopeless aspirations; so long as the
+recognition of his intellectual limitations forces him to acknowledge
+his incapacity to penetrate the mystery of existence; the prospect of
+attaining untroubled happiness, or of a state which can, even remotely,
+deserve the title of perfection, appears to me to be as misleading an
+illusion as ever was dangled before the eyes of poor humanity. And there
+have been many of them.
+
+That which lies before the human race is a constant struggle to maintain
+and improve, in opposition to the State of Nature, the State of Art of
+an organized polity; in which, and by which, man may develop a worthy
+civilization, capable of maintaining and constantly improving itself,
+until the evolution of our globe shall have entered so far upon its
+downward course that the cosmic process resumes its sway; and, once
+more, the State of Nature prevails over the surface of our planet.
+
+
+CCXXXIX
+
+From very low forms up to the highest--in the animal no less than in the
+vegetable kingdom--the process of life presents the same appearance of
+cyclical evolution. Nay, we have but to cast our eyes over the rest of
+the world and cyclical change presents itself on all sides. It meets us
+in the water that flows to the sea and returns to the springs; in the
+heavenly bodies that wax and wane, go and return to their places; in the
+inexorable sequence of the ages of man's life; in that successive rise,
+apogee, and fall of dynasties and of states which is the most prominent
+topic of civil history.
+
+
+CCXL
+
+As no man fording a swift stream can dip his foot twice into the same
+water, so no man can, with exactness, affirm of anything in the sensible
+world that it is. As he utters the words, nay, as he thinks them, the
+predicate ceases to be applicable; the present has become the past; the
+"is" should be "was." And the more we learn of the nature of things, the
+more evident is it that what we call rest is only unperceived activity;
+that seeming peace is silent but strenuous battle. In every part, at
+every moment, the state of the cosmos is the expression of a transitory
+adjustment of contending forces; a scene of strife, in which all the
+combatants fall in turn. What is true of each part is true of the whole.
+Natural knowledge tends more and more to the conclusion that "all the
+choir of heaven and furniture of the earth" are the transitory forms of
+parcels of cosmic substance wending along the road of evolution, from
+nebulous potentiality, through endless growths of sun and planet and
+satellite; through all varieties of matter; through infinite diversities
+of life and thought; possibly, through modes of being of which we
+neither have a conception, nor are competent to form any, back to
+the indefinable latency from which they arose. Thus the most obvious
+attribute of the cosmos is its impermanence. It assumes the aspect not
+so much of a permanent entity as of a changeful process, in which naught
+endures save the flow of energy and the rational order which pervades
+it.
+
+
+CCLXI
+
+Man, the animal, in fact, has worked his way to the headship of the
+sentient world, and has become the superb animal which he is in virtue
+of his success in the struggle for existence. The conditions having
+been of a certain order, man's organization has adjusted itself to them
+better than mat of his competitors in the cosmic strife. In the case of
+mankind, the self-assertion, the unscrupulous seizing upon all that
+can be grasped, the tenacious holding of all that can be kept, which
+constitute the essence of the struggle for existence, have answered.
+For his successful progress, throughout the savage state, man has been
+largely indebted to those qualities which he shares with the ape and
+the tiger; his exceptional physical organization; his cunning, his
+sociability, his curiosity, and his imitativeness; his ruthless and
+ferocious destructiveness when his anger is roused by opposition.
+
+But, in proportion as men have passed from anarchy to social
+organization, and in proportion as civilization has grown in worth,
+these deeply ingrained serviceable qualities have become defects. After
+the manner of successful persons, civilized man would gladly kick down
+the ladder by which he has climbed. He would be only too pleased to see
+"the ape and tiger die." But they decline to suit his convenience; and
+the unwelcome intrusion of these boon companions of his hot youth into
+the ranged existence of civil life adds pains and griefs, innumerable
+and immeasurably great, to those which the cosmic process necessarily
+brings on the mere animal. In fact, civilized man brands all these ape
+and tiger promptings with the name of sins; he punishes many of the acts
+which flow from them as crimes; and, in extreme cases, he does his best
+to put an end to the survival of the fittest of former days by axe and
+rope.
+
+
+CCXLII
+
+In Hindustan, as in Ionia, a period of relatively high and tolerably
+stable civilization had succeeded long ages of semi-barbarism and
+struggle. Out of wealth and security had come leisure and refinement,
+and, close at their heels, had followed the malady of thought. To
+the struggle for bare existence, which never ends, though it may be
+alleviated and partially disguised for a fortunate few, succeeded the
+struggle to make existence intelligible and to bring the order of things
+into harmony with the moral sense of man, which also never ends, but,
+for the thinking few, becomes keener with every increase of knowledge
+and with every step towards the realization of a worthy ideal of life.
+
+Two thousand five hundred years ago the value of civilization was as
+apparent as it is now; then, as now, it was obvious that only in the
+garden of an orderly polity can the finest fruits humanity is capable of
+bearing be produced. But it had also become evident that the blessings
+of culture were not unmixed. The garden was apt to turn into a hothouse.
+The stimulation of the senses, the pampering of the emotions, endlessly
+multiplied the sources of pleasure. The constant widening of the
+intellectual field indefinitely extended the range of that especially
+human faculty of looking before and after, which adds to the fleeting
+present those old and new worlds of the past and the future, wherein men
+dwell the more the higher their culture. But that very sharpening of the
+sense and that subtle refinement of emotion, which brought such a wealth
+of pleasures, were fatally attended by a proportional enlargement of the
+capacity for suffering; and the divine faculty of imagination, while it
+created new heavens and new earths, provided them with the corresponding
+hells of futile regret for the past and morbid anxiety for the future.
+
+
+CCXLIII
+
+One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the
+conception of justice. Society is impossible unless those who are
+associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct towards one
+another; its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide
+by that agreement; and, so far as they waver, that mutual trust which is
+the bond of society is weakened or destroyed. Wolves could not hunt in
+packs except for the real, though unexpressed, understanding that they
+should not attack one another during the chase. The most rudimentary
+polity is a pack of men living under the like tacit, or expressed,
+understanding; and having made the very important advance upon wolf
+society, that they agree to use the force of the whole body against
+individuals who violate it and in favour of those who observe it. This
+observance of a common understanding, with the consequent distribution
+of punishments and rewards according to accepted rules, received the
+name of justice, while the contrary was called injustice. Early ethics
+did not take much note of the animus of the violator of the rules.
+But civilization could not advance far without the establishment of a
+capital distinction between the case of involuntary and that of wilful
+misdeed; between a merely wrong action and a guilty one.
+
+And, with increasing refinement of moral appreciation, the problem of
+desert, which arises out of this distinction, acquired more and more
+theoretical and practical importance. If life must be given for life,
+yet it was recognized that the unintentional slayer did not altogether
+deserve death; and, by a sort of compromise between the public and the
+private conception of justice, a sanctuary was provided in which he
+might take refuge from the avenger of blood.
+
+The idea of justice thus underwent a gradual sublimation from punishment
+and reward according to acts, to punishment and reward according to
+desert; or, in other words, according to motive. Righteousness, that is,
+action from right motive, not only became synonymous with justice, but
+the positive constituent of innocence and the very heart of goodness.
+
+
+CCXLIV
+
+Everyday experience familiarizes us with the facts which are grouped
+under the name of heredity. Every one of us bears upon him obvious marks
+of his parentage, perhaps of remoter relationships. More particularly,
+the sum of tendencies to act in a certain, way, which we call
+"character," is often to be traced through a long series of progenitors
+and collaterals. So we may justly say that this "character"--this moral
+and intellectual essence of a man--does veritably pass over from
+one fleshy tabernacle to another, ana does really transmigrate from
+generation to generation. In the new-born infant the character of
+the stock lies latent, and the Ego is little more than a bundle
+of potentialities. But, very early, these become actualities; from
+childhood to age they manifest themselves in dulness or brightness,
+weakness or strength, viciousness or uprightness; and with each feature
+modified by confluence with another character, if by nothing else, the
+character passes on to its incarnation in new bodies.
+
+
+CCXLV
+
+Only one rule of conduct could be based upon the remarkable theory of
+which I have endeavoured to give a reasoned outline. It was folly
+to continue to exist when an overplus of pain was certain; and the
+probabilities in favour of the increase of misery with the prolongation
+of existence, were so overwhelming. Slaying the body only made matters
+worse; there was nothing for it but to slay the soul by the voluntary
+arrest of all its activities. Property, social ties, family affections,
+common companionship, must be abandoned; the most natural appetites,
+even that for food, must be suppressed, or at least minimized; until all
+that remained of a man was the impassive, extenuated, mendicant monk,
+self-hypnotised into cataleptic trances, which the deluded mystic took
+for foretastes of the final union with Brahma.
+
+
+CCXLVI
+
+If the cosmos is the effect of an immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely
+beneficent cause, the existence in it of real evil, still less of
+necessarily inherent evil, is plainly inadmissible. Yet the universal
+experience of mankind testified then, as now, that, whether we look
+within us or without us, evil stares us in the face on all sides; that
+if anything is real, pain and sorrow and wrong are realities.
+
+It would be a new thing in history if _a priori_ philosophers were
+daunted by the factious opposition of experience; and the Stoics were
+the last men to allow themselves to be beaten by mere facts. "Give me a
+doctrine and I will find the reasons for it," said Chrysippus. So they
+perfected, if they did not invent, that ingenious and plausible form of
+pleading, the Theodicy; for the purpose of showing firstly, that
+there is no such thing as evil; secondly, that if there is, it is the
+necessary correlate of good; and, moreover, that it is either due to our
+own fault, or inflicted for our benefit.
+
+
+CCXLVII
+
+Unfortunately, it is much easier to shut one's eyes to good than to
+evil. Pain and sorrow knock at our doors more loudly than pleasure
+and happiness; and the prints of their heavy footsteps are less easily
+effaced.
+
+
+CCXLVIII
+
+In the language of the Stoa, "Nature" was a word of many meanings. There
+was the "Nature" of the cosmos, and the "Nature" of man. In the latter,
+the animal "nature," which man shares with a moiety of the living part
+of the cosmos, was distinguished from a higher "nature." Even in
+this higher nature there were grades of rank. The logical faculty is an
+instrument which may be turned to account for any purpose. The passions
+and the emotions are so closely tied to tne lower nature that they may
+be considered to be pathological, rather than normal, phenomena. The one
+supreme, hegemonic, faculty, which constitutes the essential "nature"
+of man, is most nearly represented by that which, in the language of a
+later philosophy, has been called the pure reason. It is this "nature"
+which holds up the ideal of the supreme good and demands absolute
+submission of the will to its behests. It is this which commands all men
+to love one another, to return good for evil, to regard one another as
+fellow-citizens of one great state. Indeed, seeing that the progress
+towards perfection of a civilised state, or polity, depends on the
+obedience of its members to these commands, the Stoics sometimes termed
+the pure reason the "political" nature. Unfortunately, the sense of the
+adjective has undergone so much modification that the application of it
+to that which commands the sacrifice of self to the common good would
+now sound almost grotesque.
+
+
+CCXLIX
+
+The majority of us, I apprehend, profess neither pessimism nor optimism.
+We hold that the world is neither so good, nor so bad, as it conceivably
+might be; and, as most of us have reason, now and again, to discover
+that it can be. Those who have failed to experience the joys that make
+life worth living are, probably, in as small a minority as those who
+have never known the griefs that rob existence of its savour and turn
+its richest fruits into mere dust and ashes.
+
+
+CCL
+
+There is another fallacy which appears to me to pervade the so-called
+"ethics of evolution." It is the notion that because, on the whole,
+animals and plants have advanced in perfection of organization by
+means of the struggle for existence and the consequent "survival of the
+fittest"; therefore men in society, men as ethical beings, must look to
+the same process to help them towards perfection. I suspect that this
+fallacy has arisen out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the phrase
+"survival of the fittest." "Fittest" has a connotation of "best"; and
+about "best" there hangs a moral flavour. In cosmic nature, however,
+what is "fittest" depends upon the conditions. Long since, I ventured to
+point out that if our hemisphere were to cool again, the survival of
+the fittest might bring about, in the vegetable kingdom, a population
+of more and more stunted and humbler and humbler organisms, until the
+"fittest" that survived might be nothing but lichens, diatoms, and such
+microscopic organisms as those which give red snow its colour; while, if
+it became hotter, the pleasant valleys of the Thames and Isis might
+be uninhabitable by any animated beings save those that flourish in a
+tropical jungle. They, as the fittest, the best adapted to the changed
+conditions, would survive.
+
+
+CCLI
+
+The practice of that which is ethically best--what we call goodness or
+virtue--involves a course of conduct which, in all respects, is opposed
+to that which leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence. In
+place of ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of
+thrusting aside, or treading down, all competitors, it requires that
+the individual shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows; its
+influence is directed, not so much to the survival of the fittest, as
+to the fitting of as many as possible to survive. It repudiates the
+gladiatorial theory of existence. It demands that each man who enters
+into the enjoyment of the advantages of a polity shall be mindful of his
+debt to those who have laboriously constructed it: and shall take heed
+that no act of his weakens the fabric in which he has been permitted
+to live. Laws and moral precepts are directed to the end of curbing
+the cosmic process and reminding the individual of his duty to the
+community, to the protection and influence of which he owes, if not
+existence itself, at least the life of something better than a brutal
+savage.
+
+
+CCLII
+
+The theory of evolution encourages no millennial anticipations. If, for
+millions of years, our globe has taken the upward road, yet, some time,
+the summit will be reached and the downward route will be commenced. The
+most daring imagination will hardly venture upon the suggestion that the
+power and the intelligence of man can ever arrest the procession of the
+great year.
+
+Moreover, the cosmic nature born with us and, to a large extent,
+necessary for our maintenance, is the outcome of millions of years of
+severe training, and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries
+will suffice to subdue its masterfulness to purely ethical ends. Ethical
+nature may count upon having to reckon with a tenacious and powerful
+enemy as long as the world lasts. But, on the other hand, I see no limit
+to the extent to which intelligence and will, guided by sound principles
+of investigation, and organized in common effort, may modify the
+conditions of existence, for a period longer than that now covered by
+history. And much may be done to change the nature of man himself.
+The intelligence which has converted the brother of the wolf into the
+faithful guardian of the flock ought to be able to do something towards
+curbing the instincts of savagery in civilized men.
+
+But if we may permit ourselves a larger hope of abatement of the
+essential evil of the world than was possible to those who, in the
+infancy of exact knowledge, faced the problem of existence more than
+a score of centuries ago, I deem it an essential condition of the
+realization of that hope that we should cast aside the notion that the
+escape from pain and sorrow is the proper object of life.
+
+
+CCLIII
+
+We have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our race, when
+good and evil could be met with the same "frolic welcome"; the attempts
+to escape from evil, whether Indian or Greek, have ended in flight
+from the battle-field; it remains to us to throw aside the youthful
+over-confidence and the no less youthful discouragement of nonage. We
+are grown men, and must play the man
+
+                           strong in will
+     To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield,
+
+cherishing the good that falls in our way, and bearing the evil, in and
+around us, with stout hearts set on diminishing it. So far, we all may
+strive in one faith towards one hope:
+
+     It may be that the gulfs will wash us down,
+     It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles,
+
+ .... but something ere the end,
+     Some work of noble note may yet be done.
+
+
+CCLIV
+
+I do not suppose that I am exceptionally endowed because I have all my
+life enjoyed a keen perception of the beauty offered us by nature and
+by art Now physical science may and probably will, some day, enable our
+posterity to set forth the exact physical concomitants and conditions of
+the strange rapture of beauty. But if ever that day arrives, the rapture
+will remain, just as it is now, outside and beyond the physical world;
+and, even in the mental world, something superadded to mere sensation.
+I do not wish to crow unduly over my humble cousin the orang, but in
+the aesthetic province, as in that of tine intellect, I am afraid he
+is nowhere. I doubt not he would detect a fruit amidst a wilderness of
+leaves where I could see nothing; but I am tolerably confident that he
+has never been awestruck, as I have been, by the dim religious gloom, as
+of a temple devoted to the earthgods, of the tropical forests which
+he inhabits. Yet I doubt not that our poor long-armed and short-legged
+friend, as he sits meditatively munching his durian fruit, has something
+behind that sad Socratic face of his which is utterly "beyond the bounds
+of physical science." Physical science may know all about his clutching
+the fruit and munching it and digesting it, and how the physical
+titillation of his palate is transmitted to some microscopic cells
+of the gray matter of his brain. But the feelings of sweetness and of
+satisfaction which, for a moment, hang out their signal lights in his
+melancholy eyes, are as utterly outside the bounds of physics as is the
+"fine frenzy" of a human rhapsodist.
+
+
+CCIV
+
+When I was a mere boy, with a perverse tendency to think when I ought
+to have been playing, my mind was greatly exercised by this formidable
+problem, What would become of things if they lost their qualities?
+As the qualities had no objective existence, and the thing without
+qualities was nothing, the solid world seemed whittled away--to my
+great horror. As I grew older, and learned to use the terms "matter"
+and "force," the boyish problem was revived, _mutato nomine_. On the
+one hand, the notion of matter without force seemed to resolve the world
+into a set of geometrical ghosts, too dead even to jabber. On the other
+hand, Boscovich's hypothesis, by which matter was resolved into centres
+of force, was very attractive. But when one tried to think it out,
+what in the world became of force considered as an objective entity?
+Force, even the most materialistic of philosophers will agree with the
+most idealistic, is nothing but a name for the cause of motion. And if,
+with Boscovich, I resolved things into centres of force, then matter
+vanished altogether and left immaterial entities in its place. One might
+as well frankly accept Idealism and have done with it.
+
+
+CCLVI
+
+Tolerably early in life I discovered that one of the unpardonable
+sins, in the eyes of most people, is for a man to presume to go about
+unlabeled. The world regards such a person as the police do an unmuzzled
+dog, not under proper control. I could find no label that would suit
+me, so, in my desire to range myself and be respectable, I invented one;
+and, as the chief thing I was sure of was that I did not know a great
+many things that the -ists and the -ites about me professed to be
+familiar with, I called myself an Agnostic. Surely no denomination could
+be more modest or more appropriate; and I cannot imagine why I should be
+every now and then haled out of my refuge and declared sometimes to be
+a Materialist, sometimes an Atheist, sometimes a Positivist, and
+sometimes, alas and alack, a cowardly or reactionary Obscurantist.
+
+
+CCLVII
+
+Lastly, with respect to the old riddle of the freedom of the will. In
+the only sense in which the word freedom is intelligible to me--that is
+to say, the absence of any restraint upon doing what one likes within
+certain limits--physical science certainly gives no more ground for
+doubting it than the common sense of mankind does. And if physical
+science, in strengthening our belief in the universality of causation
+and abolishing chance as an absurdity, leads to the conclusion of
+determinism, it does no more than follow the track of consistent and
+logical thinkers in philosophy and in theology, before it existed or was
+thought of. Whoever accepts the universality of the law of causation as
+a dogma of philosophy, denies the existence of uncaused phenomena. And
+the essence of that which is improperly called the freewill doctrine is
+that occasionally, at any rate, human volition is self-caused, that is
+to say, not caused at all; for to cause oneself one must have anteceded
+oneself--which is, to say the least of it, difficult to imagine.
+
+
+CCLVIII
+
+If the diseases of society consist in the weakness of its faith in
+the existence of the God of the theologians, in a future state, and in
+uncaused volitions, the indication, as the doctors say, is to suppress
+Theology and Philosophy, whose bickerings about things of which they
+know nothing have been the prime cause and continual sustenance of that
+evil scepticism which is the Nemesis of meddling with the unknowable.
+
+Cinderella is modestly conscious of her ignorance of these high matters.
+She lights the fire, sweeps the house, and provides the dinner; and is
+rewarded by being told that she is a base creature, devoted to low and
+material interests. But in her garret she has fairy visions out of the
+ken of the pair of shrews who are quarrelling downstairs. She sees the
+order which pervades the seeming disorder of the world; the great drama
+of evolution, with its full share of pity and terror, but also with
+abundant goodness and beauty, unrolls itself before her eyes; and she
+learns, in her heart of hearts, the lesson, that the foundation of
+morality is to have done, once and for all, with lying; to give up
+pretending to believe that for which there is no evidence, and repeating
+unintelligible propositions about things beyond the possibilities of
+knowledge.
+
+She knows that the safety of morality lies neither in the adoption of
+this or that philosophical speculation, or this or that theological
+creed, but in a real and living belief in that fixed order of nature
+which sends social disorganisation upon the track of immorality, as
+surely as it sends physical disease after physical trespasses. And of
+that firm and lively faith it is her high mission to be the priestess.
+
+
+CCLIX
+
+The first act of a new-born child is to draw a deep breath. In fact, it
+will never draw a deeper, inasmuch as the passages and chambers of the
+lungs, once distended with air, do not empty themselves again; it is
+only a fraction of their contents which passes in and out with the flow
+and the ebb of the respiratory tide. Mechanically, this act of drawing
+breath, or inspiration, is of the same nature as that by which the
+handles of a bellows are separated, in order to fill the bellows with
+air; and, in like manner, it involves that expenditure of energy which
+we call exertion, or work, or labour. It is, therefore, no mere metaphor
+to say that man is destined to a life of toil: the work of respiration
+which began with his first breath ends only with his last; nor does one
+born in the purple get off with a lighter task than the child who first
+sees light under a hedge.
+
+How is it that the new-born infant is enabled to perform this first
+instalment of the sentence of lifelong labour which no man may escape?
+Whatever else a child may be, in respect of this particular question, it
+is a complicated piece of mechanism, built up out of materials supplied
+by its mother; and in the course of such building-up, provided with a
+set of motors--the muscles. Each of these muscles contains a stock of
+substance capable of yielding energy under certain conditions, one of
+which is a change of state in the nerve-fibres connected with it The
+powder in a loaded gun is such another stock of substance capable of
+yielding energy in consequence of a change of state in the mechanism of
+the lock, which intervenes between the finger of the man who pulls
+the trigger and the cartridge. If that change is brought about, the
+potential energy of the powder passes suddenly into actual energy, and
+does the work of propelling the bullet The powder, therefore, may be
+appropriately called work-stuff not only because it is stuff which is
+easily made to yield work in the physical sense, but because a good
+deal of work in the economical sense has contributed to its production.
+Labour was necessary to collect, transport, and purify the raw sulphur
+and saltpetre; to cut wood and convert it into powdered charcoal; to
+mix these ingredients in the right proportions; to give the mixture the
+proper grain, and so on. The powder once formed part of the stock, or
+capital, of a powder-maker: and it is not only certain natural bodies
+which are collected and stored in the gunpowder, but the labour bestowed
+on the operations mentioned may be figuratively said to be incorporated
+in it.
+
+
+CCLX
+
+In principle, the work-stuff stored in the muscles of the new-born child
+is comparable to that stored in the gun-barrel. The infant is launched
+into altogether new surroundings; and these operate through the
+mechanism of the nervous machinery, with the result that the potential
+energy of some of the work-stuff in the muscles which bring about
+inspiration is suddenly converted into actual energy; and this,
+operating through the mechanism of the respiratory apparatus, gives rise
+to an act of inspiration. As the bullet is propelled by the "going off"
+of the powder, as it might be said that the ribs are raised and the
+midriff depressed by the "going off" of certain portions of muscular
+work-stuff. This work-stuff is part of a stock or capital of that
+commodity stored up in the child s organism before birth, at the expense
+of the mother; and the mother has made good her expenditure by drawing
+upon the capital of food-stuffs which furnished her daily maintenance.
+
+Under these circumstances, it does not appear to me to be open to doubt
+that the primary act of outward labour in the series which necessarily
+accompany the life of man is dependent upon the pre-existence of a stock
+of material which is not only of use to him, but which is disposed in
+such a manner as to be utilisable with facility. And I further imagine
+that the propriety of the application of the term "capital" to this
+stock of useful substance cannot be justly called in question; inasmuch
+as it is easy to prove that the essential constituents of the work-stuff
+accumulated in the child's muscles have merely been transferred from the
+store of food-stuffs, which everybody admits to be capital, by means
+of the maternal organism to that of the child, in which they are again
+deposited to await use. Every subsequent act of labour, in like
+manner, involves an equivalent consumption of the child's store of
+work-stuff--its vital capital; and one of the main objects of the
+process of breathing is to get rid of some of the effects of that
+consumption. It follows, then, that, even if no other than the
+respiratory work were going on in the organism, the capital of
+work-stuff, which the child brought with it into the world, must sooner
+or later be used up, and the movements of breathing must come to an end;
+just as the see-saw of the piston of a steam-engine stops when the coal
+in the fireplace has burnt away. Milk, however, is a stock of materials
+which essentially consists of savings from the food-stuffs supplied
+to the mother. And these savings are in such a physical and chemical
+condition that the organism of the child can easily convert them into
+work-stuff. That is to say, by borrowing directly from the vital
+capital of the mother, indirectly from the store in the natural bodies
+accessible to her; it can make good the loss of its own. The operation
+of borrowing, however, involves further work; that is, the labour of
+sucking, which is a mechanical operation of much the same nature as
+breathing. The child thus pays for the capital it borrows m labour; but
+as the value in work-stuff of the milk obtained is very far greater than
+the value of that labour, estimated by the consumption of work-stuff
+it involves, the operation yields a large profit to the infant. The
+overplus of food-stuff suffices to increase the child's capital of
+work-stuff; and to supply not only the materials for the enlargement of
+the "buildings and machinery" which is expressed by the child's growth,
+but also the energy required to put all these materials together, and
+to carry them to their proper places. Thus, throughout the years of
+infancy, and so long thereafter as the youth or man is not thrown upon
+his own resources, he lives by consuming the vital capital provided by
+others.
+
+
+CCLXI
+
+Let us now suppose the child come to man's estate in the condition of
+a wandering savage, dependent for his food upon what he can pick up or
+catch, after the fashion of the Australian aborigines. It is plain that
+the place of mother, as the supplier of vital capital, is now taken
+by the fruits, seeds, and roots of plants and by various kinds of
+animals....
+
+The savage, like the child, borrows the capital he needs, and, at any
+rate, intentionally, does nothing towards repayment; it would plainly be
+an improper use of the word "produce" to say that his labour in hunting
+for the roots, or the fruits, or the eggs, or the grubs and snakes,
+which he finds and eats, "produces" or contributes to "produce" them.
+The same thing is true of more advanced tribes, who are still merely
+hunters, such as the Esquimaux. They may expend more labour and skill;
+but it is spent in destruction.
+
+
+CCLXII
+
+When we find set forth as an "absolute" truth the statement that
+the essential factors in economic production are land, capital and
+labour--when this is offered as an axiom whence all sorts of other
+important truths may be deduced--it is needful to remember that the
+assertion is true only with a qualification. Undoubtedly "vital capital"
+is essential; for, as we have seen, no human work can be done unless it
+exists, not even that internal work of the body which is necessary to
+passive life. But, with respect to labour (that is, human labour) I hope
+to have left no doubt on the reader's mind that, m regard to production,
+the importance of human labour may be so small as to be almost a
+vanishing quantity.
+
+
+CCLXIII
+
+The one thing needful for economic production is the green plant, as the
+sole producer of vital capital from natural inorganic bodies. Men might
+exist without labour (in the ordinary sense) and without land; without
+plants they must inevitably perish.
+
+
+CCLXIV
+
+Since no amount of labour can produce an ounce of food-stuff beyond
+the maximum producible by a limited number of plants, under the most
+favourable circumstances in regard to those conditions which are not
+affected by labour, it follows that, if the number of men to be fed
+increases indefinitely, a time must come when some will have to starve.
+That is the essence of the so-called Malthusian doctrine; and it is a
+truth which, to my mind, is as plain as the general proposition that a
+quantity which constantly increases will, some time or other, exceed any
+greater quantity the amount of which is fixed.
+
+
+CCLXV
+
+"Virtually" is apt to cover more intellectual sins than "charity" does
+moral delicts.
+
+
+CCLXVI
+
+The notion that the value of a thing bears any necessary relation to the
+amount of labour (average or otherwise) bestowed upon it, is a fallacy
+which needs no further refutation than it has already received. The
+average amount of labour bestowed upon warming-pans confers no value
+upon them in the eyes of a Gold-Coast negro; nor would an Esquimaux give
+a slice of blubber for the most elaborate of ice-machines.
+
+
+CCLXVII
+
+Who has ever imagined that wealth which, in the hands of an employer,
+is capital, ceases to be capital if it is in the hands of a labourer?
+Suppose a workman to be paid thirty shillings on Saturday evening for
+six days' labour, that thirty shillings comes out of the employer's
+capital, and receives the name of "wages" simply because it is exchanged
+for labour. In the workman's pocket, as he goes home, it is a part of
+his capital, in exactly the same sense as, half an hour before, it was
+part of the employer's capital; he is a capitalist just as much as if he
+were a Rothschild.
+
+
+CCLXVIII
+
+I think it may be not too much to say that, of all the political
+delusions which are current in this queer world, the very stupidest are
+those which assume that labour and capital are necessarily antagonistic;
+that all capital is produced by labour and therefore, by natural right,
+is the property of the labourer; that the possessor of capital is a
+robber who preys on the workman and appropriates to himself that which
+he has had no share in producing.
+
+On the contrary, capital and labour are necessarily, close allies;
+capital is never a product of human labour alone; it exists apart from
+human labour; it is the necessary antecedent of labour; and it furnishes
+the materials on which labour is employed. The only indispensable form
+of capital--vital capital--cannot be produced by human labour. All that
+man can do is to favour its formation by the real producers. There is no
+intrinsic relation between the amount of labour bestowed on an article
+and its value in exchange. The claim of labour to the total result of
+operations which are rendered possible only by capital is simply an _a
+priori_ iniquity.
+
+
+CCLXIX
+
+The vast and varied procession of events, which we call Nature, affords
+a sublime spectacle and an inexhaustible wealth of attractive problems
+to the speculative observer. If we confine our attention to that aspect
+which engages the attention of the intellect, nature appears a beautiful
+and harmonious whole, the incarnation of a faultless logical process,
+from certain premisses in the past to an inevitable conclusion in the
+future. But if it be regarded from a less elevated, though more human,
+point of view; if our moral sympathies are allowed to influence our
+judgment, and we permit ourselves to criticize our great mother as we
+criticize one another; then our verdict, at least so far as sentient
+nature is concerned, can hardly be so favourable.
+
+In sober truth, to those who have made a study of the phenomena of
+life as they are exhibited by the higher forms of the animal world, the
+optimistic dogma, that this is the best of all possible worlds, will
+seem little better than a libel upon possibility. It is really only
+another instance to be added to the many extant, of the audacity of _a
+priori_ speculators who, having created God in their own image, find no
+difficulty in assuming that the Almighty must have been actuated by
+the same motives as themselves. They are quite sure that, had any other
+course been practicable, He would no more have made infinite suffering
+a necessary ingredient of His handiwork than a respectable philosopher
+would have done the like.
+
+But even the modified optimism of the time-honoured thesis of
+physico-theology, that the sentient world is, on the whole, regulated
+by principles of benevolence, does but ill stand the test of impartial
+confrontation with the facts of the case. No doubt it is quite true
+that sentient nature affords hosts of examples of subtle contrivances
+directed towards the production of pleasure or the avoidance of pain;
+and it may be proper to say that these are evidences of benevolence.
+But if so, why is it not equally proper to say of the equally numerous
+arrangements, the no less necessary result of which is the production of
+pain, that they are evidences of malevolence?
+
+If a vast amount of that which, in a piece of human workmanship, we
+should call skill, is visible in those parts of the organization of a
+deer to which it owes its ability to escape from beasts of prey, there
+is at least equal skill displayed in that bodily mechanism of the wolf
+which enables him to track, and sooner or later to bring down, the
+deer. Viewed under the dry light of science, deer and wolf are alike
+admirable; and, if both were non-sentient automata, there would be
+nothing to qualify our admiration of the action of the one on the other.
+But the fact that the deer suffers, while the wolf inflicts suffering,
+engages our moral sympathies. We should call men like the deer innocent
+and good, men such as the wolf malignant and bad; we should call those
+who defended the deer and aided him to escape brave and compassionate,
+and those who helped the wolf in his bloody work base and cruel. Surely,
+if we transfer these judgments to nature outside the world of man at
+all, we must do so impartially. In that case, the goodness of the right
+hand which helps the deer, and wickedness of the left hand which eggs
+on the wolf, will neutralize one another: and the course of nature will
+appear to be neither moral nor immoral, but non-moral.
+
+This conclusion is thrust upon us by analogous facts in every part of
+the sentient world; yet, mas-much as it not only jars upon prevalent
+prejudices, but arouses the natural dislike to that which is painful,
+much ingenuity has been exercised in devising an escape from it.
+
+
+CCLXX
+
+From the point of view of the moralist the animal world is on about the
+same level as a gladiator's show. The creatures are fairly well
+treated, and set to fight--whereby the strongest, the swiftest, and the
+cunningest live to fight another day. The spectator has no need to turn
+his thumbs down, as no quarter is given. He must admit that the skill
+and training displayed are wonderful. But he must shut his eyes if he
+would not see that more or less enduring suffering is the meed of both
+vanquished and victor. And since the great game is going on in every
+corner of the world, thousands of times a minute; since, were our ears
+sharp enough, we need not descend to the gates of hell to hear--
+
+       ....sospiri, pianti, ed alti guai.
+     Voci alte e fioche, e suon di man con elle
+
+--it seems to follow that, if this world is governed by benevolence, it
+must be a different sort of benevolence from that of John Howard.
+
+
+CCLXXI
+
+This may not be the best of all possible worlds, but to say that it
+is the worst is mere petulant nonsense. A worn-out voluptuary may find
+nothing good under the sun, or a vain and inexperienced youth, who
+cannot get the moon he cries for, may vent his irritation in pessimistic
+moanings; but there can be no doubt in the mind of any reasonable
+person that mankind could, would, and in fact do, get on fairly well
+with vastly less happiness and far more misery than find their way into
+the lives of nine people out of ten. If each and all of us had been
+visited by an attack of neuralgia, or of extreme mental depression,
+for one hour in every twenty-four--a supposition which many tolerably
+vigorous people know, to their cost, is not extravagant--the burden
+of life would have been immensely increased without much practical
+hindrance to its general course. Men with any manhood in them find life
+quite worth living under worse conditions than these.
+
+
+CCLXXII
+
+There is another sufficiently obvious fact, which renders the hypothesis
+that the course of sentient nature is dictated by malevolence quite
+untenable. A vast multitude of pleasures, and these among the purest and
+the best, are superfluities, bits of good which are to all appearance
+unnecessary as inducements to live, and are, so to speak, thrown into
+the bargain of life. To those who experience them, few delights can be
+more entrancing than such as are afforded by natural beauty, or by the
+arts, and especially by music; but they are products of, rather than
+factors in, evolution, and it is probable that they are known, in any
+considerable degree, to but a very small proportion of mankind.
+
+
+CCLXXIII
+
+The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be that, if Ormuzd has not
+had his way in this world, neither has Ahriman. Pessimism is as little
+consonant with the facts of sentient existence as optimism. If we desire
+to represent the course of nature in terms of human thought, and assume
+that it was intended to be that which it is, we must say that its
+governing principle is intellectual and not moral; that it is a
+materialized logical process, accompanied by pleasures and pains, the
+incidence of which, in the majority of cases, has not the slightest
+reference to moral desert That the rain falls alike upon the just and
+the unjust, and that those upon whom the Tower of Siloam fell were no
+worse than their neighbours, seem to be Oriental modes of expressing the
+same conclusion.
+
+
+CCLXXIV
+
+In the strict sense of the word "nature," it denotes the sum of the
+phenomenal world, of that which has been, and is, and will be; and
+society, like art, is therefore a part of nature. But it is convenient
+to distinguish those parts of nature in which man plays the part of
+immediate cause, as something apart; and therefore, society, like art,
+is usefully to be considered as distinct from nature. It is the more
+desirable, and even necessary, to make this distinction, since society
+differs from nature in having a definite moral object; whence it comes
+about that the course shaped by the ethical man--the member of society
+or citizen--necessarily runs counter to that which tne non-ethical
+man--the primitive savage, or man as a mere member of the animal
+kingdom--tends to adopt. The latter fights out the struggle for
+existence to the bitter end, like any other animal; the former devotes
+his best energies to the object of setting limits to the struggle.
+
+
+CCLXXV
+
+The first men who substituted the state of mutual peace for that of
+mutual war, whatever the motive which impelled them to take that step,
+created society. But, in establishing peace, they obviously put a limit
+upon the struggle for existence. Between the members of that society,
+at any rate, it was not to be pursued _a outrance_. And of all the
+successive shapes which society has taken, that most nearly approaches
+perfection in which the war of individual against individual is most
+strictly limited. The primitive savage, tutored by Istar, appropriated
+whatever took his fancy, and killed whosoever opposed him, if he could.
+On the contrary, the ideal of the ethical man is to limit his freedom
+of action to a sphere in which he does not interfere with the freedom of
+others; he seeks the common weal as much as his own; and, indeed, as an
+essential part of his own welfare. Peace is both end and means with him;
+and he founds his life on a more or less complete self-restraint, which
+is the negation of the unlimited struggle for existence. He tries
+to escape from his place in the animal kingdom, founded on the free
+development of the principle of non-moral evolution, and to establish
+a kingdom of Man, governed upon the principle of moral evolution. For
+society not only has a moral end, but in its perfection, social life, is
+embodied morality.
+
+
+CCLXXVI
+
+I was once talking with a very eminent physician* about the vis
+medicatrix naturae. "Stuff!" said he; "nine times out of ten nature does
+not want to cure the man: she wants to put him in his coffin."
+
+     * The late Sir W. Gull.
+
+
+CCLXXVII
+
+Let us look at home. For seventy years peace and industry have had their
+way among us with less interruption and under more favourable conditions
+than in any other country on the face of the earth. The wealth
+of Croesus was nothing to that which we have accumulated, and our
+prosperity has filled the world with envy. But Nemesis did not forget
+Croesus: has she forgotten us?
+
+
+CCLXXVIII
+
+Judged by an ethical standard, nothing can be less satisfactory than
+the position in which we find ourselves. In a real, though incomplete,
+degree we have attained the condition of peace which is the main object
+of social organization; and, for argument's sake, it may be assumed
+that we desire nothing but that which is in itself innocent and
+praiseworthy--namely, the enjoyment of the fruits of honest industry.
+And lo! in spite of ourselves, we are in reality engaged in an
+internecine struggle for existence with our presumably no less peaceful
+and well-meaning neighbours. We seek peace and we do not ensue it. The
+moral nature in us asks for no more than is compatible with the general
+good; the non-moral nature proclaims and acts upon that fine old
+Scottish family motto, "Thou shalt starve ere I want." Let us be under
+no illusions, then. So long as unlimited multiplication goes on, no
+social organization which has ever been devised, or is likely to be
+devised, no fiddle-faddling with the distribution of wealth, will
+deliver society from the tendency to be destroyed by the reproduction
+within itself, in its intensest form, of that struggle for existence the
+limitation of which is the object of society. And however shocking
+to the moral sense this eternal competition of man against man and of
+nation against nation may be; however revolting may be the accumulation
+of misery at the negative pole of society, in contrast with that of
+monstrous wealth at the positive pole; this state of things must abide,
+and grow continually worse, so long as Istar holds her way unchecked. It
+is the true riddle of the Sphinx; and every nation which does not solve
+it will sooner or later be devoured by the monster itself has generated.
+
+
+CCLXXIX
+
+It would be folly to entertain any ill-feeling towards those neighbours
+and rivals who, like ourselves, are slaves of Istar; but if somebody
+is to be starved, the modern world has no Oracle of Delphi to which the
+nations can appeal for an indication of the victim. It is open to us
+to try our fortune; and, if we avoid impending fate, there will be a
+certain ground for believing: that we are the right people to escape.
+_Securus judical orbis_.
+
+To this end, it is well to look into the necessary conditions of our
+salvation by works. They are two, one plain to all the world and hardly
+needing insistence; the other seemingly not so plain, since too often
+it has been theoretically and practically left out of sight The obvious
+condition is that our produce snail be better than that of others. There
+is only one reason why our goods should be referred to those of our
+rivals--our customers must find them better at the price. That means
+that we must use more knowledge, skill, and industry in producing them,
+without a proportionate increase in the cost of production; and, as the
+price of labour constitutes a large element in that cost, the rate of
+wages must be restricted within certain limits. It is perfectly true
+that cheap production and cheap labour are by no means synonymous; but
+it is also true that wages cannot increase beyond a certain proportion
+without destroying cheapness. Cheapness, then, with, as part and parcel
+of cheapness, a moderate price of labour, is essential to our success as
+competitors in the markets of the world.
+
+The second condition is really quite as plainly indispensable as the
+first, if one thinks seriously about the matter. It is social stability.
+Society-is stable when the wants of its members obtain as much
+satisfaction as, life being what it is, common sense and experience show
+may be reasonably expected. Mankind, in general, care very little for
+forms of government or ideal considerations of any sort; and nothing
+really stirs the great multitude to break with custom and incur the
+manifest perils of revolt except the belief that misery in this world,
+or damnation in the next, or both, are threatened by the continuance of
+the state of things in which they have been brought up. But when they
+do attain that conviction, society becomes as unstable as a package of
+dynamite, and a very small matter will produce the explosion which sends
+it back to the chaos of savagery.
+
+
+CCLXXX
+
+Intelligence, knowledge, and skill are undoubtedly conditions of
+success; but of what avail are they likely to be unless they are
+backed up by honesty, energy, goodwill, and all the physical and
+moral faculties that go to the making of manhood, and unless they are
+stimulated by hope of such reward as men may fairly look to? And what
+dweller in the slough of want, dwarfed in body and soul, demoralized,
+hopeless, can reasonably be expected to possess these qualities?
+
+
+CCLXXXI
+
+I am as strongly convinced as the most pronounced individualist can be,
+that it is desirable that every man should be free to act in every way
+which does not limit the corresponding freedom of his fellow-man. But
+I fail to connect that great induction of political science with
+the practical corollary which is frequently drawn from it: that the
+State--that is, the people in their corporate capacity--has no business
+to meddle with anything but the administration of justice and external
+defence. It appears to me that the amount of freedom which incorporate
+society may fitly leave to its members is not a fixed quantity, to be
+determined _a priori_ by deduction from the fiction called
+"natural rights"; but that it must be determined by, and vary with,
+circumstances. I conceive it to be demonstrable that the higher and the
+more complex the organization of the social body, the more closely is
+the life of each member bound up with that of the whole; and the larger
+becomes the category of acts which cease to be merely self-regarding, and
+which interfere with the freedom of others more or less seriously.
+
+If a squatter, living ten miles away from any neighbour, chooses to burn
+his house down to get rid of vermin, there may be no necessity (in the
+absence of insurance offices) that the law should interfere with his
+freedom of action; his act can hurt nobody but himself. But if the
+dweller in a street chooses to do the same thing, the State very
+properly makes such a proceeding a crime, and punishes it as such. He
+does meddle with his neighbour's freedom, and that seriously. So it
+might, perhaps, be a tenable doctrine, that it would be needless, and
+even tyrannous, to make education compulsory in a sparse agricultural
+population, living in abundance on the produce of its own soil; but, in
+a densely populated manufacturing country, struggling for existence with
+competitors, every ignorant person tends to become a burden upon, and,
+so far, an infringer of the liberty of, his fellows, and an obstacle to
+their success. Under such circumstances an education rate is, in fact, a
+war tax, levied for purposes of defence.
+
+
+CCLXXXII
+
+That State action always has been more or less misdirected, and always
+will be so, is, I believe, perfectly true. But I am not aware that it is
+more true of the action of men in their corporate capacity than it is
+of the doings of individuals. The wisest and most dispassionate man
+in existence, merely wishing to go from one stile in a field to the
+opposite, will not walk quite straight--he is always going a little
+wrong, and always correcting himself; and I can only congratulate the
+individualist who is able to say that his general course of life has
+been of a less undulatory character. To abolish State action, because
+its direction is never more than approximately correct, appears to me
+to be much the same thing as abolishing the man at the wheel altogether,
+because, do what he will, the ship yaws more or less. "Why should I be
+robbed of my property to pay for teaching another man's children?" is an
+individualist question, which is not unfrequently put as if it settles
+the whole business. Perhaps it does, but I find difficulties in seeing
+why it should. The parish in which I live makes me pay my share for the
+paving and lighting of a great many streets that I never pass through;
+and I might plead that I am robbed to smooth the way and lighten the
+darkness of other people. But I am afraid the parochial authorities
+would not let me off on this plea; and I must confess I do not see why
+they should.
+
+
+CCLXXXIII
+
+I cannot speak of my own knowledge, but I have every reason to believe
+that I came into this world a small reddish person, certainly without
+a gold spoon in my mouth, and in fact with no discernible abstract or
+concrete "rights" or property of any description. If a foot was not
+set upon me at once, as a squalling nuisance, it was either the natural
+affection of those about me, which I certainly had done nothing to
+deserve, or the fear of the law which, ages before my birth, was
+painfully built up by the society into which I intruded, that prevented
+that catastrophe. If I was nourished, cared for, taught, saved from the
+vagabondage of a wastrel, I certainly am not aware that I did anything
+to deserve those advantages. And, if I possess anything now, it strikes
+me that, though I may have fairly earned my day's wages for my
+day's work, and may justly call them my property--yet, without that
+organization of society, created out of the toil and blood of long
+generations before my time, I should probably have had nothing but a
+flint axe and an indifferent hut to call my own; and even those would be
+mine only so long as no stranger savage came my way.
+
+So that if society, having, quite gratuitously, done all these things
+for me, asks me in turn to do something towards its preservation--even
+if that something is to contribute to the teaching of other men's
+children--I really, in spite of all my individualist learnings, feel
+rather ashamed to say no. And, if I were not ashamed, I cannot say that
+I think that society would be dealing unjustly with me in converting
+the moral obligation into a legal one. There is a manifest unfairness in
+letting all the burden be borne by the willing horse.
+
+
+CCLXXXIV
+
+It is impossible to insist too strongly upon the fact that efficient
+teachers of science and of technology are not to be made by the
+processes in vogue at ordinary training colleges. The memory loaded with
+mere bookwork is not the thing wanted--is, in fact, rather worse
+than useless--in the teacher of scientific subjects. It is absolutely
+essential that his mind should be full of knowledge and not of mere
+learning, and that what he knows should have been learned in the
+laboratory rather than in the library.
+
+
+CCLXXXV
+
+The attempt to form a just conception of the value of work done in any
+department of human knowledge, and of its significance as an indication
+of the intellectual and moral qualities of which it was the product,
+is an undertaking which must always be beset with difficulties, and may
+easily end in making the limitations of the appraiser more obvious
+than the true worth of that which he appraises. For the judgment of a
+contemporary is liable to be obscured by intellectual incompatibilities
+and warped by personal antagonisms; while the critic of a later
+generation, though he may escape the influence of these sources of
+error, is often ignorant, or forgetful, of the conditions under which
+the labours of his predecessors have been carried on. He is prone to
+lose sight of the fact that without their clearing of the ground and
+rough-hewing of the foundation-stones, the stately edifice of later
+builders could not have been erected.
+
+
+CCLXXXVI
+
+The vulgar antithesis of fact and theory is founded on a misconception
+of the nature of scientific theory, which is, or ought to be, no more
+than the expression of fact in a general form. Whatever goes beyond such
+expression is hypothesis; and hypotheses are not ends, but means. They
+should be regarded as instruments by which new lines of inquiry
+are indicated; or by the aid of which a provisional coherency and
+intelligibility may be given to seemingly disconnected groups of
+phenomena. The most useful of servants to the man of science, they
+are the worst of masters. And when the establishment of the hypothesis
+becomes the end, and fact is alluded to only so far as it suits the
+"Idee," science has no longer anything to do with the business.
+
+
+CCLXXXVII
+
+Scientific observation tell us that living birds form a group or class
+of animals, through which a certain form of skeleton runs; and that this
+kind of skeleton differs in certain well-defined characters from that of
+mammals. On the other hand, if anyone utterly ignorant of osteology, but
+endowed with the artistic sense of form, were set before a bird skeleton
+and a mammalian skeleton, he would at once see that the two were
+similar and yet different. Very likely he would be unable to give
+clear expression to his just sense of the differences and resemblances;
+perhaps he would make great mistakes in detail if he tried.
+Nevertheless, he would be able to draw from memory a couple of sketches,
+in which all the salient points of likeness and unlikeness would be
+reproduced with sufficient accuracy. The mere osteologist, however
+accurately he might put the resemblances and differences into words,
+if he lacked the artistic visualising faculty, might be hopelessly
+incompetent to perform any such feat; lost in details, it might not even
+occur to him that it was possible; or, still more probably, the habit of
+looking for differences might impair the perception of resemblances.
+
+Under these circumstances, the artist might be led to higher and broader
+views, and thus be more useful to the progress of science than the
+osteological expert. Not that the former attains the higher truth by a
+different method; for the way of reaching truth is one and indivisible.
+Whether he knows it or not, the artist has made a generalization
+from two sets of facts, which is perfectly scientific in form;
+and trustworthy so far as it rests upon the direct perception of
+similarities and dissimilarities. The only peculiarity of the artistic
+application of scientific method lies in the artist's power of
+visualizing the result of his mental processes, of embodying the facts
+of resemblance in a visible "type," and of showing the manner in which
+the differences may be represented as modifications of that type;
+he does, in fact, instinctively, what an architect, who desires to
+demonstrate the community of plan in certain ancient temples, does by
+the methodical construction of plans, sections, and elevations; the
+comparison of which will furnish him with the "type" of such temples.
+
+Thus, what I may term the artistic fashion of dealing with anatomy is
+not only perfectly legitimate, but has been of great utility. The harm
+of it does not begin until tine attempt is made to get more out of this
+visual projection of thought than it contains; until the origin of the
+notion of "type" is forgotten and the speculative philosopher deludes
+himself with the supposition that the generalization suggested by fact
+is an "Idea" of the Pure Reason, with which fact must, somehow or other,
+be made to agree.
+
+
+CCLXXXVIII
+
+Flowers are the primers of the morphologist; those who run may read in
+them uniformity of type amidst endless diversity, singleness of plan
+with complex multiplicity of detail. As a musician might say, every
+natural group of flowering plants is a sort of visible fugue, wandering
+about a central theme which is never forsaken, however it may,
+momentarily, cease to be apparent.
+
+
+CCLXXXIX
+
+Like all the really great men of literature, Goethe added some of the
+qualities of the man of science to those of the artist, especially the
+habit of careful and patient observation of Nature. The great poet
+was no mere book-learned speculator. His acquaintance with mineralogy,
+geology, botany and osteology, the fruit of long and wide studies, would
+have sufficed to satisfy the requirements of a professoriate in those
+days, if only he could have pleaded ignorance of everything else.
+Unfortunately for Goethe's credit with his scientific contemporaries,
+and, consequently, for the attention attracted by his work, he did not
+come forward as a man of science until the public had ranged him among
+the men of literature. And when the little men have thus classified a
+big man, they consider that the last word has been said about him; it
+appears to the thought hardly decent on his part if he venture to stray
+beyond the speciality they have assigned to him. It does not seem to
+occur to them that a clear intellect is an engine capable of supplying
+power to all sorts of mental factories; nor to admit that, as Goethe
+somewhere pathetically remarks, a man may have a right to live for
+himself as well as for the public; to follow the line of work that
+happens to interest him, rather than that which interests them.
+
+On the face of the matter it is not obvious that the brilliant poet had
+less chance of doing good service in natural science than the dullest of
+dissectors and nomenclators. Indeed, as I have endeavoured to indicate,
+there was considerable reason, a hundred years ago, for thinking that an
+infusion of the artistic way of looking at things might tend to revivify
+the somewhat mummified body of technical zoology and botany. Great ideas
+were floating about; the artistic apprehension was needed to give
+these airy nothings a local habitation and a name; to convert vague
+suppositions into definite hypotheses. And I apprehend that it was
+just this service which Goethe rendered by writing his essays on the
+intermaxillary bone, on osteology generally, and on the metamorphoses of
+plants.
+
+
+CCXC
+
+All this is mere justice to Goethe; but, as it is the unpleasant duty of
+the historian to do justice upon, as well as to, great men, it behoves
+me to add that the germs of the worst faults of later ioeculative
+morphologists are no less visible in his writings than their great
+merits. In the artist-philosopher there was, at best, a good deal more
+artist than philosopher; and when Goethe ventured into the regions which
+belong to pure science, this excess of a virtue had all the consequences
+of a vice. "Trennen und zahlen lag nicht in meiner Natur," says he; but
+the mental operations of which "analysis and numeration" are partial
+expressions are indispensable for every step of progress beyond happy
+glimpses, even in morphology; while, in physiology and in physics,
+failure in the most exact performance of these operations involves
+sheer disaster, as indeed Goethe was afforded abundant opportunity of
+learning. Yet he never understood the sharp lessons he received, and
+put down to malice, or prejudice, the ill-reception of his unfortunate
+attempts to deal with purely physical problems.
+
+
+CCXCI
+
+There was never any lack of the scientific imagination about the great
+anatomist; and the charge of indifference to general ideas, sometimes
+brought against him, is stupidly unjust. But Cuvier was one of those
+happily endowed persons in whom genius never parts company with
+common-sense; and whose perception of the importance of sound method is
+so great that they look at even a truth, hit upon by those who pursue
+an essentially vicious method, with the sort of feeling with which an
+honest trader regards the winnings of a gambler. They hold it better
+to remain poor than obtain riches by the road that, as a rule, leads to
+ruin.
+
+
+CCXCII
+
+The irony of history is nowhere more apparent than in science. Here we
+see the men, over whose minds the coming events of the world of biology
+cast their shadows, doing their best to spoil their case in stating it;
+while the man who represented sound scientific method is doing his best
+to stay the inevitable progress of thought and bolster up antiquated
+traditions. The progress of knowledge during the last seventy years
+enables us to see that neither Geoffroy, nor Cuvier, was altogether
+right nor altogether wrong; and that they were meant to hunt m couples
+instead of pulling against one another. Science has need of servants of
+very different qualifications; of artistic constructors no less than of
+men of business; of people to design her palaces and of others to see
+that the materials are sound and well-fitted together; of some to spur
+investigators, and of others to keep their heads cool. The only would-be
+servants, who are entirely unprofitable, are those who do not take the
+trouble to interrogate Nature, but imagine vain things about her; and
+spin, from their inner consciousness, webs, as exquisitely symmetrical
+as those of the most geometrical of spiders, but alas! as easily torn to
+pieces by some inconsidered bluebottle of a fact.
+
+
+CCXCIII
+
+There is always a Cape Horn in one's life that one either weathers or
+wrecks one's self on.
+
+
+CCXCIV
+
+A Local Museum should be exactly what its name implies, viz.,
+"Local"--illustrating local Geology, local Botany, local Zoology, and
+local Archaeology.
+
+Such a museum, if residents who are interested in these sciences take
+proper pains, may be brought to a great degree of perfection and be
+unique of its kind. It will tell both natives and strangers exactly what
+they want to know, and possess great scientific interest and importance.
+Whereas the ordinary lumber-room of clubs from New Zealand, Hindoo
+idols, sharks' teeth, mangy monkeys, scorpions, and conch shells--who
+shall describe the weary inutility of it? It is really worse than
+nothing, because it leads the unwary to look for the objects of science
+elsewhere than under their noses. What they want to know is that their
+"America is here," as Wilhelm Meister has it.
+
+
+CCXCV
+
+A man who speaks out honestly and fearlessly that which he knows,
+and that which he believes, will always enlist the good-will and the
+respect, however much he may fail in winning the assent, of his fellow
+men.
+
+
+CCXCVI
+
+Science and literature are not two things, but two sides of one thing.
+
+
+CCXCVII
+
+I neither deny nor affirm the immortality of man. I see no reason for
+believing in it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disproving
+it.
+
+I have no _a priori_ objections to the doctrine. No man who has to
+deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about _a priori_
+difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing
+anything else, and I will believe that Why should I not? It is not half
+so wonderful as the conservation of force, or the indestructibility of
+matter. <
+
+Whoso clearly appreciates all that is implied in the falling of a stone
+can have no difficulty about any doctrine simply on account of its
+marvellousness. But the longer I live, the more obvious it is to me that
+the most sacred act of a man's life is to say and to feel, "I believe
+such and such to be true." All the greatest rewards and all the heaviest
+penalties of existence cling about that act The universe is one and the
+same throughout; and if the condition of my success in unravelling some
+little difficulty of anatomy or physiology is that I shall rigorously
+refuse to put faith in that which does not rest on sufficient evidence,
+I cannot believe that the great mysteries of existence will be laid open
+to me on other terms.
+
+
+CCXCVIII
+
+I cannot conceive of my personality as a thing apart from the phenomena
+of my life. When I try to form such a conception I discover that, as
+Coleridge would have said, I only hypostatize a word, and it alters
+nothing if, with Fichte, I suppose the universe to be nothing but a
+manifestation of my personality. I am neither more nor less eternal than
+I was before.
+
+
+CCXCIX
+
+I do not know whether the animals persist after they disappear or not. I
+do not even know whether the infinite difference between us and them
+may not be compensated by _their_ persistence and _my_ cessation after
+apparent death, just as the humble bulb of an annual fives, whilst the
+glorious flowers it has put forth die away.
+
+
+CCC
+
+My business is to teach my aspirations to confirm themselves to fact,
+not to try and make facts harmonize with my aspirations.
+
+
+CCCI
+
+Science seems to me to teach in the highest and strongest manner the
+great truth which is embodied in the Christian conception of entire
+surrender to the will of God. Sit down before fact as a little child,
+be prepared to give up every preconceived notion, follow numbly wherever
+and to whatever abysses nature leads, or you shall learn nothing. I have
+only begun to learn content and peace of mind since I have resolved at
+all risks to do this.
+
+
+CCCII
+
+There are, however, other arguments commonly brought forward in favour
+of the immortality of man, which are to my mind not only delusive but
+mischievous. The one is the notion that the moral government of the
+world is imperfect without a system of future rewards and punishments.
+The other is: that such a system is indispensable to practical morality.
+I believe that both these dogmas are very mischievous lies.
+
+With respect to the first, I am no optimist, but I have the firmest
+belief that the Divine Government (if we may use such a phrase to
+express the sum of the "customs of matter") is wholly just The more I
+know intimately of the lives of other men (to say nothing of my own),
+the more obvious it is to me that the wicked does _not_ flourish nor is
+the righteous punished. But for this to be clear we must bear in mind
+what almost all forget, that the rewards of life are contingent upon
+obedience to the _whole_ Law--physical as well as moral--and that moral
+obedience will not atone for physical sin, or _vice versa_.
+
+
+CCCIII
+
+The ledger of the Almighty is strictly kept, and every one of us has the
+balance of his operations paid over to him at the end of every minute of
+his existence.
+
+Life cannot exist without a certain conformity to the surrounding
+universe--that conformity involves a certain amount of happiness in
+excess of pain. In short, as we live we are paid for living.
+
+
+CCCIV
+
+It is to be recollected in view of the apparent discrepancy between
+men's acts and their rewards that Nature is juster than we. She takes
+into account what a man brings with him into the world, which human
+justice cannot do. If I, born a bloodthirsty and savage brute,
+inheriting these qualities from others, kill you, my fellow-men will
+very justly hang me, but I shall not be visited with the horrible
+remorse which would be my real punishment if, my nature being higher, I
+had done the same thing.
+
+
+CCCV
+
+The absolute justice of the system of things is as clear to me as any
+scientific fact The gravitation of sin to sorrow is as certain as that
+of the earth to the sun, and more so--for experimental proof of the fact
+is within reach of us all--nay, is before us all in our own lives, if we
+had but the eyes to see it.
+
+
+CCCVI
+
+Not only do I disbelieve in the need for compensation, but I believe
+that the seeking for rewards and punishments out of this life leads men
+to a ruinous ignorance of the fact that their inevitable rewards and
+punishments are here.
+
+
+CCCVII
+
+If the expectation of hell hereafter can keep me from evil-doing, surely
+_a fortiori_ the certainty of hell now will do so? If a man could be
+firmly impressed with the belief that stealing damaged him as much as
+swallowing arsenic would do (and it does), would not the dissuasive
+force of that belief be greater than that of any based on mere future
+expectations?
+
+
+CCCVIII
+
+As I stood behind the coffin of my little son the other day, with my
+mind bent on anything but disputation, the officiating minister read, as
+a part of his duty, the words, "If the dead rise not again, let us eat
+and drink, for to-morrow we die." I cannot tell you how inexpressibly
+they shocked me. Paul had neither wife nor child, or he must have known
+that his alternative involved a blasphemy against all that was best and
+noblest in human nature. I could have laughed with scorn. What! because
+I am face to face with irreparable loss, because I have given back to
+the source from whence it came, the cause of a great happiness, still
+retaining through all my life the blessings which have sprung and will
+spring from that cause, I am to renounce my manhood, and, howling,
+grovel in bestiality? Why, the very apes know better, and if you
+shoot their young the poor brutes grieve their grief out and do not
+immediately seek distraction in a gorge.
+
+
+CCCIX
+
+He had intellect to comprehend his highest duty distinctly, and force
+of character to do it; which of us dare ask for a higher summary of his
+life than that? For such a man there can be no fear in facing the
+great unknown, his life has been one long experience of the substantial
+justice of the laws by which this world is governed, and he will calmly
+trust to them still as he lays his head down for his long sleep.
+
+
+CCCX
+
+Whether astronomy and geology can or cannot be made to agree with the
+statements as to the matters of fact laid down in Genesis--whether the
+Gospels are historically true or not--are matters of comparatively small
+moment in the face of the impassable gulf between the anthropomorphism
+(however refined) of theology and the passionless impersonality of the
+unknown and unknowable which science shows everywhere underlying the
+thin veil of phenomena.
+
+
+CCCXI
+
+I am too much a believer in Butler and in the great principle of the
+"Analogy" that "there is no absurdity in theology so great that you
+cannot parallel it by a greater absurdity of Nature" (it is not commonly
+stated in this way), to have any difficulties about miracles. I have
+never had the least sympathy with the _a priori_ reasons against
+orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible
+antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school.
+
+
+CCCXII
+
+This universe is, I conceive, like to a great game being played out, and
+we poor mortals are allowed to take a hand. By great good fortune the
+wiser among us have made out some few of the rules of the game, as at
+present played. We call them "Laws of Nature," and honour them because
+we find that if we obey them we win something for our pains. The
+cards are our theories and hypotheses, the tricks our experimental
+verifications. But what sane man would endeavour to solve this problem:
+given the rules of a game and the winnings, to find whether the
+cards are made of pasteboard or gold-leaf? Yet the problem of the
+metaphysicians is to my mind no saner.
+
+
+CCCXIII
+
+I have not the smallest sentimental sympathy with the negro; don't
+believe in him at all, in short. But it is clear to me that slavery
+means, for the white man, bad political economy; bad social morality;
+bad internal political organisation, and a bad influence upon free
+labour and freedom all over the world.
+
+
+CCCXIV
+
+At the present time the important question for England is not the
+duration of her coal, but the due comprehension of the truths of
+science, and the labours of her scientific men.
+
+
+CCCXV
+
+It is better for a man to go wrong in freedom than to go right in
+chains.
+
+
+CCCXVI
+
+A good book is comparable to a piece of meat, and fools are as flies
+who swarm to it, each for the purpose of depositing and hatching his own
+particular maggot of an idea.
+
+
+CCCXVII
+
+Children work a greater metamorphosis in men than any other condition
+of life. They ripen one wonderfully and make life ten times better worth
+having than it was.
+
+
+CCCXVIII
+
+Teach a child what is wise, that is _morality_, Teach him what is wise
+and beautiful, that is _religion!_
+
+
+CCCXIX
+
+People may talk about intellectual teaching, but what we principally
+want is the moral teaching.
+
+
+CCCXX
+
+We are in the midst of a gigantic movement greater than that which
+preceded and produced the Reformation, and really only the continuation
+of that movement But there is nothing new in the ideas which lie at the
+bottom of the movement, nor is any reconcilement possible between free
+thought and traditional authority. One or other will have to succumb
+after a struggle of unknown duration, which will have as side issues
+vast political and social troubles. I have no more doubt that free
+thought will win in the long run than I have that I sit here writing
+to you, or that this free thought will organize itself into a coherent
+system, embracing human life and the world as one harmonious whole. But
+this organization will be the work of generations of men, and those who
+further it most will be those who teach men to rest in no lie, and to
+rest in no verbal delusions.
+
+
+CCCXXI
+
+Make up your mind to act decidedly and take the consequences. No good is
+ever done in this world by hesitation.
+
+
+CCCXXII
+
+The world is neither wise nor just, but it makes up for all its folly
+and injustice by being damnably sentimental.
+
+
+CCCXXIII
+
+Without seeing any reason to believe that women are, on the average, so
+strong physically, intellectually, or morally, as men, I cannot shut my
+eyes to the fact that many women are much better endowed in all these
+respects than many men, and I am at a loss to understand on what grounds
+of justice or public policy a career which is open to the weakest and
+most foolish of the male sex should be forcibly closed to women of
+vigour and capacity.
+
+
+CCCXXIV
+
+We have heard a great deal lately about the physical disabilities of
+women. Some of these alleged impediments, no doubt, are realty inherent
+in their organization, but nine-tenths of them are artificial--the
+products of their modes of life. I believe that nothing would tend so
+effectually to get rid of these creations of idleness, weariness, and
+that "over stimulation of the emotions" which, in plainer-spoken
+days, used to be called wantonness, than a fair share of healthy work,
+directed towards a definite object, combined with an equally fair share
+of healthy play, during the years of adolescence; and those who are best
+acquainted with the acquirements of an average medical practitioner will
+find it hardest to believe that the attempt to reach that standard is
+like to prove exhausting to an ordinarily intelligent and well-educated
+young woman.
+
+
+CCCXXV
+
+The only good that I can see in the demonstration of the truth of
+"Spiritualism" is to furnish an additional argument against suicide.
+Better live a crossing-sweeper than die and be made to talk twaddle by a
+"medium" hired at a guinea a seance.
+
+
+CCCXXVI
+
+I ask myself--suppose you knew that by inflicting prolonged pain on
+100 rabbits you could discover a way to the extirpation of leprosy, or
+consumption, or locomotor ataxy, or of suicidal melancholia among human
+beings, dare you refuse to inflict that pain? Now I am quite unable
+to say that I dare. That sort of daring would seem to me to be extreme
+moral cowardice, to involve gross inconsistency.
+
+For the advantage and protection of society, we all agree to inflict
+pain upon man--pain of the most prolonged and acute character--in our
+prisons, and on our battlefields. If England were invaded, we should
+have no hesitation about inflicting the maximum of suffering upon our
+invaders for no other object than our own good.
+
+But if the good of society and of a nation is a sufficient plea for
+inflicting pain on men, I think it may suffice us for experimenting on
+rabbits or dogs.
+
+At the same time, I think that a heavy moral responsibility rests on
+those who perform experiments of the second kind.
+
+The wanton infliction of pain on man or beast is a crime; pity is that
+so many of those who (as I think rightly) hold this view, seem to
+forget that the criminality lies in the wantonness and not in the act of
+inflicting pain _per se_.
+
+
+CCCXXVII
+
+The one condition of success, your sole safeguard, is the moral worth
+and intellectual clearness of the individual citizen. Education cannot
+give these, but it can cherish them and bring them to the front in
+whatever station of society they are to be found, and the universities
+ought to be and may be, the fortresses of the higher life of the nation.
+
+
+CCCXXVIII
+
+As a matter of fact, men sin, and the consequences of their sins affect
+endless generations of their progeny. Men are tempted, men are punished
+for the sins of others without merit or demerit of their own; and they
+are tormented for their evil deeds as long as their consciousness lasts.
+
+
+CCCXXIX
+
+I find that as a matter of experience, erroneous beliefs are punished,
+and right beliefs are rewarded--though very often the erroneous belief
+is based on a more conscientious study of the facts than right belief.
+
+
+CCCXXX
+
+If we are to assume that anybody has designedly set this wonderful
+universe going, it is perfectly clear to me that he is no more entirely
+benevolent and just in any intelligible sense of the words, than that
+he is malevolent and unjust. Infinite benevolence need not have invented
+pain and sorrow at all--infinite malevolence would very easily have
+deprived us of the large measure of content and happiness that falls
+to our lot After all, Butler's "Analogy" is unassailable, and there is
+nothing in theological dogmas more contradictory to our moral sense,
+than is to be found in the facts of nature. From which, however, the
+Bishop's conclusion that the dogmas are true doesn't follow.
+
+
+CCCXXXI
+
+It appears to me that if every person who is engaged in an industry
+had access to instruction in the scientific principles on which that
+industry is based; in the mode of applying these principles to practice;
+in the actual use of the means and appliances employed; in the language
+of the people who know as much about the matter as we do ourselves; and
+lastly, in the art of keeping accounts, Technical Education would have
+done all that can be required of it.
+
+
+CCCXXXII
+
+Though under-instruction is a bad thing, it is not impossible that
+over-instruction may be worse.
+
+
+CCCXXXIII
+
+There are two things I really care about--one is the progress of
+scientific thought, and the other is the bettering of the condition
+of the masses of the people by bettering them in the way of lifting
+themselves out of the misery which has hitherto been the lot of the
+majority of them. Posthumous fame is not particularly attractive to me,
+but, if I am to be remembered at all, I would rather it should be as "a
+man who did his best to help the people" than by other title.
+
+
+CCCXXXIV
+
+I am of opinion that our Indian Empire is a curse to us. But so long
+as we make up our minds to hold it, we must also make up our minds to
+do those things which are needful to hold it effectually, and in
+the long-run it will be found that so doing is real justice both for
+ourselves, our subject population, and the Afghans themselves.
+
+
+CCCXXXV
+
+The great thing in the world is not so much to seek happiness as to earn
+peace and self-respect.
+
+
+CCCXXXVI
+
+The more rapidly truth is spread among mankind the better it will be for
+them. Only let us be sure that it is truth.
+
+
+CCCXXXVII
+
+Your astonishment at the tenacity of life of fallacies, permit me to
+say, is shockingly unphysiological. They, like other low organisms,
+are independent of brains, and only wriggle the more, the more they are
+smitten on the place where the brains ought to be.
+
+
+CCCXXXVIII
+
+I don't know what you think about anniversaries. I like them, being
+always minded to drink my cup of life to the bottom, and take my chance
+of the sweets and bitters.
+
+
+CCCXXXIX
+
+Of the few innocent pleasures left to men past middle life--the jamming
+common-sense down the throats of fools is perhaps the keenest.
+
+
+CCCXL
+
+Life is like walking along a crowded street--there always seem to be
+fewer obstacles to getting along on the opposite pavement--and yet, if
+one crosses over, matters are rarely mended.
+
+
+CCCXLI
+
+The great thing one has to wish for as time goes on is vigour as long as
+one lives, and death as soon as vigour flags.
+
+
+CCCXLII
+
+Whether motion disintegrates or integrates is, I apprehend, a question
+of conditions. A whirlpool in a stream may remain in the same spot for
+any imaginable time. Yet it is the effect of the motion of the particles
+of the water in that spot which continually integrate themselves into
+the whirlpool and disintegrate themselves from it The whirlpool is
+permanent while the conditions last, though its constituents incessantly
+change. Living bodies are just such whirlpools. Matter sets into them
+in the shape of food,--sets out of them in the shape of waste products.
+Their individuality lies in the constant maintenance of a characteristic
+form, not in the preservation of material identity.
+
+
+CCCXLIII
+
+Most of us are idolators, and ascribe divine powers to the abstractions
+"Force," "Gravity," "Vitality," which our own brains have created. I do
+not know anything about "inert" things in nature. If we reduce the world
+to matter and motion, the matter is not "inert," inasmuch as the same
+amount of motion affects different kinds of matter in different ways.
+To go back to my own illustration. The fabric of the watch is not inert,
+every particle of it is in violent and rapid motion, and the winding-up
+simply perturbs the whole infinitely complicated system in a particular
+fashion. Equilibrium means death, because life is a succession of
+changes, while a changing equilibrium is a contradiction m terms. I am
+not at all clear that a living being is comparable to a machine running
+down. On this side of the question the whirlpool affords a better
+parallel than the watch. If you dam the stream above or below; the
+whirlpool dies; just as the living being does if you cut off its food,
+or choke it with its own waste products. And if you alter the sides or
+bottom of the stream you may kill the whirlpool, just as you kill the
+animal by interfering with its structure. Heat and oxidation as a source
+of heat appear to supply energy to the living machine, the molecular
+structure of the germ furnishing the "sides and bottom of the stream,"
+that is, determining the results which the energy supplied shall
+produce.
+
+
+CCCXLIV
+
+I believe that history might be, and ought to be, taught in a
+new fashion so as to make the meaning of it as a process of
+evolution--intelligible to the young.
+
+
+CCCXLV
+
+Government by average opinion is merely a circuitous method of going to
+the devil; those who profess to lead but in fact slavishly follow this
+average opinion are simply the fastest runners and the loudest squeakers
+of the herd which is rushing blindly down to its destruction.
+
+
+CCCXLVI
+
+It's very sad to lose your child just when he was beginning to bind
+himself to you, and I don't know that it is much consolation to reflect
+that the longer he had wound himself up in your heart-strings the worse
+the tear would have been, which seems to have been inevitable sooner or
+later. One does not weigh and measure these things while grief is fresh,
+and in my experience a deep plunge into the waters of sorrow is the
+hopefullest way of getting through them on to one's daily road of life
+again. No one can help another very much in these crises of life; but
+love and sympathy count for something.
+
+
+CCCXLVII
+
+There is amazingly little evidence of "reverential care for unoffending
+creation" in the arrangements of nature, that I can discover. If our
+ears were sharp enough to hear all the cries of pain that are uttered
+in the earth by men and beasts, we should be deafened by one continuous
+scream!
+
+And yet the wealth of superfluous loveliness in the world condemns
+pessimism. It is a hopeless riddle.
+
+
+CCCXLVIII
+
+A man who has only half as much food as he needs is indubitably starved,
+even though his short rations consist of ortolans and are served upon
+gold plate.
+
+
+CCCXLIX
+
+Economy does not lie in sparing money, but in spending it wisely.
+
+
+CCCL
+
+We men of science, at any rate, hold ourselves morally bound to "try
+all things and hold fast to that which is good"; and among public
+benefactors, we reckon him who explodes old error, as next in rank to
+him who discovers new truth.
+
+
+CCCLI
+
+Whatever Linnaeus may say, man is not a rational animal--especially in
+his parental capacity.
+
+
+CCCLII
+
+The inquiry into the truth or falsehood of a matter of history is just
+as much a question of pure science as the inquiry into the truth or
+falsehood of a matter of geology, and the value of evidence in the
+two cases must be tested in the same way. If anyone tells me that the
+evidence of the existence of man in the miocene epoch is as good as that
+upon which I frequently act every day of my life, I reply that this
+is quite true, but that it is no sort of reason for believing in the
+existence of miocene man.
+
+Surely no one but a born fool can fail to be aware that we constantly,
+and in very grave conjunctions, are obliged to act upon extremely
+bad evidence, and that very often we suffer all sorts of penalties in
+consequence. And surely one must be something worse than a born fool
+to pretend that such decision under the pressure of the enigmas of life
+ought to have the smallest influence in those judgments which are made
+with due and sufficient deliberation.
+
+
+CCCLIII
+
+1. The Church founded by Jesus has _not_ made its way; has _not_
+permeated the world--but _did_ become extinct in the country of its
+birth--as Nazarenism and Ebionism.
+
+2. The Church that did make its way and coalesced with the State in
+the 4th century had no more to do with the Church founded by Jesus
+than Ultra-montanism has with Quakerism. It is Alexandrian Judaism and
+Neoplatonistic mystagogy, and as much of the old idolatry and demonology
+as could be got in under new or old names.
+
+3. Paul has said that the Law was schoolmaster to Christ with more truth
+than he knew. Throughout the Empire the synagogues had their cloud of
+Gentile hangers-on--those who "feared God"--and who were fully prepared
+to accept a Christianity, which was merely an expurgated Judaism and the
+belief in Jesus as the Messiah.
+
+4. The Christian "Sodalitia" were not merely religious bodies, but
+friendly societies, burial societies, and guilds. They hung together for
+all purposes--the mob hated them as it now hates the Jews in Eastern
+Europe, because they were more frugal, more industrious, and lived
+better lives than their neighbours, while they stuck together like
+Scotchmen.
+
+If these things are so--and I appeal to your knowledge of history that
+they are so--what has the success of Christianity to do with the truth
+or falsehood of the story of Jesus?
+
+
+CCCLIV
+
+It is Baur's great merit to have seen that the key to the problem of
+Christianity lies in the Epistle to the Galatians. No doubt he and his
+followers rather overdid the thing, but that is always the way with
+those who take up a new idea.
+
+
+CCCLV
+
+If a man cannot do brain work without stimulants of any kind, he had
+better turn to hand work--it is an indication on Nature's part that she
+did not mean him to be a head worker.
+
+
+CCCLVI
+
+It is not to be forgotten that what we call rational grounds for
+our beliefs are often extremely irrational attempts to justify our
+instincts.
+
+
+CCCLVII
+
+Even the best of modern civilisations appears to me to exhibit a
+condition of mankind which neither embodies any worthy ideal nor even
+possesses the merit of stability. I do not hesitate to express my
+opinion that, if there is no hope of a large improvement of the
+condition of the greater part of the human family; if it is true that
+the increase of knowledge, the winning of a greater dominion over
+Nature which is its consequence, and the wealth which follows upon that
+dominion, are to make no difference in the extent and the intensity of
+Want, with its concomitant physical and moral degradation, among the
+masses of the people, I should hail the advent of some kindly comet,
+which would sweep the whole affair away, as a desirable consummation.
+
+What profits it to the human Prometheus that he has stolen the fire of
+heaven to be his servant, and that the spirits of the earth and of the
+air obey him, if the vulture of pauperism is eternally to tear his very
+vitals and keep him on the brink of destruction?
+
+
+CCCLVIII
+
+No induction, however broad its basis, can confer certainty--in the
+strict sense of the word. The experience of the whole human race through
+innumerable years has shown that stones unsupported fall to the ground,
+but that does not make it certain that any day next week unsupported
+stones will not move the other way. All that it does justify is the very
+strong expectation, which hitherto has been invariably verified, that
+they will do just the contrary.
+
+Only one absolute certainty is possible to man--namely, that at any
+given moment the feeling which he has exists.
+
+All other so-called certainties are beliefs of greater or less
+intensity.
+
+
+CCCLIX
+
+Of moral purpose I see no trace in Nature. That is an article of
+exclusively human manufacture--and very much to our credit.
+
+
+CCCLX
+
+There is nothing of permanent value (putting aside a few human
+affections), nothing that satisfies quiet reflection--except the sense
+of having worked according to one's capacity and light, to make things
+clear and get rid of cant and shams of all sorts. That was the lesson
+I learned from Carlyle's books when I was a boy, and it has stuck by me
+all my life.
+
+You may make more of failing to get money, and of succeeding in getting
+abuse--until such time in your life (if you are teachable) you have
+ceased to care much about either.
+
+
+CCCLXI
+
+The doctrine of the conservation of energy tells neither one way nor the
+other [on the doctrine of immortality]. Energy is the cause of movement
+of body, i.e. things having mass. States of consciousness have no mass,
+even if they can be conceded to be movable. Therefore even if they are
+caused by molecular movements, they would not in any way affect the
+store of energy.
+
+Physical causation need not be the only kind of causation, and when
+Cabanis said that thought was a function of the brain, in the same
+way as bile secretion is a _function_ of the liver, he blundered
+philosophically. Bile is a product of the transformation of material
+energy. But in the mathematical sense of the word "function" thought
+may be a function of the brain. That is to say, it may arise only when
+certain physical particles take on a certain order.
+
+By way of a coarse analogy, consider a parallel-sided piece of glass
+through which light passes. It forms no picture. Shape it so as to be a
+bi-convex, and a picture appears in its focus.
+
+Is not the formation of the picture a "function" of the piece of glass
+thus shaped?
+
+So, from your own point of view, suppose a mind-stuff--[--Greek--]--a
+noumenal cosmic light such as is shadowed in the fourth gospel. The
+brain of a dog will convert it into one set of phenomenal pictures, and
+the brain of a man into another. But in both cases the result is the
+consequence of the way in which the respective brains perform their
+"function."
+
+
+CCCLXII
+
+The actions we call sinful are as much the consequence of the order
+of nature as those we call virtuous. They are part and parcel of the
+struggle for existence through which all living things have passed, and
+they have become sins because man alone seeks a higher life in voluntary
+association.
+
+Therefore the instrument has never been marred; on the contrary, we are
+trying to get music out of harps, sacbuts, and psalteries, which never
+were in tune and seemingly never will be.
+
+
+CCCLXIII
+
+I have always been, am, and propose to remain a mere scholar. All that
+I have ever proposed to myself is to say, this and this I have learned;
+thus and thus have I learned it: go thou and learn better; but do not
+thrust on my shoulders the responsibility for your own laziness if you
+elect to take, on my authority, conclusions, the value of which you
+ought to have tested for yourself.
+
+
+CCCLXIV
+
+There is endless backwoodsman's work yet to be done. If "those also
+serve who only stand and wait," still more do those who sweep and
+cleanse; and if any man elect to give his strength to the weeder's and
+scavenger's occupation, I remain of the opinion that his service should
+be counted acceptable, and that no one has a right to ask more of him
+than faithful performance of the duties he has undertaken. I venture to
+count it an improbable suggestion that any such person--a man, let us
+say, who has well-nigh reached his threescore years and ten, and has
+graduated in all the faculties of human relationships; who has taken his
+share in all the deep joys and deeper anxieties which cling about them;
+who has felt the burden of young; lives entrusted to his care, and has
+stood alone with his dead before the abyss of the eternal--has never had
+a thought beyond negative criticism. It seems to me incredible that such
+an one can have done his day's work, always with a light heart, with
+no sense of responsibility, no terror of that which may appear when the
+factitious veil of Isis--the thick web of fiction man has woven round
+nature--is stripped off.
+
+
+CCCLXV
+
+If the doctrine of a Providence is to be taken as the expression, in a
+way "to be understanded of the people," of the total exclusion of chance
+from a place even in the most insignificant corner of Nature, if it
+means the strong conviction that the cosmic process is rational, and the
+faith that, throughout all duration, unbroken order has reigned in the
+universe, I not only accept it, but I am disposed to think it the most
+important of all truths. As it is of more consequence for a citizen to
+know the law than to be personally acquainted with the features of those
+who will surely carry it into effect, so this very positive doctrine of
+Providence, in the sense defined, seems to me far more important than
+all the theorems of speculative theology. If, further, the doctrine is
+held to imply that, in some indefinitely remote past aeon, the cosmic
+process was set going by some entity possessed of intelligence and
+foresight, similar to our own in kind, however superior in degree, if,
+consequently, it is held that every event, not merely in our planetary
+speck, but in untold millions of other worlds, was foreknown before
+these worlds were, scientific thought, so far as I know anything
+about it, has nothing to say about that hypothesis. It is, in fact, an
+anthropomorphic rendering of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+It may be so, but the evidence accessible to us is, to my mind, wholly
+insufficient to warrant either a positive or a negative conclusion.
+
+
+CCCLXVI
+
+It may be well to remember that the highest level of moral aspiration
+recorded in history was reached by a few ancient Jews--Micah, Isaiah,
+and the rest--who took no count whatever of what might or what might not
+happen to them after death. It is not obvious to me why the same point
+should not by and by be reached by the Gentiles.
+
+
+CCCLXVII
+
+Belief in majorities is not rooted in my breast, and if all the world
+were against me the fact might warn me to revise and criticise my
+opinions, but would not in itself supply a ghost of a reason for
+forsaking them. For myself I say deliberately, it is better to have a
+millstone tied round the neck and be thrown into the sea than to share
+the enterprises of those to whom the world has turned, and will turn,
+because they minister to its weaknesses and cover up the awful realities
+which it shudders to look at.
+
+
+CCCLXVIII
+
+Moral duty consists in the observance of those rules of conduct which
+contribute to the welfare of society, and by implication, of the
+individuals who compose it.
+
+The end of society is peace and mutual protection, so that the
+individual may reach the fullest and highest life attainable by man.
+The rules of conduct by which this end is to be attained are
+discoverable--like the other so-called laws of Nature--by observation
+and experiment, and only in that way.
+
+Some thousands of years of such experience have led to the
+generalisations, that stealing and murder, for example, are inconsistent
+with the ends of society. There is no more doubt that they are so than
+that unsupported stones tend to fall. The man who steals or murders,
+breaks his implied contract with society, and forfeits all protection.
+He becomes an outlaw, to be dealt with as any other feral creature.
+Criminal law indicates the ways which have proved most convenient for
+dealing with him.
+
+All this would be true if men had no "moral sense" at all, just as
+there are rules of perspective which must be strictly observed by a
+draughtsman, and are quite independent of his having any artistic sense.
+
+
+CCCLXIX
+
+The moral sense is a very complex affair--dependent in part upon
+associations of pleasure and pain, approbation and disapprobation formed
+by education in early youth, but in part also on an innate sense of
+moral beauty and ugliness (how originated need not be discussed), which
+is possessed by some people in great strength, while some are totally
+devoid of it--just as some children draw, or are enchanted by music
+while mere infants, while others do not know "Cherry Ripe" from "Rule
+Britannia," nor can represent the form of the simplest thing to the end
+of their lives.
+
+Now for this last sort of people there is no reason why they should
+discharge any moral duty, except from fear of punishment in all its
+grades, from mere disapprobation to hanging, and the duty of society
+is to see that they live under wholesome fear of such punishment short,
+sharp, and decisive.
+
+For the people with a keen innate sense of moral beauty there is no need
+of any other motive. What they want is knowledge of the things they may
+do and must leave undone, if the welfare of society is to be attained.
+Good people so often forget this that some of them occasionally require
+hanging almost as much as the bad.
+
+If you ask why the moral inner sense is to be (under due limitations)
+obeyed; why the few who are steered by it move the mass in whom it is
+weak? I can only reply by putting another question--Why do the few in
+whom the sense of beauty is strong--Shakespeare, Raffaele, Beethoven,
+carry the less endowed multitude away? But they do, and always will.
+People who overlook that fact attend neither to history nor to what goes
+on about them.
+
+Benjamin Franklin was a shrewd, excellent, kindly man. I have great
+respect for him. The force of genial common-sense respectability could
+no further go. George Fox was the very antipodes of all this, and yet
+one understands how he came to move the world of his day, and Franklin
+did not.
+
+
+CCCLXX
+
+As to whether we can fulfil the moral law, I should say hardly any
+of us. Some of us are utterly incapable of fulfilling its plainest
+dictates. As there are men born physically cripples, and intellectually
+idiots, so there are some who are moral cripples and idiots, and can be
+kept straight not even by punishment. For these people there is nothing
+but shutting up, or extirpation.
+
+
+CCCLXXI
+
+The cardinal fact in the University questions appears to me to be this:
+that the student to whose wants the mediaeval University was adjusted,
+looked to the past and sought book-learning, while the modern looks to
+the future and seeks the knowledge of things.
+
+The mediaeval view was that all knowledge worth having was explicitly or
+implicitly contained in various ancient writings; in the Scriptures, in
+the writings of the greater Greeks, and those of the Christian Fathers.
+Whatever apparent novelty they put forward, was professedly obtained by
+deduction from ancient data.
+
+The modern knows that the only source of real knowledge lies in the
+application of scientific methods of enquiry to the ascertainment of the
+facts of existence; that the ascertainable is infinitely greater than
+the ascertained, and that the chief business of the teacher is not so
+much to make scholars as to train pioneers.
+
+From this point of view, the University occupies a position altogether
+independent of that of the coping-stone of schools for general
+education, combined with technical schools of Theology, Law, and
+Medicine. It is not primarily an institution for testing the work of
+schoolmasters, or for ascertaining the fitness of young men to be
+curates, lawyers, or doctors.
+
+It is an institution in which a man who claims to devote himself to
+Science or Art, should be able to find some one who can teach him what
+is already known, and train him in the methods of knowing more.
+
+
+CCCLXXII
+
+The besetting sin of able men is impatience of contradiction and of
+criticism. Even those who do their best to resist the temptation,
+yield to it almost unconsciously and become the tools of toadies and
+flatterers. "Authorities," "disciples." and "schools" are the curse of
+science; and do more to interfere with the work of the scientific spirit
+than all its enemies.
+
+
+CCCLXXIII
+
+People never will recollect, that mere learning and mere cleverness are
+of next to no value in life, while energy and intellectual grip, the
+things that are inborn and cannot be taught, are everything.
+
+
+CCCLXXIV
+
+In my opinion a man's first duty is to find a way of supporting himself,
+thereby relieving other people of the necessity of supporting him.
+Moreover, the learning to do work of practical value in the world, in an
+exact and careful manner, is of itself a very-important education, the
+effects of which make themselves felt in all other pursuits. The habit
+of doing that which you do not care about when you would much rather be
+doing something else, is invaluable.
+
+
+CCCLXXV
+
+Success in any scientific career requires an unusual equipment of
+capacity, industry and energy. If you possess that equipment you will
+find leisure enough after your daily commercial work is over, to make
+an opening in the scientific ranks for yourself. If you do not, you had
+better stick to commerce.
+
+Nothing is less to be desired than the fate of a young man, who, as
+the Scotch proverb says, in 'trying to make a spoon spoils a horn' and
+becomes a mere hanger-on in literature or in science, when he might have
+been a useful and a valuable member of Society in other occupations.
+
+
+CCCLXXVI
+
+Playing Providence is a game at which one is very apt to burn one's
+fingers.
+
+
+CCCLXXVII
+
+I conceive that the leading characteristic of the nineteenth century
+has been the rapid growth of the scientific spirit, the consequent
+application of scientifc methods of investigation to all the problems
+with which the human mind is occupied, and the correlative rejection of
+traditional beliefs which have proved their incompetence to bear such
+investigation.
+
+
+CCCLXXVIII
+
+Science reckons many prophets, but there is not even a promise of a
+Messiah.
+
+
+CCCLXXIX
+
+I have not the slightest doubt about the magnitude of the evils which
+accrue from the steady increase of European armaments; but I think that
+this regrettable fact is merely the superficial expression of social
+forces, the operation of which cannot be sensibly affected by agreements
+between Governments.
+
+In my opinion it is a delusion to attribute the growth of armaments
+to the "exactions of militarism." The "exactions of industrialism,"
+generated by international commercial competition, may, I believe, claim
+a much larger share in prompting that growth. Add to this the French
+thirst for revenge, the most just determination of the German and
+Italian peoples to assert their national unity; the Russian Panslavonic
+fanaticism and desire for free access to the western seas; the Papacy
+steadily fishing in the troubled waters for the means of recovering its
+lost (I hope for ever lost) temporal possessions and spiritual
+supremacy; the "sick man," kept alive only because each of his doctors
+is afraid of the other becoming his heir.
+
+When I think of the intensity of the perturbing agencies which arise out
+of these and other conditions of modern European society, I confess
+that the attempt to counteract them by asking Governments to agree to a
+maximum military expenditure, does not appear to me to be worth making;
+indeed I think it might do harm by leading people to suppose that the
+desires of Governments are the chief agents in determining whether peace
+or war shall obtain in Europe.
+
+
+CCCLXXX
+
+I am not afraid of the priests in the long-run. Scientific method is the
+white ant which will slowly but surely destroy their fortifications.
+And the importance of scientific method in modern practical life--always
+growing and increasing--is the guarantee for the gradual emancipation of
+the ignorant upper and lower classes, the former of whom especially are
+the strength of the priests.
+
+
+CCCLXXXI
+
+There is such a thing as a science of social life, for which, if the
+term had not been so helplessly degraded, Politics is the proper name.
+
+Men are beings of a certain constitution, who, under certain conditions,
+will as surely tend to act in certain ways as stones will tend to
+fall if you leave them, unsupported. The laws of their nature are
+as invariable as the laws of gravitation, only the applications to
+particular cases offer worse problems than the case of the three bodies.
+
+The Political Economists have gone the right way to work--the way that
+the physical philosopher follows in all complex affairs--by tracing out
+the effects of one great cause of human action, the desire of wealth,
+supposing it to be unchecked.
+
+If they, or other people, have forgotten that there are other potent
+causes of action which may interfere with this, it is no fault of
+scientific method but only their own stupidity.
+
+Hydrostatics is not a "dismal science," because water does not always
+seek the lowest level--e.g. from a bottle turned upside down, if there is
+a cork in the neck!
+
+There is much need that somebody should do for what is vaguely called
+"Ethics" just what the Political Economists have done. Settle the
+question of what will be done under the unchecked action of certain
+motives, and leave the problem of "ought" for subsequent consideration.
+
+For, whatever they ought to do, it is quite certain the majority of men
+will act as if the attainment of certain positive and negative pleasures
+were the end of action.
+
+We want a science of "Eubiotics" to tell us exactly what will happen if
+human beings are exclusively actuated by the desire of well-being in the
+ordinary sense. Of course the utilitarians have laid the foundations of
+such a science, with the result that the nicknamer of genius called this
+branch of science "pig philosophy," making just the same blunder as when
+ne called political economy "dismal science."
+
+"Moderate well-being" may be no more the worthiest end of life than
+wealth. But if it is the best to be had in this queer world--it may be
+worth trying for.
+
+
+CCCLXXXII
+
+Those who wish to attain to some clear and definite solution of the
+great problems which Mr. Darwin was the first person to set before us in
+later times must base themselves upon the facts which are stated in his
+great work, and, still more, must pursue their inquiries by the methods
+of which he was so brilliant an exemplar throughout the whole of
+his life. You must have his sagacity, his untiring search after the
+knowledge of fact, his readiness always to give up a preconceived
+opinion to that which was demonstrably true, before you can hope to
+carry his doctrines to their ultimate issue; and whether the particular
+form in which he has put them before us may be such as is finally
+destined to survive or not is more, I venture to think, than anybody
+is capable at this present moment of saying. But this one thing is
+perfectly certain--that it is only by pursuing his methods, by that
+wonderful single-mindedness, devotion to truth, readiness to sacrifice
+all things for the advance of definite knowledge, that we can hope to
+come any nearer than we are at present to the truths which he struggled
+to attain.
+
+
+CCCLXXXIII
+
+Dean Stanley told me he thought being made a bishop destroyed a man's
+moral courage. I am inclined to think that the practice of the methods
+of political leaders destroys their intellect for all serious purposes.
+
+
+CCCLXXXIV
+
+It is one of the most saddening things in life that, try as we may,
+we can never be certain of making people happy, whereas we can almost
+always be certain of making them unhappy.
+
+
+CCCLXXXV
+
+Men, my dear, are very queer animals, a mixture of horse-nervousness,
+ass-stubbornness and camel-malice---with an angel bobbing about
+unexpectedly like the apple in the posset, and when they can do exactly
+as they please, they are very hard to drive.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aphorisms and Reflections from the
+Works of T. H. Huxley, by T. H. Huxley
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